CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW i.

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART ONE: POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

I. THE JUDICIAL POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. ARTICLE III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. POWER OF JUDICIAL REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. Review of Other Branches of Federal Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
a. Separation of Powers and Finality of Court Decisions . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Federal Review of State Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
C. FEDERAL COURTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1. Article III Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Article I Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
a. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
D. JURISDICTION OF THE SUPREME COURT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1. Original (Trial) Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Appellate Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
a. Statutory Application of Appellate Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1) Writ of Certiorari (Discretionary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2) Appeal (Mandatory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
b. Limitations on Statutory Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
E. CONSTITUTIONAL AND SELF-IMPOSED LIMITATIONS ON EXERCISE OF
FEDERAL JURISDICTION—POLICY OF “STRICT NECESSITY” . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1. No Advisory Opinions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
a. Compare—Declaratory Judgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2. Ripeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
a. Fitness of Issue for Judicial Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1) Immediate Impact of Future Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
b. Hardship to the Parties of Withholding Consideration . . . . . . . . 5
3. Mootness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
a. Exception—Capable of Repetition But Evading Review . . . . . . . . 6
b. Class Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
c. Distinguish Ripeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
ii. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

a. Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1) Injury in Fact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
a) Injury Need Not Be Economic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2) Causation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3) Redressability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4) Required at All Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
b. Common Standing Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1) Congressional Conferral of Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2) Standing to Enforce Government Statutes—Zone of
Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3) Standing to Assert Rights of Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4) Standing of Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5) No Citizenship Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
a) Compare—Tenth Amendment Violation Claims . . . . . . . 11
6) Taxpayer Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
a) Generally No Standing to Litigate Government
Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
b) Exception—Congressional Measures Under Taxing and
Spending Power that Violate Establishment Clause . . . . 11
7) Legislators’ Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8) Assignee Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9) Standing for Free Speech Overbreadth Claims . . . . . . . . . . 12
5. Adequate and Independent State Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
a. “Adequate” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
b. “Independent” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
c. Where Basis Is Unclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6. Abstention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
a. Unsettled State Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
b. Pending State Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1) Pending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2) Civil and Administrative Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3) Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7. Political Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
a. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
b. Compare—“Nonpolitical Controversy” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
8. Eleventh Amendment Limits on Federal Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
a. What Is Barred? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1) Compare—Sovereign Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
b. What Is Not Barred? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1) Actions Against Local Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2) Actions by the United States Government or Other State
Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW iii.

3) Bankruptcy Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
c. Exceptions to Eleventh Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1) Certain Actions Against State Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
a) Actions Against State Officers for Injunctions . . . . . . . 17
b) Actions Against State Officers for Monetary Damages
from Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
c) Actions Against State Officers for Prospective Payments
from State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2) Congressional Removal of Immunity Under the Fourteenth
Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
a) Compare—Article I Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
d. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
II. LEGISLATIVE POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
A. ENUMERATED AND IMPLIED POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1. Necessary and Proper “Power” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
a. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2. Taxing Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
a. Determining What Is a Tax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
b. Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
c. Direct Taxes—Must Be Apportioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
d. Taxes Are Generally Valid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3. Spending Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
a. Regulation Through Spending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4. Commerce Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
a. Definition of Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1) Includes Basically All Activity Affecting Two or More States . 20
2) Includes Transportation or Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
a) Vehicular Transportation Not Required . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
b. “Substantial Economic Effect” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1) Power Not Unlimited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
a) Intrastate Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
(1) Activity vs. Inactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5. War and Related Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
a. Economic Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1) During War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2) Postwar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
b. Military Courts and Tribunals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1) Judicial Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2) Court-Martial of Enemy Civilians and Soldiers Permitted . . . 23
a) Suspension of Habeas Corpus for Enemy Combatants . . 23
iv. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

3) Court-Martial of American Soldiers Permitted . . . . . . . . . . 23

4) Court-Martial of American Civilians Generally Prohibited . . . 23
c. Calling Forth the Militia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6. Investigatory Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
a. Authorized Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
b. Witnesses’ Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1) Fifth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2) Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3) Procedural Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
c. Enforcement of Investigatory Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
d. Subpoena of Presidential Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7. Property Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
a. No Limits on Disposition of Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
b. Eminent Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8. No Federal Police Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9. Bankruptcy Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
10. Postal Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
a. Exclusive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
b. Scope of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
11. Power Over Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
a. Exclusion of Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1) Nonresident Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2) Resident Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
b. Naturalization and Denaturalization—Exclusive Control of
Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1) No Loss of Citizenship Without Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
a) Proof of Intent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2) Rights of Children of Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
12. Admiralty Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
a. Exclusive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
b. Navigable Waterways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
13. Power to Coin Money and Fix Weights and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . 27
14. Patent/Copyright Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
B. DELEGATION OF LEGISLATIVE POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1. Broad Delegation Allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2. Limitations on Delegation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
a. Power Cannot Be Uniquely Confined to Congress . . . . . . . . . . . 28
b. Clear Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW v.

c. Separation of Powers Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

d. Important Liberty Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
e. Criminal vs. Civil Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
C. THE SPEECH OR DEBATE CLAUSE—SPECIAL IMMUNITY FOR FEDERAL
LEGISLATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1. Persons Covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2. Scope of Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
a. Bribes Excluded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
b. Speeches Outside Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
c. Defamatory Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
D. SEPARATION OF POWERS—THE REQUIREMENT OF BICAMERALISM AND
PRESENTMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
III. THE EXECUTIVE POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
A. VESTED IN PRESIDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
B. DOMESTIC POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1. Appointment and Removal of Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
a. Appointment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1) Appointment of “Independent Counsel” (Special
Prosecutor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2) No Appointments by Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
b. Recess Appointments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
c. Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1) By President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2) By Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
a) Limitation on Removal Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
b) Limitation on Powers of Removable Officers . . . . . . . . 32
2. Pardons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3. Veto Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
a. Congress May Override Veto by Two-Thirds Vote . . . . . . . . . . . 32
b. President Has Ten Days to Veto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
c. Line Item Veto Unconstitutional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4. Power as Chief Executive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
a. No Power to Impound and the Take Care Clause . . . . . . . . . . . 33
C. POWER OVER EXTERNAL AFFAIRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1. War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
a. Actual Hostilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
b. Military Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
vi. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

2. Foreign Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
a. Power to Recognize Foreign States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
b. Standard of Review—Rational Basis at Most . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3. Treaty Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
a. Supreme Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1) Self-Executing vs. Non-Self-Executing Treaties . . . . . . . . . 35
a) President Has No Power to Implement Non-Self-
Executing Treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2) Conflict with Congressional Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3) Conflict with Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
b. Other Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4. Executive Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
a. Conflicts with Other Governmental Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
b. Example—Power to Settle Claims of United States Citizens . . . . 36
D. EXECUTIVE PRIVILEGE/IMMUNITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1. Executive Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
a. Extent of the Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1) National Security Secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2) Criminal Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
a) State Criminal Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3) Civil Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4) Screening Papers and Recordings of Former President . . . . 37
5) Screening by Judge in Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2. Executive Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
a. Absolute Immunity for President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
b. Immunity May Extend to Presidential Aides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
E. IMPEACHMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1. Persons Subject to Impeachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2. Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3. Impeachment by the House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4. Conviction by the Senate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

PART TWO: THE FEDERAL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

IV. RELATIVE SPHERES OF FEDERAL AND STATE POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
A. EXCLUSIVE FEDERAL POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1. Power of States Expressly Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2. Inherent Federal Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW vii.

B. EXCLUSIVE STATE POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

C. CONCURRENT FEDERAL AND STATE POWER—SUPREMACY CLAUSE . . . . . 39
1. Express Preemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2. Implied Preemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
a. Actual Conflict Between State and Federal Law Requirements . . 40
b. State Prevents Achievement of Federal Objective . . . . . . . . . . 41
c. Field Preemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3. Presumption Against Preemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
D. ABSENCE OF FEDERAL AND STATE POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
E. INTERSTATE COMPACT CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
V. INTERSOVEREIGN LITIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
A. SUITS BY THE UNITED STATES AGAINST A STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
B. SUITS BY STATE AGAINST UNITED STATES—UNITED STATES MUST
CONSENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
C. FEDERAL OFFICER AS DEFENDANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2. Specific Relief Against the Individual Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
D. SUITS BY ONE STATE AGAINST ANOTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
VI. INTERGOVERNMENTAL TAX AND REGULATION IMMUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
A. FEDERAL TAXATION AND REGULATION OF STATE OR LOCAL
GOVERNMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1. Tax or Regulation Applying to State and Private Entities—Valid . . . . 43
2. Tax or Regulation that Applies Only to States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
a. Exception—Civil Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
b. Exception—Spending Power Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1) What Is “Unduly Coercive”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3. Commandeering State Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
B. STATE TAXATION AND REGULATION OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT . . . . . . 45
1. No Direct Tax on Federal Instrumentalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2. Nondiscriminatory, Indirect Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3. State Regulation of Federal Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
VII. PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
A. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
viii. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

B. ARTICLE IV—PRIVILEGES OF STATE CITIZENSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

1. Corporations and Aliens Not Protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2. Only “Fundamental Rights” Protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3. Substantial Justification Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4. Note—Relationship to Commerce Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
C. FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT—PRIVILEGES OF NATIONAL CITIZENSHIP . . . . 48
1. Corporations Not Protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2. Bill of Rights Not Included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3. Right to Travel and the Privileges or Immunities Clause . . . . . . . . . 48

PART THREE: STATE REGULATION OR TAXATION OF COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

VIII. REGULATION OF FOREIGN COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
A. LIES EXCLUSIVELY WITH CONGRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
B. MINOR EXCEPTIONS WHERE STATE REGULATION PERMITTED . . . . . . . . . 49
IX. REGULATION OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
A. REGULATION OF COMMERCE BY CONGRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1. Power of Congress to Supersede or Preempt State Regulation . . . . . 49
2. Power of Congress to Permit or Prohibit State Regulation . . . . . . . . 49
a. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
B. STATE REGULATION OF COMMERCE IN THE ABSENCE OF CONGRESSIONAL
ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1. Discriminatory Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
a. Generally Invalid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
b. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1) Regulations Protecting Local Businesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2) Regulations Requiring Local Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3) Regulations Limiting Access to In-State Products . . . . . . . . 51
4) Regulations Prohibiting Out-of-State Wastes . . . . . . . . . . 51
c. Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1) Necessary to Important State Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2) State as Market Participant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
a) Limitation—Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause . 52
b) Limitation—“Downstream” Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3) Favoring Government Performing Traditional Government
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2. Nondiscriminatory Laws—Balancing Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW ix.

a. Absence of Conflict with Other States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

b. State Control of Corporations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
C. TWENTY-FIRST AMENDMENT—STATE CONTROL OVER INTOXICATING
LIQUOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1. Intrastate Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2. Interstate Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3. Federal Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
D. BAR EXAM APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
X. POWER OF STATES TO TAX INTERSTATE COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1. Discriminatory Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
a. Finding Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1) Tax Singles Out Interstate Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2) Tax with In-State Subsidy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3) Double Taxation on Out-of-State Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
b. Choosing the Proper Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1) Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2) Equal Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
a) Where Congress Approves the Discrimination . . . . . . . 58
b) Taxes Based on Suspect Classifications or Infringing on
Fundamental Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2. Nondiscriminatory Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
a. Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1) Substantial Nexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2) Fair Apportionment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3) Fair Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
B. USE TAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1. Permissible in Buyer’s State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2. State May Force Seller to Collect Use Tax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
C. SALES TAXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
D. AD VALOREM PROPERTY TAXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1. No Tax on Commodities in the Course of Interstate Commerce . . . . 61
a. When Is Property “in the Course of” Interstate Commerce? . . . . 61
1) When Does Interstate Transportation Begin? . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2) Effect of a “Break” in Transit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3) When Does Interstate Shipment End? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
b. No Apportionment Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
x. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

2. Tax on Instrumentalities Used to Transport Goods Interstate . . . . . . 62

a. Taxable Situs (“Nexus”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
b. Apportionment Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1) Proper Apportionment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
E. PRIVILEGE, LICENSE, FRANCHISE, OR OCCUPATION TAXES . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1. Taxpayer Has Burden of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
XI. POWER OF STATES TO TAX FOREIGN COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
A. IMPORT-EXPORT CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1. State Taxation of “Imports” Prohibited Absent Congressional
Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2. State Taxation of “Exports” Prohibited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
B. COMMERCE CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

PART FOUR: INDIVIDUAL GUARANTEES AGAINST GOVERNMENTAL OR PRIVATE

ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
XII. LIMITATIONS ON POWER AND STATE ACTION REQUIREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
A. CONSTITUTIONAL RESTRICTIONS ON POWER OVER INDIVIDUALS . . . . . . 64
1. Bill of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
a. Rights Applicable to States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
b. Rights Not Applicable to States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2. Thirteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
a. No Requirement of State Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
b. Involuntary Servitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
c. Congressional Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3. Fourteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
a. Requirement of State Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
b. Scope of Congressional Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4. Fifteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
a. Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5. Commerce Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
a. Civil Rights Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
b. Extent of Commerce Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6. Rights of National Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
B. STATE ACTION REQUIREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1. Exclusive Public Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
a. Must Be Traditional and Exclusive Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW xi.

2. Significant State Involvement—Facilitating Private Action . . . . . . . . 69

a. Instances of Significant State Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1) Official Encouragement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
a) Judicial Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
(1) Peremptory Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
b) Official Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
(1) Discriminatory Law Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
(2) Apparent Legal Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
(3) Public Defenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2) State Authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3) The State as Lessor for a Racially Discriminatory Lessee . . . . 71
4) Administration of Private Discriminatory Trust by Public
Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5) Entwinement of State and Private Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
b. Instances of Insignificant State Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1) Heavily Regulated Businesses and/or Granting of a Monopoly
to a Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
a) Electric Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
b) Nursing Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
c) School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2) Licensing and Provision of Essential Services . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3) Congressional Grant of Corporate Charter and Exclusive
Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4) No Government Duty to Protect Individuals from Harm by
Private Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
C. TIPS FOR BAR EXAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1. State Must Be “Significantly Involved” in Private Entity . . . . . . . . . . 73
2. No Constitutional Mandate to Outlaw Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . 73
XIII. RETROACTIVE LEGISLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
A. CONTRACT CLAUSE—IMPAIRMENT OF CONTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1. Not Applicable to Federal Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2. Only Applicable to State Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3. Basic Impairment Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
a. Private Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
b. Public Contracts—Stricter Scrutiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
B. EX POST FACTO LAWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1. Two Ex Post Facto Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
a. What Is “Criminal” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
b. Retroactive Alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
xii. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

2. Distinguish—Procedural Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3. Indirect “Application” to Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
C. BILLS OF ATTAINDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1. Two Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2. Two Requirements Preclude Finding of Bill of Attainder . . . . . . . . . 77
3. Nixon Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4. Draft Registration Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
D. DUE PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
XIV. PROCEDURAL DUE PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
A. BASIC PRINCIPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1. When Is Individualized Adjudication Required? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2. Intentional Deprivation vs. Negligent Deprivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
a. “Deprivation” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3. Fair, Neutral Decisionmaker—Judge Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4. Protection vs. Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
B. IS LIFE, LIBERTY, OR PROPERTY BEING TAKEN? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1. Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
a. Commitment to Mental Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1) Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2) Minor Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
b. Injury to Reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
c. Exercise of Fundamental Constitutional Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1) Application—Government Employee’s Freedom of Speech . . 81
2. Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
a. Public Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
b. Welfare Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
c. Continued Public Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
C. WHAT TYPE OF PROCESS IS REQUIRED? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1. Welfare Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2. Disability Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3. Public Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4. Public Education—Disciplinary Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
a. Corporal Punishment in Public School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5. Public Education—Academic Dismissal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW xiii.

6. Creditors’ Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7. Driver’s License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8. Parental Status Litigation and Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
a. Termination of Parental Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
b. Paternity Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
c. Hearings for Men Who Seek to Establish Paternity . . . . . . . . . . 84
1) Unmarried Father Living with Mother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2) Father Who Never Tried to Establish Paternity . . . . . . . . . . 84
3) Mother Married to Another Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9. Detention of Citizen Enemy Combatants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10. Notice of Adversary Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
11. Civil Forfeitures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
12. Deprivation of Property After Criminal Conviction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
D. DUE PROCESS RIGHTS ARE SUBJECT TO WAIVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
E. ACCESS TO COURTS—INDIGENT PLAINTIFFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1. Fundamental Rights—Waiver Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2. Nonfundamental Rights—Waiver Not Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
XV. THE “TAKING” CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
A. IN GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1. Not a Grant of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2. Scope of Taking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
B. “PUBLIC USE” LIMITATION LIBERALLY CONSTRUED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
C. “TAKING” VS. “REGULATION” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1. Actual Appropriation or Physical Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
a. Exception—Emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
b. Damage from Temporary Interference with Use . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2. Use Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
a. Denial of All Economic Value of Land—Taking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
1) Temporary Denials of All Economic Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
b. Decreasing Economic Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
1) Building/Development Permits—Exaction of Occupation
Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
a) Permit Denials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2) Utility Rate Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3) Zoning Ordinances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
xiv. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

3. Remedy—Inverse Condemnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
a. Who May Sue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
D. “JUST COMPENSATION” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1. “Worthless” Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
XVI. INTRODUCTION TO SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS AND EQUAL PROTECTION . . 92
A. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS AND EQUAL
PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1. Substantive Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2. Equal Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4. Note—Clauses Not Necessarily Mutually Exclusive . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
B. WHAT STANDARD OF REVIEW WILL THE COURT APPLY? . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1. Strict Scrutiny (Maximum Scrutiny) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
a. Burden of Proof on Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
b. Alternative Strict Scrutiny Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2. Intermediate Scrutiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
a. Burden of Proof Probably on Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3. Rational Basis (Minimal Scrutiny) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
a. Burden of Proof on Challenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
b. Deference to Legislature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
XVII. SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
A. CONSTITUTIONAL SOURCE—TWO CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
B. APPLICABLE STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
1. Fundamental Right—Strict Scrutiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2. All Other Cases—Mere Rationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
a. Business and Labor Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
b. Taxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
c. Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
d. Zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1) Statutes Forbidding Nuisances or Promoting Community’s
Preferred Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2) Cannot Prohibit Traditionally Related Families from Living
Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
e. Punitive Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1) Factors Considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2) Rule of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW xv.

f. Compare—Vagueness Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
C. A FEW IRREBUTTABLE PRESUMPTIONS MAY BE INVALID . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
D. FAIR NOTICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
XVIII. EQUAL PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
A. CONSTITUTIONAL SOURCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
B. APPLICABLE STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
C. PROVING DISCRIMINATORY CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1. Facial Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
a. Facial Discrimination Absent Racial Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2. Discriminatory Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3. Discriminatory Motive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
D. SUSPECT CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1. Race and National Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
a. School Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1) Remedying Intentional School Segregation . . . . . . . . . . . 101
a) Order Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
b. “Benign” Government Discrimination—Affirmative Action . . . . 102
1) Remedying Past Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2) Where There Has Been No Past Discrimination by
Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
a) Remedial Justifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
(1) Local Private Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
(2) Diversity in Primary and Secondary Public
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
(3) Diversity in Post-Secondary Public Education . . . . 103
b) States May Eliminate Race-Based Preferences . . . . . . 104
c. Discriminatory Legislative Apportionment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
d. Private Affirmative Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2. Alienage Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
a. Federal Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
b. State and Local Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1) Exception—Participation in Self-Government Process . . . . 105
c. Undocumented Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1) Punitive Laws Against Undocumented Alien Adults . . . . . . 105
2) Education Rights of Alien Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
a) Compare—Children Living Apart from Parents . . . . . . 106
E. QUASI-SUSPECT CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
xvi. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

1. Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
a. Intentional Discrimination Against Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
1) Government Interest Must Be Genuine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
b. Affirmative Action Benefiting Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
c. Intentional Discrimination Against Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1) Invalid Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2) Valid Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2. Legitimacy Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
a. No Punitive Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1) Inheritance from Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2) Statute of Limitations on Paternity Suits May Be
Discriminatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
b. Immigration Preference to Legitimate Children—Permissible . . 109
F. OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1. Age Not Suspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2. Wealth Not Suspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
a. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
XIX. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
A. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
B. RIGHT OF PRIVACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1. Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
a. Same-Sex Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
b. Special Test in Prisoners’ Rights Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2. Procreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3. Use of Contraceptives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4. Abortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5. Obscene Reading Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6. Rights of Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
a. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
b. Visitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7. Keeping Extended Family Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8. Intimate Sexual Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9. Freedom from Collection and Distribution of Personal Data . . . . . . 113
C. RIGHT TO VOTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
1. Restrictions on Right to Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW xvii.

a. Residency Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

1) Members of Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2) Compare—Nonresidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
b. Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
c. Property Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
d. Poll Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
e. Primary Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1) State Regulation of Party Primaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2) States May Subsidize Primaries of Major Parties . . . . . . . . 115
2. Dilution of Right to Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
a. One Person, One Vote Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1) Establishing Voting Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
a) Congressional Elections—Almost Exactly Equal . . . . . . 115
(1) Compare—Apportionment Among the States . . . . 115
b) State and Local Elections—Variance Not Unjustifiably
Large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
(1) Exception—Some Variances Presumptively Valid . . 116
c) Districts Can Be Measured Using Total Population . . . . 116
d) Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
(1) Exception—Appointed Officials and Officials
Elected “At Large” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
(2) Exception—Special Purpose Government Units
(Water Storage Districts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2) Standardless Recount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
b. Gerrymandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
1) Racial Gerrymandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2) Partisan Gerrymandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
c. Multi-Member Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
d. States May Use Independent Commissions to Draw Districts . . . 118
3. Candidates and Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
a. Candidate Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
1) Fee Must Not Preclude Indigents as Candidates . . . . . . . . 118
2) Restrictions on Ability of Person to Be a Candidate . . . . . . 118
3) Required Resignation of Office Is Permissible . . . . . . . . . 118
b. Campaign Funding, Contributions, and Expenditures . . . . . . . 118
4. Extraordinary Majorities—Referendum Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5. Replacement of Incumbent Legislators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
D. RIGHT TO TRAVEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
1. Interstate Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
a. Nature of the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
xviii. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

b. Standard of Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

1) Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
c. Distinctions Between Old and New Residents . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2. International Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
E. RIGHT TO REFUSE MEDICAL TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
1. Vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2. Refusal of Medical Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
a. Compare—No Right to Assisted Suicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
b. Compare—Criminal Defendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
F. RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
1. Right to Self Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2. Standard of Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
a. Prohibited Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1) In-Home Possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2) “May Issue” and Special Need Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
b. Acceptable Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1) “Shall Issue” Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2) “Sensitive Places” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

PART FIVE: FIRST AMENDMENT FREEDOMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

XX. FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
A. GENERAL PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
1. Government Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
a. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
b. Public Monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
c. Compare—Government Funding of Private Messages . . . . . . . 124
1) Exception—Funding of the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
d. Trademark Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2. Content vs. Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
a. Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
1) Exception—Unprotected Categories of Speech . . . . . . . . 126
a) Falsity in and of Itself Does Not Make Speech
Unprotected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2) Content-Neutral Speech Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
b. Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3. Reasonableness of Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
a. Overbroad Regulation Invalid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1) Burden on Challenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW xix.

b. Void for Vagueness Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

1) Funding Speech Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
c. Cannot Give Officials Unfettered Discretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1) Unlimited Discretion—Void on Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2) Statutes Valid on Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4. Scope of Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
a. Includes Freedom Not to Speak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1) Mandatory Financial Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
a) Government Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
b) Compare—Private Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
(1) Exception—University Activity Fees . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2) State Can Require Shopping Center to Permit Persons to
Exercise Speech Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
b. Includes Symbolic Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
c. Excludes Freedom to Bar Military Recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5. Prison Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
B. TIME, PLACE, AND MANNER RESTRICTIONS—REGULATION OF
CONDUCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
1. Public Forums and Designated Public Forums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
a. Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
1) Content Neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2) Narrowly Tailored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3) Important Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4) Alternative Channels Open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
b. Examples—Residential Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
1) Targeted Picketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
2) Charitable Solicitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3) Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
c. Example—Buffer Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
1) Content-Neutral/Important Government Interest . . . . . . . 135
2) Narrowly Tailored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
d. Example—Designated Public Forum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
e. Injunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
1) Content Based—Necessary to a Compelling Interest . . . . . 137
2) Content Neutral—Burdens No More Speech than
Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2. Limited Public Forums and Nonpublic Forums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
a. Viewpoint Neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
b. Reasonableness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
c. Significant Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
1) Military Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
xx. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

2) Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3) Government Workplace or Charity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4) Postal Service Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5) Signs on Public Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6) Airport Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7) Candidate Debates on Public Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8) Mailboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9) Polling Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
C. UNPROTECTED SPEECH—REGULATION OR PUNISHMENT BECAUSE OF
CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
1. Clear and Present Danger of Imminent Lawlessness . . . . . . . . . . . 142
a. Allows for Sanctions Against Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
b. Compelling Justification Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2. Fighting Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
a. True Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
b. States May Ban Words Likely to Incite Physical Retaliation . . . . 142
c. Statutes Regulating Fighting Words Tend to Be Overbroad or
Vague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
d. Statutes Cannot Be Viewpoint-Based—Limits Hate Crime
Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1) Compare—Punishing Racially Motivated Conduct . . . . . . . 143
3. Obscenity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
a. Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
1) Appeal to Prurient Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
a) Average Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
b) Material Designed for Deviant Group . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2) Patently Offensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
a) Community Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
b) National Standard Not Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3) Lacking in Serious Social Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4) Standard May Be Different for Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
a) Pictures of Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
b) Compare—Simulated Pictures of Minors . . . . . . . . . . 145
b. Question of Fact and Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1) Jury Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2) Independent Review by Appellate Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3) Evidence of Pandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4) Evidence—Similar Published Materials Not Automatically
Admissible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
c. Statutes Must Not Be Vague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1) Sweeping Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW xxi.

2) Construction May Save Vague Statute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

d. Land Use Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
e. Liquor Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
f. Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
g. Private Possession of Obscenity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1) Exception—Child Pornography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4. Defamatory Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
a. Falsity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1) Requirement of Factual Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
b. Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1) Public Official or Public Figure—Actual Malice Required . . . 149
a) Actual Malice Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
(1) Actual Malice in False Quotation Cases . . . . . . . . 149
(2) Permitted Inquiries by Plaintiff . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
(3) Petition Clause Does Not Protect Defamatory
Statement Made with Actual Malice . . . . . . . . . . 150
b) Two Ways to Become a Public Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
(1) General Fame or Notoriety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
(2) Involvement in Particular Controversy . . . . . . . . 150
c) Examples of Persons Not Deemed Public Figures . . . . 150
(1) Spouse of Wealthy Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
(2) Person Engaging in Criminal Conduct . . . . . . . . . 150
(3) Scientist in Federally Funded Program . . . . . . . . . 151
d) Who Are Public Officials? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2) Private Individual Suing on Matter of Public Concern—At
Least Negligence Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
a) No Liability Without Proof of at Least Negligence . . . . 151
b) Presumed or Punitive Damages Allowed Only If Actual
Malice Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
c) What Is a Matter of Public Concern? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
d) Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress . . . . . . . . 152
3) Private Individual Suing on Matter Not of Public Concern . . 152
c. Procedural Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
1) Federal Summary Judgment Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2) Judicial Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
d. Recovery for Depiction in a False Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
e. True Privacy Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1) Publishing True Fact of Public Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2) Publishing Name of Juvenile Charged with Crime . . . . . . . 153
3) Publishing Information on Judge’s Competency . . . . . . . . 153
f. Commercial Privacy—Disclosing a Private Performance Can
Violate “Right to Publicity” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
g. Copyright Infringement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
xxii. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

5. Some Commercial Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

a. Complete Bans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
1) Commercial Sign Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
a) Blockbusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
b. Required Disclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
c. Special Attorney Advertising Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
D. PRIOR RESTRAINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1. Sufficiency of Governmental Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
a. National Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
b. Preserving Fair Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
1) Compare—Grand Jury Prior Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
c. Contractual Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
d. Military Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
e. Obscenity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2. Procedural Safeguards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3. Obscenity Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
a. Seizure of Books and Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
1) Single Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2) Large Scale Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3) Forfeiture of Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
b. Injunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
c. Movie Censorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
d. Burden on Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
E. FREEDOM OF THE PRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
1. Publication of Truthful Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2. Access to Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
a. Access to Voir Dire Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
b. Access to Other Pretrial Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
c. Compelling Interest in Protecting Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
d. Protective Order in Publishing Information Gained in Pretrial
Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3. Requiring Members of the Press to Testify Before Grand Juries . . . . 161
4. Interviewing Prisoners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5. Business Regulations or Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6. Monetary Damages for Failure to Keep Identity Confidential . . . . . 162
7. Broadcasting Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
a. Fairness Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
1) Compare—Grant of Equal Newspaper Space . . . . . . . . . . 163
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW xxiii.

b. Newspaper Ownership of Radio or TV Station . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

c. Prohibiting Indecent Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
d. Political Advertisements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
e. Elimination of Editorial Speech from Stations Receiving Public
Grants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8. Cable Television Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
a. Compare—Content-Based Cable Broadcast Regulations . . . . . 164
9. Internet Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
XXI. FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION AND BELIEF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
A. NATURE OF THE RIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
B. ELECTORAL PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
1. Ballot Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
a. Signature Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
b. Primary Voting Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
c. Single Party Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
d. “Nonpartisan” Blanket Primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2. Party Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
a. Judicial Candidate Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3. Limits on Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
a. To Political Candidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
1) Equalizing Large Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
b. To Ballot Referendum Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
c. Disclosure of Contributors or Recipients of Money . . . . . . . . . 168
d. Aggregate Contribution Limits Unconstitutional . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4. Limits on Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5. Compare—Regulations of Core Political Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
a. Prohibiting Any Election Day Campaigning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
1) Compare—Hundred-Foot Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
b. Prohibiting Anonymous Campaign Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
c. Prohibiting Judge Candidates from Announcing Their Views . . 169
d. Distinguishing Political Speech from Candidate Advocacy . . . . 169
e. Solicitation of Campaign Funds by Judicial Candidates . . . . . . 170
C. BAR MEMBERSHIP AND PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
1. Restraints on Speech Activities of Government Employees . . . . . . 170
a. Speech Made Pursuant to Official Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
b. Other Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
1) Petition Clause Claims Treated Similarly . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
c. Participation in Political Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
xxiv. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

d. Bans on Receiving Honoraria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

e. Patronage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
2. Loyalty Oaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
a. Overbreadth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
1) Knowledge of Organization’s Aim Required . . . . . . . . . . . 172
2) Advocacy of Doctrine Protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
b. Vagueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
1) Oaths Upheld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
a) To Support the Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
b) To Oppose the Overthrow of the Government . . . . . . 173
2) Oath Not Upheld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3. Disclosure of Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
a. Fifth Amendment Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4. Practice of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
a. Countervailing State Interest Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
D. SCHOOL SPONSORSHIP OF EXTRACURRICULAR CLUBS . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
XXII. FREEDOM OF RELIGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
A. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
B. APPLICABILITY TO THE STATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
C. FREE EXERCISE CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
1. No Punishment of Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
a. What Constitutes Religious Belief? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
1) Courts May Not Find Religious Beliefs to Be False . . . . . . . 175
b. States Must Act with Religious Neutrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
c. Religious Oaths for Governmental Jobs Prohibited . . . . . . . . . 176
d. States May Not Exclude Clerics from Public Office . . . . . . . . . 176
2. No Punishment of Religious Conduct Solely Because It Is Religious . 176
a. No Exclusion from Government Benefits Programs Solely
Because an Organization Is Religious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
b. Laws with System for Exceptions Not Generally Applicable . . . . 177
3. States Can Regulate General Conduct—Criminal Laws and Other
Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
a. Generally No Exemptions Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
1) Federal Statutory Exemption—Outside the Scope of Exam . 178
b. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
c. Cases in Which Exemptions Were Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
1) Ministerial Exemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
2) Unemployment Compensation Cases—Some Exemptions
Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW xxv.

a) Need Not Belong to Formal Religious Organization . . . 180

b) Limitation—Criminal Prohibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3) Right of Amish Not to Educate Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
D. ESTABLISHMENT CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
1. Sect Preference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
2. Cases Unconnected to Financial Aid or Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
a. State Legislature Can Employ a Chaplain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
b. Town Board Can Begin Town Meetings with a Prayer . . . . . . . . 182
c. Displays of Religious Symbols on Public Property . . . . . . . . . . 182
d. Exemptions from Antidiscrimination Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3. Cases Involving Financial Benefits to Church-Related Institutions . . 183
a. Recipient-Based Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
1) Compare—Tuition Tax Deductions or Credits Limited to
Religious School Tuition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
b. Aid to Colleges, Hospitals, Etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
c. Aid to Religiously Affiliated Grade Schools or High Schools . . . 184
1) Aid Upheld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2) State Must Not Discriminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
d. Tax Exemption for Religious, Charitable, or Educational
Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
e. Tax Exemption Available Only to Religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4. Religious Activities in Public Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
a. Prayer and Bible Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
b. Posting Ten Commandments in Classroom Is Invalid . . . . . . . . 186
c. Released-Time Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
1) In Public School Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2) Nonpublic Building Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
d. Accommodation of Religious Students—On-Campus
Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
e. Curriculum Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1.

