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Modern Inertial Sensors
and Systems

Amitava Bose
Former Director, Indian Space Research Organisation
and INAE Distinguished Visiting Professor

Somnath Puri
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Former Deputy Director, Indian Space Research Organisation
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Currently Dean, Mody Institute of Technology & Science
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Paritosh Banerjee
Former Dean and Director, Electro-Optics Instrument Research Academy
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New Delhi-110001
2009
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MODERN INERTIAL SENSORS AND SYSTEMS

Amitava Bose, Somnath Puri, and Paritosh Banerjee

© 2008 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-3353-6

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Second Printing ... ... ... August, 2009

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No. 2, Phase IV, HSIDC,
Kundli-131028, Sonepat, Haryana.
 The book is dedicated to
Scientists and Engineers
all over the world whose inspiring efforts
have enabled inertial navigation to
reach its current glorious height.
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 Contents

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Preface xiii
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Acknowledgements xvii
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1. Introduction to Modern Navigation 1–13

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1.1 Navigation Definition 1

1.2 Types of Navigation 2
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1.3 Inertial Sensors and System Evolution 6

1.3.1 Inertial Sensors 8
1.3.2 Inertial Systems 10
1.4 Summary 12
References 13

2. Autonomous Inertial Navigation System 14–46

2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Inertial Navigation Principle and Frames of Reference 14
2.2.1 Frames of Reference 16
2.3 Geometry of Earth, Gravitation and Gravity 18
2.4 Gimbaled Platform Navigation 22
2.4.1 Space Stable Navigation Mechanization Principle 23
2.4.2 Navigation in Geographic Frame 24
2.5 Strapdown Navigation 28
2.5.1 Euler Angles 28
2.5.2 Direction Cosine Matrix 30
2.5.3 Quaternions and Rotation Vectors 31

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vi Contents

2.5.4 Comparison between the Three Transformation Schemes 34

2.5.5 Strapdown Navigation Mechanization 34
2.6 Principle of Self Alignment 37
2.6.1 Sensor Misalignment Angles 39
2.7 Error Propagation in Strapdown INS 41
2.7.1 Modelling of Transformation Matrix with
Alignment and Gyro Errors 42
2.7.2 General Perturbation Equation 43
2.7.3 Schuler Frequency Error in Geographic
Frame Navigation 43
2.8 Autonomous Precision Navigation with Gravity Gradiometers 44
2.9 Summary 45
References 45

3. Satellite Navigation System 47–58

3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Global Positioning System 48
3.3 Range Measurements and Navigation Solution 50
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3.3.1 Navigation Errors 53
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3.4 Differential Operation 54
3.5 Satellite Integrity Monitoring 54
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3.6 Features of GLONASS 55

3.7 Emerging Satellite Navigation Scenario 56
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3.8 Receiver Testing 56

3.9 Comparison between INS and SNS 57
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3.10 Summary 57
References 58

4. Accelerometers 59–94
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Operating Principle 59
4.3 Open-Loop Pendulous Accelerometer—Limitations 61
4.4 Closed-Loop Pendulous Accelerometer 63
4.4.1 Configuration 64
4.4.2 Detectors 64
4.4.3 Forcers 66
4.4.4 Flexure and Pivot Suspension 67
4.4.5 Damping 68
4.4.6 Rebalance Servo 69
4.4.7 Errors in Accelerometer 71
4.4.8 Model 73
4.5 Pendulous Versus Non-Pendulous Comparison 75
 Contents vii

4.6 Vibrating Beam Accelerometer 75

4.6.1 Operating Principle 76
4.6.2 Design Features 77
4.6.3 VBA Schematic and Operation 85
4.6.4 Performance Characteristics 88
4.6.5 Comparison with Closed-Loop Accelerometer 89
4.7 Interferometric Fibre Optic Accelerometer 90
4.8 Atom Interferometer Based Accelerometer and
Gravity Gradiometer 91
4.9 Summary 93
References 93

5. Gyros 95–181
5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Gyro Principle of Operation 96
5.3 Single Degree of Freedom Rate Integrating Gyro 99
5.3.1 Operating Principle 99
5.3.2 Technology Features 100
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5.3.3 Performance 101
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5.4 Single Degree of Freedom Rate Gyro 101
5.5 Free Gyro 102
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5.6 Dynamically Tuned Gyro 103