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

PART ONE: POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

I. THE JUDICIAL POWER

A. ARTICLE III
The federal government is a government of limited powers, which means that for federal
action to be legitimate, it must be authorized. The Constitution is the instrument that
authorizes the federal government to act. Thus, whenever a question involves action
by an entity of the federal government, the action will be valid only if it is authorized by
the Constitution. The Constitution authorizes a federal court system in Article III, which
provides that federal courts shall have judicial power over all “cases and controversies”:

1. Arising under the Constitution, laws, or treaties of the United States;

2. Affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls;

3. Of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;

4. In which the United States is a party;

5. Between two or more states;

6. Between a state and citizens of another state;

7. Between citizens of different states;

8. Between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states; and

9. Between a state or citizens thereof and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.

B. POWER OF JUDICIAL REVIEW

1. Review of Other Branches of Federal Government
The Constitution does not explicitly state that the Supreme Court may determine the
constitutionality of acts of other branches of government. However, judicial review of
other branches of the federal government was established in Marbury v. Madison, 5
U.S. 137 (1803) (per Marshall, C.J.); the Constitution is “law” and it is the province and
duty of the judiciary to declare what the law is.

a. Separation of Powers and Finality of Court Decisions

The Constitution separates governmental powers among the branches of
government. This separation of powers doctrine prohibits the legislature from
2. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

interfering with the courts’ final judgments. However, Congress may change
federal statutes and may direct federal courts to apply those changes in all
cases in which a final judgment has not been rendered.

EXAMPLE
The Supreme Court inferred a limitations period under an ambiguous federal
securities law. Because new Supreme Court rulings generally apply to all pend-
ing cases, the limitations period imposed by the Court resulted in the dismissal
of many pending cases as time-barred. Congress amended the securities law to
provide (1) a different limitations period and (2) a special motion for reinstating
the cases dismissed as time-barred by the Supreme Court’s ruling. Because the
dismissed cases were final judgments, the statute providing for the reinstate-
ment violated the separation of powers doctrine under the Constitution. [Plaut v.
Spendthrift Farm, Inc., 514 U.S. 211 (1995)]

2. Federal Review of State Acts

Federal review of state acts (executive, legislative, or judicial) was established by
the Marshall Court in a series of decisions. Clear basis exists here in the Supremacy
Clause of Article VI, which states that the Constitution, Laws, and Treaties of the
United States take precedence over state laws and that the judges of the state
courts must follow federal law, anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the
contrary notwithstanding. [Fletcher v. Peck, 10 U.S. 87 (1810)]

C. FEDERAL COURTS
Only the actions of Article III courts are the subject of our outline, but you should know
that there are two types of federal courts.

1. Article III Courts

Article III courts are those established by Congress pursuant to the provisions of
Article III, Section 1. Congress has power to delineate the jurisdictional limits, both
original and appellate, of these courts, although it is bound by the standards of
judicial power set forth in Article III as to subject matter, parties, and the require-
ment of “case or controversy.” Thus, Congress cannot require these courts to render
advisory opinions or perform administrative or nonjudicial functions.

2. Article I Courts
Congress has created certain other courts, however, by way of implementing its
various legislative powers; e.g., United States Tax Court, courts of the District of
Columbia. Judges of such Article I courts do not have life tenure or protection from
salary decrease as do Article III court judges. Article I courts are sometimes vested
with administrative as well as judicial functions, and the congressional power to
create such “hybrid” courts has been sustained by the Supreme Court. [Glidden v.
Zdanok, 370 U.S. 530 (1962)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 3.

a. Limitation
Congress may not take cases of the type traditionally heard by Article III
courts and assign jurisdiction over them to Article I courts. [Northern Pipeline
Construction Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co., 458 U.S. 50 (1982)—broad grant
of jurisdiction to bankruptcy courts, including jurisdiction over contract claims,
violates Article III]

D. JURISDICTION OF THE SUPREME COURT

1. Original (Trial) Jurisdiction
Under Article III, Section 2, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction “in all cases
affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which
a State shall be a Party.” This provision is self-executing: Congress may neither
restrict nor enlarge the Supreme Court’s original jurisdiction, but Congress may give
concurrent jurisdiction to lower federal courts and has done so regarding all cases
except those between states.

2. Appellate Jurisdiction
Article III, Section 2 further provides that “in all the other Cases before mentioned
[i.e., arising under the Constitution, Act of Congress, or treaty], the Supreme Court
shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and
under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.”

a. Statutory Application of Appellate Jurisdiction

Congress has provided two methods for invoking Supreme Court appellate juris-
diction: appeal (where jurisdiction is mandatory), and certiorari (where jurisdiction
is within the Court’s discretion). Very few cases fall within the Court’s mandatory
appeal jurisdiction; thus, appellate jurisdiction is almost completely discretionary.

1) Writ of Certiorari (Discretionary)

The Supreme Court has complete discretion to hear cases that come to it
by writ of certiorari. A case will be heard if four justices agree to hear it. The
following cases may be heard by certiorari:

a) Cases from the highest state courts where (1) the constitutionality of a
federal statute, federal treaty, or state statute is called into question; or
(2) a state statute allegedly violates federal law [28 U.S.C. §1257]; and

b) All cases from federal courts of appeals [28 U.S.C. §1254].

2) Appeal (Mandatory)
The Supreme Court must hear those few cases that come to it by appeal.
Appeal is available only as to decisions made by three-judge federal district
court panels that grant or deny injunctive relief. [28 U.S.C. §1253]
4. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

b. Limitations on Statutory Regulation

Ex parte McCardle, 74 U.S. 506 (1868), has been read as giving Congress full
power to regulate and limit the Supreme Court’s appellate jurisdiction. However,
possible limitations on such congressional power have been suggested:

1) Congress may eliminate specific avenues for Supreme Court review as

long as it does not eliminate all avenues. For example, in McCardle, two
statutes had allowed the Supreme Court to grant habeas corpus to federal
prisoners. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the repeal of
one of the statutes because the other statute remained as an avenue for
Supreme Court habeas corpus review.

2) Although Congress may eliminate Supreme Court review of certain cases

within the federal judicial power, it must permit jurisdiction to remain in
some lower federal court.

3) If Congress were to deny all Supreme Court review of an alleged violation

of constitutional rights—or go even further and deny a hearing before any
federal judge on such a claim—this would violate due process of law.

E. CONSTITUTIONAL AND SELF-IMPOSED LIMITATIONS ON EXERCISE OF

FEDERAL JURISDICTION—POLICY OF “STRICT NECESSITY”
Even if a federal court has jurisdiction over the subject matter of a case, it still might
refuse to hear the case. Whether the court will hear the case (i.e., whether the case is
justiciable) depends on whether a “case or controversy” is involved, and on whether
other limitations on jurisdiction are present.

1. No Advisory Opinions
The Supreme Court’s interpretation of the “case and controversy” requirement in
Article III bars rendition of “advisory” opinions. Thus, federal courts will not render
decisions in moot cases, collusive suits, cases having no binding effect on the
parties, or cases involving challenges to governmental legislation or policy whose
enforcement is neither actual nor threatened.

a. Compare—Declaratory Judgments
Federal courts can hear actions for declaratory relief. A case or controversy will
exist if there is an actual dispute between parties having adverse legal interest.
Complainants must show that they have engaged in (or wish to engage in)
specific conduct and that the challenged action poses a real and immediate
danger to their interests. However, the federal courts will not determine the
constitutionality of a statute if it has never been enforced and there is no real
fear that it ever will be. [Poe v. Ullman, 367 U.S. 497 (1961)—anticontraceptive
law not enforced for 80 years despite open public sales]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 5.

2. Ripeness
To avoid issuing advisory opinions, federal courts require that a dispute has matured
sufficiently to warrant a decision. Courts avoid getting involved in abstract disagree-
ments over government policies, preferring to wait until a policy has been formalized
and can be felt in a concrete way. When considering a question of ripeness, a federal
court considers two main factors: (1) the fitness of the issues for judicial decision, and
(2) the hardship to the parties of withholding court consideration. [Pacific Gas and
Electric Co. v. State Energy Resources Conservation and Development Commission,
461 U.S. 190 (1983)]

a. Fitness of Issue for Judicial Decision

Generally, an issue is not fit for judicial decision if it relies on uncertain or contin-
gent future events that may not occur as anticipated.

EXAMPLE
The city of Los Angeles adopts rules regarding the type of trucks that can be
used at the Port of Los Angeles. A trucking association challenges the rules in
court. During the litigation, the city does not enforce the rules, which are even-
tually upheld. The trucking association then files an action seeking to prevent
the city from retroactively enforcing the rules. The court dismisses the action
for lack of ripeness because the court had no way of knowing whether the city
would attempt to enforce the rules retroactively. [American Trucking Associa-
tions, Inc. v. Los Angeles, 569 U.S. 641 (2013)]

1) Immediate Impact of Future Events

A court will hold that an issue is fit for judicial decision even if it relies on
uncertain or contingent future events when the future events have an
immediate impact.

EXAMPLE
A state passes a law requiring all children to attend a public school begin-
ning in three years. A private school challenges the law. A court holds that
the challenge is ripe, even though enforcement cannot start for another
three years because the private school can show that its enrollment is
already declining because parents are making decisions based on the
pending enforcement of the law. [Pierce v. Society of the Sisters of the Holy
Names of Jesus and Mary, 268 U.S. 510 (1925)]

b. Hardship to the Parties of Withholding Consideration

A court will find that an action is ripe for review if a party would have to risk
substantial hardship to provoke enforcement of law.
6. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

EXAMPLE
A state passes a law preventing aliens from owning property. An alien who is in
the market to purchase land but has not yet done so files an action to prevent
enforcement of the law. A court finds the action ripe because to force the alien
to purchase land before suing would require him to risk a substantial hardship
(the forfeiture of the land). [Terrace v. Thompson, 263 U.S. 197 (1923)]

3. Mootness
A federal court will not hear a case that has become moot; a real, live controversy
must exist at all stages of review, not merely when the complaint is filed. [See, e.g.,
DeFunis v. Odegaard, 416 U.S. 312 (1974)—dismissing as moot a white law student’s
challenge to state’s affirmative action program, since the student, although origi-
nally passed over for minority applicants with allegedly poorer records, had been
admitted to law school while litigation was pending, was about to graduate by the
time the case reached the Supreme Court, and would receive the same law degree
whether or not the affirmative action program was invalidated]

a. Exception—Capable of Repetition But Evading Review

Where there is a reasonable expectation that the same complaining party will
be subjected to the same action again and would again be unable to resolve
the issue because of the short duration of the action (i.e., where the controversy
is capable of repetition yet evading review), the controversy will not be deemed
moot. [See Weinstein v. Bradford, 423 U.S. 147 (1975)]

EXAMPLES
1) Issue concerns events of short duration (e.g., pregnancy, elections, divorce
actions); and
2) Defendant voluntarily stops the offending practice, but is free to resume it.

b. Class Actions
A class representative may continue to pursue a class action even though the
representative’s controversy has become moot, as long as the claims of others
in the class are still viable. [United States Parole Commission v. Geraghty, 445
U.S. 388 (1980)]

c. Distinguish Ripeness
Ripeness and mootness are related concepts in that the court will not hear a
case unless there is a live controversy. Ripeness bars consideration of claims
before they have been developed; mootness bars their consideration after they
have been resolved.

4. Standing
The Supreme Court will not decide a challenge to a government or private action
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 7.

unless the person who is challenging the action has “standing” to raise the issue. A
person has standing only if she can demonstrate a concrete stake in the outcome of
the controversy.

a. Components
A plaintiff will be able to show a sufficient stake in the controversy only if she
can show an injury in fact—caused by the defendant—that will be remedied by
a decision in her favor (i.e., causation and redressability).

1) Injury in Fact
To have standing, a person must be able to assert an injury in fact, which
requires both: (1) a particularized injury—an injury that affects the plain-
tiff in a personal and individual way; and (2) a concrete injury—one that
exists in fact. It is not enough to show merely that a federal statute or
constitutional provision has been violated (and that we all suffer when that
happens). [Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins, 136 S. Ct. 1540 (2016)]

EXAMPLES
1) The Fair Credit Reporting Act requires consumer reporting agencies to
follow reasonable procedures to assure accuracy of consumer credit re-
ports. The act also imposes liability on any person who willfully fails this
requirement with respect to any individual. Defendant maintains an online
credit reporting service. Plaintiff searched his own name in defendant’s ser-
vice, discovered inaccuracies, and brought suit against defendant in federal
court for violation of the statute. To find that plaintiff has standing, it is not
enough that the plaintiff has alleged that the Act may have been violated,
but neither is it fatal that the plaintiff was not harmed when he found the
inaccuracies, provided the court finds that a violation would cause a real
risk of harm to the plaintiff. [Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins, supra]
2) A Communist Party member would have standing to challenge a statute
making it a crime to be a member of the Communist Party because the
member’s freedom of association is directly infringed, but a non-Party mem-
ber would have no standing.

a) Injury Need Not Be Economic

The injury does not always have to be economic. In some cases, the
Court has found that an individual is harmed because the alleged
illegal act or unconstitutional action has an impact on the person’s
well-being.

EXAMPLE
Law students were allowed to challenge an Interstate Commerce
Commission rate-setting policy on the ground that such policies
8. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

discouraged recycling and thereby diminished the quality of each

student’s physical environment. If the ICC rate-setting policy violated
congressional statutes, the elimination of those rate-setting policies
would have an impact on the students’ physical environment. [United
States v. SCRAP, 412 U.S. 669 (1973)]

2) Causation
There must be a causal connection between the injury and the conduct
complained of—i.e., the injury must be traceable to the challenged conduct
of the defendant and not be attributable to some independent third party
not before the court.

EXAMPLE
Plaintiffs claiming that a municipality’s zoning policies prevented low-in-
come persons from finding housing in the municipality were denied stand-
ing because they failed to show a substantial probability that they would be
able to afford housing in the municipality even absent the zoning policies.
[Warth v. Seldin, 422 U.S. 490 (1975)]

3) Redressability
In determining whether a litigant has a sufficient injury to establish
standing, courts ask whether a ruling favorable to the litigant would elimi-
nate the harm to him. If a court order declaring an action to be illegal or
unconstitutional (and ending that action) would not eliminate the harm to
the litigant, then that individual does not have the type of specific injury
that would grant him standing to challenge the action.

EXAMPLES
1) The Supreme Court held that mothers do not have standing to challenge
the government’s refusal to enforce criminal laws that would require the
fathers of their children to pay child support. The enforcement of the crimi-
nal laws against a father who is guilty of nonsupport would not necessarily
result in the father’s providing support to the mother and her children.
2) Indigents have no standing to challenge an Internal Revenue Service
policy that allows hospitals to receive favorable tax treatment even though
they refuse to provide free or subsidized care for indigents. The indigents
could not demonstrate that a different IRS policy would cause hospitals to
provide them with free care.

4) Required at All Stages

Standing must be met at all stages of litigation, including on appeal.
[Hollingsworth v. Perry, 570 U.S. 693 (2013)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 9.

EXAMPLE
A district court held unconstitutional a state constitutional amendment that
defined marriage as a union between a man and a woman. After trial, the
court enjoined state officials from enforcing the provision, and the state
officials elected not to appeal. The proponents of the state constitutional
amendment sought to appeal. Since the proponents were not ordered to
do or refrain from doing anything, they have no injury other than a gener-
alized grievance in vindicating the validity of a generally applicable state
law. Such an interest does not give the proponents a concrete stake in the
outcome. Therefore, they lack standing to bring the appeal. [Hollingsworth
v. Perry, supra]

b. Common Standing Issues

1) Congressional Conferral of Standing

Congress has no power to completely eliminate the case or controversy
requirement, because the requirement is based in the Constitution. [See
United Food & Commercial Workers Union Local 751 v. Brown Group, Inc.,
517 U.S. 544 (1996)] However, a federal statute may create new interests,
injury to which may be sufficient for standing.

2) Standing to Enforce Government Statutes—Zone of Interests

In some instances a plaintiff may bring suit to force government actors to
conform their conduct to the requirements of a specific federal statute.
Even in such cases, the person must have an “injury in fact.” Often, the
Court asks whether the injury caused to the individual or group seeking to
enforce the federal statute is within the “zone of interests” that Congress
meant to protect with the statute. If Congress intended the statute to
protect such persons, and intended to allow private persons to bring
federal court actions to enforce the statute, the courts are likely to be
lenient in granting standing to those persons.

EXAMPLE
Persons who sold data processing services to private businesses had
standing to challenge a ruling by the Comptroller of Currency that allowed
national banks to make data processing services available to other banks
and bank customers. These plaintiffs had an injury in fact because the
Comptroller’s ruling would hurt their future profits. The plaintiffs were deter-
mined to be within the “zone of interests” protected by the federal statutes
limiting the authority of the Comptroller and national banks.

3) Standing to Assert Rights of Others

To have standing, the claimant must have suffered or may presently suffer a
10. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

direct impairment of his own rights. A plaintiff may, however, assert third-
party rights where he himself has suffered injury and:

(i) Third parties find it difficult to assert their own rights (the NAACP
was permitted to assert the freedom of association rights of its
members in attacking a state law requiring disclosure of membership
lists because its members could not file suit without disclosing their
identities) [NAACP v. Alabama, 357 U.S. 449 (1958)]; or

(ii) The injury suffered by the plaintiff adversely affects his relationship
with third parties, resulting in an indirect violation of their rights (a
vendor of beer was granted standing to assert the constitutional rights
of males under 21 in attacking a state law prohibiting sale of beer to
them but not to females under 21) [Craig v. Boren, 429 U.S. 190 (1976)].

4) Standing of Organizations
An organization (unincorporated association, corporation, union, etc.) has
standing to challenge action that causes injury to the organization itself.
An organization also has standing to challenge actions that cause an injury
in fact to its members if the organization can demonstrate the following
three facts:

a) There must be an injury in fact to the members of the organization

that would give individual members a right to sue on their own behalf;

b) The injury to the members must be related to the organization’s

purpose; and

c) Neither the nature of the claim nor the relief requested requires
participation of the individual members in the lawsuit.

[Hunt v. Washington Apple Advertising Commission, 432 U.S. 333 (1977)]

EXAMPLE
The American Dental Association (“ADA”) is composed entirely of dentists;
its purpose is to promote the professional well-being of dentists. Assume
that most ADA members make between $100,000 and $200,000 per
year. The ADA would not have standing to challenge a change in the fed-
eral income tax rates that will disadvantage all persons making between
$100,000 and $200,000 on the basis that the statute deprives all persons
(in the income category) of property without due process, because that
claim is not related to the organization’s purpose—the representation of
dentists as such. But the ADA probably could bring a lawsuit challenging a
state regulation of dental practices if the regulation injures ADA members,
as long as the injury to ADA members does not vary.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 11.

5) No Citizenship Standing
As stated above, if an injury is too generalized, there can be no standing.
Thus, people have no standing merely “as citizens” to claim that govern-
ment action violates federal law or the Constitution. Congress cannot
change this rule by adopting a statute that would allow persons to have
standing merely as citizens (where they otherwise have no direct, personal
claim) to bring suit to force the government to observe the Constitution or
federal laws. [Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555 (1992)]

a) Compare—Tenth Amendment Violation Claims

A person can have standing to allege that federal action violates the
Tenth Amendment by interfering with the powers reserved to the
states, assuming the person can show injury in fact and redressability.
[Bond v. United States, 564 U.S. 211 (2011)]

6) Taxpayer Standing

a) Generally No Standing to Litigate Government Expenditures

A taxpayer, of course, has standing to litigate her tax bill (e.g., whether
she really owes X dollars). However, people generally do not have
standing as taxpayers to challenge the way tax dollars are spent by the
state or federal government, because their interest is too remote. Nor
do taxpayers have standing to challenge a law granting tax credits to
persons who contribute to organizations that provide scholarships to
students attending private schools. [Arizona Christian School Tuition
Organization v. Winn, 563 U.S. 125 (2011)] Note that such tax credits do
not fall under the Establishment Clause exception below—even to the
extent that the credits are available for contributions used for religious
school scholarships—because the program does not involve the transfer
of government funds; thus, there is no injury for standing purposes.

b) Exception—Congressional Measures Under Taxing and Spending

Power that Violate Establishment Clause
There is an exception to the general rule: A federal taxpayer has
standing to challenge federal appropriation and spending measures if
she can establish that the challenged measure:

(1) Was enacted under Congress’s taxing and spending power (see
II.A.2., 3., infra); and

(2) Exceeds some specific limitation on the power.

To date, the only limit that the Supreme Court has found on the taxing
and spending power is the Establishment Clause. (See XXII.D., infra.)
12. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

Note: The measure challenged must arise under the taxing and
spending power. Thus, there was no standing to challenge a federal
government transfer of surplus property under the Property Clause
that allegedly violated the Establishment Clause. [Valley Forge
Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church and
State, 454 U.S. 464 (1982)] Neither was there standing to challenge
expenditures of executive branch general funds that allegedly violated
the Establishment Clause. [Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation,
551 U.S. 587 (2007)]

7) Legislators’ Standing
Legislators may have standing to challenge the constitutionality of govern-
ment action if they have a sufficient “personal stake” in the dispute and
suffer sufficient “concrete injury.” [Raines v. Byrd, 521 U.S. 811 (1997)]

EXAMPLE
A state’s lieutenant governor cast the deciding vote to break a tie in the
state senate. Legislators who had voted against the prevailing position had
standing to challenge the right of the lieutenant governor to vote because
his vote completely nullified theirs and caused the specific legislative en-
actment to go into effect. [Coleman v. Miller, 307 U.S. 433 (1939)]
COMPARE
Members of Congress had no standing to challenge the Line Item Veto
Act authorizing the President to cancel (veto) certain spending and tax law
measures that are part of a bill that he signs into law. Rationale: Rather than
causing a “personal” and “concrete” injury, the challenged statute caused
only a type of “institutional” injury to all members of Congress equally.
[Raines v. Byrd, supra]

8) Assignee Standing
An assignee of a legal claim has standing even if the assignee has agreed
to remit any proceeds recovered from the litigation back to the assignor,
if this is done pursuant to an ordinary business agreement made in good
faith. [Sprint Communications Co., L.P. v. APCC Services, Inc., 554 U.S.
269 (2008)—a paid collection agent has standing to bring the claims of an
assignor even though the collection agent will submit any recovery back to
the assignor]

9) Standing for Free Speech Overbreadth Claims

A person has standing to bring a free speech claim alleging that the
government restricted substantially more speech than necessary (in other
words, that the restriction was overbroad), even if that person’s own speech
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 13.

would not be protected under the First Amendment (see XX.A.3.a., infra).
Essentially, the plaintiff can bring a claim on behalf of others whose speech
would be protected under the First Amendment. [Broadrick v. Oklahoma,
93 S. Ct. 2908 (1973)] However, this rule does not apply to restrictions on
commercial speech. [Bates v. State Bar of Arizona, 97 S. Ct. 2691 (1977)]

5. Adequate and Independent State Grounds

The Supreme Court will hear a case from a state court only if the state court
judgment turned on federal grounds. The Court will refuse jurisdiction if it finds
adequate and independent nonfederal grounds to support the state decision.

a. “Adequate”
The nonfederal grounds must be “adequate” in that they are fully dispositive of
the case, so that even if the federal grounds are wrongly decided, it would not
affect the outcome of the case. Where that is the case, the Supreme Court’s
review of the federal law grounds for the state court’s decision would have no
effect on the judgment rendered by the state court, so that the Supreme Court,
in effect, would be rendering an advisory opinion.

b. “Independent”
The nonfederal grounds must also be “independent”: If the state court’s inter-
pretation of its state provision was based on federal case law interpreting
an identical federal provision, the state law grounds for the decision are not
independent.

c. Where Basis Is Unclear

If it is unclear whether the state court decision turned on federal or state law,
the Supreme Court may dismiss the case or remand it to the state court for clari-
fication. However, the Court will usually assume that there is no adequate state
ground unless the state court expressly stated that its decision rests on state
law.

EXAMPLE
When a state supreme court relied on Terry v. Ohio and other federal cases to
suppress evidence from a search and did not cite a single state case to sup-
port its holding, although it referred to its state constitution in the opinion, the
Supreme Court concluded that the state court had rested its decision on federal
law, and therefore refused to dismiss the appeal based on adequate and inde-
pendent state grounds. [See Michigan v. Long, 463 U.S. 1032 (1983)]

6. Abstention

a. Unsettled State Law

When a federal constitutional claim is premised on an unsettled question of
14. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

state law, the federal court should stay its hand (“abstain” temporarily), so as
to give state courts a chance to settle the underlying state law question and
thus potentially avoid the needless resolution of a federal constitutional issue.
[Railroad Commission of Texas v. Pullman, 312 U.S. 496 (1941)]

b. Pending State Proceedings

Generally, federal courts will not enjoin pending state criminal proceedings.
[Younger v. Harris, 401 U.S. 37 (1971)]

1) Pending
State court proceedings are pending if begun before the federal court
begins proceedings on the merits. Hence, the order of filing charges is irrel-
evant. “Proceedings of substance” must occur first in federal court before
an injunction will issue. [Hicks v. Miranda, 422 U.S. 332 (1975)]

2) Civil and Administrative Proceedings

Federal courts should abstain from enjoining pending state administrative or
civil proceedings when those proceedings involve an important state interest.

EXAMPLES
1) A federal court should not enjoin a pending state civil action to remove a
child from the child’s parents due to alleged child abuse.
2) A federal court should not enjoin: (1) a state court order holding a person
or corporation in contempt for failing to pay a civil judgment; or (2) a state
court judgment that permits a plaintiff to execute a lien against a defen-
dant’s property. [Juidice v. Vail, 430 U.S. 327 (1977); Pennzoil Co. v. Texaco,
Inc., 481 U.S. 1 (1987)]

3) Exception
An order enjoining state proceedings will be issued in cases of proven
harassment or prosecutions taken in bad faith (without hope of a valid
conviction).

7. Political Questions
The Court will not decide political questions.

a. Definition
Political questions are:

1) Those issues committed by the Constitution to another branch of govern-

ment; or

2) Those inherently incapable of resolution and enforcement by the judicial

process.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 15.

EXAMPLES
Political questions include:
1) Questions regarding the conduct of foreign relations or issues as to when
hostilities have stopped;
2) Questions relating to which group of delegates should be seated at the
Democratic National Convention [O’Brien v. Brown, 409 U.S. 1 (1972)];
3) The procedures used by the Senate to “try” impeachments (e.g., the Court
refused to rule on the constitutionality of the Senate’s delegation of the duty
to take evidence and testimony to a committee of senators prior to the Senate
deciding whether to vote for conviction on an impeachment of a federal judge)
[Nixon v. United States, 506 U.S. 224 (1993)];
4) What constitutes a “republican form of government” guaranteed to the state
by Article IV, Section 4 [Pacific States Telephone & Telegraph Co. v. Oregon, 223
U.S. 118 (1912)];
5) Whether the number of votes a candidate for Congress received is sufficient
to elect him [Roudebush v. Hartke, 405 U.S. 15 (1972)]; and
6) Questions regarding partisan legislative reapportionment (i.e., partisan gerry-
mandering) [Rucho v. Common Cause, 139 S. Ct. 2484 (2019)].

b. Compare—“Nonpolitical Controversy”
Presidential papers and communications are generally considered to be privi-
leged and protected against disclosure in the exercise of the executive power.
But where these documents are necessary to the continuation of criminal
proceedings, the question of production is justiciable and not political. [United
States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974)]

8. Eleventh Amendment Limits on Federal Courts

The Eleventh Amendment is a jurisdictional bar that modifies the judicial power by
prohibiting a federal court from hearing a private party’s or foreign government’s
claims against a state government. [See Hans v. Louisiana, 134 U.S. 1 (1890)]

a. What Is Barred?
The Eleventh Amendment’s jurisdictional bar extends to the following:

(i) Actions against state governments for damages;

(ii) Actions against state governments for injunctive or declaratory relief where
the state is named as a party;

(iii) Actions against state government officers where the effect of the suit will
be that retroactive damages will be paid from the state treasury or where
16. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

the action is the functional equivalent of a quiet title action that would
divest the state of ownership of land; and

(iv) Actions against state government officers for violating state law.

1) Compare—Sovereign Immunity
The Court has also held that the following are barred by the doctrine of
sovereign immunity:

a) Suits against a state government in state court, even on federal claims,

without the defendant state’s consent [Alden v. Maine, 527 U.S. 706
(1999)—provision in federal Fair Labor Standards Act creating a private
cause of action in state courts against state employers who violate the
Act violates sovereign immunity];

b) Suits against a state government brought in the courts of another

state, without the defendant state’s consent [Franchise Tax Board of
California v. Hyatt, 139 S. Ct. 1485 (2019)]; and

c) Adjudicative actions against states and state agencies before federal

administrative agencies [Federal Maritime Commission v. South
Carolina State Ports Authority, 535 U.S. 743 (2002)].

b. What Is Not Barred?

1) Actions Against Local Governments

The Eleventh Amendment protects only state governments. Local govern-
ments (e.g., cities or counties) are not protected.

2) Actions by the United States Government or Other State

Governments
Actions by the United States Government or other state governments are
not barred.

3) Bankruptcy Proceedings
The Eleventh Amendment does not apply to federal laws that are exercises
of Congress’s Article I power to create bankruptcy laws, and thus does
not bar actions of the United States bankruptcy courts that have a direct
impact on state finances. [Tennessee Student Assistance Corp. v. Hood, 541
U.S. 440 (2004); Central Virginia Community College v. Katz, 546 U.S. 356
(2006)]

c. Exceptions to Eleventh Amendment

 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 17.

1) Certain Actions Against State Officers

The Supreme Court allows the following actions to be brought against
state officials despite the Eleventh Amendment:

a) Actions Against State Officers for Injunctions

A federal court may enjoin a state officer to refrain from future actions
that violate federal law or to take prospective actions to comply with
constitutional mandates. [Ex parte Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1908)]

b) Actions Against State Officers for Monetary Damages from

Officer
A federal court may hear an action for damages against a state officer
for violations of federal law if the monetary damages are to be paid
out of the officer’s own pocket. Rationale: By acting outside the scope
of federal law, the officer is stripped of his representative capacity—the
action is not one against a state, but rather is against an individual.

c) Actions Against State Officers for Prospective Payments from

State
A federal court may hear an action for damages against a state officer
where the effect of the action will be to force the state to pay money
in the future to comply with the court order. [Ex parte Young, supra]
However, federal court jurisdiction is barred if the action will result in
retroactive damages to be paid from the state treasury. [Edelman v.
Jordan, 415 U.S. 651 (1974)]

EXAMPLE
P sues the State Commissioner of the Department of Public Welfare for
failing to comply with federal welfare regulations. The federal court can
order future compliance with the federal regulations, even if this will
result in costing the state a large amount of money in the future. How-
ever, the federal court cannot award back payments of amounts previ-
ously improperly withheld, because the order would require payment
from the state treasury for retroactive relief. [Edelman v. Jordan, supra]

2) Congressional Removal of Immunity Under the Fourteenth

Amendment
Congress can remove the states’ Eleventh Amendment immunity under
its power to prevent discrimination under the Fourteenth Amendment.
For example, the Equal Pay Act—based on the Fourteenth Amendment—
can serve as a basis for federal suits against a state by its employees.
[Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer, 427 U.S. 445 (1976)]
18. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

a) Compare—Article I Powers
Unlike its power under the Fourteenth Amendment, Congress’s
legislative powers under Article I (see II., infra) do not include the
power to abrogate state immunity under the Eleventh Amendment.
[Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44 (1996)] However, the
Supreme Court has held that states may not assert sovereign immunity
in proceedings arising under the bankruptcy law. [Central Virginia
Community College v. Katz, supra]

d. Summary
For most bar exam questions, a key principle to remember is this: The Eleventh
Amendment will prohibit a federal court from hearing a claim for damages
against a state government (although not against state officers) unless:

1) The state has consented to allow the lawsuit in federal court;

2) The plaintiff is the United States or another state; or

3) Congress has clearly granted federal courts the authority to hear a specific
type of damage action under the Fourteenth Amendment (e.g., under a civil
rights statute).

II. LEGISLATIVE POWER

A. ENUMERATED AND IMPLIED POWERS

The Constitution grants Congress a number of specific powers, many of which are
enumerated in Article I, Section 8. It also grants Congress auxiliary power under the
Necessary and Proper Clause.

1. Necessary and Proper “Power”

The Necessary and Proper Clause grants Congress the power to make all laws
necessary and proper (i.e., appropriate) for carrying into execution any power
granted to any branch of the federal government.

EXAMPLE
Congress has the power to charter banks since that power is appropriate to execut-
ing Congress’s enumerated powers to tax, borrow money, regulate commerce, etc.
[McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. 316 (1819)]

Note: The Necessary and Proper Clause is not itself a basis of power; it merely gives
Congress power to execute specifically granted powers. Thus, if a bar exam question
asks what is the best source of power for a particular act of Congress, the answer
should not be the Necessary and Proper Clause, standing alone.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 19.

a. Limitation
Congress cannot adopt a law that is expressly prohibited by another provision
of the Constitution.

2. Taxing Power
Congress has the power to lay and collect taxes, imposts, and excises, but they must
be uniform throughout the United States. [Art. I, §8] Capitation or other direct taxes
must be laid in proportion to the census [Art. I, §9, cl. 4], and direct taxes must be
apportioned among the states [Art. I, §2, cl. 3].

a. Determining What Is a Tax

The determination of whether a legislative enactment imposes a tax does not
depend on the label Congress gives it, but rather on its function. [National
Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, 567 U.S. 519 (2012)—law
requiring individuals to purchase health insurance or to pay an additional
amount of money to the IRS when they pay their income tax, the amount of
which varies by household income, joint vs. single filing status, number of
dependents, etc., and which is estimated to bring $4 billion annually into federal
coffers, functionally is a tax regardless of the fact that Congress labeled it a
“penalty”]

b. Uniformity
Requirement of uniformity in the levy of indirect taxes (generally, this means any
kind of “privilege” tax, including duties and excises) has been interpreted by the
Court to mean geographical uniformity only—i.e., identical taxation of the taxed
Article in every state where it is found. [Fernandez v. Wiener, 326 U.S. 340 (1945)]

c. Direct Taxes—Must Be Apportioned

A “direct” tax (imposed directly on property or on the person) has seldom been
employed by Congress because of the cumbersome apportionment require-
ment; taxes on income from real or personal property were initially held “direct”
by the Court, but the resulting need for apportioning such taxes was obviated
by the Sixteenth Amendment (income tax amendment).

d. Taxes Are Generally Valid

Absent a specific restriction such as those above, be very hesitant to rule
against a tax measure on the exam. A tax measure will be upheld if it bears
some reasonable relationship to revenue production or if Congress has the
power to regulate the taxed activity.

EXAMPLE
Special excise tax levied on dealers in illegal narcotics is valid because it raises
revenue. [United States v. Doremus, 249 U.S. 86 (1919)]
20. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

3. Spending Power
Congress may spend to “provide for the common defense and general welfare.” [Art.
I, §8] This spending may be for any public purpose—not merely the accomplishment
of other enumerated powers. However, nonspending regulations are not authorized.
Remember that the Bill of Rights still applies to this power; i.e., the federal govern-
ment could not condition welfare payments on an agreement not to criticize govern-
ment policies.

a. Regulation Through Spending

Note that Congress can use its spending power to “regulate” areas, even where
it otherwise has no power to regulate the area, by requiring entities that accept
government money to act in a certain manner (i.e., attaching “strings” to govern-
ment grants). (See VI.A.2.b., infra.)

4. Commerce Power
Article I, Section 8, Clause 3 empowers Congress to “regulate commerce with
foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes.”

a. Definition of Commerce

1) Includes Basically All Activity Affecting Two or More States

Chief Justice Marshall, in Gibbons v. Ogden, 22 U.S. 1 (1824), defined
commerce as “every species of commercial intercourse . . . which concerns
more states than one” and included within the concept virtually every form
of activity involving or affecting two or more states.

2) Includes Transportation or Traffic

The Court has consistently regarded transportation or traffic as commerce,
whether or not a commercial activity is involved.

EXAMPLE
Interstate transportation of liquor for personal consumption, women for im-
moral purposes (not necessarily prostitution), and interstate transportation
of stolen motor vehicles are all interstate commerce.

a) Vehicular Transportation Not Required

Any transmission across state lines, such as electricity, gas,
telegraph, telephone, TV, radio, and mail transmission (including
educational materials and sale of insurance), will constitute interstate
commerce.

b. “Substantial Economic Effect”

The Supreme Court has sustained congressional power to regulate any activity,
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 21.

local or interstate, that either in itself or in combination with other activities

has a “substantial economic effect upon,” or “effect on movement in,” inter-
state commerce.

EXAMPLE
The classic case is the Court’s holding that Congress can control a farmer’s pro-
duction of wheat for home consumption. [Wickard v. Filburn, 317 U.S. 111 (1942)]
Rationale: Cumulative effect of many instances of such production could be felt
on the supply and demand of the interstate commodity market.

1) Power Not Unlimited

The Supreme Court has made clear that the power of Congress to regulate
commerce, although very broad, does have limits so as not to obliterate
the distinction between what is national and what is local. To be within
Congress’s power under the Commerce Clause, a federal law must either:

(i) Regulate the channels of interstate commerce;

(ii) Regulate the instrumentalities of interstate commerce and persons

and things in interstate commerce; or

(iii) Regulate activities that have a substantial effect on interstate

commerce.

a) Intrastate Activity
When Congress attempts to regulate intrastate activity under the third
prong, above, the Court will uphold the regulation if it is of economic
or commercial activity and the court can conceive of a rational basis
on which Congress could conclude that the activity in aggregate
substantially affects interstate commerce. [Gonzales v. Raich, 545
U.S. 1 (2005)—upholding regulation of intrastate cultivation and use
of marijuana (permitted by state law for medicinal purposes) because
it was part of a comprehensive federal program to combat interstate
traffic in illicit drugs] If the regulated intrastate activity is not commer-
cial or economic, the Court generally will not aggregate the effects
and the regulation will be upheld only if Congress can show a direct
substantial economic effect on interstate commerce, which it gener-
ally will not be able to do. [See, e.g., United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S.
549 (1995)—federal statute barring possession of a gun in a school
zone is invalid; United States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598 (2000)—federal
civil remedy for victims of gender-motivated violence is invalid]

(1) Activity vs. Inactivity

The Commerce Clause gives Congress power only to regulate
22. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

existing commercial activity; it does not give Congress power

to compel activity, even if failure to undertake the activity may
affect interstate commerce. [National Federation of Independent
Business v. Sebelius, 2.a., supra]

5. War and Related Powers

Article I, Section 8 gives Congress the power to declare war, raise and support
armies, provide for and maintain a navy, make rules for the government and regula-
tion of the armed forces, and organize, arm, discipline, and call up the militia. Of
course, several other congressional powers may have direct or indirect application
to military purposes: tax and spending power, commerce power, Senate’s treaty
consent power, maritime power, investigatory power, etc.

a. Economic Regulation

1) During War
Regulatory power of Congress, especially in economic matters and mobili-
zation of troops, in support of war effort is pervasive (although theoretically
limited by the Bill of Rights); thus, the Court has sustained national price
and rent control, as well as conscription and regulation of civilian/military
production and services.

2) Postwar
To a considerable extent, this pervasive regulatory power may be validly
extended into post-wartime periods both to remedy wartime disruptions
[e.g., Woods v. Cloyd W. Miller Co., 333 U.S. 138 (1948)—rent controls] and to
cope with “cold war” exigencies. Legislation in the field of veterans’ rights
and limitations thereon may be extended indefinitely as long as veterans or
their relatives may survive.

b. Military Courts and Tribunals

The constitutional basis of courts of military justice (trial and review of offenses
by military personnel, including courts-martial and reviewing agencies and
tribunals) is not Article III, but rather Article I, Section 8, Clause 14 (congressional
power to make rules for government and regulation of armed forces), buttressed
by the Necessary and Proper Clause.

1) Judicial Review
The regular federal (or state) courts have no general power to review
court-martial proceedings. However, in habeas corpus cases, the Article III
courts, including the Supreme Court, may make a limited inquiry into the
military court’s jurisdiction of the person and offense or the validity of the
court’s legislative creation.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 23.

2) Court-Martial of Enemy Civilians and Soldiers Permitted

Military courts may try enemy civilians as well as enemy military personnel,
at least during wartime.

a) Suspension of Habeas Corpus for Enemy Combatants

Congress does not have the power to deny habeas corpus review to
all aliens detained as enemy combatants absent a meaningful substi-
tute for habeas corpus review. A meaningful substitute would allow
prisoners to (1) challenge the President’s authority to detain them indef-
initely, (2) contest the military commission’s findings of fact, (3) supple-
ment the record on review with exculpatory evidence discovered
after the military commission’s proceedings, and (4) request release.
[Boumediene v. Bush, 553 U.S. 723 (2008)]

3) Court-Martial of American Soldiers Permitted

Military courts have jurisdiction over all offenses (not just service
connected offenses) committed by persons who are members of the armed
services, both when charged and at the time of the offense. [Solorio v.
United States, 483 U.S. 435 (1987), overruling O’Callahan v. Parker, 395 U.S.
258 (1969)]

4) Court-Martial of American Civilians Generally Prohibited

The Supreme Court has denied Congress the power to authorize the court-
martial trial of American civilians as long as actual warfare has not forced
courts to shut down, even though martial law has been declared [Ex parte
Milligan, 71 U.S. 2 (1866)]; even though the civilians accused may have been
members of the armed forces when committing the alleged offense [Toth v.
Quarles, 350 U.S. 11 (1955)] or are dependents of military personnel accom-
panying the latter overseas [Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1 (1957)] or are civilian
employees of the military forces at overseas bases and installations; such
trials by court-martial violate the Fifth and Sixth Amendments, particularly
the right to trial by jury.

c. Calling Forth the Militia

Under the Militia Clauses [Art. I, §8, c1. 15, 16], Congress has the power to
authorize the President to order members of National Guard units into federal
service—even in circumstances that do not involve a national emergency
(e.g., for training outside of the United States). The President need not obtain
the consent of the governor of a unit’s home state to call it into such service.
[Perpich v. Department of Defense, 496 U.S. 334 (1990)]

6. Investigatory Power
The power to investigate to secure information as a basis for potential legisla-
tion or other official action (such as impeachment or trying impeachments) is a
24. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

well-established implied power. It is a very broad power, in that an investigation

need not be directed toward enactment of particular legislation, but the following
limitations on its use do exist.

a. Authorized Investigation
The investigatory inquiry must be expressly or impliedly authorized by the
congressional house concerned, i.e., by statute or resolution creating or
directing the investigating committee or subcommittee.

b. Witnesses’ Rights

1) Fifth Amendment
The privilege against compulsory self-incrimination (the Fifth Amendment)
is available to witnesses, whether formal or informal, unless a statutory
immunity co-extensive with the constitutional immunity is granted.

2) Relevance
Written or oral information elicited by the investigative body must be “perti-
nent” to the subject of the inquiry.

3) Procedural Due Process

Witnesses are generally entitled to procedural due process, such as
presence of counsel and right of cross-examination; but it is not yet clear
whether such rights are constitutionally required or whether some of them
are required merely by house rule or statute.

c. Enforcement of Investigatory Powers

Congress can hold a subpoenaed witness in contempt for refusing to appear or
answer before Congress.

d. Subpoena of Presidential Information

A congressional subpoena for the President’s personal information must
advance a legitimate legislative purpose, based on: (1) whether the legislative
purpose warrants involving the President and his papers (or whether other
sources could reasonably provide Congress with the information it needs); (2)
whether the subpoena is no broader than reasonably necessary to support
the legislative objective; (3) the nature of the evidence offered by Congress
to establish that the subpoena advances a valid legislative purpose (the more
detailed the evidence, the better); and (4) the burdens imposed on the President
by the subpoena. [Trump v. Mazars USA, LLP, 140 S. Ct. 2019 (2020)]

7. Property Power
Congress has the power to “dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations
respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States.” [Art. IV,
§3] Many other congressional powers (war, commerce, postal, fiscal, etc.) obviously
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 25.

would be unworkable if the ancillary power to acquire and dispose of property of

all kinds—real, personal, and intangible—were not also implied from the main grants.

EXAMPLE
The Property Clause empowers Congress to even protect wildlife wandering onto
federally owned lands. [Kleppe v. New Mexico, 426 U.S. 529 (1976)]

a. No Limits on Disposition of Property

There is no express limitation on Congress’s power to dispose of property
owned by the United States. The power extends to all species of property,
such as leasehold interests and electrical energy, as well as ordinary realty
and personalty. Moreover, disposal may involve direct competition with private
enterprise and has never been invalidated on that ground.

b. Eminent Domain
Acquisition of property for a public purpose by eminent domain is indirectly
recognized by the Fifth Amendment: “. . . nor shall private property be taken for
public use, without just compensation.” Federal taking must be for the purpose
of effectuating an enumerated power under some other provision of the
Constitution.

8. No Federal Police Power

Congress has no general police power (i.e., power to legislate for the health, welfare,
morals, etc., of the citizens). Thus, on the bar exam the validity of a federal statute
cannot rely on “the police power.” However, Congress can exercise police power-
type powers as to the District of Columbia pursuant to its power to legislate over
the capital [Art. I, §8, cl. 17] and over all United States possessions (e.g., territories,
military bases, Indian reservations) pursuant to the property power.

9. Bankruptcy Power
Article I, Section 8, Clause 4 empowers Congress “to establish uniform laws on the
subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States.” This power has been inter-
preted by the Supreme Court as nonexclusive; i.e., state legislation in the field is
superseded only to the extent that it conflicts with federal legislation therein.

10. Postal Power

Article I, Section 8, Clause 7 empowers Congress “to establish post offices and post
roads.”

a. Exclusive
The postal power has been interpreted as granting Congress a postal
monopoly. Neither private business nor the states may compete with the
Federal Postal Service absent Congress’s consent. [Air Courier Conference of
America v. American Postal Workers Union, 498 U.S. 517 (1991)]
26. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

b. Scope of Power
Congress may validly classify and place reasonable restrictions on use of the
mails, but it may not deprive any citizen or group of citizens of the general mail
“privilege” or regulate the mail in such a way as to abridge freedom of speech
or press (except under valid standards, such as “obscenity”) or violate the ban of
the Fourth Amendment against unreasonable search and seizure.

11. Power Over Citizenship

Article I, Section 8, Clause 4 empowers Congress “to establish a uniform rule of
naturalization.”

a. Exclusion of Aliens
Congress’s power to exclude aliens is broad.

1) Nonresident Aliens
Aliens have no right to enter the United States and can be refused entry
because of their political beliefs. [Kleindienst v. Mandel, 408 U.S. 753 (1972)]

2) Resident Aliens
Resident aliens are entitled to notice and hearing before they can be
deported.

b. Naturalization and Denaturalization—Exclusive Control of Congress

Congress has exclusive power over naturalization and denaturalization. The
Supreme Court has held that this grant gives Congress plenary power over
aliens (see XVIII.D.2.a., infra).

1) No Loss of Citizenship Without Consent

Under the Fourteenth Amendment, Congress may not take away the
citizenship of any citizen—native-born or naturalized—without his consent.

EXAMPLE
The Court held unconstitutional a statute that provided for loss of citizen-
ship upon voting in a foreign election. [Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253 (1967)]

a) Proof of Intent
A citizen’s intent to relinquish citizenship may be expressed by words
or conduct—and Congress may provide that such intent may be proven
by a preponderance of the evidence. [Vance v. Terrazas, 444 U.S. 252
(1980)]

2) Rights of Children of Citizens

A person born in another country to United States citizen parents does not
have a constitutional right to become a United States citizen. Congress
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 27.

can grant citizenship to children born abroad conditioned on their return to

live in the United States within a specified period of time or for a specified
number of years. Such a child who fails to return to the United States loses
his grant of citizenship because he has failed to meet the statutory condi-
tion precedent to his final grant of citizenship.

12. Admiralty Power

Although congressional power to legislate in maritime matters is not expressed
in the Constitution, the Supreme Court has implied it from the exclusive jurisdic-
tion given the federal courts in this field by Article III, Section 2, supported by the
Necessary and Proper Clause of Article I, Section 8.

a. Exclusive Power
The congressional power is plenary and exclusive, except to the extent that
Congress may leave (and has left) some maritime matters to state jurisdiction.

b. Navigable Waterways
The federal admiralty power attaches to all navigable waterways—actually or
potentially navigable—and to small tributaries that affect navigable waterways.
The federal maritime power is not limited to tidewaters or interstate waters.

13. Power to Coin Money and Fix Weights and Measures

Congress has the power to coin money and fix the standard of weights and
measures under Article I, Section 8, Clause 5.

14. Patent/Copyright Power

Congress has the power to control the issuance of patents and copyrights under
Article I, Section 8, Clause 8.

B. DELEGATION OF LEGISLATIVE POWER

1. Broad Delegation Allowed
Congress has broad discretion to delegate its legislative power to executive officers
and/or administrative agencies [A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295
U.S. 495 (1935)], and even delegation of rulemaking power to the courts has been
upheld [Mistretta v. United States, 488 U.S. 361 (1989)].

EXAMPLE
Congress can delegate the power to establish sentencing guidelines for criminal
cases to a sentencing commission located in the federal courts and made up, in part,
of federal judges, as long as the tasks delegated do not undermine the integrity of
the judiciary or usurp the powers of the other branches. [Mistretta v. United States,
supra]
28. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

2. Limitations on Delegation

a. Power Cannot Be Uniquely Confined to Congress

To be delegable, the power must not be uniquely confined to Congress; e.g., the
power to declare war cannot be delegated, nor the power to impeach.

b. Clear Standard
It is said that delegation will be upheld only if it includes intelligible standards
for the delegate to follow. However, as a practical matter almost anything will
pass as an “intelligible standard” (e.g., “upholding public interest, convenience,
or necessity”).

c. Separation of Powers Limitations

While Congress has broad power to delegate, the separation of powers
doctrine restricts Congress from keeping certain controls over certain
delegates. For example, Congress cannot give itself the power to remove an
officer of the executive branch by any means other than impeachment (e.g., if
Congress delegates rulemaking power to an executive branch agency (e.g.,
the FCC), it may not retain the power to fire the agency head). (See III.B.1.c.2)a),
infra.) Similarly, Congress cannot give a government employee who is subject
to removal by Congress (other than by impeachment) purely executive powers.
(See III.B.1.c.2)b), infra.)

EXAMPLE
A federal statute transferred the authority to control two D.C. area airports from
the federal government to a local authority. However, the statute reserved to
a review board a veto power over the local authority’s decisions. The review
board was comprised of nine members of Congress. The statute violates the
separation of powers doctrine in one of two ways: (1) If the review board’s power
is considered to be legislative, the statute created an unconstitutional legislative
veto (see D., infra). (2) If the review board’s power is considered to be executive,
the separation of powers doctrine prohibits members of Congress from exercis-
ing it. [Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority v. Citizens for Abatement of
Aircraft Noise, 501 U.S. 252 (1991)]

d. Important Liberty Interests

If the delegate interferes with the exercise of a fundamental liberty or right, the
burden falls upon the delegate to show that she has the power to prevent the
exercise of the right and her decision was in furtherance of that particular policy.

EXAMPLE
In Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 116 (1958), the Secretary of State was required to is-
sue a passport to a Communist because he could not show that Congress gave
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 29.

him the power to encroach upon the fundamental right to travel simply because
the applicant was a Communist.

e. Criminal vs. Civil Punishment

The legislature may delegate its authority to enact regulations, the violation of
which are crimes, but prosecution for such violations must be left to the execu-
tive and judicial branches. [See United States v. Grimaud, 220 U.S. 506 (1911)]
However, agencies may enact and impose civil penalties (i.e., fines labeled
as civil fines) without prosecution in court. [Helvering v. Mitchell, 303 U.S. 391
(1938)]

C. THE SPEECH OR DEBATE CLAUSE—SPECIAL IMMUNITY FOR FEDERAL

LEGISLATORS
Article I, Section 6 provides that “For any speech or debate in either House [members of
Congress] shall not be questioned in any other place.”

1. Persons Covered
The immunity extends to aides who engage in acts that would be immune if
performed by a legislator. [Gravel v. United States, 408 U.S. 606 (1972)]

Note: The Speech or Debate Clause does not extend to state legislators who are
prosecuted for violation of federal law. [United States v. Gillock, 445 U.S. 360 (1980)]

2. Scope of Immunity
Conduct that occurs in the regular course of the legislative process and the motiva-
tion behind that conduct are immune from prosecution.

a. Bribes Excluded
Taking of a bribe is not an act in the regular course of the legislative process
and is therefore actionable. [United States v. Brewster, 408 U.S. 501 (1972)]

b. Speeches Outside Congress

Speeches and publications made outside Congress are not protected.

c. Defamatory Statements
Republication in a press release or newsletter of a defamatory statement origi-
nally made in Congress is not immune. [Hutchinson v. Proxmire, 443 U.S. 111
(1979)]

D. SEPARATION OF POWERS—THE REQUIREMENT OF BICAMERALISM AND

PRESENTMENT
To pass a law, Congress must use bicameralism (passage of a bill by both houses of
Congress) followed by presentment to the President for signature or veto. Attempts by
Congress to create laws or control the enforcement of laws without bicameralism and
30. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

presentment are invalid. [Immigration & Naturalization Service v. Chadha, 462 U.S. 919
(1983)]

EXAMPLES
1) Congress granted to the Immigration & Naturalization Service (“INS”) the power to
deport or suspend from deportation undocumented aliens. INS decisions to suspend
deportations had to be submitted to Congress. Either house could pass a resolution
overriding the decision. This “legislative veto” provision is unconstitutional because it
allowed Congress to act without presentment. [Immigration & Naturalization Service v.
Chadha, supra]
2) By statute, Congress grants to the President the power to send military troops into
combat, without Congress’s prior approval, whenever the United States or its territories
are attacked. The statute, however, reserves to the Senate the power to force the Presi-
dent to withdraw the troops. The statute does not provide for presidential veto of the
Senate’s decision to withdraw. This statute is unconstitutional because the congressional
action does not require bicameralism or presentment.
3) Congress passes a resolution in both houses to declare the second Tuesday of No-
vember “National Elk Appreciation Day.” The resolution is not sent to the President for
signature or veto. It has no binding impact but is entered into the official congressional
record. This resolution is valid without presentment because it is nonbinding and does
not create or control the enforcement of any laws.

III. THE EXECUTIVE POWER

A. VESTED IN PRESIDENT
The entire “executive power” is vested in the President by Article II, Section 1 of the
Constitution. Various executive functions may be and are delegated within the “executive
branch” by the President or by Congress.

B. DOMESTIC POWERS
1. Appointment and Removal of Officers

a. Appointment
Under Article II, Section 2, the President is empowered “with the advice and
consent of the Senate” to appoint all “ambassadors, other public ministers
and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United
States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for . . . but the
Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they
think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of
departments.”
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 31.

1) Appointment of “Independent Counsel” (Special Prosecutor)

A special prosecutor with the limited duties of investigating a narrow
range of persons and subjects (e.g., to investigate alleged misconduct
of a government employee) is an inferior officer. Therefore, under the
Appointment Clause, Congress is free to vest the power to appoint a
special prosecutor in the judiciary. [Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S. 654 (1988)]

2) No Appointments by Congress
Although Congress may appoint its own officers to carry on internal legis-
lative tasks (i.e., its staff), it may not appoint members of a body with
administrative or enforcement powers; such persons are “officers of the
United States” and must, pursuant to Article II, Section 2, be appointed by
the President with senatorial confirmation unless Congress has vested their
appointment in the President alone, in federal courts, or in heads of depart-
ments. [Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976)]

b. Recess Appointments
The Recess Appointments Clause of the Constitution gives the President the
power to make appointments for vacancy without Senate approval during any
Senate recess of “sufficient duration.” Under the Clause, the Senate is in recess
only when it states it is in recess. If the Senate does not declare a recess and it
holds pro forma sessions, the Senate is not in recess and the President has no
power to make appointments without Senate approval. [NLRB v. Canning, 573
U.S. 513 (2014)]

c. Removal
As to removal of appointees, the Constitution is silent except for ensuring
tenure of all Article III judges “during good behavior.”

1) By President
The President can remove high level, purely executive officers (e.g., Cabinet
members) at will, without any interference from Congress. Moreover,
Congress may not restrict the President from removing the head of an
independent agency if that person is the sole director and has significant
executive power. However, Congress may provide statutory limitations
(e.g., removal for good cause) on the President’s power to remove all other
executive appointees.

2) By Congress

a) Limitation on Removal Power

Congress cannot give itself the power to remove an officer charged
with the execution of laws except through impeachment. A congres-
sional attempt through legislation to remove from government
32. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

employment specifically named government employees is likely to be

held invalid as a bill of attainder.

b) Limitation on Powers of Removable Officers

Congress cannot give a government employee who is subject to
removal from office by Congress any powers that are truly executive
in nature. For this reason, Congress could not give to the Comptroller
General (who could be removed from office not only by impeachment
but also by a joint resolution of Congress) the function of establishing
the amount of automatic budget reductions that would be required if
Congress failed to make budget reductions necessary to insure that
the federal budget deficit did not exceed a legislatively established
maximum amount. [Bowsher v. Synar, 478 U.S. 714 (1986)]

2. Pardons
The President is empowered by Article II, Section 2, “to grant reprieves and
pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeach-
ment.” This power has been held to apply before, during, or after trial, and to
extend to the offense of criminal contempt, but not to civil contempt, inasmuch as
the latter involves the rights of third parties. The pardon power cannot be limited
by Congress, and includes power to commute a sentence on any conditions the
President chooses, as long as they are not independently unconstitutional. [Schick v.
Reed, 419 U.S. 256 (1974)]

3. Veto Power

a. Congress May Override Veto by Two-Thirds Vote

Every act of Congress must be approved by the President before taking effect,
unless passed over his disapproval by two-thirds vote of each house. [Art. I, §7]

b. President Has Ten Days to Veto

The President has 10 days (excepting Sundays) to exercise his veto power. If he
fails to act within that time:

1) The bill becomes law if Congress is still in session; or

2) The bill is automatically vetoed if Congress is not in session (a “pocket

veto”). [Pocket Veto Case, 279 U.S. 655 (1929)]

Note: Brief recesses during an annual session create no pocket veto opportu-
nity. [Wright v. United States, 302 U.S. 583 (1938)]

c. Line Item Veto Unconstitutional

The veto power allows the President only to approve or reject a bill in toto; he
cannot cancel part (through a line item veto) and approve other parts. Rationale:
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 33.

The President’s veto power does not authorize him to amend or repeal laws
passed by Congress. [Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998)]

4. Power as Chief Executive

The President’s power over internal (i.e., within the United States) affairs as the chief
executive is unclear. Clearly the President has some power to direct subordinate
executive officers, and there is a long history of presidents issuing executive orders.
Perhaps the best guide for determining the validity of presidential actions regarding
internal affairs can be based on Justice Jackson’s opinion in Youngstown Sheet &
Tube v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579 (1952):

(i) Where the President acts with the express or implied authority of Congress, his
authority is at its maximum and his actions likely are valid;

(ii) Where the President acts where Congress is silent, his action will be upheld as
long as the act does not take over the powers of another branch of the govern-
ment or prevent another branch from carrying out its tasks [see, e.g., United
States v. Nixon, I.E.7.b., supra—President’s invocation of executive privilege was
invalidated because it kept federal courts from having evidence they needed to
conduct a fair criminal trial]; and

(iii) Where the President acts against the express will of Congress, he has little
authority and his action likely is invalid.

EXAMPLE
Hamdan was captured in the Afghanistan war, sent to Guantanamo Bay, and then
tried for war crimes by a military commission that had been created by an Executive
Order issued after the 9/11 terrorist attack. Citing Justice Jackson’s Youngstown con-
currence, the Court held that the military commission could not proceed, because
the executive order authorizing the commission went beyond the limitations that
Congress had placed on the President. The Court found that the Executive Order
was authorized by an act of Congress that was interpreted as limiting the President’s
power to convene commissions to those that comply with the Constitution, laws,
and rules of war, and that the commission here violated the laws and rules of war in
several respects (e.g., it did not require a sufficient showing of the facts justifying the
commission’s jurisdiction; it did not provide the accused and his attorney sufficient
access to the evidence). [Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006)]

a. No Power to Impound and the Take Care Clause

It follows from the above that the President has no power to refuse to spend
appropriated funds when Congress has expressly mandated that they be spent.
[Kendall v. United States ex rel. Stokes, 37 U.S. 524 (1838)] Some authorities base
this result on Article II, Section 3, Clause 4—the Take Care Clause—which provides
that the President “shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed . . . .”
34. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

C. POWER OVER EXTERNAL AFFAIRS

1. War
Although lacking the power to declare or initiate a “formal” war, the President has
extensive military powers (essentially an external field, although applicable to civil
war as well and to many domestic affairs caught up in military necessities).

a. Actual Hostilities
The President may act militarily under his power as commander in chief of the
armed forces and militia (when federalized), under Article II, Section 2, in actual
hostilities against the United States without a congressional declaration of war.
But Congress may limit the President under its power to enact a military appro-
priation every two years. (A military appropriation may not be for more than
two years.)

b. Military Government
This power includes the establishment of military governments in occupied terri-
tories, including military tribunals.