5.6.1 Operating Principle 104
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5.6.2 Design Features 107

5.6.3 Errors 110
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5.6.4 Rebalance Loop Features 114

5.6.5 Model 117
5.6.6 Comparison of Technological Features between
DTG and RIG 119
5.7 Hemispherical Resonator Gyro 120
5.7.1 Evolution 120
5.7.2 Operating principle 120
5.7.3 Design Features 122
5.7.4 Rotation Sensing in HRG 124
5.7.5 Operational Functions and Electronics 126
5.7.6 Errors 129
5.7.7 Analysis 133
5.7.8 HRG Scaling and Performance 134
5.7.9 Model 134
5.7.10 HRG Variants 135
5.7.11 Discussion 135
5.8 Ring Laser Gyro 136
5.8.1 Evolution 136
5.8.2 Operating Principle 136
viii Contents

5.8.3 Design Features 141

5.8.4 Lock-in 147
5.8.5 Errors 153
5.8.6 RLG Miniaturization and Scaling Effect 155
5.8.7 Model 156
5.8.8 Performance Characteristics 156
5.8.9 Discussion 157
5.9 Fibre-Optic Gyro 157
5.9.1 Evolution 157
5.9.2 Operating Principle 157
5.9.3 Features of IFOG 161
5.9.4 Errors 167
5.9.5 IFOG Advantages 170
5.9.6 New Developments 170
5.9.7 Closed-Loop Performance 172
5.9.8 Resonant Fibre Optic Gyro 172
5.9.9 Fibre Gyro Discussion 174
5.10 Atom Interferometer Gyro 175
5.11 Summary 176
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References 177
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6. Micro Electromechanical Inertial Sensors 182–217

6.1 Introduction 182
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6.2 Micro Fabrication 183

6.2.1 Silicon Micromachining 183
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6.2.2 Quartz Micromachining 186

6.3 Micro Electromechanical Accelerometers 187
6.3.1 Features and Design of Pendulous and
Non-Pendulous Micro Accelerometer 187
6.3.2 Resonant Beam Micro Accelerometer 195
6.3.3 Errors 196
6.4 Micro Electromechanical Gyros 197
6.4.1 Configuration 197
6.4.2 Coriolis Vibrating Gyro Operation 198
6.4.3 Tuning Fork Gyro 199
6.4.4 Gimbaled Structure Gyro 203
6.4.5 Levitated Rotor Based Micro Gyro 205
6.4.6 Quantum Tunnelling Effect Micro Inertial Sensors 206
6.4.7 Coriolis Vibrating Gyro Generalized Model 209
6.4.8 Multi-axis Sensors, Multisensors and IMU 211
6.5 Scaling Effects in Micro Inertial Sensors 212
6.6 Micro Sensor Packaging 213
6.7 Summary 214
References 215
 Contents ix

7. Inertial Sensors Signal Processing 218–247

7.1 Introduction 218
7.2 Voltage-to-Frequency Conversion 219
7.2.1 Conversion Process and Configuration 219
7.2.2 Frequency Response 221
7.2.3 Errors 221
7.3 Digital Pulse Rebalance 222
7.3.1 A Typical Pulse Width Modulated Binary
Torquing Scheme 224
7.3.2 Data Quantization—Dead Band Voltage Increment 227
7.3.3 Noise Considerations 228
7.4 Vibrating Beam Accelerometer Signal Processing 229
7.4.1 Resolution Enhancement 230
7.4.2 Data Processing Algorithms 231
7.5 Ring Laser Gyro—Signal Processing 231
7.5.1 Introduction 231
7.5.2 Basic Characteristics of Noise in RLG 232
7.5.3 Dither Removal with Low Pass Filter 232
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7.5.4 Dither Stripping Using Tracking ADC 236
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7.5.5 Concept of De-noising the RLG Signal
Using Wavelet Analysis 241
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7.6 IFOG Signal Processing 241

7.7 Electromechanical Sigma-Delta Converter 243
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7.8 Summary 246

References 246
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8. Inertial System Technology 248–305