2. Foreign Relations
The President’s power to represent and act for the United States in day-to-day
foreign relations is paramount. He has the power to appoint and receive ambas-
sadors and make treaties (with the advice and consent of the Senate), and to enter
into executive agreements. His power is broad even as to foreign affairs that require
congressional consent.

a. Power to Recognize Foreign States

The power to recognize foreign states lies exclusively with the president. [See
Zivotofsky v. Kerry, 135 S. Ct. 2076 (2015)—legislation requiring the secretary of
state, upon request, to designate “Israel” and not “Jerusalem” as the place of
birth on the passport of a U.S. citizen born in Jerusalem infringes on the long-
time executive branch policy of favoring recognition of Jerusalem]

b. Standard of Review—Rational Basis at Most

Generally, courts defer to the President and Congress regarding foreign affairs.
When reviewing whether an act violates a constitutional right, courts apply
rational basis review.

EXAMPLE
A statute gave the President broad discretion to decide immigration policy. After
making campaign statements suggesting he wanted to ban Muslims from enter-
ing the United States, the President issued an executive order limiting immigra-
tion from several countries, most of which were majority-Muslim, purportedly
on the ground that the order was necessary to prevent terrorists from entering
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 35.

the United States. When challenged as a violation of the Establishment Clause,

the Supreme Court upheld the order, using rational basis review, because the
stated purpose of the rule was proper and the order was rationally related to
the purpose. [Trump v. Hawaii, 138 S. Ct. 2392 (2018)]

3. Treaty Power
The treaty power is granted to the President “by and with the advice and consent of
the Senate, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur.” [Art. II, §2, cl. 2]

a. Supreme Law
Like other federal law, treaties are the “supreme law of the land.” Any state
action or law in conflict with a United States treaty is invalid (regardless of
whether it is a state law or a state constitutional provision).

1) Self-Executing vs. Non-Self-Executing Treaties

Some treaties are expressly or impliedly self-executing (i.e., they are effec-
tive without any implementation by Congress). Others are not effective
unless and until Congress passes legislation to effectuate their ends. If a
treaty is not self-executing, it is not treated as the supreme law of the land
until Congress acts to effectuate it, but the treaty itself can serve as an
independent basis for Congress’s power to adopt the required legislation
(i.e., Congress need not point to one of its enumerated powers, such as the
commerce power, as the basis for the legislation).

a) President Has No Power to Implement Non-Self-Executing

Treaties
Based on the Youngstown analysis (B.4., supra), the President gener-
ally does not have any independent power to issue a “memorandum”
ordering compliance with a non-self-executing treaty that has not
been the subject of effectuating legislation by Congress. [Medellin v.
Texas, 552 U.S. 491 (2008)—President had no power to enforce provi-
sions of the Vienna Convention (a non-self-executing international
treaty) by issuing a memorandum requiring states to grant habeas
corpus petitions to reconsider convictions of criminals who are foreign
nationals and who were not informed at the time of their arrest of their
right to notify their consulate of their detention]

2) Conflict with Congressional Acts

Valid treaties are on a “supremacy parity” with acts of Congress; a conflict
between an act of Congress and a treaty is resolved by order of adoption—
the last in time prevails.

3) Conflict with Constitution

Treaties are not co-equal with the Constitution. For example, no treaty
36. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

(or executive agreement) could confer on Congress authority to act in a

manner inconsistent with any specific provision of the Constitution. [Reid v.
Covert, 354 U.S. 1 (1957)]

b. Other Limitations
Other substantive limitations on the treaty power have not been judicially estab-
lished; but in one case the Court expressed in dictum the view that a treaty
could not upset the basic structure of the United States’s federalism, or wield a
power barred to the national government by the Constitution, or cede any part
of a state to a foreign nation without the state’s consent. The Court has never
held a treaty unconstitutional (Reid v. Covert, supra, invalidated an executive
agreement for violating the Fifth Amendment), but it is conceivable that the
treaty power extends only to subjects plausibly bearing on our relations with
other countries.

4. Executive Agreements
The President’s power to enter into agreements (i.e., executive agreements) with the
heads of foreign countries is not expressly provided for in the Constitution; neverthe-
less, the power has become institutionalized. Executive agreements can probably be
on any subject as long as they do not violate the Constitution. They are very similar
to treaties, except that they do not require the consent of the Senate.

a. Conflicts with Other Governmental Action

Executive agreements that are not consented to by the Senate are not the
“supreme law of the land.” Thus, conflicting federal statutes and treaties will
prevail over an executive agreement, regardless of which was adopted first.
However, executive agreements prevail over conflicting state laws.

b. Example—Power to Settle Claims of United States Citizens

The President, with the implicit approval of Congress, has power to settle claims
of United States citizens against foreign governments through an executive
agreement. [Dames & Moore v. Regan, 453 U.S. 654 (1981)]

D. EXECUTIVE PRIVILEGE/IMMUNITY
1. Executive Privilege
The executive privilege is not a constitutional power, but rather is an inherent privi-
lege necessary to protect the confidentiality of presidential communications.

a. Extent of the Privilege

Presidential documents and conversations are presumptively privileged, but
the privilege must yield to the need for such materials as evidence in a criminal
case to which they are relevant and otherwise admissible. This determination
must be made by the trial judge after hearing the evidence.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 37.

1) National Security Secrets

Military, diplomatic, or sensitive national security secrets are given great
deference by the courts.

2) Criminal Proceedings
In criminal proceedings, presidential communiques will be available to the
prosecution, where a need for such information is demonstrated. [United
States v. Nixon, B.4., supra]

a) State Criminal Proceedings

Presidents are subject to state criminal subpoenas of the President’s
personal records—such records do not fall under the executive privi-
lege. However, the President, like any other citizen, can challenge
such subpoenas on state law grounds, including bad faith and undue
burden or breadth, as well as constitutional grounds, including
attempting to influence or interfere with the President’s official duties.
[Trump v. Vance, 140 S. Ct. 2412 (2020)]

3) Civil Trials
The Court has avoided ruling on the scope of executive privilege in a civil
case. Nevertheless, in Cheney v. United States District Court, 542 U.S. 367
(2004), the Court noted that the need for information in a criminal case is
“weightier,” and the Executive’s withholding of information in a civil trial
would not impair the judiciary’s ability to fulfill its responsibility to resolve
cases as much as in a criminal trial. Thus, it appears that an Executive
branch decision to withhold information will be given more deference in a
civil trial than in a criminal trial.

4) Screening Papers and Recordings of Former President

A federal statute requiring the Administrator of General Services to
screen presidential papers is valid, notwithstanding the privilege. [Nixon v.
Administrator of General Services, 433 U.S. 425 (1977)]

5) Screening by Judge in Chambers

The court will determine in an in-camera inspection which communications
are protected and which are subject to disclosure.

2. Executive Immunity

a. Absolute Immunity for President

The President has absolute immunity from civil damages based on any action
that the President took within his official responsibilities (even if the action was
only arguably within the “outer perimeter” of presidential responsibility). [Nixon
v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 731 (1982)] However, the President has no immunity from
38. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

private suits in federal courts based on conduct that allegedly occurred before
taking office. [Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681 (1997)] Rationale: The immunity
is intended only to enable the President to perform his designated functions
without fear of personal liability.

b. Immunity May Extend to Presidential Aides

Presidential aides share in this immunity only if they are exercising discretionary
authority for the President in “sensitive” areas of national concern, such as
foreign affairs. Other aides are entitled only to a qualified immunity (a “good
faith” defense). [Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800 (1982)]

EXAMPLE
The Attorney General does not share the President’s absolute immunity for
authorizing a warrantless wiretap on “national security” grounds. The Attorney
General would have a defense to a lawsuit regarding such a wiretap if it was
shown that he was able to act in good faith because his actions were not violat-
ing clearly established or well-settled statutory or constitutional rights. [Mitchell
v. Forsyth, 472 U.S. 511 (1985)]

E. IMPEACHMENT
1. Persons Subject to Impeachment
The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States are subject to
impeachment.

2. Grounds
The grounds for impeachment are treason, bribery, high crimes, and misdemeanors.

3. Impeachment by the House

A majority vote in the House is necessary to invoke the charges of impeachment.

4. Conviction by the Senate

A two-thirds vote in the Senate is necessary to convict.

PART TWO: THE FEDERAL SYSTEM

IV. RELATIVE SPHERES OF FEDERAL AND STATE POWER

A. EXCLUSIVE FEDERAL POWERS

1. Power of States Expressly Limited
Some powers are exclusively federal because of express constitutional limitation on
or prohibition of the states’ exercise thereof—such as the treaty power, coinage of
money, and duty on imports.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 39.

2. Inherent Federal Powers

Others are exclusively federal in view of their nature—such as declaration of war,
federal citizenship, naturalization, and borrowing money on the credit of the United
States. Any state exercise of these powers would basically subvert the federal
system. On the exam, do not allow states to take actions that might touch upon
foreign relations.

EXAMPLES
1) In Zschernig v. Miller, 389 U.S. 429 (1968), the Court held invalid state statutes
that sought to withhold the proceeds of local decedents’ estates from heirs living in
nations that (1) discriminate against Americans in their probate laws, (2) impede the
transmission of funds to the United States, or (3) confiscate property inherited by
their citizens. The Court concluded that such laws are so potentially disruptive of a
nationally conducted foreign policy that they are invalid notwithstanding the tradi-
tional commitment of probate law to the states.
2) California adopted an act to aid Holocaust victims that, among other things, re-
quired any California insurer that sold insurance policies in Europe between 1920
and 1945 to disclose certain information about those policies. The President of the
United States also entered into an agreement with Germany regarding Holocaust
victims’ claims and informed California that its law would impede the effectiveness
of that agreement. Nevertheless, California announced that it would enforce its law.
Several insurance companies and a trade association brought suit to enjoin enforce-
ment of the act. Held: The act interferes with the President’s power over foreign
affairs and is preempted on that ground. [American Insurance Association v. Gara-
mendi, 539 U.S. 396 (2003)]

B. EXCLUSIVE STATE POWERS

Whereas the federal government has only those powers granted to it by the Constitution,
the state governments are governments of “unlimited” powers, having all powers not
prohibited to them by the Constitution. This is recognized by the Tenth Amendment,
which provides that all powers not delegated to the federal government by the
Constitution are reserved to the states (or to the people). However, given the expansive
interpretation of federal powers (e.g., the commerce power; see II.A.4., supra), little state
power is exclusive.

C. CONCURRENT FEDERAL AND STATE POWER—SUPREMACY CLAUSE

Most governmental power is concurrent, belonging to both the states and the federal
government. Thus, it is possible for states and the federal government to pass legislation
on the same subject matter. When this occurs, the Supremacy Clause provides that the
federal law is supreme, and the state law is rendered void if it is preempted. State law
may be preempted expressly or impliedly.
40. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

1. Express Preemption
A federal law may expressly provide that the states may not adopt laws concerning
the subject matter of the federal legislation. Note, however, that an express preemp-
tion clause will be narrowly construed. [See Altria Group, Inc. v. Good, 555 U.S. 70
(2008)]

EXAMPLE
A federal law [15 U.S.C. §1334(b)] provides that: “no requirement or prohibition based
on smoking and health shall be imposed under state law with respect to the adver-
tising or promotion of any cigarettes” that are labeled in conformity with federal law.
A smoker brought a state law consumer fraud claim against a cigarette company,
claiming that the company’s advertisements that its cigarettes were “light” and
contain less tar and nicotine were fraudulent. The cigarette company argued that
its advertisements were in conformity with federal law and, therefore, the state law
claim was preempted by the federal law. Held: The state law claim is not preempted.
The state consumer protection law is based on a duty not to deceive rather than on
smoking or health, and the federal law preempts only state laws based on smoking
or health. [Altria Group, Inc. v. Good, supra]

2. Implied Preemption
Even if federal law does not expressly prohibit state action, state laws will neverthe-
less be held impliedly preempted if they actually conflict with federal requirements,
they prevent achievement of federal objectives, or Congress has preempted the
entire field.

a. Actual Conflict Between State and Federal Law Requirements

A valid act of Congress or federal regulation supersedes any state or local
action that actually conflicts with the federal rule—whether by commanding
conduct inconsistent with that required by the federal rule, or by forbidding
conduct that the federal rule is designed to foster.

EXAMPLE
Federal law [42 U.S.C. §1983] gives state and federal courts jurisdiction to hear
claims for violations of federal rights committed by persons acting under color
of state law. New York determined that the majority of suits seeking money
damages from corrections officers under section 1983 are frivolous and there-
fore divested its trial courts of jurisdiction to hear such cases. Held: The state’s
policy of shielding corrections officers from suits under section 1983 violates the
Supremacy Clause. State courts must hear federal claims. They may apply their
own procedural rules as they do to state claims, but they cannot exclude a class
of federal claims from being heard in state court. [Haywood v. Drown, 556 U.S.
729 (2009)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 41.

b. State Prevents Achievement of Federal Objective

State law will also be held impliedly preempted if it interferes with achievement
of a federal objective. This is true even if the state or local law was enacted for
some valid purpose and not merely to frustrate the federal law.

EXAMPLE
A purpose of the federal bankruptcy laws is to give bankrupts a fresh start, free
of their old debts. A state law providing for suspension of the driver’s license of
persons who have failed to pay off auto accident judgments, regardless of the
judgment debtor’s discharge in bankruptcy, interferes with the federal objective
and will fail. [Perez v. Campbell, 402 U.S. 637 (1971)]

c. Field Preemption
A state or local law may also be found to be preempted if it appears that
Congress intended to “occupy” the entire field, thus precluding any state or
local regulation. The courts will look at the federal regulatory scheme to deduce
Congress’s intent. For example, if the federal laws are comprehensive or a
federal agency is created to oversee the field, preemption will often be found.

EXAMPLE
Because Congress has enacted extensive regulatory laws concerning regis-
tration of aliens and employment of aliens who are in the country unlawfully,
states may not make laws concerning these matters (not even a law making it
a misdemeanor to fail to comply with federal immigration laws). Neither may a
state authorize its officers to arrest a person without a warrant whom the of-
ficer has probable cause to believe has committed a public offense that makes
the person removable from the United States—because such a law goes be-
yond the situations in which federal law provides for warrantless arrests for
removable offenses. However, a state law requiring officers conducting a stop
or detention to verify the detainee’s immigration status if the officers have rea-
sonable suspicion to believe the detainee is an alien unlawfully present in the
United States is not necessarily preempted, at least absent a showing that this
practice will delay release of the detainees. [Arizona v. United States, 567 U.S.
387 (2012)]

3. Presumption Against Preemption

The Supreme Court has stated that in all preemption cases, especially any involving
a field traditionally within the power of the states (e.g., regulations involving health,
safety, or welfare), it will start with the presumption that the historic state police
powers are not to be superseded unless that was the clear and manifest purpose
of Congress. [Wyeth v. Levine, 555 U.S. 555 (2009)]
42. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

EXAMPLE
A person who was injured by a prescription drug that was improperly administered
brought a state law tort suit against the drug’s manufacturer, claiming that the
drug’s label did not provide adequate warnings. The label was approved by the
Food and Drug Administration (“FDA”) pursuant to its power to regulate prescription
drugs. The drug company claimed that the state tort action was preempted. Held:
Congress did not intend to preempt the state court action here. The Court held
that while Congress enacted the legislation here to protect consumers, it did not
provide a remedy for consumers injured by unsafe drugs. Also, Congress had not
enacted an express preemption provision within the statute for prescription drugs
although it did enact an express preemption provision for medical devices. More-
over, there is no conflict between the FDA approval of a warning label and the state
tort failure to warn claim here because the FDA regulation allowed companies to
strengthen warnings without preapproval and, thus, the company was free to pro-
vide stronger warnings. [See, e.g., Wyeth v. Levine, supra]

D. ABSENCE OF FEDERAL AND STATE POWERS

Some powers are denied to both Congress and the states. For example, the Supreme
Court has held that the Qualifications Clauses [Art. I, §2, cl. 2; §3, cl. 3], setting the quali-
fications to serve in Congress, are exclusive and cannot be altered by Congress or the
states. [United States Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton, 514 U.S. 779 (1995)—state-imposed
term limit for members of Congress invalidated; and see Cook v. Gralike, 531 U.S. 510
(2001)—state law instructing each member of its congressional delegation to support
a constitutional amendment for term limits, and providing that failure to do so be noted
on the ballot, was held invalid because it imposes a substantive qualification rather than
regulates the “manner” in which elections are held]

E. INTERSTATE COMPACT CLAUSE

The Constitution provides that states may enter into agreements or compacts with other
states upon the consent of Congress. [Art. I, §10, cl. 3] However, not all agreements
between states are “compacts” requiring congressional consent. The Compact Clause
reaches only interstate agreements that increase the political power of the states at
the expense of federal supremacy (e.g., an agreement whereby one state cedes terri-
tory to another state). [See United States Steel Corp. v. Multistate Tax Commission, 434
U.S. 452 (1978)—congressional consent not required for multistate tax compact because
the compact does not give member states any powers they could not exercise in its
absence] The Supreme Court has the power to interpret such compacts—the member
states do not have final authority over interpretation. [West Virginia ex rel. Dyer v. Sims,
341 U.S. 22 (1951)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 43.

V. INTERSOVEREIGN LITIGATION

A. SUITS BY THE UNITED STATES AGAINST A STATE

The United States may sue a state without its consent.

B. SUITS BY STATE AGAINST UNITED STATES—UNITED STATES MUST

CONSENT
Public policy forbids a state from suing the United States without its consent. Congress can
pass legislation that permits the United States to be sued by a state in given situations.

C. FEDERAL OFFICER AS DEFENDANT

1. Limitation
Suits against a federal officer are deemed to be brought against the United States
itself if the judgment sought would be satisfied out of the public treasury or would
interfere with public administration and, therefore, are not permitted.

2. Specific Relief Against the Individual Officer

Specific relief against an officer as an individual will be granted if the officer acted
ultra vires:

a. Beyond his statutory powers; or

b. The valid power was exercised in an unconstitutional manner.

D. SUITS BY ONE STATE AGAINST ANOTHER

One state may sue another state without the latter’s consent. The Supreme Court has
exclusive original jurisdiction.

VI. INTERGOVERNMENTAL TAX AND REGULATION IMMUNITIES

A. FEDERAL TAXATION AND REGULATION OF STATE OR LOCAL

GOVERNMENTS
The Tenth Amendment provides that powers not delegated to the United States by the
Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states. This reservation of
power is often cited as a restriction on Congress’s power to regulate the states.

1. Tax or Regulation Applying to State and Private Entities—Valid

The Supreme Court will not likely strike down on Tenth Amendment grounds a tax
or regulation that subjects states or local governments to regulations or taxes that
apply to both the public sector and the private sector. It has held that in such cases,
the states’ interests are best protected by the states’ representation in Congress.
[Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 U.S. 528 (1985)]
44. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

EXAMPLE
Congress can require state and local governments to follow the provisions of the
Federal Fair Labor and Standards Act requiring minimum wages for all employees.
[Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, supra]

2. Tax or Regulation that Applies Only to States

However, the Tenth Amendment does limit Congress’s power to regulate the states
alone by requiring the states to act in a particular way. Congress may not compel
states to enact or enforce a regulatory program. [New York v. United States, 505
U.S. 144 (1992)—federal statute requiring states to either regulate radioactive waste
or take title to it is beyond Congress’s power] Similarly, if Congress passes a tax that
does not apply to private businesses but merely taxes state government entities,
there is a possibility that the Court would use the Tenth Amendment to prohibit the
tax.

a. Exception—Civil Rights
Congress may use its power under the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments
to restrict state activities that it determines would violate the civil liberties of
persons within the state.

EXAMPLES
1) Congress may invalidate state laws establishing a literacy test as a prerequi-
site to voting in state elections. [Oregon v. Mitchell, 400 U.S. 112 (1970)]
2) Congress may restrict changes in state voting laws that have the effect of di-
minishing the voting power of racial minorities even though the change in state
law was not purposeful racial discrimination that would violate Section 1 of the
Fifteenth Amendment. [Rome v. United States, 446 U.S. 156 (1980)]

b. Exception—Spending Power Conditions

Congress may also “regulate” states through the spending power by imposing
conditions on the grant of money to state or local governments (sometimes
referred to as grants with strings attached). Such conditions will not violate
the Tenth Amendment merely because Congress lacked the power to directly
regulate the activity that is the subject of the spending program if the condi-
tions:

(i) Are clearly stated;

(ii) Relate to the purpose of the program; and

(iii) Are not unduly coercive.

 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 45.

EXAMPLE
A federal law that would withhold 5% of the federal highway funds otherwise
allocable to a state if the state did not set a 21 years’ minimum age for the drink-
ing of alcohol was upheld where the funds withheld amounted to less than one-
half of 1% of the state’s total budget. [South Dakota v. Dole, 483 U.S. 203 (1987)]

1) What Is “Unduly Coercive”?

There is a limit to the conditions the Supreme Court will tolerate. A condi-
tion that goes beyond mere “incentive” and turns into “compulsion” or
“undue influence” violates principles of federalism. However, the Court
has not set out a brightline test for making this determination. [National
Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, II.A.2.a., supra—law that
threatens to withhold from states current Medicaid funding if they do not
greatly expand Medicaid programs amounts to a “gun to the head,” given
that the law threatens to withhold about 10% of an average state’s total
budget]

3. Commandeering State Officials

The Supreme Court has held that the Tenth Amendment prohibits Congress from
adopting a statute that “commandeers” state officials by requiring states to regulate
their own citizens. [Printz v. United States, 521 U.S. 898 (1997)—striking portions
of a federal gun law that required state law enforcement officers to collect from
gun dealers reports regarding prospective handgun purchasers and to conduct
background checks on them] However, the Court has allowed Congress to regulate
the states by prohibiting them from performing certain acts. [See Reno v. Condon,
528 U.S. 141 (2000)—upholding federal act that bars states (as well as private
resellers) from disclosing personal information required on drivers’ license applica-
tions]

B. STATE TAXATION AND REGULATION OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1. No Direct Tax on Federal Instrumentalities
A state tax levied directly against the property or operation of the federal govern-
ment without the consent of Congress is invalid.

2. Nondiscriminatory, Indirect Taxes

Nondiscriminatory, indirect taxes on the federal government or its property are
permissible if they do not unreasonably burden the federal government.

EXAMPLES
1) State income taxes on salaries of federal employees are valid. However, a state
tax that imposes a higher tax on federal employees (or retired federal employees)
than on state or local government employees (or retired employees) would violate
46. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

the principle of intergovernmental tax immunity, unless Congress had approved this
discriminatory tax. [Davis v. Michigan Department of Treasury, 489 U.S. 803 (1989)]
2) Private contractors, acting as purchasing agents for the federal government,
cannot be compelled to pay state sales or use taxes on materials purchased on be-
half of the federal government. However, state sales or use taxes are valid where the
contractor is working for the federal government on a “cost-plus” basis. These extra
costs are not characterized as direct taxes.

3. State Regulation of Federal Government

The states have no power to regulate the activities of the federal government unless
Congress consents to the regulation. Thus, instrumentalities and agents of the
federal government are immune from state regulations relating to performance of
their federal functions.

EXAMPLES
1) A state may not require a post office employee to obtain a state driver’s license in
order to drive a mail truck. [Johnson v. Maryland, 254 U.S. 51 (1920)]
2) A state may not require a contractor to obtain a state license to build facilities on
an Air Force base, located within the state, pursuant to a government contract. [Les-
lie Miller, Inc. v. Arkansas, 352 U.S. 187 (1956)]

VII. PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES CLAUSES

A. INTRODUCTION
There are two Privileges and Immunities Clauses: the Fourteenth Amendment Privileges
or Immunities Clause and the Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV.
The Fourteenth Amendment clause protects attributes of United States citizenship and is
rarely applicable. The Article IV provision prevents some discrimination by states against
nonresidents, and is usually more relevant on the bar exam.

B. ARTICLE IV—PRIVILEGES OF STATE CITIZENSHIP

Article IV, Section 2, the Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause, provides that “[t]he
Citizens of each state shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of citizens in the
several states.” Thus, it prohibits discrimination by a state against nonresidents.

1. Corporations and Aliens Not Protected

Corporations and aliens are not citizens of a state for purposes of the Privileges and
Immunities Clause.

2. Only “Fundamental Rights” Protected

The Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause prohibits discrimination by a state
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 47.

against nonresidents of the state when the discrimination concerns “fundamental

rights”—i.e., rights relating to important commercial activities (such as pursuit of a
livelihood) or civil liberties. However, the Clause applies only if the discrimination is
intentionally protectionist in nature. [See McBurney v. Young, 569 U.S. 221 (2013)—
state law limiting Freedom of Information Act requests to state citizens did not
violate the Privileges and Immunities Clause when it interfered with a nonresident’s
vocation of obtaining property records for clients, because there was no evidence
that the discrimination was protectionist in nature] The following protectionist
measures have been struck down:

a. Statute charging nonresident commercial fishermen substantially more for

commercial fishing license than resident commercial fishermen ($2,500 vs.
$25) [Toomer v. Witsell, 334 U.S. 385 (1948); cf. Baldwin v. Montana Fish & Game
Commission, 436 U.S. 371 (1978)—vast difference between resident and nonresi-
dent recreational hunting license constitutional since no essential commercial
activity involved];

b. Statute giving resident creditors priority over nonresident creditors as to

assets of foreign corporations in receivership proceedings [Blake v. McClung,
172 U.S. 239 (1898)];

c. Statute or court rule requiring state residency to be licensed to practice law

within the state [Supreme Court of Virginia v. Friedman, 487 U.S. 59 (1988)];

d. State income tax only on nonresidents who earn money within the state
[Austin v. New Hampshire, 420 U.S. 656 (1975)]; and

e. State law requiring private sector employers to give hiring preference to

residents absent a closely related substantial justification (see below) [Hicklin v.
Orbeck, 437 U.S. 518 (1978)], but states may require a person to be a resident
to hold government employment [McCarthy v. Philadelphia Civil Service
Commission, 424 U.S. 645 (1976) (per curiam)].

3. Substantial Justification Exception

A state law discriminating against nonresidents may be valid if the state has a
substantial justification for the different treatment. In effect, it must show that nonres-
idents either cause or are part of the problem it is attempting to solve, and that there
are no less restrictive means to solve the problem. Stated another way, the law
must be necessary to achieve an important government purpose.

EXAMPLE
The Court held that a city ordinance requiring 40% of employees of contractors and
subcontractors working on city construction projects to be city residents was an ap-
parent violation of the Article IV Privileges and Immunities Clause because it gave
a preference in private sector employment to city residents. However, the Court
48. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

found that it could not make a final determination as to whether the preference was
justified in this case because the record from the lower courts did not allow it to
evaluate the city’s argument that the preference was necessary to counteract grave
economic and social ills in urban environments caused by spiraling unemployment
and declines in the population base of such cities. [United Building & Construction
Trades Council v. Mayor of Camden, 465 U.S. 208 (1984)]

4. Note—Relationship to Commerce Clause

Although the Article IV Privileges and Immunities Clause and the Commerce Clause
may apply different standards and produce different results, they tend to mutually
reinforce each other. Consequently, they both have to be considered in analyzing
bar exam questions.

C. FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT—PRIVILEGES OF NATIONAL CITIZENSHIP

The Fourteenth Amendment Privileges or Immunities Clause prohibits states from
denying their citizens the privileges and immunities of national citizenship, such as the
right to petition Congress for redress of grievances, the right to vote for federal officers,
the right to enter public lands, the right to interstate travel, and any other right flowing
from the distinct relation of a citizen to the United States Government.

1. Corporations Not Protected

Corporations are not citizens of the United States and are not protected.

2. Bill of Rights Not Included

The Slaughterhouse Cases, 83 U.S. 36 (1873), held that the fundamental rights
protected against federal abuse (first 10 Amendments) are not privileges or immuni-
ties of national citizenship within the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment; nor
are such other basic rights as the right to live, work, and eat. Thus, the guarantees of
the Bill of Rights are protected from state action only by the Due Process and Equal
Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment.

3. Right to Travel and the Privileges or Immunities Clause

The right to travel, which is protected by the Fourteenth Amendment, includes the
right of newly arrived citizens to enjoy the same privileges and immunities as are
enjoyed by other citizens of the state.

EXAMPLE
A California statute limiting the welfare benefits of first year residents was held
unconstitutional under the Fourteenth Amendment Privileges or Immunities Clause.
The statute provided that citizens who had lived in California for less than one year
could receive only the benefits they would have received in their prior state of resi-
dence. The Court noted that the right to travel includes the right to be treated equal-
ly in a new state of residence. [Saenz v. Roe, 526 U.S. 489 (1999)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 49.

PART THREE: STATE REGULATION OR TAXATION OF COMMERCE

VIII. REGULATION OF FOREIGN COMMERCE

A. LIES EXCLUSIVELY WITH CONGRESS

For all practical purposes, the power to regulate foreign commerce lies exclusively with
Congress. “Foreign” commerce has been held to include traffic on the high seas, even
though both terminal ports are within the United States. [Japan Line, Ltd. v. County of Los
Angeles, 441 U.S. 434 (1979)]

B. MINOR EXCEPTIONS WHERE STATE REGULATION PERMITTED

The Supreme Court, however, has recognized a few minor exceptions; thus, the states are
free to regulate local aspects of port pilotage and navigation of ships in foreign commerce
(e.g., aspects such as safety of handling); and in one case the Court permitted state
regulation of excursion boat traffic between Detroit and a Canadian island (state barred
racial discrimination among boat passengers) since no Canadians or Canadian products or
services were involved. [Bob-Lo Excursion Co. v. Michigan, 333 U.S. 28 (1948)]

IX. REGULATION OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE

A. REGULATION OF COMMERCE BY CONGRESS

As already seen, Congress’s power over interstate commerce is very broad and perva-
sive. However, the power is nonexclusive—it is shared with the states to some degree.

1. Power of Congress to Supersede or Preempt State Regulation

Recall that the Supremacy Clause makes federal law supreme. (See IV.C., supra.)
Thus, if a state law regulating commerce conflicts with a federal law, the state law
will be void. Moreover, if Congress desires, it may preempt an entire area of regula-
tion, thus preventing states from making any laws concerning the area preempted.
(See IV.C.2.c., supra.)

2. Power of Congress to Permit or Prohibit State Regulation

Although Congress’s commerce power is nonexclusive, the states’ power to regulate
interstate commerce is restricted by the negative implications of the Commerce
Clause, even absent federal legislation—the states generally may not discrimi-
nate against interstate commerce. (See below.) Nevertheless, Congress is not so
restricted; it may allow the states to adopt legislation that would otherwise violate
the Commerce Clause.

EXAMPLE
A state imposed a 3% tax on out-of-state insurance companies for all premiums
received from insuring residents of the state. No similar tax was placed on in-state
50. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

insurance companies. Although such a tax would ordinarily be held invalid under
the Commerce Clause—because it discriminates against interstate commerce—the
tax here was upheld because Congress had adopted an act permitting the states to
regulate insurance in any manner, as long as the state regulation did not conflict with
a federal statute specifically regulating insurance. [Prudential Insurance Co. v. Ben-
jamin, 328 U.S. 408 (1946); and see Northeast Bancorp, Inc. v. Board of Governors,
472 U.S. 159 (1985)]

Note: As indicated above, Congress may also prohibit the states from adopting legis-
lation that would otherwise be permitted under the Commerce Clause.

a. Limitation
While Congress may permit states to adopt regulations that would otherwise
violate the Commerce Clause, such consent will not obviate other constitutional
objections to the regulation. Thus, Congress may not give states the power to
restrict civil liberties. (See X.A.1.b.2)a), infra.)

B. STATE REGULATION OF COMMERCE IN THE ABSENCE OF

CONGRESSIONAL ACTION
If Congress has not enacted laws regarding the subject, a state or local government may
regulate local aspects of interstate commerce if the regulation:

(i) Does not discriminate against out-of-state competition to benefit local economic
interests; and

(ii) Is not unduly burdensome (i.e., the incidental burden on interstate commerce does
not outweigh the legitimate local benefits produced by the regulation).

If either test is not met, the regulation will be held void for violating the Commerce Clause
(sometimes called the “Dormant Commerce Clause” or “Negative Commerce Clause”
under such circumstances).

1. Discriminatory Regulations

a. Generally Invalid
State or local regulations that discriminate against interstate commerce to
protect local economic interests are almost always invalid.

b. Examples

1) Regulations Protecting Local Businesses

Laws designed to protect local businesses against interstate competition
generally will be invalidated.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 51.

EXAMPLES
1) A state cannot place a surcharge on out-of-state milk to make that milk as
expensive as (or more expensive than) milk produced in the state.
2) A state cannot exempt local businesses or products from taxation or
regulation that it seeks to apply to out-of-state businesses or products that
come into the state.
3) A law requiring all locally produced solid waste to be processed at a lo-
cal waste processing business was held to violate the Commerce Clause
because it was a trade barrier against competition from out-of-state waste
processors. [C&A Carbone, Inc. v. Town of Clarkstown, 511 U.S. 383 (1994)]

2) Regulations Requiring Local Operations

If a state law requires a business to perform specific business operations in
the state to engage in other business activity within the state, the law will
normally be held invalid as an attempt to discriminate against other states
where the business operations could be performed more efficiently.

EXAMPLE
If a state required all businesses that produce melons in the state and all
businesses that purchase melons from local producers to wrap or package
the melons in the state (before the melons were exported from the state),
the law would be invalid as an attempt to force businesses to locate their
packaging operations in the state.

3) Regulations Limiting Access to In-State Products

A state law that makes it difficult or impossible for out-of-state purchasers
to have access to in-state products (other than products owned by the state
itself) is likely to be held invalid.

EXAMPLES
1) A state cannot prohibit in-state owners of “ground water” from selling and
exporting the water they own to persons in other states.
2) A state cannot require in-state companies to sell products at a lower
price to in-state residents than to out-of-state residents.

4) Regulations Prohibiting Out-of-State Wastes

A state may not prohibit private landfill or waste disposal facilities from
accepting out-of-state garbage or waste or surcharge such waste
[Philadelphia v. New Jersey, 437 U.S. 617 (1978); Chemical Waste
52. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

Management v. Hunt, 504 U.S. 334 (1992)] unless Congress authorizes

such discrimination [New York v. United States, VI.A.2., supra—federal
statute allowing states to impose surcharge on certain out-of-state nuclear
wastes upheld]. This rule applies even to hazardous wastes. [Oregon Waste
Systems, Inc. v. Department of Environmental Quality, 511 U.S. 93 (1994)]

c. Exceptions

1) Necessary to Important State Interest

A discriminatory state or local law may be valid if it furthers an important,
noneconomic state interest (e.g., health or safety) and there are no reason-
able alternatives available.

EXAMPLE
A state could prohibit the importation of live baitfish (such as minnows) into
the state because the state could demonstrate that it had no other way
of effectively avoiding the possibility that such baitfish might bring certain
parasites into the state or, in other ways, have a detrimental effect on the
state’s wild fish population. [Maine v. Taylor, 477 U.S. 131 (1986)] However, a
state could not prohibit the export of live baitfish to out-of-state purchasers
because the sale of such fish to out-of-state purchasers would not impair
any interest of the state, except the interest of protecting local purchasers
of baitfish from competition by out-of-state purchasers. [Hughes v. Okla-
homa, 441 U.S. 322 (1979)]

2) State as Market Participant

The Commerce Clause does not prevent a state from preferring its own
citizens when the state is acting as a market participant (e.g., buying or
selling products, hiring labor, giving subsidies).

EXAMPLES
1) A state may purchase scrap automobiles from its citizens at a higher-
than-market rate and refuse to pay nonresidents the same amount.
[Hughes v. Alexandria Scrap Corp., 426 U.S. 794 (1976)]
2) Under the market participant exception to the Commerce Clause, a city
may require that all construction projects funded by the city be performed
by contractors using a workforce composed of at least 50% bona fide resi-
dents of the city. [White v. Massachusetts Council of Construction Employ-
ers, 460 U.S. 204 (1983)]

a) Limitation—Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause

While a state or local government does not violate the Commerce
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 53.

Clause by preferring its own citizens while acting as a market

participant, there is no market participant exception to the Interstate
Privileges and Immunities Clause. Thus, a regulation that interferes
with private sector employment, such as the one in example 2), above,
may violate the Privileges and Immunities Clause unless the regulating
entity can show a substantial justification for the regulation. (See
VII.B.3., supra.)

b) Limitation—“Downstream” Restrictions
While a state may choose to sell only to state residents, it may not
attach conditions to a sale that would discriminate against interstate
commerce.

EXAMPLE
Alaska violated the Commerce Clause when it imposed a contractual
requirement on purchasers of state-owned timber that the timber be
processed in Alaska before being shipped out of state. [South-Central
Timber Development, Inc. v. Wunnicke, 467 U.S. 82 (1984)—plurality
opinion]

3) Favoring Government Performing Traditional Government Functions

The Supreme Court applies a more lenient standard when a law favors
government action involving the performance of a traditional govern-
ment function (such as waste disposal). Discrimination against interstate
commerce in such a case is permissible because it is likely motivated by
legitimate objectives rather than by economic protectionism.

EXAMPLES
1) A county flow control ordinance that favored a state-created public waste
facility by requiring waste haulers to bring the wastes to the state facility
rather than to private facilities is valid. [United Haulers Association, Inc. v.
Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Management Authority, 550 U.S. 330 (2007)]
2) A state may exempt from state taxation interest on its own bonds and
bonds of its municipalities while taxing bonds of other states and their
subdivisions. [Department of Revenue of Kentucky v. Davis, 553 U.S. 328
(2008)—issuing debt securities to pay for public projects is a “quintessen-
tially public function” with a venerable history]

2. Nondiscriminatory Laws—Balancing Test

Sometimes a nondiscriminatory state or local law that regulates commerce may
impose a burden on interstate commerce; e.g., a state law regulating the size
of trucks within that state may burden interstate commerce because interstate
54. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

trucking operations will be subject to the law when their trucks enter the state. A
nondiscriminatory law will be invalidated only if the burden on interstate commerce
outweighs the promotion of legitimate (not discriminatory) local interests. This is
a case-by-case balancing test. Thus, some regulations of trucks will be upheld,
because they do not impose an undue burden on interstate commerce, whereas
other truck regulations will be invalidated, because they would make it extremely
difficult for interstate trucking operators to have their trucks travel into or through
the state.

a. Absence of Conflict with Other States

State and local laws regulating commerce are more likely to be upheld when
there is little chance that states would have conflicting regulations of the same
subject matter.

EXAMPLE
A state could validly apply a state law prohibiting racial or gender discrimination
in the hiring of personnel to an airline doing business in the state because the
law was not discriminatory against out-of-state businesses, it promoted a legiti-
mate interest, and no other state could validly require or permit racial or gender
discrimination by airlines.

b. State Control of Corporations

A different standard may apply to statutes regulating the internal governance of
a corporation adopted by the state of incorporation. Because of the states’ long
history of regulating the internal governance of corporations that they create,
and because of their strong interest in doing so, even a statute that heavily
impacts interstate commerce may be upheld.

EXAMPLE
To protect shareholders of corporations incorporated in Indiana from hostile
takeovers, the Indiana legislature adopted a “control share acquisition statute.”
The statute provided that once a person acquires shares that take him across a
specified ownership threshold (e.g., one-third ownership of all voting shares), he
may not vote those shares unless the other shareholders consent. Even though
most hostile takeover bids originate from outside the state, the Supreme Court
found that the statute did not violate the Commerce Clause because its aim
was to protect current shareholders, it did not discriminate between takeover
bidders based on their state of origin, and there is no chance that the state law
would conflict with the laws of other states because the internal governance of
a corporation is regulated only by the state in which the corporation is incorpo-
rated. [CTS Corp. v. Dynamics Corp. of America, 481 U.S. 69 (1987)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 55.

C. TWENTY-FIRST AMENDMENT—STATE CONTROL OVER INTOXICATING

LIQUOR
1. Intrastate Regulations
The Twenty-First Amendment, which repealed prohibition, gives state governments
wide latitude over the importation of liquor and the conditions under which liquor is
sold or used within the state. However, state liquor regulations that constitute only
an economic preference for local liquor manufacturers may violate the Commerce
Clause. The Commerce Clause prohibits both outright economic favoritism for local
businesses and attempts to regulate out-of-state transactions in order to guarantee
the competitive position of in-state businesses.

EXAMPLES
1) A state law that prohibits out-of-state wineries from shipping wine directly to in-
state consumers, but permitting in-state wineries to do so if licensed, discriminates
against interstate commerce. [Granholm v. Heald, 544 U.S. 460 (2005)]
2) A state law that requires out-of-state distillers or sellers of alcoholic beverages
to affirm that the price the distiller/seller is charging liquor retailers or wholesalers
in the state is no greater than the price the distiller/seller is charging in other states
violates the Commerce Clause. Such a price affirmation law directly interferes with
and burdens interstate commerce. The Twenty-First Amendment does not authorize
this type of state interference with commerce. [Brown-Forman Distillers Corp. v. New
York State Liquor Authority, 476 U.S. 573 (1986); Healy v. The Beer Institute, Inc., 491
U.S. 324 (1989)]

2. Interstate Regulations
Transitory liquor (liquor bound for out-of-state destinations) is subject to the
Commerce Clause. Thus, a state prohibition on transporting liquor through the state
would probably be held unconstitutional as violating the Commerce Clause.

3. Federal Power
The Twenty-First Amendment does not prohibit Congress from controlling economic
transactions involving alcoholic beverages under the federal commerce power. Thus,
federal antitrust law can prohibit a practice of liquor dealers that has the effect of
fixing minimum prices. [324 Liquor Corp. v. Duffy, 479 U.S. 335 (1987)] Similarly, as
mentioned above, Congress may, without violating the Twenty-First Amendment,
“regulate” liquor distribution by imposing conditions on the grant of federal funds
given under the spending power. [South Dakota v. Dole, VI.A.2.b., supra]

D. BAR EXAM APPROACH

Whenever a bar exam question involves a state regulation that affects the free flow of
interstate commerce, you should proceed as follows:
56. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

First, see if the question refers to any federal legislation that might be held either to:
(1) supersede the state regulation or preempt the field, or (2) authorize state regulation
otherwise impermissible.

Second, if neither of these possibilities is dispositive of the question, ask if the state
legislation either discriminates against interstate or out-of-state commerce or places an
undue burden on the free flow of interstate commerce. If the legislation is discriminatory,
it will be invalid unless (1) it furthers an important state interest and there are no reason-
able nondiscriminatory alternatives, or (2) the state is a market participant. If the legisla-
tion does not discriminate but burdens interstate commerce, it will be invalid if the burden
on commerce outweighs the state’s interest. Consider whether there are less restrictive
alternatives.

X. POWER OF STATES TO TAX INTERSTATE COMMERCE

A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The same general considerations applicable to state regulation of commerce (supra)
apply to taxation. Pursuant to the Commerce Clause, Congress has complete power
to authorize or forbid state taxation affecting interstate commerce. If Congress has not
acted, look to see whether the tax discriminates against interstate commerce. If it does,
it is invalid. If it does not, assess whether the burden on interstate commerce outweighs
the benefit to the state. Three tests must be met: (1) there must be a substantial nexus
between the taxpayer and the state; (2) the tax must be fairly apportioned; and (3) there
must be a fair relationship between the tax and the services or benefits provided by the
state.

1. Discriminatory Taxes
Unless authorized by Congress, state taxes that discriminate against interstate
commerce violate the Commerce Clause. Such taxes may also be held to violate the
Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause (see VII.B., supra) if they also discrimi-
nate against nonresidents of the state [Austin v. New Hampshire, 420 U.S. 656
(1975)], as well as the Equal Protection Clause if the discrimination is not rationally
related to a legitimate state purpose [WHYY, Inc. v. Borough of Glassboro, 393 U.S.
117 (1968)—denial of tax exemption solely because taxpayer was incorporated in
another state is invalid].

a. Finding Discrimination

1) Tax Singles Out Interstate Commerce

If a state tax singles out interstate commerce for taxation, the Court
ordinarily will not “save” the tax by finding other state taxes imposed only
on local commerce (which might arguably eliminate the “apparent” discrimi-
nation against interstate commerce).
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 57.

EXAMPLE
The Supreme Court invalidated an Ohio statute that gave a tax credit
against the Ohio motor vehicle fuel sales tax (paid by fuel dealers) for each
gallon of ethanol sold as a component of gasohol if, but only if, the ethanol
was produced in Ohio or in a state that granted a similar tax advantage to
ethanol produced in Ohio. The Supreme Court found that this tax credit
system constituted discrimination against interstate commerce. [New En-
ergy Co. of Indiana v. Limbach, 486 U.S. 269 (1988)]

However, state taxes that single out interstate commerce are consid-
ered nondiscriminatory if the particular statutory section or scheme also
imposes the same type of tax on local commerce (e.g., sales and use taxes,
discussed infra).

2) Tax with In-State Subsidy

A seemingly uniform tax may be ruled to be discriminatory if the proceeds
from the tax are “earmarked” for subsidies to in-state businesses.

EXAMPLE
A state imposed a tax on all milk dealers, but the tax law provided that
revenue from the tax would be put into a fund that would be used to pay
subsidies to in-state dairy farmers. This assessment-subsidy system vio-
lates the Commerce Clause because it operates identically to a tax placed
only on sales of milk produced outside the state. [West Lynn Creamery, Inc.
v. Healy, 512 U.S. 186 (1994)]

3) Double Taxation on Out-of-State Income

A state must grant a credit against a local tax for income taxed by another
state.

EXAMPLE
Maryland’s personal income tax on residents includes both a state and a
county tax. Residents who pay taxes to another state for income earned
in that state are allowed a credit against the state tax but not the county
tax. Such a tax scheme violates the Dormant Commerce Clause because it
leads to double taxation on out-of-state income and discriminates in favor
of intrastate over interstate economic activity. [Comptroller of Treasury of
Maryland v. Wynne, 135 S. Ct. 1787 (2015)]

b. Choosing the Proper Clause

While a state or local tax that discriminates against interstate commerce gener-
ally violates the Commerce Clause, the Clause is not always the strongest
argument against the tax.
58. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

1) Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause

If a state or local tax discriminates against a natural person who is a
nonresident, the Article IV Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause is
the strongest argument against the tax’s validity, because it is more direct
than a Commerce Clause argument.

2) Equal Protection

a) Where Congress Approves the Discrimination

Although the Supreme Court normally uses the Commerce Clause to
invalidate discriminatory legislation, it may also find that such discrimi-
nation violates the Equal Protection Clause. This is important where
Congress has given the states the power to do something that would
otherwise violate the Commerce Clause: Congress can give states
the power to take actions that otherwise would violate the Commerce
Clause, but it cannot approve state actions that would violate equal
protection. Thus, if Congress has approved a type of state tax that
discriminates against out-of-state businesses, that state tax will not
be in violation of the Commerce Clause, but it might be found to be a
violation of equal protection.

EXAMPLE
In Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward, 470 U.S. 869 (1985), the
Court invalidated a state tax on insurance companies that imposed
a higher tax on out-of-state insurance companies than was paid by
in-state companies. The Court found that federal statutes exempted
state regulation of insurance businesses from Commerce Clause
restrictions but found that the tax violated equal protection because
it did not relate to a legitimate interest of government (i.e., the state
does not have a legitimate interest in discriminating against out-of-
state businesses simply to protect local economic interests from
competition).

b) Taxes Based on Suspect Classifications or Infringing on

Fundamental Rights
The Court may use equal protection analysis rather than Commerce
Clause analysis to strike state taxes that are imposed on the basis of a
suspect classification or that burden a fundamental right. A state tax
system giving tax exemptions only to long-time residents of the state
and denying a similar tax exemption to newer residents will be held to
violate the Equal Protection Clause.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 59.

EXAMPLE
The Court invalidated a state property tax provision that gave an ex-
emption from the property tax only to those Vietnam-era veterans who
had been residents of the state before May 1976. [Hooper v. Bernalillo
County Assessor, 472 U.S. 612 (1985)]

2. Nondiscriminatory Taxes
The Court reviews nondiscriminatory state and local taxes affecting interstate
commerce and balances the state need to obtain the revenue against the burden
the tax imposes on the free flow of commerce—an approach similar to the one used
for examining nondiscriminatory regulations to see whether they impose an undue
burden on interstate commerce (see IX.B.2., supra).

a. Factors
The Court generally considers three factors in determining whether the nondis-
criminatory tax is valid:

1) Substantial Nexus
A state tax will be valid under the Commerce Clause only if there is a
substantial nexus between the activity or property taxed and the taxing
state. A substantial nexus exists when the business that must collect the
tax avails itself of the privilege of doing business in the state. A physical
presence in the state is not necessary.

EXAMPLE
Internet retailers that annually sold more than $100,000 of goods to or
engaged in more than 200 transactions with South Dakota customers
had a substantial nexus with South Dakota even though the retailers had
no physical presence in the state. [South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc., 138 S. Ct.
2080 (2018)]

2) Fair Apportionment
A state or local tax affecting interstate commerce will be valid under the
Commerce Clause only if it is fairly apportioned according to a rational
formula (i.e., the tax should be based on the extent of the taxable activity or
property in the state). Otherwise the activity or property would be subject
to cumulative tax burdens.

EXAMPLES
1) State A imposes a 1% tax on gross receipts of all businesses within the
state. Harvester is located in State A but makes a number of sales out of
state. The tax is invalid as to Harvester’s out-of-state sales since it potential-
60. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

ly subjects those sales to cumulative burdens—the tax by the seller’s state

and a similar tax by the buyer’s state—without apportioning the tax.
2) Chooch is a resident of State A. It owns railroad cars used in interstate
commerce. The cars are in State A three months each year and State B
three months each year. For a State B property tax on the railroad cars to
be valid, it must fairly apportion the tax, so that the cars will not be subject-
ed to a similar tax by State A, thus cumulating Chooch’s tax burden.

Note: The taxpayer has the burden of proving an unfair apportionment.

3) Fair Relationship
A state or local tax affecting interstate commerce will be valid under the
Commerce Clause only if the tax is fairly related to the services or benefits
provided by the state.

EXAMPLE
A state may levy a tax on passengers enplaning at a state airport if the tax
is related to the benefits that the passengers receive from the state (e.g.,
the airport facilities). [See Evansville-Vanderburgh Airport Authority District
v. Delta Airlines, Inc., 405 U.S. 707 (1972)]

B. USE TAX
Use taxes are taxes imposed on the users of goods purchased out of state.

1. Permissible in Buyer’s State

Use taxes are not considered to discriminate against interstate commerce even
though they single out interstate commerce for taxation (i.e., they are imposed only
on goods purchased outside the state), as long as the use tax rate is not higher than
the sales tax rate. Rationale: The purpose of such a tax is to equalize the tax on
in-state and out-of-state goods rather than to give in-state goods an advantage. [See
Henneford v. Silas Mason Co., 300 U.S. 577 (1937)]

2. State May Force Seller to Collect Use Tax

Often, states force the user to come forward and pay the state the use tax owed.
However, a state may force a nonresident, interstate seller to collect the use tax
from the local buyer and remit it to the state if the seller has the substantial nexus
required by the Commerce Clause. (See A.2.a.1), supra.)

C. SALES TAXES
Sales taxes are taxes imposed on the seller of goods for sales consummated within the
state. They generally do not discriminate against interstate commerce; rather the issue
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 61.

usually involves whether there is a substantial nexus (see A.2.a.1), supra) between the
taxpayer and the taxing state, or whether the tax is properly apportioned.

D. AD VALOREM PROPERTY TAXES

Ad valorem property taxes are taxes based on a percentage of the assessed value of
the property in question. Such taxes are generally valid. However, a Commerce Clause
issue arises when the property taxed moves in interstate commerce. Goods in transit
are totally exempt from taxation. Once the goods come to a halt in a state (i.e., obtain a
taxable situs), they may be taxed. Then, the issue usually revolves around whether the
tax imposes an undue cumulative burden (i.e., apportionment).

1. No Tax on Commodities in the Course of Interstate Commerce

Commodities in the course of interstate commerce are entirely exempt from local
taxation—since each state could otherwise exact a toll as the goods passed through,
imposing an intolerable burden on interstate commerce. [Standard Oil v. Peck, 342
U.S. 382 (1952)] Thus, states may not levy an ad valorem property tax on commodi-
ties being shipped in interstate commerce, even if the goods happen to be in the
state on tax day.

a. When Is Property “in the Course of” Interstate Commerce?

Only property “in the course of” interstate commerce is immune from local
property taxation.

1) When Does Interstate Transportation Begin?

Interstate transportation begins when (1) the cargo is delivered to an inter-
state carrier (the shipper thereby relinquishing further control), or (2) the
cargo actually starts its interstate journey. Goods merely being prepared for
transit are not in the course of interstate commerce.

2) Effect of a “Break” in Transit

Once started, a shipment remains in the course of interstate commerce
unless actually diverted. Breaks in the continuity of transit will not destroy
the interstate character of the shipment, unless the break was intended to
end or suspend (rather than temporarily interrupt) the shipment.

3) When Does Interstate Shipment End?

The interstate shipment usually ends when it reaches its destination, and
thereafter the goods are subject to local tax.

b. No Apportionment Required
The validity of state taxes on goods in interstate commerce is strictly a
Commerce Clause question; i.e., either the goods are “in the course of” inter-
state commerce and exempt from tax or they are not. There is no need for
apportionment.
62. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

2. Tax on Instrumentalities Used to Transport Goods Interstate

The validity of ad valorem property taxes on instrumentalities of commerce
(airplanes, railroad cars, etc.) depends on (1) whether the instrumentality has
acquired a “taxable situs” in the taxing state (i.e., whether there are sufficient
“contacts” with the taxing state to justify the tax), and (2) since the physical situs
of the instrumentalities may change from state to state during the year, whether
the value of the instrumentality has been properly apportioned according to the
amount of “contacts” with each taxing state. (The taxable situs (“nexus”) is required
by the Due Process Clause to establish the state’s power to tax at all, and appor-
tionment is required by the Commerce Clause to prevent an intolerable burden on
interstate commerce.)

a. Taxable Situs (“Nexus”)

In general, an instrumentality has a taxable situs in a state if it receives benefits
or protection from the state. [Braniff Airways v. Nebraska Board of Equalization
and Assessment, 347 U.S. 590 (1954)—airplanes have taxable situs in nondo-
miciliary state where airline company owned no property but made 18 regularly
scheduled flights per day from rented depot space, even though same aircraft
did not land every day] Note that an instrumentality may have more than
one taxable situs, upon each of which states can impose a tax subject to the
required apportionment (infra).

b. Apportionment Requirement
If an instrumentality has only one situs, the domiciliary state can tax at full value.
If the instrumentality has more than one taxable situs, a tax apportioned on the
value of the instrumentality will be upheld if it fairly approximates the average
physical presence of the instrumentality within the taxing state. [Union Tank Line
Co. v. Wright, 249 U.S. 275 (1919)] The taxpayer has the burden of proving that
an instrumentality has acquired a taxable situs outside his domiciliary state.

1) Proper Apportionment
The following methods have been upheld:

a) Using the proportion of miles traveled within the taxing state to the
total number of miles traveled by the instrumentalities in the entire
operation. [Ott v. Mississippi Valley Barge Line Co., 336 U.S. 169 (1949)]

b) Computing the average number of instrumentalities (tank cars)

physically present in the taxing state on any one day during the tax
year and taxing that portion at full value—i.e., as if in the state all year.
[Johnson Oil Refining Co. v. Oklahoma, 290 U.S. 158 (1933)]

Note: Because different states may use different apportionment formulas to

tax the same property, there may still be some double taxation of the same
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 63.

instrumentalities. However, the double taxation should be minimal if proper

apportionment formulas have been used.

E. PRIVILEGE, LICENSE, FRANCHISE, OR OCCUPATION TAXES

Privilege, license, franchise, and occupation taxes are cumulatively known as “doing
business” taxes. States generally can impose such taxes—on companies engaged
exclusively in interstate commerce, as well as on interstate companies engaged in local
commerce—for the privilege of doing business within the state. Such taxes may be
measured by a flat amount or by a proportional rate based on revenue derived from
the taxing state. In either case, the tax must meet the basic requirements—the activity
taxed must have a substantial nexus to the taxing state; and the tax must be fairly
apportioned, must not discriminate against interstate commerce, and must fairly relate
to services provided by the state. [Complete Auto Transit, Inc. v. Brady, 430 U.S. 274
(1977)—overruling Spector Motor Service v. O’Connor, 340 U.S. 602 (1951)]

EXAMPLES
1) A privilege tax for doing business, based on the gross income derived from transport-
ing goods within the state, can be applied to a trucking company that delivers goods
coming from outside the state. [Complete Auto Transit, Inc. v. Brady, supra]
2) An occupation tax on all businesses, based on gross income derived within the state,
can be applied to a stevedoring company operating within the state that loads and un-
loads ships carrying goods in interstate commerce. [Department of Revenue v. Associa-
tion of Washington Stevedoring Cos., 435 U.S. 734 (1978)—overruling Joseph v. Carter &
Weekes Stevedoring Co., 330 U.S. 422 (1947)]

1. Taxpayer Has Burden of Proof

The taxpayer has the burden of showing that the state’s apportionment formula
is unfair. However, a state tax that discriminates against interstate commerce will
be held invalid regardless of whether the taxpayer can show that an actual, unfair
multiple burden is imposed on his business.

XI. POWER OF STATES TO TAX FOREIGN COMMERCE

A. IMPORT-EXPORT CLAUSE
Article I, Section 10, Clause 2 provides: “No state shall, without the Consent of the
Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be
absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws . . . .”

1. State Taxation of “Imports” Prohibited Absent Congressional Consent

The Import-Export Clause prohibits the states from imposing any tax on imported
goods as such or on commercial activity connected with imported goods as such
(i.e., taxes discriminating against imports), except with congressional consent. [Brown
64. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

v. Maryland, 25 U.S. 419 (1827)]

2. State Taxation of “Exports” Prohibited

The Import-Export Clause prohibits the states from imposing any tax on goods after
they have entered the “export stream.”

B. COMMERCE CLAUSE
The Commerce Clause gives Congress the exclusive power to regulate foreign
commerce and thus inherently limits a state’s power to tax that commerce. Therefore, a
state tax applied to foreign commerce must meet all of the Commerce Clause tests that
apply to state taxation of interstate commerce. (See X.A., supra.) And even if a state tax
meets those tests, the tax is invalid if it would (1) create a substantial risk of international
multiple taxation or (2) prevent the federal government from “speaking with one voice”
regarding international trade or foreign affairs issues. [Barclays Bank PLC v. Franchise Tax
Board, 512 U.S. 298 (1994)]

PART FOUR: INDIVIDUAL GUARANTEES AGAINST GOVERNMENTAL OR

PRIVATE ACTION
XII. LIMITATIONS ON POWER AND STATE ACTION REQUIREMENT

A. CONSTITUTIONAL RESTRICTIONS ON POWER OVER INDIVIDUALS

The Constitution provides individuals with a number of rights that restrict the power of
the government (e.g., the right to speak freely). Some rights/restrictions are applicable
only to the federal government, some are applicable only to state and local governments,
and some are applicable to all governmental bodies. A few even apply to private action.
Several constitutional provisions also give Congress the power to adopt legislation to
protect individual rights.

Note: The Constitution sets the minimum level of protection for individuals. States
generally are free to grant broader protections than those granted in the United States
Constitution.

1. Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights (first 10 Amendments to the Constitution) is the most important
source of limitations on the federal government’s power. By its terms, the Bill is not
applicable to the states, although most of its safeguards have been held to be appli-
cable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause.

a. Rights Applicable to States

The Supreme Court has stated that only those safeguards in the Bill of Rights
that are “essential to liberty” are applicable to the states through the Fourteenth
Amendment. Included in this concept are: all the First Amendment guarantees
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 65.

(speech, press, assembly, right to petition, free exercise, and nonestablishment

of religion); the Second Amendment right to bear arms; the Fourth Amendment
(unreasonable search and seizure); some elements of the Fifth Amendment
(privilege against self-incrimination; compensation for taking of private property
for public use); the Sixth Amendment (speedy and public trial by impartial jury,
notice and right of confrontation, compulsory process, and right to legal counsel
in all serious criminal proceedings); and the Eighth Amendment (cruel and
unusual punishment, excessive bail, and excessive fine provisions).

b. Rights Not Applicable to States

There are three provisions of the Bill of Rights that have not yet been incorpo-
rated into the Due Process Clause:

1) The Third Amendment prohibition against quartering troops in a person’s

home;

2) The Fifth Amendment right to a grand jury indictment in criminal cases;

and

3) The Seventh Amendment right to a jury trial in civil cases.

[See McDonald v. Chicago, 561 U.S. 742 (2010)] The Tenth Amendment, by its
terms, limits the federal government’s power over states, and so is inapplicable
to the states.

2. Thirteenth Amendment
The Thirteenth Amendment provides that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude
shall exist in the United States.

a. No Requirement of State Action

The amendment contains no language limiting its effect to governmental action
(e.g., “no state shall . . . ”); thus, it is applicable even to private action.

b. Involuntary Servitude
The Court has defined involuntary servitude as forcing someone to perform
work—whether compensated or not—through the use or threatened use of
physical injury or restraint (such as imprisonment), or through the use or threat
of legal sanction. Psychological and other forms of coercion alone are gener-
ally inadequate to show involuntary servitude. [See United States v. Kozminski,
487 U.S. 931 (1988)] The Thirteenth Amendment does not prohibit all forms of
labor that one person is compelled to perform for the benefit of another: It does
not apply to compulsory military service, civic obligations such as jury duty,
convicted prisoners who must perform work as part of their criminal sentence,
or even recipients of medical scholarships who are required to work pro bono.
However, courts are reluctant to order specific performance of a personal
66. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

service contract because the order would be tantamount to involuntary servi-

tude.

c. Congressional Power
The enabling clause of the Thirteenth Amendment gives Congress the power
to adopt appropriate legislation, and the Supreme Court apparently will uphold
legislation proscribing almost any private racially discriminatory act that can be
characterized as a “badge or incident of slavery.”

EXAMPLES
The Supreme Court has upheld legislation:
1) Prohibiting private parties from refusing to rent or sell housing to a person
because of race [Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co., 392 U.S. 409 (1968)];
2) Prohibiting private, nonsectarian schools from refusing to admit nonwhite
children [Runyon v. McCrary, 427 U.S. 160 (1976)]; and
3) Prohibiting a private employer from discriminating in hiring on the basis of
race [Patterson v. McLean Credit Union, 491 U.S. 164 (1989)].

Note: The above are examples of where Congress used its power to adopt
statutes prohibiting “badges of slavery”; the proscribed activities would not
necessarily be held to violate the Thirteenth Amendment absent the legislation.

3. Fourteenth Amendment
The Fourteenth Amendment prohibits states (not the federal government or private
persons) from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property without due process
and equal protection of the law. As discussed above, this amendment is a most
important source of limitations on the states’ power over individuals, because,
through the Due Process Clause, most of the protections of the Bill of Rights are
applicable to the states.