8.1 Introduction 248
8.2 Gimbaled Platform Technology 249
8.2.1 Base Motion Isolation 249
8.2.2 Attitude Measurement 252
8.2.3 Gimbaled Platform Gyrocompass Alignment 253
8.2.4 Navigation Computation and Equation Mechanization 257
8.2.5 Navigation in Geographic Frame 258
8.2.6 Gimbaled Platform Features 260
8.3 Strapdown System Technology 261
8.3.1 Velocity Increment Transformation 265
8.3.2 Attitude Computation 266
8.3.3 Navigation Update 266
8.3.4 Specific Strapdown Errors 267
8.3.5 Strapdown Autonomous Alignment 269
8.3.6 System Configuration 277
8.3.7 Design Considerations 278
x Contents

8.4 Navigation Error Propagation 280

8.4.1 Error Sources 280
8.4.2 Error Propagation in Local Level Geographic Frame 281
8.4.3 Error Propagation in Inertial Reference Frame 285
8.4.4 Three-Dimensional Error Analysis of INS 287
8.5 Redundant Inertial Systems 292
8.5.1 Overview 292
8.5.2 Failure Detection and Isolation 293
8.5.3 FDI with Dynamic Threshold and GLT 298
8.5.4 FDI with Two Degrees of Freedom Inertial Sensors 300
8.6 Software Engineering 302
8.7 Summary 303
References 303

9. Integrated Inertial Navigation 306–324

9.1 Introduction 306
9.1.1 Kalman Filter Advantage 307
9.2 Processing of Measurements 307
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9.2.1 Single and Multiple Sensor Cases on a
Stationary Vehicle 307
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9.2.2 Multiple Sensors on a Stationary Vehicle with

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Different Noise Statistics 308

9.2.3 Combining Measurements and Prediction
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in Kalman Filter 309

9.3 Complementary Nature of Sensors 310
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9.4 The Basic GNSS-INS Fusion Using Kalman Filter 311

9.5 Kalman Filter Equations (Discrete Form) 314
9.6 Classification and Description of GNSS-INS Integration Schemes 315
9.6.1 Uncoupled Scheme 316
9.6.2 Loosely Coupled Scheme 317
9.6.3 Tightly Coupled Scheme 318
9.6.4 Ultra Tight Coupling and Deep Integration 321
9.6.5 Integrated Performance 322
9.7 Summary 323
References 323

10. Testing of Inertial Sensors and Systems 325–354

10.1 Generalized Inertial Sensor Model and
Calibration Methodology 325
10.1.1 Inertial Sensor Noise Model 326
10.1.2 Calibration Methods and Test Set-up 330
10.2 Accelerometer Model Calibration 332
10.2.1 ±1g Tumble Test Calibration 333
10.2.2 Calibration Under Higher Acceleration 334
10.2.3 Thermal Model Evaluation 338
 Contents xi

10.2.4 Stability and Noise Measurements 339

10.2.5 Application Specific Tests 339
10.3 Vibrating Beam Accelerometer Evaluation 340
10.3.1 Generic Tests 340
10.3.2 Frequency Lock-in Test 340
10.3.3 Bandwidth Measurement 340
10.4 Dynamically Tuned Gyro Evaluation 341
10.4.1 Generalized Test Methodology 341
10.4.2 Model Evaluation 342
10.5 Hemispherical Resonator Gyro Evaluation 344
10.5.1 Model 344
10.5.2 Whole Angle Mode Drift Test 345
10.6 System Evaluation 347
10.6.1 General Test Pattern 348
10.6.2 Micro ISU Calibration 351
10.6.3 INS Van Test 352
10.7 Summary 353
References 354
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11. Applications 355–375
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11.1 Introduction 355

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11.2 Inertial Navigation System for Satellite Launch Vehicles 356

11.3 Inertial Systems for Satellite 357
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11.4 Airborne Remote Sensing 359

11.5 Azimuth Determination in Oil Drilling 361
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11.6 Metrology and Angular Measurement 362

11.7 Rail Track Alignment Measurement 363
11.8 Airborne Telescope Pointing 365
11.9 Detection of Earthquakes 366
11.10 MEMS-Based Inertial Sensors in Automobiles 367
11.10.1 Crash Sensing 367
11.10.2 Vehicle Dynamic Control 368
11.10.3 Roll-Over Detection 369
11.10.4 Navigation 369
11.11 MEMS-Based Inertial Systems in Aerospace 369
11.12 All MEMS Accelerometer Based INS 370
11.13 Robotics 373
11.14 Summary 373
References 374
Appendix A Basic Physics in Inertial Navigation 377–380
Appendix B Glossary 381–386
Appendix C Acronyms 387–389
Appendix D Symbols 390
Index 391–397
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 Preface

Modern inertial sensors and systems cover more than five decades of continuous research and
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development. Various technologies have emerged in an evolutionary manner replacing the
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earlier ones for reasons such as performance, cost, size, power requirement and reliability. The
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transition has been gradual and the progress has kept pace with innovation in different branches
of science and engineering, which underline the multidisciplinary character inherent in inertial
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sensors and systems. A gradual transition also implies a high level of technology overlap period
stretching over decades due to cost and operational reasons. It is felt that a book on modern
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inertial sensors and systems, while laying emphasis on the developments during the last three
decades, should desirably stretch backwards to smoothly interlink the past with the present. This
is also useful since an earlier concept that has been technologically successful, has been seen
to come back later for some other application and inertial sensor is known to be the harbinger
of host of such innovative concepts. To keep the scope and the size of the book within a
reasonable level, some basic analytical derivations of the working principles have been omitted
but have been referred to in the text for interested readers.
The purpose of this book is to expose the readers to the subject of inertial sensors and
systems in a unified manner with the contents imaginatively designed that will be of interest to
a wide spectrum of modern readers. This readership is aimed at the undergraduate and
postgraduate students, at the practising engineers and researchers in the field of inertial
navigation, sensors and systems, as well as at the beginners who are planning to make a career
in this discipline. The book will also be of interest to engineers working in the related fields
of science and engineering. The prerequisite knowledge in science needed in understanding this
book is that which is taught to a student beginning the study of an undergraduate course in
engineering.
The chapters covered in the book have been sourced through the knowledge of the authors,
by discussing with a large pool of specialists who have been acknowledged and by reading an
xiii
xiv Preface

extensive list of publications including internet browsing. Such publications are progressively
referred in the text and then listed at the end of each of the chapters.
The first chapter on introduction to modern navigation is appropriate to initiate the book
where all types of modern navigation systems are touched upon in addition to inertial
navigation. This is followed in Chapter 2 by a description of the working principles of and
analytical formulations on autonomous inertial navigation, the area which has been dominating
the aerospace sector for the last five decades and has been instrumental in providing the
momentum needed for the growth of inertial sensors and systems technology as well. Some
basic aspects of inertial navigation have only been covered since some excellent books are
already available and which have been referred in this book for further reading.
Chapter 3 introduces the concept and the principle of operation of satellite navigation
system, which with cheaper and reliable receivers and inertial sensors, is generating new thrust
for low-cost integrated inertial navigation systems.
Chapters 4 and 5 deal with the principle of operation, features and technological aspects of
macro-sized inertial sensors consisting of accelerometers and gyros respectively. These sensors
constitute the backbone of modern autonomous inertial navigation. While putting focus on the
present-day inertial sensors, their relevant past has been included for better understanding and
appreciation.
Chapter 6 discusses the emerging technology of micro-electromechanical inertial sensors,
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popularly known as MEMS, which are becoming the backbone of the thrust area of the low-
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cost systems not only for aerospace but also for commercial applications.
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Chapter 7 deals with some aspects of inertial sensors signal processing, which has been a
key area for processing the signals or the data of the inertial sensors and for providing interfaces
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with the navigation computer.

Chapter 8 touches on some design and technological aspects of current inertial systems
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required for inertial navigation. The chapter also includes the working concept and analytical
formulations of redundancy management, which aims to provide tolerance to failure in an
inertial navigation system needed for costly and critical aerospace missions.
Chapter 9 highlights the concept and brings out various operating schemes of integrated
inertial navigation, an area that is becoming more important with the advancements in satellite
navigation and low-cost microfabricated inertial sensors.
Chapter 10 covers certain important aspects of testing of inertial sensors and systems, a
topic, which has considerable uniqueness both in test methodology and the related facility.
Chapter 11 enumerates some aspects of application, other than those that relate to military
and strategic areas, to enable readers to appreciate the diversity of current usage of this
fascinating and growing technology.
Inertial navigation is primarily based on certain laws and findings of physics. These aspects
of physics have been further explained in Appendix A.
The subject of inertial navigation, inertial sensors and the related systems has made
considerable use of increasing number of specific terminologies. Such terminologies are
explained in the book as and when they appear and in addition an Appendix B with Glossary
has been added where many definitions are listed in alphabetical order.
 Modern Inertial Sensors And Systems

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