Note: The meaning of due process and equal protection will be discussed later in
this outline.

a. Requirement of State Action

The Fourteenth Amendment applies only if there is action by a state or local
government, government officer, or private individual whose behavior meets the
requirements for state action (see B., below).

b. Scope of Congressional Power

Section 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment is an enabling clause giving Congress
the power to adopt appropriate legislation to enforce the rights and guaran-
tees provided by the Fourteenth Amendment. Under Section 5, Congress may
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 67.

not expand existing constitutional rights or create new ones—it may only enact
laws to prevent or remedy violations of rights already recognized by the courts.
To adopt a valid law, Congress must point to a history or pattern of state viola-
tion of such rights and adopt legislation that is congruent and proportional
(i.e., narrowly tailored) to solving the identified violation. Note, however, that
when Congress is dealing with a type of discrimination that the Supreme Court
reviews using heightened scrutiny (i.e., race, national origin, or gender—see
XVIII.D., E., infra), Congress will generally have more power to act.

EXAMPLES
1) The Americans With Disabilities Act (“ADA”) includes provisions that, among
other things, prohibit states from discriminating against disabled persons in
hiring practices and requires states to make reasonable accommodations
for disabled employees. Under the Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protec-
tion Clause, the Court has recognized a right of disabled people to be free
from irrational state discrimination. In adopting the ADA, Congress did not
identify a history or pattern of irrational employment practices by the states.
Even if there were such a pattern, the provisions here were not congruent
and proportional to remedying irrational discrimination; they are overinclu-
sive, because they prohibit states from making employment decisions that are
constitutional under the rational basis test. [Board of Trustees of University of
Alabama v. Garrett, 531 U.S. 356 (2001)] Under similar reasoning, the Supreme
Court has held that Congress has no power under Section 5 to broadly restrict
age discrimination by state employers. [Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents,
528 U.S. 62 (2000)]
2) The Supreme Court held that there is no violation of the First Amendment,
applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment, where a state
law incidentally burdens a religious practice. [Employment Division v. Smith,
XXII.C.3., infra] In response, Congress adopted a statute, purportedly under
Section 5, providing that a state may not burden religious practices absent a
compelling interest. The statute was held unconstitutional because it sought to
expand substantive First Amendment rights beyond those recognized by the
Supreme Court. [City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507 (1997)]
COMPARE
The Court has held that Congress has power under Section 5 to provide that
state governments may be sued for violating Title II of the ADA (which prohib-
its state and local government discrimination against people with disabilities in
government programs, services, or activities) when the discrimination involves
access to the courts. Rationale: The right of meaningful access to judicial pro-
ceedings is a “fundamental right” under the Due Process Clause, and is thus
subject to “heightened judicial scrutiny” much more demanding than “rational
basis.” This heightened scrutiny makes it “easier for Congress to show a pattern
68. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

of state constitutional violations.” [Tennessee v. Lane, 541 U.S. 509 (2004)]

4. Fifteenth Amendment
The Fifteenth Amendment is a limitation on both the states and the federal govern-
ment. It prohibits them from denying any citizen the right to vote on account of race or
color. As indicated above, the Fifteenth Amendment contains an enabling clause that
allows Congress to adopt legislation protecting the right to vote from discrimination.

a. Limitations
Fifteenth Amendment legislation can be limited by other constitutional princi-
ples. For example, the Supreme Court found that the Tenth Amendment and
principles of equal sovereignty among the states require Congress to have
extraordinary justification to adopt legislation requiring some, but not all, states
to obtain federal approval before changing any voting law. [Shelby County
v. Holder, 570 U.S. 529 (2013)—subjecting states to pre-clearance based on
formula containing decades-old data unconstitutional]

5. Commerce Clause
The Supreme Court has allowed Congress to use the Commerce Clause to limit the
power of individuals over other individuals—by adopting legislation barring private
racial discrimination in activities “connected with” interstate commerce. Recall that
under the affectation doctrine, almost any activity can be said to be connected with
interstate commerce. (See II.A.4.a.1, supra.)

a. Civil Rights Act

Provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 barring discrimination in places of
public accommodation are proper and valid exercises of commerce power.

b. Extent of Commerce Power

The reach of the commerce power is broad. Any business that is open to
interstate travelers or that uses products shipped in interstate commerce is
covered. [Daniel v. Paul, 395 U.S. 298 (1969)—private resort held to be a public
place of accommodation encompassed within the Act because drinks and
entertainment facilities had been purchased and shipped through interstate
commerce]

6. Rights of National Citizenship

The Supreme Court has also allowed Congress to limit the power of private individ-
uals to infringe upon others’ rights of national citizenship (e.g., the right of interstate
travel, the right to assemble to petition Congress for redress), without pointing to
any specific constitutional source for the power. [Griffin v. Breckenridge, 403 U.S. 88
(1971)]

B. STATE ACTION REQUIREMENT

 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 69.

As indicated above, the Constitution generally prohibits only governmental infringement

of constitutional rights. Thus, to find some action unconstitutional, it is generally neces-
sary to attribute the action to the state, which includes government agencies and officials
acting under the color of state law. However, this does not mean that the act must be
directly by a government actor; “state action” can be found in the actions of seemingly
private individuals who (1) perform exclusive public functions, or (2) have significant state
involvement in their activities.

1. Exclusive Public Functions

The Supreme Court has found that certain activities are so traditionally the exclu-
sive prerogative of the state that they constitute state action even when undertaken
by a private individual or organization. To date, only running a town and running an
election for public office have been found to be such exclusive public functions.

EXAMPLES
1) The owner of a “company town” with all of the attributes of a public town (e.g.,
homes, sidewalks, streets, police and fire protection, etc.) cannot deny a person’s
First Amendment right to distribute religious literature in the town, since the com-
pany town is equivalent to a town. [Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946)] However,
the owner of a shopping mall can deny people their First Amendment right to picket,
since a mall does not have all of the attributes of a town. [Hudgens v. NLRB, 424 U.S.
507 (1976)]
2) Running elections is an exclusive public function, so if a private organization runs
a preprimary that has a substantial effect on who is ultimately elected, its actions will
be state action. [Terry v. Adams, 345 U.S. 461 (1953)—county political group whose
candidate almost always runs unopposed in primary and general election cannot
discriminate]

a. Must Be Traditional and Exclusive Function

To be state action, the activity must be both a traditional and exclusive govern-
ment function. Thus, the Court has held that a warehouseman authorized by
statute to sell goods stored with him for unpaid charges is not exercising state
action when he makes the sale, because while resolution of private disputes is a
traditional public function, it is not exclusive—the bailor had state law remedies
to check abuses by the warehouseman. [Flagg Brothers v. Brooks, 436 U.S.
149 (1978)] State action exists, and due process guarantees apply, only if the
creditor uses judicial or executive agencies to secure properties in the posses-
sion of the debtor.

2. Significant State Involvement—Facilitating Private Action

“State action” also exists whenever a state affirmatively facilitates, encourages, or
authorizes acts of discrimination by its citizens. Note, however, that there must be
70. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

some sort of affirmative act by the state approving the private action; it is not enough
that the state permits the conduct to occur.

a. Instances of Significant State Involvement

1) Official Encouragement
Purportedly private action will be given state action status if the action is
encouraged or sanctioned by the state.

a) Judicial Approval
State court enforcement of restrictive covenants prohibiting sale
or lease of property to blacks constitutes state action even in civil
proceedings between private parties. [Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1
(1948)]

(1) Peremptory Challenges

The use of peremptory challenges, even by a private party, consti-
tutes state action, both because jury selection is a traditional
public function and because there is overt, significant participation
by the government (the judge) in the jury selection process. Thus,
private litigants and defendants are prohibited from using peremp-
tory challenges in a discriminatory manner. [See Edmonson v.
Leesville Concrete, 500 U.S. 614 (1991); Georgia v. McCollum, 505
U.S. 42 (1992)]

b) Official Acts
State action may be found in the absence of an unconstitutional statute
or ordinance if it appears that the state sanctions constitutional viola-
tions by its own officers.

(1) Discriminatory Law Enforcement

The Court reversed a conviction of sit-in demonstrators where
no statute or ordinance required segregation but the mayor and
police had announced publicly that they would invoke trespass
and breach of the peace laws to enforce a local custom of racial
separation in eating places. [Lombard v. Louisiana, 373 U.S. 267
(1963)]

(2) Apparent Legal Authority

Even if a state forbids officers from acting in a certain way (e.g.,
depriving persons of their constitutional rights), the forbidden
action may still constitute state action if the state puts the actor in
a position to commit the unconstitutional act.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 71.

EXAMPLE
A sheriff beat a prisoner to death in an effort to secure a confes-
sion. Both the state and the sheriff were held liable. The actions of
the sheriff involved “state action” because the sheriff acted under
“the color of state law—the state in effect cloaked him with the
apparent legal authority.” [Screws v. United States, 325 U.S. 91
(1945)]

(3) Public Defenders

A public defender does not act for the state when he represents
an indigent client. Therefore, negligence or malpractice by the
public defender is not a denial of due process because the public
defender’s actions are not “state actions.” [Polk County v. Dodson,
454 U.S. 312 (1981)]

2) State Authorization
In Reitman v. Mulkey, 387 U.S. 369 (1967), the Court invalidated a state
constitutional provision that repealed all existing state laws banning
discrimination in the sale or lease of property and prohibited reenactment
of such laws in the future because such laws “authorize” private discrimina-
tion.

3) The State as Lessor for a Racially Discriminatory Lessee

In Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 U.S. 715 (1961), Delaware
was held responsible under the Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection
Clause for the exclusion of blacks from a coffee shop which was located
in a public building. The shop was constructed by and leased from the
state. The maintenance of the facility was paid for with public funds and
Delaware was able to charge a higher rent because it allowed the restau-
rant owner to cater to the prejudices of its white customers.

4) Administration of Private Discriminatory Trust by Public Officials

State action exists where city personnel maintain a park, “open to all except
blacks,” under a private trust. [Evans v. Newton, 382 U.S. 296 (1966)]

5) Entwinement of State and Private Entities

The fact that a state entity helps formulate and adopts the rules of a private
entity, and chooses to follow the order of the private entity pursuant to
those rules, does not convert the private entity’s action into state action.
However, a state may be so entwined with a private organization that the
organization’s actions will be considered state action. [Brentwood Academy
v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association, 531 U.S. 288 (2001)]
72. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

EXAMPLE
The National Collegiate Athletic Association (“NCAA”) is a voluntary asso-
ciation of public and private universities that establishes rules for its mem-
bers regarding collegiate sports. Pursuant to its rules, the NCAA urged a
member college to suspend its coach for recruiting violations. The coach
cannot successfully sue the NCAA for violating his constitutional rights
because there is no state action. [National Collegiate Athletic Association v.
Tarkanian, 488 U.S. 179 (1988)]
COMPARE
An association that regulates high school sports within a single state: (1) to
which most public high schools belong; (2) whose governing body is made
up mostly of public school officials; (3) whose meetings are held during regu-
lar school hours; (4) whose employees may join the state retirement system;
and (5) which is funded by gate receipts from the regulated sports is so
entwined with the state that its action can be considered state action. [Brent-
wood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association, supra]

b. Instances of Insignificant State Involvement

1) Heavily Regulated Businesses and/or Granting of a Monopoly to a

Utility

a) Electric Company
State action will not be found merely because the state has granted a
monopoly to a business or heavily regulates it.

EXAMPLE
In Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison, 419 U.S. 345 (1974), no state action
was found where an electric company terminated the user’s service
without notice and hearing. The state had not directed or ordered the
termination and the fact that the company was heavily regulated and
the state commission had approved private utility regulations authoriz-
ing such termination was not enough.

b) Nursing Home
A nursing home operated by a private corporation did not exercise
state action when it discharged Medicaid patients, even though its
operation was extensively regulated by the government. [Blum v.
Yaretsky, 457 U.S. 991 (1982)]

c) School
A school operated by a private corporation did not exercise state
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 73.

action when it discharged teachers (allegedly in violation of their First

Amendment rights) even though the school had contracts with the
state to educate or care for many of its students and it received almost
all of its operating funds from the government. [Rendell-Baker v. Kohn,
457 U.S. 830 (1982)]

2) Licensing and Provision of Essential Services

Granting a liquor license and providing essential services (police, fire,
water, power, etc.) to a private club that imposes racial restrictions on its
members and guests are not sufficient to constitute state action. [Moose
Lodge v. Irvis, 407 U.S. 163 (1972)]

3) Congressional Grant of Corporate Charter and Exclusive Name

Congressional grant of a corporate charter and exclusive use of a name is
not sufficient to constitute state action. [San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc.
v. United States Olympic Committee, 483 U.S. 522 (1987)—congressional
charter and grant of exclusive name “Olympic” does not clothe United
States Olympic Committee with state action]

4) No Government Duty to Protect Individuals from Harm by Private

Persons
The mere refusal of government agents to protect a victim from harm by
a private person will not result in a finding that the harm was attributable
to “state action,” at least when state law does not give the victim a right to
government protection. [DeShaney v. Winnebago County Department of
Social Services, 489 U.S. 189 (1989)—government not responsible for harm
inflicted on a child by his father, even though government social worker
had reason to believe the child was being abused and did nothing to
protect the child] However, if government employees enter into an agree-
ment or conspiracy with private persons to cause harm to a victim, the
victim’s injuries are the result of state action; the private persons, as well as
the government employees with whom they conspired, will have violated
the victim’s constitutional rights. [Screws v. United States, a.1)b)(2), supra;
Dennis v. Sparks, 449 U.S. 24 (1980)]

C. TIPS FOR BAR EXAM

1. State Must Be “Significantly Involved” in Private Entity
The state must be “significantly involved” in the private entity. Merely granting a
license or providing essential services is insufficient.

2. No Constitutional Mandate to Outlaw Discrimination

States are not constitutionally required to outlaw discrimination. The Constitution
forbids only their encouraging or authorizing it.
74. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

XIII. RETROACTIVE LEGISLATION

A. CONTRACT CLAUSE—IMPAIRMENT OF CONTRACT

The Contract Clause limits the ability of states to enact laws that retroactively impair
contract rights. It does not affect contracts not yet made.

1. Not Applicable to Federal Government

There is no comparable clause applicable to the federal government, although a
flagrant contract impairment would be forbidden by the Due Process Clause of the
Fifth Amendment.

2. Only Applicable to State Legislation

The provision applies only to state legislation, not court decisions. [See Tidal Oil v.
Flanagan, 263 U.S. 444 (1924)]

3. Basic Impairment Rules

a. Private Contracts
The Contract Clause prevents only substantial impairments of contract (i.e.,
destruction of most or all of a party’s rights under a contract). However, not all
substantial impairments are invalid. In determining whether legislation is valid
under the Contract Clause, use a three-part test:

1) Does the legislation substantially impair a party’s rights under an existing

contract? If it does not, the legislation is valid under the Contract Clause. If
it does, it will be valid only if it:

2) Serves an important and legitimate public interest; and

3) Is a reasonable and narrowly tailored means of promoting that interest.

EXAMPLES
1) A Minnesota statute that imposed a moratorium on mortgage foreclosures
during a severe depression did not violate the Contract Clause. [Home Building
& Loan Association v. Blaisdell, 290 U.S. 398 (1934)]
2) A state statute that restricted underground coal mining to protect a variety of
public and private uses of surface land (and buildings) and that left the owners
of subsurface mining rights with some reasonable value in, or return from, their
investment does not violate the Contract Clause. [Keystone Bituminous Coal As-
sociation v. DeBenedictis, 480 U.S. 470 (1987)]

b. Public Contracts—Stricter Scrutiny

Public contracts (i.e., those in which the state or political subdivision is a party)
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 75.

are tested by the same basic test detailed above; however, they will likely
receive stricter scrutiny, especially if the legislation reduces the contractual
burdens on the state. When applying the three-part test, note the following:

1) There is no substantial impairment if the state has reserved the power to

revoke, alter, or amend either in the contract itself or in a statute or law the
terms of which should be considered to be incorporated into the contract
[Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 17 U.S. 518 (1819)];

2) In determining whether the law serves as a legitimate public interest, note

that the state cannot be obligated by contract to refrain from exercising its
police powers necessary to protect the health and safety of its residents;
and

3) To be narrowly tailored, the law should not constitute an unnecessarily

broad repudiation of contract obligations.

EXAMPLE
In Allied Structural Steel Co. v. Spannaus, 438 U.S. 234 (1978), the Court in-
validated state pension reform legislation which increased the obligation of
companies under preexisting pension plans to employees who previously had
terminated their work for the company or who previously had retired from em-
ployment with the company. Because the legislation constituted a substantial
impairment of contract by changing the compensation for work already com-
pleted and because it was not necessary to remedy an important social prob-
lem in the nature of an emergency, it was held to be a violation of the Contract
Clause.

B. EX POST FACTO LAWS

1. Two Ex Post Facto Clauses

Neither the state nor the federal government may pass an ex post facto law. [Art. I,
§9—federal prohibition; Art. I, §10—state prohibition] An ex post facto law is legisla-
tion that retroactively alters the criminal law (not civil regulation, such as denial
of professional licenses) in a substantially prejudicial manner so as to deprive a
person of any right previously enjoyed for the purpose of punishing the person for
some past activity.

a. What Is “Criminal”
If a law’s purpose is civil rather than punitive, it is not an ex post facto law unless
its effect is so clearly punitive as to negate the legislature’s intention.
76. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

EXAMPLE
A law requiring any sex offender within the state to register and provide his
name, address, place of employment, vehicle information, etc., to law enforce-
ment authorities and authorizing law enforcement authorities to make some of
this information public is not an ex post facto law, even if noncompliance can
be punished criminally, and even if some of the law is contained in the state’s
criminal code. The goal of such a law is not to punish or stigmatize. Rather,
legislatures have found that sex offenders pose a high risk of reoffending, and
the release of the information required under the act is intended to protect the
public from sex offenders. [Smith v. Doe, 538 U.S. 84 (2003)]

b. Retroactive Alterations
A statute retroactively alters a law in a substantially prejudicial manner if it:

1) Makes criminal an act that was innocent when done;

2) Prescribes greater punishment for an act than was prescribed for the act
when it was committed; or

3) Reduces the evidence required to convict a person of a crime from what

was required at the time that the act was allegedly committed.

EXAMPLE
A statute of limitations reflects a legislative judgment that after a certain time, no
quantum of evidence is sufficient to convict. Thus, a law that revives the pos-
sibility of a criminal prosecution after the previously applicable statute of limita-
tions has expired is an unconstitutional ex post facto law. [Stogner v. California,
539 U.S. 607 (2003)]

2. Distinguish—Procedural Changes
Mere procedural changes in state law will not necessarily trigger the Ex Post Facto
Clause. A modified law can be applied to a crime committed before the law’s modifi-
cation if the defendant had notice of the possible penalty and the modified law does
not increase the burden on the defendant.

EXAMPLE
Florida had a death penalty statute that was invalidated by the Supreme Court
because the statute restricted discretion in sentencing. Before a new statute was
enacted, D committed a murder. Florida then passed a new death penalty provision
that complied with Supreme Court criteria. The new provision was applied at D’s trial,
and he was sentenced to death. This was not a prohibited ex post facto law, since
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 77.

the earlier statute (although unconstitutional) gave D notice of the possible penalty
and the new provision made it less likely that the death penalty would be imposed
in a given case. [Dobbert v. Florida, 432 U.S. 282 (1977)]

3. Indirect “Application” to Courts

Although the Ex Post Facto Clauses prohibit only retroactive legislation, the
Supreme Court has held that due process prohibits courts from retroactively inter-
preting criminal law in an unexpected and indefensible way. [Rogers v. Tennessee,
532 U.S. 451 (2001)—state supreme court’s abolition of common law “year and a
day rule” (which prohibits prosecution for murder if the victim dies more than a year
after an attack) was not unexpected and indefensible because medical science has
undermined the rule’s usefulness and the rule has already been abolished in most
jurisdictions]

C. BILLS OF ATTAINDER
A bill of attainder is a legislative act that inflicts punishment without a judicial trial upon
individuals who are designated either by name or in terms of past conduct. Past conduct
acts to define who those particular persons are.

1. Two Clauses
Both the federal and state governments are prohibited from passing bills of
attainder.

2. Two Requirements Preclude Finding of Bill of Attainder

These provisions require both judicial machinery for trial and punishment of crime
and definition of criminal conduct in such general terms as not to ensnare within
the definition a single individual or small group for punishment because of past
behavior.

EXAMPLE
The Court found a provision in the Landrum-Griffin Act, making it a crime for a mem-
ber of the Communist Party to act as an officer or employee of a labor union, to be
legislative punishment for a party membership, and hence a bill of attainder. [United
States v. Brown, 381 U.S. 437 (1965)]

3. Nixon Case
In Nixon v. Administrator of General Services, 433 U.S. 425 (1977), Congress passed
legislation to authorize government control of the presidential papers and tape
recordings of former President Nixon. The Supreme Court held that this was not a
bill of attainder. The circumstances of the Nixon resignation made him a unique
“class of one” as to the need to control his papers. The act was held “nonpunitive”
and in pursuance of important public policy.
78. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

4. Draft Registration Case

In Selective Service System v. Minnesota Public Interest Research Group, 468
U.S. 841 (1984), the Court upheld a federal statute denying financial aid for higher
education to male students between the ages of 18 and 26 who had failed to
register for the draft. The law required applicants for the aid to file a statement with
their institutions of higher learning certifying their compliance. Failure to register
within 30 days of one’s 18th birthday was a felony, but the regulations allowed men
who failed to register in a timely manner to qualify for aid by registering late. The
Court found that this was not a bill of attainder. The law reasonably promoted
nonpunitive goals and was not a legislative punishment taken on the basis of
any irreversible act, since aid was awarded to those who registered late. The Court
also found that the statute did not violate the Fifth Amendment privilege against
self-incrimination.

D. DUE PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS

Under the Due Process Clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments, retroac-
tive legislation or other governmental action may be, but is not necessarily, a violation
of the Constitution. The question of whether a retroactive law (that does not violate
the Contracts, Ex Post Facto, or Bill of Attainder Clauses) violates due process is a
substantive due process issue. If the law does not relate to a fundamental civil right,
the retroactive law should be upheld if it is rationally related to a legitimate govern-
ment interest.

EXAMPLES
1) A retroactive tax law will be upheld as long as the retroactive aspects of the law are
rationally related to legitimate government interests. [United States v. Carlton, 512 U.S. 26
(1994)—upholding retroactive modification of the estate tax]
2) Retroactive legislation affecting merely a remedy does not violate due process (e.g.,
repealing or extending a statute of limitations), unless it would oust an already vested
property interest. [Chase Securities Corp. v. Donaldson, 325 U.S. 304 (1945)—permissible
to revive a previously dead cause of action]

XIV. PROCEDURAL DUE PROCESS

A. BASIC PRINCIPLE
The Due Process Clauses of the Fifth Amendment (applicable to the federal government)
and the Fourteenth Amendment (applicable to the states) provide that the government
shall not take a person’s life, liberty, or property without due process of law. Due process
contemplates fair process/procedure, which requires at least an opportunity to present
objections to the proposed action to a fair, neutral decisionmaker (not necessarily a
judge).
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 79.

1. When Is Individualized Adjudication Required?

There is a right to procedural due process only when the government acts to deprive
an individual of life, liberty, or property (see below). There is no right to individual-
ized adjudication when the government acts generally, even if the action will result in
burdening individuals’ life, liberty, or property interests.

EXAMPLE
A state legislature need not provide individuals with an opportunity for a hearing
when adopting the general requirements for obtaining a driver’s license (e.g., age,
residence, ability, etc.), but it must provide individualized process to determine
whether a particular person meets the requirements.

2. Intentional Deprivation vs. Negligent Deprivation

Government negligence is insufficient to state a procedural due process claim.
There generally must be an intentional or reckless government action. [Daniels
v. Williams, 474 U.S. 327 (1986); Davidson v. Cannon, 474 U.S. 344 (1986)—cases
finding no procedural due process violation where the alleged negligence of prison
officials caused physical injury to inmates]

a. “Deprivation”
A “deprivation” of life, liberty, or property requires more than a mere denial
of certain kinds of remedies. Only when the government affords no remedy
or inadequate remedies may a deprivation of life, liberty, or property result.
[Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings
Bank, 527 U.S. 627 (1999)]

3. Fair, Neutral Decisionmaker—Judge Bias

The Due Process Clause requires a judge to recuse himself when he has actual bias
(e.g., he has a direct, personal, substantial, pecuniary interest in a case) or when
there is merely a serious risk of actual bias. A serious risk of actual bias exists when
“under a realistic appraisal of psychological tendencies and human weakness,”
the judge’s interest poses such a risk of actual bias or prejudice that it must be
forbidden. [Caperton v. A. T. Massey Coal Co., 556 U.S. 868 (2009)]

EXAMPLE
The chairman of a company spent over $3 million to support an attorney’s campaign
to be elected to the state supreme court after a $50 million verdict was entered
against the chairman’s company, knowing that the supreme court would eventu-
ally hear the appeal of the verdict. The $3 million was more than the total amount
spent by all of the other supporters of the attorney, and the attorney won by fewer
than 50,000 votes. When the case was appealed, the winner of the verdict asked
the newly elected justice to recuse himself. Under these circumstances, recusal was
required. [Caperton v. A. T. Massey Coal Co., supra]
80. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

4. Protection vs. Creation

The due process provisions do not create property or liberty interests; their purpose
is to provide procedural safeguards against arbitrary deprivation. Hence, the
Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause does not, for example, give out-of-state
attorneys the right to appear in state courts without meeting a state’s bar admission
requirements. [Leis v. Flynt, 439 U.S. 438 (1979)]

B. IS LIFE, LIBERTY, OR PROPERTY BEING TAKEN?

Older Supreme Court cases indicated that due process protects “rights,” but not “privi-
leges.” This approach is no longer followed; rather the Court will determine whether a
legitimate liberty or property interest is being taken.

1. Liberty
The term “liberty” is not specifically defined. It includes more than just freedom
from bodily restraints (e.g., it includes the right to contract and to engage in gainful
employment). A deprivation of liberty occurs if a person:

(i) Loses significant freedom of action; or

(ii) Is denied a freedom provided by the Constitution or a statute.

Examples of liberty interests include:

a. Commitment to Mental Institution

1) Adults
Adults are entitled to an adversary hearing before they are indefinitely
committed to a mental institution against their will. The state must prove the
basis for commitment by “clear and convincing” evidence. However, after a
person has been acquitted of criminal charges on the basis of an insanity
defense, the acquitted defendant can be committed if a court finds by a
“preponderance of the evidence” that the person should be committed to a
mental health care facility. [Jones v. United States, 463 U.S. 354 (1983)]

2) Minor Children
Minor children have a substantial liberty interest in not being confined
unnecessarily for medical treatment. Thus, they are entitled to a screening
by a “neutral factfinder” before commitment to a mental institution. Mere
parental consent to commitment is not enough. [Parham v. J.R., 442 U.S.
584 (1979)]

b. Injury to Reputation
Injury to reputation in itself is not a deprivation of liberty or property. [Paul v.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 81.

Davis, 424 U.S. 693 (1976)] However, if governmental acts (such as a statement
of reasons given for termination of public employment) so injure a person’s
reputation that he will have lost significant employment or associational
opportunities, there is a loss of liberty.

c. Exercise of Fundamental Constitutional Rights

The Due Process Clause protects a person’s freedom to engage in activities
that involve fundamental constitutional rights, such as the right to speak and
associate, the right to travel, and the right to vote.

1) Application—Government Employee’s Freedom of Speech

A public employee may not be discharged for engaging in constitution-
ally protected speech. (See XXI.C.1., infra.) If a government employee is
discharged for her speech or writing, a hearing must be held to determine
whether the speech was protected. If so, the employee cannot be fired.
[See Givhan v. Western Line Consolidated School District, 439 U.S. 410
(1979)—Court held that teacher could not be fired for privately communi-
cating her grievances about working conditions or opinions concerning
public issues to her employer]

2. Property
“Property” includes more than personal belongings and realty, chattels, or money,
but an abstract need or desire for (or a unilateral expectation of) the benefit is not
enough. There must be a legitimate claim or “entitlement” to the benefit under
state or federal law. [Board of Regents v. Roth, 408 U.S. 564 (1972); Leis v. Flynt,
supra] Examples of property interests include:

a. Public Education
There is a property interest in public education when school attendance is
required. Thus, a significant suspension (e.g., 10 days) requires procedural due
process. [Goss v. Lopez, 419 U.S. 565 (1975)]

b. Welfare Benefits
One has a property interest in welfare benefits if she has previously been deter-
mined to meet the statutory criteria. [Goldberg v. Kelly, 397 U.S. 254 (1970)]

c. Continued Public Employment

If there is a state statute or ordinance that creates a public employment
contract, or there is some clear practice or mutual understanding that an
employee can be terminated only for “cause,” then there is a property interest
[Arnett v. Kennedy, 416 U.S. 134 (1974)]; but if the employee holds his position
only at the “will” of the employer, there is no property interest in continued
employment [Bishop v. Wood, 426 U.S. 341 (1976)].
82. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

C. WHAT TYPE OF PROCESS IS REQUIRED?

While all intentional governmental deprivations of life, liberty, or property require fair
process, what constitutes fair process in terms of the timing and scope of the hearing
varies according to the circumstances of the deprivation. The Court will weigh:

(i) The importance of the individual interest involved;

(ii) The value of specific procedural safeguards to that interest; and

(iii) The governmental interest in fiscal and administrative efficiency.

[Mathews v. Eldridge, 424 U.S. 319 (1976)] In all situations, the Court will probably require
fair procedures and an unbiased decisionmaker. Normally, the person whose interest
is being deprived should also receive notice of the government’s action and have an
opportunity to respond before termination of the interest. However, the court may allow
a post-termination hearing in situations where a pre-termination hearing is highly imprac-
ticable. The Court has made the following rulings with regard to specific types of depriva-
tions:

1. Welfare Benefits
Due process requires an evidentiary hearing prior to termination of welfare
benefits. It need not be a judicial or quasi-judicial trial if there is adequate post-termi-
nation review; but the recipient must have timely and adequate notice of the reasons
for the proposed termination, the right to confront adverse witnesses, and the right
to present his own arguments and evidence orally. Counsel need not be provided,
but must be permitted. Finally, the decision must be based solely on evidence
adduced at the hearing and must be rendered by an impartial decisionmaker (thus
disqualifying any participant in the termination proposal under review). [Goldberg v.
Kelly, supra]

2. Disability Benefits
No prior evidentiary hearing is required for termination of disability benefits, as
long as there is prior notice to the recipient, an opportunity to respond in writing,
and a subsequent evidentiary hearing (with retroactive payment if the recipient
prevails). Rationale: Disability benefits (unlike welfare benefits) are not based on
financial need and hence are not vital. [Mathews v. Eldridge, supra]

3. Public Employment
A public employee who is subject to removal only for “cause” (and who, there-
fore, has a property interest in his job) generally must be given notice of charges
against him that are to be the basis for his job termination, and a pre-termination
opportunity to respond to those charges. The employee does not have to be
given a full, formal hearing before his termination, as long as there is a fair system
of pre-termination notice, an opportunity to respond (to the person making the
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 83.

termination decision), and a subsequent evidentiary hearing regarding the termi-

nation (with reinstatement if the employee prevails). [Cleveland Board of Education
v. Loudermill, 470 U.S. 532 (1985)] But note: If there is a significant reason for not
keeping the employee on the job, he may be suspended without pay and without
an opportunity to respond, as long as there is a prompt post-suspension hearing
with reinstatement and back pay if the employee prevails. [Gilbert v. Homar,
520 U.S. 924 (1997)—police officer suspended after being arrested and formally
charged with a felony]

4. Public Education—Disciplinary Suspension

Although no formal evidentiary hearing is required before a student may be tempo-
rarily suspended (for 10 days or less), due process usually requires notice of the
charges and an opportunity to explain. However, if the student’s presence poses a
danger to persons or property, or threatens to disrupt the academic process, such
notice and hearing may follow removal as soon as practicable. [Goss v. Lopez, supra]

a. Corporal Punishment in Public School

This may involve constitutionally protected “liberty.” However, the traditional
common law tort remedies for excessive punishment satisfy procedural due
process, and a prior hearing is not required. [Ingraham v. Wright, 430 U.S. 651
(1977)]

5. Public Education—Academic Dismissal

No prior evidentiary hearing is required when a student is dismissed for “academic”
deficiencies rather than for “disciplinary” reasons. Due process is satisfied if the
student is adequately informed of the deficiency and given an opportunity to
respond. [Board of Curators v. Horowitz, 435 U.S. 78 (1978)]

6. Creditors’ Remedies
Pretrial remedies, such as attachment of property or garnishment of wages, that are
merely designed to provide a plaintiff with some guarantee that there will be assets
to satisfy a judgment against the defendant if the plaintiff eventually wins the case
should not be issued by a court without notice to the defendant and a hearing
prior to the issuance of the order. A court may issue a temporary order of this type
if: (1) there are exigent circumstances that justify the order; and (2) the defendant is
given a hearing after the order is issued but prior to trial. [Sniadach v. Family Finance
Corp., 395 U.S. 337 (1969); Connecticut v. Doehr, 501 U.S. 1 (1991)] However, laws
authorizing creditors to garnish assets, or a conditional seller to seize or sequester
property, will be upheld without prior notice to the debtor if:

a. The creditor posts a security bond;

b. The application is made to a judge, is not conclusory, and documents narrowly

confined facts susceptible of summary disposition; and
84. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

c. Provision is made for an early hearing at which the creditor must show probable
cause.

7. Driver’s License
The state generally must afford a prior hearing before a driver’s license is
suspended or terminated. [Bell v. Burson, 402 U.S. 535 (1971)] However, a post-
suspension hearing satisfies due process where a statute mandates suspension of a
driver’s license for refusing to take a breathalyzer test upon arrest for drunk driving.
[Mackey v. Montrym, 443 U.S. 1 (1979)]

8. Parental Status Litigation and Hearing

a. Termination of Parental Status

Due process does not require the appointment of counsel for indigent parents
in every case in which the state seeks to terminate parental status (i.e., take
children from their parents), but only when “fundamental fairness” requires the
appointment. [Lassiter v. Department of Social Services, 452 U.S. 18 (1981)] To
terminate parental rights, the state must prove its allegations of parental neglect
or misconduct by “clear and convincing evidence.” [Santosky v. Kramer, 455 U.S.
745 (1982)]

b. Paternity Actions
A state may allow paternity to be established in a support proceeding brought by
a mother or child by a preponderance of evidence—no greater burden of proof
is required by the Due Process Clause. [Rivera v. Minnich, 483 U.S. 574 (1987)]
However, due process requires the state to pay for blood tests that might excul-
pate an indigent defendant in a paternity action if the state is responsible for the
lawsuit (the suit is brought by a state agency or the state requires the mother to
bring the civil paternity suit). [Little v. Streater, 452 U.S. 1 (1981)]

c. Hearings for Men Who Seek to Establish Paternity

1) Unmarried Father Living with Mother

If the father of a nonmarital child is a part of a “family unit” that includes
the child, the relationship between the father and child will be protected by
due process. [Stanley v. Illinois, 405 U.S. 645 (1972)—state cannot take child
from father after mother dies, unless state has a fair process to determine
whether the parental relationship should be severed]

2) Father Who Never Tried to Establish Paternity

The father of a nonmarital child who has never attempted to establish a
legal or personal relationship with the child has no right to notice prior to
the adoption of the child by other persons. [Lehr v. Robertson, 463 U.S. 248
(1983)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 85.

3) Mother Married to Another Man

The Supreme Court has upheld a statute that presumed that a child born
during wedlock was the husband’s child where the statute allowed an
alleged biological father to have a hearing regarding visitation rights, but
the Court did not rule on whether a biological father could be denied visita-
tion under these circumstances without a hearing. [Michael H. v. Gerald D.,
491 U.S. 110 (1989)]

9. Detention of Citizen Enemy Combatants

Due process requires that a citizen held in the United States as an “enemy
combatant” have a meaningful opportunity to contest the factual basis for his deten-
tion before a neutral decisionmaker. However, due process does not forbid some
tailoring of the proceedings to alleviate burdens that they may impose on Executive
authority during an ongoing military conflict. This may include accepting some use
of hearsay, permitting government rebuttable presumptions, and perhaps use of a
properly authorized and constituted military tribunal. [Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S.
507 (2004)—effect of views of five Justices in two separate opinions]

EXAMPLE
Hamdi, an American citizen, was captured in Afghanistan, classified as an “enemy
combatant” for allegedly taking up arms with the Taliban, and transported to a naval
brig in Charleston, SC. Hamdi’s father brought a habeas corpus petition on his be-
half. The appellate court held that because Hamdi was caught in a combat zone, he
had no right to refute the government’s charges. The Supreme Court reversed, hold-
ing that Hamdi was at least entitled to some hearing to contest the factual basis for
his detention before a neutral decisionmaker. [Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, supra]

10. Notice of Adversary Proceedings

When the government seeks to use a judicial or administrative process to take or
terminate property interests, it must give notice to those persons whose property
interests may be taken by that process. The form of notice must be reasonably
designed to insure that those persons will in fact be notified of the proceedings.

EXAMPLE
Personal notice or notice by mail must be given to both mortgagor and mortgagee
before a “tax sale” of property for unpaid taxes. [Mennonite Board of Missions v.
Adams, 462 U.S. 791 (1983)]

11. Civil Forfeitures

Procedural due process limits the government’s ability to seize property allegedly
subject to forfeiture (which most often occurs when the government claims that
the property was connected to, or was the product of, criminal activity). Absent
86. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

exceptional circumstances, the government must provide the owner of real property
notice and an opportunity for some type of hearing prior to seizing real property.
[United States v. James Daniel Good Real Property, 510 U.S. 43 (1993)] However, the
government might be able to seize personal property prior to providing the owner
a hearing, since personal property can be hidden or destroyed. [Calero-Toledo v.
Pearson Yacht Leasing Co., 416 U.S. 663 (1974)]

12. Deprivation of Property After Criminal Conviction

When facts have been established in a prior proceeding with appropriate proce-
dural due process, such as a criminal trial, a new hearing is not required for every
deprivation of property based on the previously established facts.

EXAMPLE
State law prohibits any person who has been convicted of perjury from practicing
law. An attorney is convicted of perjury. The state’s attorney licensing commission
revokes the attorney’s license to practice law without a hearing. The revocation
does not violate the Due Process Clause because procedural due process interests
usually protected by a hearing were afforded during the criminal trial.

D. DUE PROCESS RIGHTS ARE SUBJECT TO WAIVER

Due process rights are subject to waiver. However, the Supreme Court has not clearly
defined the standard for determining whether someone has validly waived the right to
a hearing before governmental deprivation of liberty or property. Presumably, any such
waiver must be voluntary. Additionally, it is possible that a waiver will be valid only if it is
made knowingly (with an understanding of the nature of the rights being waived).

E. ACCESS TO COURTS—INDIGENT PLAINTIFFS

There may often be a fee for government services, including a fee for use of courts (e.g.,
a filing fee). Whether the government must waive such fees for indigents depends on the
nature of the rights involved.

1. Fundamental Rights—Waiver Required

The Supreme Court has required a waiver of government fees when the imposi-
tion of a fee would deny a fundamental right to the indigent. (Fundamental rights
are examined in the substantive due process and equal protection sections of this
outline.)

EXAMPLES
1) The government cannot deny an indigent the right to marry or divorce because of
the indigent’s inability to pay a marriage license fee or a divorce court filing fee.
2) The government must waive even a reasonable filing fee for candidates for elec-
toral office if it can be shown that the candidate cannot afford to pay the filing fee.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 87.

The right to be a candidate is connected to the fundamental right of individuals to

vote for candidates of their choice.
3) The government may not require an indigent to pay the cost of a transcript in
order to appeal from termination of her parental rights. [M.L.B. v. S.L.J., 519 U.S. 102
(1996)]

2. Nonfundamental Rights—Waiver Not Required

When there is no fundamental right regulated by the imposition of a fee, the govern-
ment can refuse to grant the service to those persons who cannot pay the required
fee.

EXAMPLES
1) The federal government can refuse to grant access to bankruptcy courts to per-
sons who cannot pay a filing fee. There is no fundamental right to receive a bank-
ruptcy discharge from debts.
2) A state can limit judicial review of welfare termination hearings to those persons
who pay a $25 fee.

XV. THE “TAKING” CLAUSE

A. IN GENERAL
The Fifth Amendment prohibits governmental taking of private property “for public
use without just compensation.” The prohibition is applicable to the states through the
Fourteenth Amendment [Chicago Burlington & Quincy Railroad v. Chicago, 166 U.S. 226
(1897)], and taking questions often arise in connection with states’ exercise of their police
power (i.e., the power to legislate for the health, welfare, safety, etc., of the people).

1. Not a Grant of Power

The Fifth Amendment is not a grant of power, but rather is a limitation on power (i.e.,
a taking must be for a public purpose and compensation must be paid). The power
for a taking must arise out of some other source (e.g., the police power).

2. Scope of Taking
The concept of a governmental taking probably originally contemplated only
physical appropriations of property. Today, however, the term also encompasses
some governmental action that significantly damages property or impairs its use
(e.g., frequent flyovers by airplanes near airport [United States v. Causby, 328 U.S.
256 (1946)]). Moreover, even personal property and intangibles may be the subject
of a taking. [See Horne v. Department of Agriculture, 135 S. Ct. 2419 (2015)—raisin
growers must be paid just compensation for being required to set aside a portion
of their crops for the government pursuant to federal regulations, even if the
88. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

growers retain a contingent interest in the reserved portion; and see Ruckelshaus v.
Monsanto Co., 467 U.S. 986 (1984)—government requirement that trade secret be
disclosed may be a taking where government takes and discloses the secret in such
a way that it diminishes the secret’s economic value and interferes with reasonable,
investment-backed expectations of its holders]

B. “PUBLIC USE” LIMITATION LIBERALLY CONSTRUED

The Court will not review underlying policy decisions, such as general desirability for a
particular public use or the extent to which property must be taken therefor. A use will
be held to be “public” as long as it is rationally related to a legitimate public purpose,
e.g., health, welfare, safety, moral, social, economic, political, or aesthetic ends. The
government may even authorize a taking by private enterprise, as long as the taking will
redound to the public advantage (e.g., railroads and public utilities).

EXAMPLE
A city adopted an integrated development plan to revitalize its ailing economy by buying
up privately held land in its riverfront area, developing some land into parks, and transfer-
ring the rest to developers who would open marinas, stores, etc. Pursuant to the plan, the
city bought up land from willing sellers and initiated condemnation proceedings against
owners who refused to sell. The recalcitrant owners brought suit against the city, claiming
that the use for which the city was condemning the land (i.e., to transfer the land to pri-
vate developers) was not a public use. The Supreme Court held that a taking is for public
use so long as the government acts out of a reasonable belief that the taking will benefit
the public, and taking private property to promote economic development has long been
accepted as a public use. [Kelo v. City of New London, 545 U.S. 469 (2005)]

C. “TAKING” VS. “REGULATION”

While the government must fairly compensate an owner when her property is taken for
public use, it need not pay compensation for mere regulation of property. Thus, whether
government action amounts to a taking or is merely regulation is a crucial issue. The
question is one of degree; there is no clear cut formula for determining whether there has
been a taking. The following guidelines have emerged.

1. Actual Appropriation or Physical Invasion

A taking will almost always be found if there is an actual appropriation or destruction
of a person’s property or a permanent or regular physical invasion by the govern-
ment or by authorization of law.

EXAMPLES
A taking was found in the following situations:
1) Ordinance requiring landlords to allow installation of cable TV in their rental units
but limiting to $1 the fee landlords could charge for this access. [Loretto v. Tele-
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 89.

prompter Manhattan CATV Corp., 458 U.S. 419 (1982)]

2) Statute abolishing rights of descent and devise of property (although government
has broad authority to regulate this area). [Hodel v. Irving, 481 U.S. 704 (1987)]
3) Requirement that public be given free access to a privately developed waterway.
[Kaiser Aetna v. United States, 444 U.S. 164 (1979)]
4) Regulation granting labor organizers a temporary and intermittent right to access
a farmer’s property to solicit unionization support. [Cedar Point Nursery v. Hassid, 141
S. Ct. 2063 (2021)]

a. Exception—Emergencies
A taking is less likely to be found in emergency situations, even where there is
destruction or actual occupation of private property.

EXAMPLES
1) No compensation was required when the state ordered the destruction of
cedar trees that threatened to spread disease to apple orchards. [Miller v.
Schoene, 276 U.S. 272 (1928)]
2) No compensation was required when federal troops destroyed oil facilities to
prevent them from falling into enemy hands. [United States v. Caltex, Inc., 344
U.S. 149 (1952)]

b. Damage from Temporary Interference with Use

Government action that amounts to a temporary physical invasion of property
may also amount to a taking. The Court will look at factors like the degree of
the invasion, the duration, the government’s intention, the foreseeability of
the result, the character of the property, and the severity of the interference
with its use. For example, temporary flooding caused by government release
of dammed up waters can amount to a taking. [Arkansas Game and Fish
Commission v. United States, 568 U.S. 23 (2012)]

2. Use Restrictions

a. Denial of All Economic Value of Land—Taking

If a government regulation denies a landowner of all economic use of his land,
the regulation is equivalent to a physical appropriation and is thus a taking
unless principles of nuisance or property law that existed when the owner
acquired the land make the use prohibitable. [Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal
Council, 505 U.S. 1003 (1992)—state’s zoning ordinance, adopted after owner
purchased lots, amounted to a taking because the ordinance prohibited owner
from erecting any permanent structures on his lots]
90. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

1) Temporary Denials of All Economic Use

Temporarily denying an owner of all economic use of property does not
constitute a per se taking. Instead, the Court will carefully examine and
weigh all the relevant circumstances—the planners’ good faith, the reason-
able expectations of the owners, the length of the delay, the delay’s actual
effect on the value of the property, etc.—in order to determine whether
“fairness and justice” require just compensation. [Tahoe-Sierra Preservation
Council, Inc. v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, 535 U.S. 302 (2002)—
finding no taking where there was a 32-month moratorium on land devel-
opment in the Lake Tahoe Basin while a comprehensive land-use plan was
being developed for the area]

b. Decreasing Economic Value

Generally, regulations that merely decrease the value of property (e.g., prohibit
its most beneficial use) do not necessarily result in a taking, as long as they
leave an economically viable use for the property. The Court considers (1) the
social goals sought to be promoted; (2) the diminution in value to the owner;
and (3) whether the regulation substantially interferes with distinct, investment-
backed expectations of the owner. [Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New
York, 438 U.S. 104 (1978)]

EXAMPLE
The Court upheld a “landmark” zoning ordinance that prohibited altering the
external appearance of Grand Central Station. It found historic preservation to be
an important government interest and that certain rights granted to the landmark
owners mitigated their loss. [Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York, supra]

1) Building/Development Permits—Exaction of Occupation Rights

Municipalities often attempt to condition building or development permits
on a landowner’s (1) conveying title to part, or all, of the property to the
government or (2) granting the public access to the property (e.g., an
easement across the property). Such exactions constitute an uncompen-
sated taking unless (1) the government can show that the condition relates
to a legitimate government interest (nexus) and (2) the adverse impact of
the proposed building/development on the area is roughly proportional to
the loss caused to the property owner from the forced transfer of occupa-
tion rights (proportionality). [Nollan v. California Coastal Commission, 483
U.S. 825 (1987); Dolan v. City of Tigard, 512 U.S. 374 (1994)]

EXAMPLE
City agreed to approve a permit to expand plaintiff’s retail store and pave a
parking lot on the condition that plaintiff dedicate land for (1) a public gre-
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 91.

enway and (2) a bike path. The Supreme Court found that City did not show
a sufficient relationship between the dedications and the impact that the
expansion would have on the area. [Dolan v. City of Tigard, supra]

a) Permit Denials
The government’s demand for property with respect to a land-use
permit application must satisfy the Nollan/Dolan requirements, above,
even when the government denies a permit. A refusal to issue a permit
based on a refusal to dedicate land under terms that do not satisfy the
nexus and/or proportionality requirements of Nollan and Dolan consti-
tutes a taking. [Koontz v. St. Johns River Water Management District,
570 U.S. 595 (2013)]

2) Utility Rate Regulation

There is no taking where the government sets rates that utility companies
can charge, as long as the rates are not set so low that they are unjust and
confiscatory. [Duquesne Light Co. v. Barasch, 488 U.S. 299 (1989)]

3) Zoning Ordinances
The Court has long held that governments may adopt zoning ordinances
that regulate the way real property may be used, pursuant to the police
power (e.g., limiting development in a particular area to single-family homes,
restricting buildings to a particular height, etc.). Such regulations generally
do not amount to a taking—even if they deny an owner the highest and best
use of her property—unless they: (1) amount to a physical appropriation, as
in Loretto, (2) deny an owner of all economic use, as in Lucas, or (3) unrea-
sonably interfere with distinct, investment-backed expectations as set out in
Penn Central. [See Lingle v. Chevron, 544 U.S. 528 (2005)]

3. Remedy—Inverse Condemnation
When a government acts under the power of eminent domain to take property
for public use, it will condemn the property and pay the owner just compensation,
as discussed below. When property is taken by occupation or regulation without
condemnation proceedings, the landowner can bring an action for inverse condem-
nation. If the court determines that the government action amounted to a taking, the
government will be required to either:

(i) Pay the property owner compensation for the taking (see below); or

(ii) Terminate the regulation and pay the owner for damages that occurred while
the regulation was in effect (i.e., temporary taking damages).

[First English Evangelical Lutheran Church of Glendale v. County of Los Angeles, 482
U.S. 304 (1987)]
92. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

a. Who May Sue

The right to claim a “taking” is not limited to persons who held title to the
property at the time a challenged use restriction was imposed. A person who
purchases property after a regulation is in place still may bring a taking claim.
[Palazzolo v. Rhode Island, 533 U.S. 606 (2001)]

D. “JUST COMPENSATION”
The owner is entitled to the fair market value of her property at the time of the taking—
not the value it would have if put to its highest and best use. The measure is based
on the loss to the owner, not the gain to the taker. Increases in value to the owner’s
remaining property as a result of the taking cannot be used to offset damages. Due
process guarantees notice and hearing, administrative or judicial, on the amount of
compensation, but the hearing need not precede the taking.

1. “Worthless” Property
Because just compensation is measured by the loss to the owner and not by the
gain to the taker, property that is “worthless” to the owner can be the subject of a
taking, but no compensation need be paid when it is taken.

EXAMPLE
A state law required attorneys to keep clients’ funds in trust accounts on behalf of
their clients and to pay to the client any interest earned on the funds. If a client’s
funds were too small to earn enough interest to exceed the costs of distributing the
interest, the attorneys were required to pay the interest over to a legal aid charity.
Although this requirement constitutes a taking, no compensation is due because the
clients have not suffered a pecuniary loss. [Brown v. Legal Foundation of Washing-
ton, 538 U.S. 216 (2003)]

XVI. INTRODUCTION TO SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS AND EQUAL

PROTECTION

A. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS AND EQUAL

PROTECTION
The Due Process Clauses and the Equal Protection Clause guarantee the fairness of
laws—substantive due process guarantees that laws will be reasonable and not arbitrary,
and equal protection guarantees that similarly situated persons will be treated alike. Both
guarantees require the Court to review the substance of the law rather than the proce-
dures employed.

1. Substantive Due Process

Generally where a law limits the liberty of all persons to engage in some activity, it is
a due process question.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 93.

2. Equal Protection
Where a law treats a person or class of persons differently from others, it is an equal
protection question. [See Village of Willowbrook v. Olech, 528 U.S. 562 (2000)—
equal protection claims may be brought by a class with as few as one member]
However, an at-will government employee who claims to be a victim of arbitrary
discrimination cannot use the “class of one” theory to make an equal protection
claim. [Engquist v. Oregon Department of Agriculture, 553 U.S. 591 (2008)]

3. Examples
If a law prohibits all persons from purchasing contraceptive devices, there is a due
process issue; if the law prohibits only purchases by unmarried persons, there is an
equal protection issue. A state’s refusal to have any publicly funded schools raises
a due process issue; a state law that establishes separate schools for children of
different races raises an equal protection issue.

4. Note—Clauses Not Necessarily Mutually Exclusive

Since both clauses protect against unfairness, both may be appropriate challenges
to the same governmental act, and a discussion of both may be appropriate in an
essay answer. On the MBE, however, the examiners will probably not include both
as alternatives in the same question. The above approaches can be used as a rough
guideline of when each clause applies.

EXAMPLE
Petitioners challenged state laws limiting marriage as between one man and one
woman and refusing to recognize same-sex marriages from outside the state. The
Court held that the fundamental liberties protected by both the Due Process and
Equal Protection Clauses extend to certain personal choices central to individual dig-
nity and autonomy, including intimate choices defining personal identity and beliefs.
This includes the right of same-sex couples to marry. [Obergefell v. Hodges, 135 S.
Ct. 2584 (2015)]

B. WHAT STANDARD OF REVIEW WILL THE COURT APPLY?

The Court employs one of three tests in reviewing laws under these clauses, depending
on the circumstances.

1. Strict Scrutiny (Maximum Scrutiny)

The Court uses the strict scrutiny standard when a suspect classification or funda-
mental right (these terms will be discussed infra) is involved. Under the strict scrutiny
standard, a law will be upheld only if it is necessary to achieve a compelling govern-
ment purpose. The Court will always consider whether less burdensome means for
accomplishing the legislative goal are available. Most governmental action examined
under this test fails.
94. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

a. Burden of Proof on Government

When the strict scrutiny standard is applied, the government will have the
burden of proving that the law is necessary. The Court will not allow a loose
fitting law (i.e., if a law reaches more people or conduct than is necessary
(overinclusive) or does not reach all of the people or conduct sought to be
regulated (underinclusive), it will likely be struck down).

b. Alternative Strict Scrutiny Language

The Supreme Court’s language sometimes varies when expressing the strict
scrutiny standard. It commonly uses language such as “narrowly tailored
to achieve a compelling government purpose” or “necessary to achieve an
overriding government purpose” in addition to “necessary to achieve a compel-
ling government purpose.” For bar exam purposes, these varying iterations all
have the same meaning.

2. Intermediate Scrutiny
The Court uses intermediate scrutiny when a classification based on gender or legiti-
macy is involved. Under the intermediate scrutiny standard, a law will be upheld if it
is substantially related to an important government purpose.

a. Burden of Proof Probably on Government

It is unclear who has the burden of proof when the Court uses the intermediate
standard, but in most cases, it appears to be the government.

3. Rational Basis (Minimal Scrutiny)

The rational basis standard is used whenever the other two standards are not appli-
cable (i.e., most legislation). Under the rational basis standard, a law will be upheld
if it is rationally related to a legitimate interest. It is difficult to fail this test, so most
governmental action examined under this standard is upheld unless it is arbitrary or
irrational.

a. Burden of Proof on Challenger

Under the rational basis standard, laws are presumed valid. Therefore, the
challenger has the burden of proof. This is a very difficult burden to meet, given
the deference the Court gives to legislatures under the rational basis standard.
(See below.)

b. Deference to Legislature
Under the rational basis standard, the Court will usually defer to a legislature’s
decision that a law is rational. Loose fitting laws are permissible here: The law
need not be the best law that could have been written to achieve the legislative
goal. Indeed, it need not go far at all toward a conceivable legislative goal; the
Court will uphold a law taking a “first step” toward any legitimate goal, even if
the Court thinks the law is unwise.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 95.

EXAMPLE
City decided that advertisements on motor vehicles are traffic hazards, so
it banned such advertisements except for those on vehicles advertising the
owner’s own product. Even though the excepted advertisements were no less
distracting than the banned ones, the Court upheld the “first step” law. [Railway
Express Agency v. New York, 336 U.S. 106 (1949)]

XVII. SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS

A. CONSTITUTIONAL SOURCE—TWO CLAUSES

There are two separate clauses protecting substantive due process:

1. The Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment (applies to the federal govern-
ment); and

2. The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (applies to state and local
governments).

As indicated above, the same tests are employed under each clause.

B. APPLICABLE STANDARDS
1. Fundamental Right—Strict Scrutiny
Where a law limits a fundamental right, strict scrutiny will be applied, and the law (or
other governmental action) will be upheld only if the government can prove that the
action is necessary to promote a compelling or overriding interest. Fundamental
rights include:

a. Right to travel;

b. Privacy;

c. Voting; and

d. All First Amendment rights.

2. All Other Cases—Mere Rationality

In all other cases, the mere rationality test is applied, and the law will be upheld
unless the challenger can prove that the action is not rationally related to any
conceivable legitimate end of government. Examples include the following:

a. Business and Labor Regulations

The Court will sustain all varieties of business regulation; e.g., “blue sky” laws,
bank controls, insurance regulation, price and wage controls, unfair competition
and trade practice controls, etc.
96. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

b. Taxation
Taxation is also invariably sustained. However, discriminatory taxes might still
be invalidated.

c. Lifestyle
There is, as yet, no recognized right to lead a certain lifestyle. Thus, the
Supreme Court will uphold laws: prohibiting drugs (“hard” or “soft”), requiring
motorcyclists to wear helmets, or requiring police officers to have short hair.
[Kelley v. Johnson, 425 U.S. 238 (1976)]

d. Zoning
Regulation of the ownership or use of property has also been liberally tolerated
by the Court.

1) Statutes Forbidding Nuisances or Promoting Community’s Preferred

Lifestyle
Statutes forbidding certain uses as nuisances have been sustained, as have
all kinds of statutes designed to promote the public’s enjoyment of space
and safety or to promote a community’s preferred lifestyle and character.
For example, the Supreme Court held that a Long Island suburb could zone
out all groups of three or more persons unrelated by blood, adoption, or
marriage. [Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas, 416 U.S. 1 (1974)]

2) Cannot Prohibit Traditionally Related Families from Living Together

However, you should know that the Supreme Court held that zoning regula-
tions that prohibit members of traditional families from living together (i.e.,
zoning excluding cousins or grandchildren) violate due process. [Moore v.
City of East Cleveland, 431 U.S. 494 (1977)]

e. Punitive Damages
The Supreme Court has held that punitive damages do not necessarily violate
due process. However, “grossly excessive” damages—those that are unrea-
sonably high to vindicate the state’s interest in punishment—are invalid. [TXO
Production Corp. v. Alliance Resources Corp., 509 U.S. 443 (1993)]

1) Factors Considered
In assessing whether punitive damages violate due process, the key issue
is whether the defendant had fair notice of the possible magnitude of the
punitive damages. In assessing such notice, the Court will look to:

a) The reprehensibility of the defendant’s conduct (e.g., whether the

defendant caused physical harm rather than merely economic harm,
whether the defendant acted with reckless disregard for harm,
whether the conduct was repeated rather than isolated, and whether
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 97.

the harm resulted from intentional malice or deceit rather than from an
accident);

b) The disparity between the actual or potential harm suffered by the

plaintiff and the punitive award; and

c) The difference between the punitive damages award and the

criminal or civil penalties authorized for comparable misconduct.

[BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, 517 U.S. 559 (1996)]

2) Rule of Thumb
Except for particularly egregious conduct—especially when the conduct
resulted in only a small amount of compensatory damages—punitive
damages should not exceed nine times the compensatory damages.
[State Farm Mutual Auto Insurance Co. v. Campbell, 538 U.S. 408 (2003)—
punitive damages of 145 times compensatory damages violate due process]

f. Compare—Vagueness Doctrine
Under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, a law can be held
unconstitutional if it fails to provide minimal guidelines to govern law enforcement
officers so as to discourage arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement. [Kolender
v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352 (1983); City of Chicago v. Morales, 527 U.S. 41 (1999)—
holding unconstitutional on vagueness grounds an ordinance that allowed officers
to disperse suspected gang members when they were “loitering,” which was
defined as remaining in any one place with no apparent purpose]

C. A FEW IRREBUTTABLE PRESUMPTIONS MAY BE INVALID

If the government “presumes facts” against a person so that she is not qualified for
some important benefit or right, the irrebuttable presumption may be unconstitu-
tional. Although the Court often characterizes this as a due process question, it is more
accurately an equal protection question because the government is creating an arbitrary
classification. In any case, if the presumption affects a fundamental right (e.g., right to
travel) or a suspect or quasi-suspect classification (e.g., gender), it will likely be invalid
under strict scrutiny or intermediate scrutiny analysis, because the administrative conve-
nience created by the presumption is not an important enough interest to justify the
burden on the right or class. If some other classification or right is involved, the presump-
tion will likely be upheld under the rational basis standard.

EXAMPLES
1) A state may not presume a teacher incapable of continuous service in the classroom
merely because she is four or five months’ pregnant or has a child under age three.
[Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur, 414 U.S. 632 (1974)]
98. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

2) The government may presume that a marriage entered into within nine months of a
wage earner’s death was simply to secure Social Security benefits. [Weinberger v. Salfi,
422 U.S. 749 (1975)]

D. FAIR NOTICE
A fundamental principle of our legal system is that laws that regulate people or entities
must give fair notice of conduct that is forbidden or required. A regulation that fails to
give fair notice violates the Due Process Clause. [See, e.g., Federal Communications
Commission v. Fox Television Stations, Inc., 567 U.S. 239 (2012); and see XX.A.3.b., infra]

XVIII. EQUAL PROTECTION

A. CONSTITUTIONAL SOURCE
The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment has no counterpart in
the Constitution applicable to the federal government; it is limited to state action.
Nevertheless, it is clear that grossly unreasonable discrimination by the federal govern-
ment violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment. [Bolling v. Sharpe, 347
U.S. 497 (1954)—racial discrimination in the public schools of the District of Columbia held
a violation of due process] Thus, there are really two equal protection guarantees. The
Court usually applies the same standards under either constitutional provision.

EXAMPLE
The Supreme Court struck down a federal law defining “marriage” and “spouse” to ex-
clude same-sex couples as applied to residents of a state that recognized same-sex mar-
riage. The Court found that the liberty protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fifth
Amendment contains within it a prohibition against denying any person the equal protec-
tion of laws. And a law that discriminates against some married couples recognized by a
state in favor of other married couples violates equal protection. It should be noted that
the Court did not rely on any of the traditional due process or equal protection tests (i.e.,
strict scrutiny, intermediate scrutiny, or rational basis) in arriving at the holding. [United
States v. Windsor, 570 U.S. 744 (2013)]

B. APPLICABLE STANDARDS
As indicated above, the Court will apply one of three standards when examining govern-
mental action involving classifications of persons. If a suspect classification or funda-
mental right is involved, the strict scrutiny standard will be applied and the action will
be struck down unless the government proves that it is necessary to achieve a compel-
ling interest. If a quasi-suspect classification is involved, the Court will likely require
the government to prove that the action is substantially related to an important govern-
ment interest. If any other classification is involved, the action will be upheld unless
the challenger proves that the action is not rationally related to a legitimate government
interest.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 99.

C. PROVING DISCRIMINATORY CLASSIFICATION

The mere fact that legislation or governmental action has a discriminatory effect is
not sufficient to trigger strict scrutiny or intermediate scrutiny. There must be intent to
discriminate on the part of the government. Intent can be shown in three ways: (1) facial
discrimination; (2) discriminatory application; or (3) discriminatory motive.

1. Facial Discrimination
A law may include a classification on its face. This type of law, by its own terms,
makes an explicit distinction between classes of persons (perhaps by race or
gender). In such cases the courts merely have to apply the appropriate standard
of review for that classification. (The standards for racial classifications and gender
classifications are described below.)

a. Facial Discrimination Absent Racial Language

In a few cases, the Supreme Court has held that a law used a racial classifica-
tion “on its face” even though the language of the law did not include racial
language. In these cases, the Supreme Court found that the law could not be
explained except in racial terms.

EXAMPLE
The Court found that a state law establishing districts for the election of Rep-
resentatives to the United States Congress should be deemed to use a racial
classification on its face because one bizarrely shaped district could not be
explained except in terms of establishing a district where minority race voters
would control the outcome of the election. The Court did not rule on the ques-
tion of whether this racial classification was narrowly tailored to a compelling
interest, such as remedying proven past discrimination, because that ques-
tion had not been addressed in the lower courts. [Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630
(1993)]

Note: If a legislative districting map could be explained in terms other than

race, the Court would not find that the law constituted racial discrimination
on its face. In such a case, the persons attacking legislative districts as being
based on racial classification would have to show that district lines were drawn
for a racially discriminatory purpose. [Hunt v. Cromartie, 532 U.S. 234 (2001)—
“Hunt II”]

2. Discriminatory Application
In some instances, a law that appears to be neutral on its face will be applied in
a different manner to different classes of persons. If the persons challenging the
governmental action can prove that the government officials applying the law had a
discriminatory purpose (and used discriminatory standards based on traits such as
race or gender), the law will be invalidated.
100. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

EXAMPLES
1) A law prohibited operating a laundry in wooden buildings, but gave a government
agency discretion to grant exemptions. It was shown that most such laundries were
owned by people of Chinese descent, but the agency granted exemptions only to
non-Asian applicants. The law was deemed to involve racial or national origin classi-
fication and was invalidated as applied. [Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886)]
2) Laws allow attorneys to move to strike potential jurors from a jury either for cause
or without cause (a peremptory strike). In either case, there is an equal protection
violation when it is proved that an attorney excluded a person from a jury on account
of the person’s race or sex. [See Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 79 (1986); J.E.B. v. Ala-
bama ex rel. T.B., 511 U.S. 127 (1994)] Note that because striking potential jurors from
a jury significantly involves the state, even attorneys representing private parties are
prohibited from discriminatory strikes. (See XII.B.2.a.1)a)(1), supra.)

3. Discriminatory Motive
Sometimes a government action will appear to be neutral on its face and in its appli-
cation, but will have disproportionate impact on a particular class of persons (such as
a racial minority or women). Such a law will be found to involve a classification (and
be subject to the level of scrutiny appropriate to that classification) only if a court
finds that the law-making body enacted or maintained the law for a discriminatory
purpose. In such cases, the court should admit into evidence statistical proof that the
law has a disproportionate impact on one class of persons. However, mere statistical
evidence will rarely be sufficient in itself to prove that the government had a discrimi-
natory purpose in passing a law. Statistical evidence may be combined with other
evidence of legislative or administrative intent to show that a law or regulation is the
product of a discriminatory purpose.

EXAMPLES
1) A police department used results from a written test as a criterion for hiring police
officers. Members of identifiable racial minorities consistently got low scores on the
test, although there was no proof that the test was written or otherwise employed for
the purpose of disadvantaging minority applicants. Because of the absence of non-
statistical proof of discriminatory purpose, there was no equal protection violation.
[Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229 (1976)]
2) A state law gave a preference in the hiring and promotion of civil service employ-
ees to persons who were honorably discharged from the United States military. The
foreseeable and actual impact of this law was to disadvantage the female population
of job applicants, because the majority of veterans are men. Because there was no
proof (other than the statistical impact of the law) that the legislature enacted the law
for the purpose of hurting women (as opposed to the purpose of aiding veterans),
the law was upheld.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 101.

3) A statistical study showing that black defendants in capital cases are much more
likely to receive the death penalty than are white defendants in a state will not in
itself establish that a particular black defendant was denied equal protection by be-
ing sentenced to death for murder in that state. The statistical study is insufficient to
prove purposeful discrimination. [McCleskey v. Kemp, 481 U.S. 279 (1987)]

D. SUSPECT CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Race and National Origin
If governmental action classifies persons based on exercise of a fundamental right
or involves a suspect classification (race, national origin, or alienage), strict scrutiny is
applied. The result is invalidation of almost every case where the classification would
burden a person because of her status as a member of a racial or national origin
minority.

EXAMPLE
A state could not deny custody of a child from a previous marriage to a white mother
merely because her new husband was black, where the mother was otherwise
found to be an appropriate parent. Racial prejudice against mixed race couples does
not justify taking a child from his mother. [Palmore v. Sidoti, 466 U.S. 429 (1984)]

a. School Integration
Recall that only intentional discrimination will be found to create discrimina-
tory classifications calling for strict scrutiny (see C., supra); thus, only intentional
segregation in schools will be invalidated under equal protection.

EXAMPLE
No equal protection violation was found where a school system established
attendance zones in a racially neutral manner, but racial imbalance occurred
because of housing patterns. [Keyes v. School District No. 1, 413 U.S. 189 (1973)]

1) Remedying Intentional School Segregation

If it is proven that a school board has engaged in the racial districting of
schools, the board must take steps to eliminate the effects of that discrimi-
nation (e.g., busing students). If the school board refuses to do so, a court
may order the school district to take all appropriate steps to eliminate the
discrimination.

a) Order Limited
A court may not impose a remedy that goes beyond the purpose of
remedying the vestiges of past segregation. Thus, it is impermissible
for a court to impose a remedy whose purpose is to attract nonminority
102. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

students from outside the school district when there is no evidence

of past segregation outside the district. [Missouri v. Jenkins, 515 U.S.
70 (1995)—state not required to fund salary increases and remedial
programs to create magnet schools to attract suburban students to
urban schools]

b. “Benign” Government Discrimination—Affirmative Action

Government action—whether by federal, state, or local governmental bodies—
that favors racial or ethnic minorities is subject to strict scrutiny, as is govern-
ment action discriminating against racial or ethnic minorities. [Adarand
Constructors, Inc. v. Pena, 515 U.S. 200 (1995)—overruling Metro Broadcasting,
Inc. v. Federal Communications Commission, 497 U.S. 547 (1990), which applied
intermediate standard to federal discrimination]

Note: Prior to its ruling in Adarand, supra, the Supreme Court upheld a federal
requirement that 10% of federal grants for public works be set aside for minority
businesses. [Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 U.S. 448 (1980)] In Adarand, the Court
reserved judgment on whether a Fullilove-type program would survive strict
scrutiny. Some commentators have suggested that it might, because the Court
might give Congress more deference than the states based on Congress’s
power under the Enabling Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (see XII.A.3.,
supra), but the continued validity of Fullilove is, at best, uncertain.

1) Remedying Past Discrimination

The government has a compelling interest in remedying past discrimina-
tion against a racial or ethnic minority. Thus, if a court finds that a govern-
mental agency has engaged in racial discrimination, it may employ a
race-conscious remedy tailored to end the discrimination and eliminate its
effects. A remedy of this type is permissible under the Equal Protection
Clause because it is narrowly tailored to further a compelling interest (the
elimination of the illegal or unconstitutional discrimination).

EXAMPLE
When it has been proven that a public employer engaged in persistent
racial discrimination, a court may order relief that establishes a goal for the
hiring or promotion of minority persons so as to eliminate the effects of the
past discrimination. [United States v. Paradise, 480 U.S. 149 (1987)]

2) Where There Has Been No Past Discrimination by Government

Even where a state or local government has not engaged in past discrimi-
nation, it may have a compelling interest in affirmative action. However,
the governmental action must be narrowly tailored to that interest. [City of
Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co., 488 U.S. 469 (1989)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 103.

a) Remedial Justifications

(1) Local Private Discrimination

Remedying past private discrimination within the governmental
agency’s jurisdiction is a compelling interest, but there is no
compelling interest in remedying the general effects of societal
discrimination. Thus, for a city to give a preference to minority race
applicants for city construction contracts, it must identify the past
unconstitutional or illegal discrimination against minority-owned
construction businesses that it is now attempting to correct. [City
of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co., supra]

EXAMPLE
In United Jewish Organizations v. Carey, 430 U.S. 144 (1977), the
Court upheld New York’s revised voting district plan, based solely
on racial statistics, because the revisions were made to insure that
minorities that had previously been discriminated against in New
York would be represented in the legislature.

(2) Diversity in Primary and Secondary Public Education

A school board may not assign students to a public primary
or secondary school on the basis of race unless necessary to
achieve a compelling interest, such as remedying past unconstitu-
tional (i.e., intentional) discrimination. A majority of the Court has
not found diversity itself to be a sufficiently compelling interest.
[See Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School
District No. 1, 551 U.S. 701 (2007)]

(3) Diversity in Post-Secondary Public Education

The Supreme Court has treated post-secondary educational insti-
tutions (e.g., public colleges and universities) differently. It has held
that courts should defer to a public university’s judgments that
diversity is itself a compelling interest in post-secondary educa-
tion. [Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003); Gratz v. Bollinger,
539 U.S. 244 (2003)] Thus, the Court held that race and ethnicity
could be used as a factor (although not a predominant factor) in
determining whether a particular student should be admitted.
However, while the Court is willing to grant a public university
deference as to the importance of diversity in a student body, it
has held that courts should not give universities deference on
the issue of whether a particular scheme for assuring diversity is
narrowly tailored to that purpose. Strict scrutiny applies, so to pass
constitutional muster, a university must show that no workable
104. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

race-neutral alternatives would assure the diversity sought.

Further, the Court indicated that because a school’s use of racial
preferences is permissible at one particular time does not mean
the school can continue to rely on the same policy without “refine-
ment.” Universities must continually reassess their need for race-
conscious admissions and engage in “constant deliberation and
continued reflection” regarding these policies. [Fisher v. University
of Texas at Austin, 136 S. Ct. 2198 (2016)]

b) States May Eliminate Race-Based Preferences

States are not required to have affirmative action programs for admis-
sion to their universities. Moreover, states may eliminate existing race-
based preferences, including by voter initiative. The Court upheld the
constitutionality of a Michigan initiative providing that the state and its
political subdivisions could not discriminate or give preference based
on race or gender in education, contracting, or employment. [Schuette
v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action (BAMN), 572 U.S. 291 (2014)]

c. Discriminatory Legislative Apportionment

Race can be considered in drawing up new voting districts, but it cannot be the
predominant factor. If a plaintiff can show that a redistricting plan was drawn
up predominantly on the basis of racial considerations (as opposed to the more
traditional factors, such as compactness, contiguity, and community interest),
the plan will violate the Equal Protection Clause unless the government can
show that the plan is narrowly tailored to serve a compelling state interest.
[Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900 (1995)—while eradicating the effects of past
discrimination would be a compelling state interest, the redistricting here was
driven by the Justice Department’s policy of maximizing the number of districts
where racial minority members are the majority, which is not a compelling
interest]

d. Private Affirmative Action

Private employers, of course, are not restricted by the Equal Protection Clause,
since the Clause applies only to the government, and private employers lack
state action. Nevertheless, Congress has adopted statutes regulating private
discrimination by employers pursuant to its power under the enabling provisions
of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments and the Commerce Clause.
Thus, if an exam question asks whether private employer discrimination is valid,
the answer generally cannot be based on equal protection.

2. Alienage Classifications

a. Federal Classifications
The standard for review of federal government classifications based on alienage
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 105.

is not clear, but they never seem to be subject to strict scrutiny. Because of
Congress’s plenary power over aliens, these classifications are valid if they
are not arbitrary and unreasonable. Thus, federal Medicare regulations could
establish a five-year residency requirement for benefits that eliminated many
resident aliens. [Mathews v. Diaz, 426 U.S. 67 (1976)]

b. State and Local Classifications

State/local laws are subject to strict scrutiny if based on alienage. A “compel-
ling state interest” must be shown to justify disparate treatment. For example,
a state law requiring United States citizenship for welfare benefits, civil service
jobs, or a license to practice law will be struck down because there is no
compelling interest justifying the requirement.

1) Exception—Participation in Self-Government Process

If a law discriminates against alien participation in the functioning of the
state government, the rational basis standard is applied.

EXAMPLES
1) A state cannot require a notary public to be a citizen. A notary’s responsi-
bilities are essentially clerical and do not fall within the exception for posi-
tions related to participation in the governmental process, and there is no
compelling government interest justifying such a requirement. [Bernal v.
Fainter, 467 U.S. 216 (1984)]
2) A state can validly refuse to hire aliens as police officers and primary
and secondary school teachers (because such teachers influence the
attitudes of young minds toward government, the political process, and
citizenship, as well as provide an example for civic virtues) and for all other
positions that have a direct effect on the functioning of government. [Am-
bach v. Norwick, 441 U.S. 68 (1979); Cabell v. Chavez-Salido, 454 U.S. 432
(1982)]

c. Undocumented Aliens

1) Punitive Laws Against Undocumented Alien Adults

The Supreme Court has not held that undocumented aliens are a suspect
classification. Thus, a state law that denies benefits to (or imposes burdens
on) persons who are in the United States without the permission of the
federal government might be upheld under the rational basis test as long
as the law was not totally arbitrary.

2) Education Rights of Alien Children

The Supreme Court has found that undocumented aliens are “persons”
within the protection of the Fourteenth Amendment and that it would be
106. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

fundamentally unfair to punish children for the crimes of their parents (i.e.,
illegally coming into the United States). Moreover, the Court found that
refusing to educate children of undocumented aliens would hinder their
lives in a way that would work a punishment on them. Therefore, the Court
held that it is not rational for a state to deny children of undocumented
aliens a free public education unless the state can show that the denial
furthers a substantial state interest. Moreover, the Court held that the cost
saved in not educating such children is not a sufficient interest. [Plyler v.
Doe, 457 U.S. 202 (1982)]

a) Compare—Children Living Apart from Parents

The Supreme Court upheld a state statute that permitted a school
district to deny tuition-free education to any child (whether or not he
is a United States citizen) who lived apart from his parent or lawful
guardian if the child’s presence in the school district was for the
“primary purpose” of attending school in the district. The state does
not have to consider such a child to be a bona fide resident of the
school district. [Martinez v. Bynum, 461 U.S. 321 (1983)]

E. QUASI-SUSPECT CLASSIFICATIONS
Classifications based on gender or legitimacy are almost always suspect. When analyzing
government action based on such classifications, the Court will apply the intermediate
standard and strike the action unless it is substantially related to an important govern-
ment interest.

1. Gender
The Court has expressly held that the government bears the burden of proof in
gender discrimination cases and that an “exceedingly persuasive justification” is
required in order to show that gender discrimination is substantially related to an
important government interest. [United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515 (1996)]

a. Intentional Discrimination Against Women

Gender classifications that intentionally discriminate against women will gener-
ally be invalid under the intermediate standard, because the government is
unable to show the “exceedingly persuasive justification” that is required.

EXAMPLES
1) A statute giving the husband, as head of the household, the right to unilater-
ally dispose of property jointly owned with his wife violates equal protection.
[Kirchberg v. Feenstra, 450 U.S. 455 (1981)]
2) A statute giving preference to males over females to act as administrator of
an estate violates equal protection. [Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71 (1971)—ease in
determining who should serve is not an important interest]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 107.

COMPARE
1) A state law that excluded from state disability insurance benefits “disabilities”
arising from normal pregnancy and childbirth was upheld on a holding that it did
not constitute a gender classification and so did not constitute intentional dis-
crimination. [Geduldig v. Aiello, 417 U.S. 484 (1974)]
2) A state statute granting a hiring preference to veterans was upheld even
though the result would disadvantage women since most veterans are men.
The Court found that the purpose of the statute was to help veterans, not to dis-
criminate against women. [Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney,
442 U.S. 256 (1979)]

1) Government Interest Must Be Genuine

The “important government interest” advanced to justify categorization on
the basis of gender must be genuine—not hypothesized for the purpose
of litigation defense. Neither may the government’s justification rely on
overbroad generalizations about males and females that will create or
perpetuate the legal, social, and economic inferiority of women. [United
States v. Virginia, supra]

EXAMPLE
When a state military school’s policy of admitting only men was challenged,
the state justified the policy, claiming that: (1) offering a diversity of edu-
cational approaches within the state (e.g., some schools having men only,
some having women only, and some having both) yields important educa-
tional benefits, and (2) females generally would not be able to meet the
school’s physical requirements and would not do well under the school’s
adversative approach to education. The Supreme Court found these ar-
guments unavailing. There was no evidence that the single-sex school in
question was established or had been maintained with a view toward foster-
ing a diversity of educational opportunities, and there was some evidence
that some women could meet the school’s physical requirements and thrive
under the school’s adversative approach. [United States v. Virginia, supra]

b. Affirmative Action Benefiting Women

Classifications benefiting women that are designed to remedy past discrimina-
tion against women will generally be upheld.

EXAMPLES
1) Social Security and tax exemptions that entitle women to greater benefits to
make up for past discrimination in the workplace are valid. [Califano v. Webster,
430 U.S. 313 (1977)]
108. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

2) A Navy rule granting female officers longer tenure than males before man-
datory discharge for nonproduction is valid to make up for past discrimination
against females in the Navy. [Schlesinger v. Ballard, 419 U.S. 498 (1975)]

c. Intentional Discrimination Against Men

Intentional discrimination against men generally is invalid. However, a number of
laws have been held valid as being substantially related to an important govern-
ment interest.

1) Invalid Discrimination
The following have been held invalid under the Equal Protection Clause:

a) Denial to admit males to a state university or nursing school

[Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718 (1982)];

b) Law that provides that only wives are eligible for alimony [Orr v. Orr,
440 U.S. 268 (1979)];

c) Law that permits unwed mother, but not unwed father, to stop
adoption of offspring [Caban v. Mohammed, 441 U.S. 380 (1979)]; and

d) Law providing a higher minimum drinking age for men than for
women [Craig v. Boren, 429 U.S. 190 (1976)].

2) Valid Discrimination
The following have been upheld under the Equal Protection Clause despite
their discriminatory intent:

a) Law punishing males but not females for statutory rape (sexual inter-
course with a minor) [Michael M. v. Superior Court, 450 U.S. 464
(1981)—classification was found to be substantially related to important
interest of preventing pregnancy of minors];

b) Male-only draft registration [Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981)—

classification was found to be substantially related to important interest
of preparing combat troops]; and

c) A law granting automatic United States citizenship to nonmarital

children born abroad to American mothers, but requiring American
fathers of children born abroad to take specific steps to establish pater-
nity in order to make such children United States citizens. [Nguyen v.
Immigration and Naturalization Service, 533 U.S. 53 (2001)—promotes
the important governmental interest of avoiding proof of paternity
problems, which are more difficult to resolve for fathers]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 109.

2. Legitimacy Classifications
Distinctions drawn between marital and nomarital children are also reviewed under
the intermediate scrutiny standard. Such classifications “must be substantially
related to an important governmental objective.” [Clark v. Jeter, 486 U.S. 456 (1988)]

a. No Punitive Purpose
When the Court examines a classification based on illegitimacy, it gives greater
attention to the purpose behind the distinction. It will not uphold discriminatory
legislation intended to punish the offspring of illicit relationships.

1) Inheritance from Father

A state statute cannot absolutely exclude nomarital children from inheriting
from their intestate fathers. [Trimble v. Gordon, 430 U.S. 762 (1977)]

Note: However, to promote efficient disposition of property at death (an

important government interest), a state can require that the paternity of the
father be proved before his death, since the requirement is substantially
related to the important interest. [Lalli v. Lalli, 439 U.S. 259 (1978)]

2) Statute of Limitations on Paternity Suits May Be Discriminatory

The Supreme Court struck down a state statute that required nomarital
children to bring paternity suits within six years of their birth while allowing
marital children to seek support from parents at any time. The Court found
that the law was not related to the state interest of preventing stale or
fraudulent claims. [Clark v. Jeter, supra]

b. Immigration Preference to Legitimate Children—Permissible

Due to the plenary power over immigration, the Court upheld a federal law
granting immigration preferences to marital children. [Fiallo v. Bell, 430 U.S. 787
(1977)]

F. OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS
All other classifications are reviewed under the rational basis standard and will be upheld
unless they bear no rational relationship to any conceivable legitimate government
interest. Nevertheless, if the government has no interest in denying a benefit or imposing
a burden on a group of persons other than a societal fear or dislike of them, the classifi-
cation will not meet the standard.

EXAMPLES
1) The Court struck down a zoning ordinance that allowed denial of a special use per-
mit to a group of unrelated people with intellectual disabilities who wished to share a
residential home or apartment building. Classifications involving people with intellectual
disabilities are not suspect or quasi-suspect classifications and the right to housing is not
a fundamental right; thus the Court applied the rational basis standard. It found that the
110. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

sole reason the permit was denied was the applicants’ mental condition and that the gov-
ernment has no legitimate interest in prohibiting people with intellectual disabilities from
living together. [Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 473 U.S. 432 (1985)]
2) Several municipalities passed ordinances banning discrimination in housing, employ-
ment, etc., based on sexual orientation. In response, the state voters adopted a state
constitutional amendment prohibiting any state or local action protecting the status of
persons based on their homosexual or bisexual orientation. Held: A state constitutional
provision that identifies persons by a single trait and then denies them the right to seek
any specific protections from the law—no matter how local or widespread the injury—is
so unprecedented as to imply animosity toward such persons and is thus not related to
any legitimate state interest. [Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620 (1996)]

1. Age Not Suspect

A classification based on age is not a suspect classification. Thus, government action
based on age will be upheld if there is a conceivable rational basis for the classifica-
tion. [See, e.g., Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia, 427 U.S. 307 (1976)—
police officer can be forced to retire at age 50, even though he is as physically fit as
a younger officer; Gregory v. Ashcroft, 501 U.S. 452 (1991)—a state constitution that
requires state judges to retire at age 70 does not violate the Equal Protection Clause]

2. Wealth Not Suspect

The Court has never held that wealth alone is a “suspect classification.” However, the
lack of wealth, or the inability to pay a governmentally required fee, cannot be the
sole basis upon which a person is deprived of a fundamental constitutional right.

EXAMPLE
The government will be required to waive a marriage license fee or divorce court fee
for a person who cannot afford to pay that fee. Marriage and divorce rights are part
of the right of privacy.

a. Education
The Supreme Court has not yet held education to be a fundamental right. The
Court has not found that children are denied equal protection when the govern-
ment provides greater educational opportunities for children who can afford to
pay for access to the best state-operated schools. In fact, the Court has upheld
the use of a property tax to fund local schools where the tax system resulted in
children in districts with a high tax base getting a significantly better education
than children in tax districts that could not afford significant taxes for education.
[San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973)] The
Court has also upheld a statute that authorizes some school districts in the state
to charge user fees for bus transportation to the local public schools. [Kadrmas
v. Dickinson Public Schools, 487 U.S. 450 (1988)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 111.

XIX. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

A. INTRODUCTION
Certain fundamental rights are protected under the Constitution. If they are denied to
everyone, it is a substantive due process problem. If they are denied to some individuals
but not to others, it is an equal protection problem. The applicable standard in either
case is strict scrutiny. Thus, to be valid the governmental action must be necessary to
protect a compelling interest.

B. RIGHT OF PRIVACY
Various privacy rights, including marriage, procreation, contraception, and childrearing,
are fundamental rights. Thus, regulations affecting these rights are reviewed under the
strict scrutiny standard and will be upheld only if they are necessary to a compelling
interest.

1. Marriage
Although not all cases examining marriage regulations clearly use the compelling
interest standard, a law prohibiting a class of adults from marrying is likely to be
invalidated unless the government can demonstrate that the law is narrowly tailored
to promote a compelling or overriding or, at least, important interest.

Note: The Court has indicated that there is a “marital zone of privacy” [see Griswold
v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965)], so it will likely grant broader protection to private
sexual relations between married persons than it does concerning nonmarried
persons.

a. Same-Sex Marriage
The Court has held that the fundamental liberties guaranteed by the Fourteenth
Amendment require every state to issue marriage licenses to two people of
the same sex and recognize same-sex marriages validly performed elsewhere.
However, the Court did not expressly hold that same-sex marriage is a funda-
mental right, nor did it address the standard of review (presumably, strict
scrutiny). [Obergefell v. Hodges, 135 S. Ct. 2584 (2015)]

b. Special Test in Prisoners’ Rights Cases

A statute or regulation that restricts the constitutional rights of prison inmates
will be upheld as long as the statute or regulation “is reasonably related to
legitimate penological interests.”

EXAMPLE
Even under this lenient standard, a prison regulation that prohibited an adult
prisoner from establishing a legal marriage relationship with another adult un-
less the prison superintendent approved the marriage was held invalid, because
112. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

the regulation was not reasonably related to any asserted penological interest.
[Turner v. Safley, 482 U.S. 78 (1987)]

2. Procreation
Individuals have a fundamental right to reproduce that cannot be limited by the state.
[Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535 (1942)—invalidating a mandatory sterilization
program as unconstitutional]

3. Use of Contraceptives
A state cannot prohibit distribution of nonmedical contraceptives to adults except
through licensed pharmacists, nor prohibit sales of such contraceptives to persons
under 16 who do not have approval of a licensed physician. [Carey v. Population
Services International, 431 U.S. 678 (1977)]

4. Abortion
There is no constitutional right to an abortion. [Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health
Organization, No. 19-1392, 2022 WL 2276808 (U.S. June 24, 2022)]

5. Obscene Reading Material

The right of privacy encompasses the freedom to read obscene material in your
home, except for child pornography. [Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557 (1969);
Osborne v. Ohio, 495 U.S. 103 (1990)] It does not, however, include the right to sell,
purchase, receive, or transport obscene material. [Paris Adult Theatre v. Slayton, 413
U.S. 49 (1973)]

6. Rights of Parents
Parental rights are fundamental rights. They include the companionship, care,
custody, and management of children. [Santosky v. Kramer, 455 U.S. 745 (1982)]

a. Education
Although the state may prescribe reasonable educational standards, it may not
require that all children be educated in public schools. [Pierce v. Society of the
Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary, 268 U.S. 510 (1925)] Neither may
the state forbid education in a language other than English. [Meyer v. Nebraska,
262 U.S. 390 (1923)]

b. Visitation
A state law was found to be overbroad and in violation of parents’ rights where
it (1) authorized the courts to grant “any person” (including grandparents) a
right to visit a child upon finding that this would be in the child’s best inter-
ests, and (2) did not allow the judge to give significant weight to the parent’s
offer of meaningful visitation opportunity and the traditional presumption that
a fit parent will act in the child’s best interests. [Troxel v. Granville, 530 U.S. 57
(2000)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 113.

7. Keeping Extended Family Together

The right of privacy includes the right of family members—even extended ones—to
live together. Thus, a zoning ordinance cannot prohibit extended families from living
in a single household since there is no compelling interest to justify such a rule.
[Moore v. City of East Cleveland, 431 U.S. 494 (1977)]

8. Intimate Sexual Conduct

The state has no legitimate interest in making it a crime for fully consenting adults
to engage in private intimate sexual conduct that is not commercial in nature.
Although the Court has not said what standard of review applies, it has indicated
that a statute regulating such conduct cannot pass even the rational basis test
because of the lack of a legitimate government interest. [Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S.
558 (2003)—a state law making it a crime for members of the same sex to engage in
sodomy violates the Due Process Clause]

9. Freedom from Collection and Distribution of Personal Data

The right of privacy does not prevent the state from accumulating and computerizing
the names and addresses of patients for whom dangerous drugs are prescribed.
[Whalen v. Roe, 429 U.S. 589 (1977)] And the state can republish the recording of an
official act, such as an arrest. [Paul v. Davis, 424 U.S. 693 (1976)]

C. RIGHT TO VOTE
By virtue of the Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Nineteenth, Twenty-Fourth, and Twenty-Sixth
Amendments, all United States citizens who are 18 years of age or older enjoy the right
to vote. It extends to all national and state government elections, including primaries.
The right is fundamental; thus, restrictions on voting, other than on the basis of age,
residency, or citizenship, are invalid unless they can pass strict scrutiny.

1. Restrictions on Right to Vote

a. Residency Requirements
Relatively short residency requirements restricting the right to vote (e.g., 30
days) are valid because there is a compelling interest in ensuring that only bona
fide residents vote. However, longer residency requirements will probably be
held invalid (e.g., one year) because they discriminate against newer residents
without a compelling reason, and thus violate the Equal Protection Clause. Such
residency requirements might also violate the right to travel interstate. (See
D.1.b.1), infra.) Note also that Congress may override state residency require-
ments in presidential elections. [Oregon v. Mitchell, 400 U.S. 112 (1970)]

1) Members of Armed Forces

The right to vote cannot automatically be denied to members of the armed
forces stationed at a particular locality. They must be given an opportunity
to prove their bona fide residency. [Carrington v. Rash, 380 U.S. 89 (1965)]
114. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

2) Compare—Nonresidents
Laws that prohibit nonresidents from voting are generally valid as long as
they have a rational basis. [See Holt Civic Club v. City of Tuscaloosa, 439
U.S. 60 (1978)—upholding denial of right to vote in city elections to persons
outside of city limits, but within the city’s police and licensing jurisdiction]

b. Identification
A state may require in-person voters to show a government-issued voter ID.
This is an “evenhanded” protection of the integrity of the electoral process
and is justified by “sufficiently weighty” interests of detecting voter fraud and
protecting public confidence in elections. [Crawford v. Marion County Election
Board, 553 U.S. 181 (2008)]

c. Property Ownership
Conditioning the right to vote, to be a candidate, or to hold office on property
ownership is usually invalid under the Equal Protection Clause, since property
ownership is not necessary to any compelling governmental interest related to
voting. [See, e.g., Kramer v. Union Free School District, 395 U.S. 621 (1969)—
requirement of owning property or having children in schools to vote in school
board elections struck] However, certain special purpose elections (e.g., water
storage district elections) can be based on property ownership. (See below.)

d. Poll Taxes
Poll taxes are prohibited under the Twenty-Fourth Amendment, and the
Supreme Court has held that they also violate equal protection because wealth
is not related to the government’s interest in having voters vote intelligently.
[Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections, 383 U.S. 663 (1966)]

e. Primary Elections

1) State Regulation of Party Primaries

States may exercise some control over primary elections, but such regula-
tion is subject to restrictions under the First Amendment (freedom of
political association) and the Fourteenth Amendment (Equal Protection
Clause). Thus, to prevent interparty “raiding,” the Supreme Court has held
that states can require a person to have been registered with a party
for a reasonable time before that party’s primary election in order to be
eligible to vote in the primary. [Rosario v. Rockefeller, 410 U.S. 752 (1973)—11
months’ registration upheld; Kusper v. Pontikes, 414 U.S. 51 (1973)—23
months not upheld] However, if a political party wishes to open its primary
elections to anyone, whether or not registered with the party, the state
cannot prohibit this because the state interest here is overridden by the
right of political association. [Tashjian v. Republican Party of Connecticut,
479 U.S. 208 (1986)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 115.

2) States May Subsidize Primaries of Major Parties

States may subsidize the primaries of major parties without similarly
defraying the costs of mechanisms through which minor parties qualify
candidates for the general election [American Party of Texas v. White, 415
U.S. 767 (1974)—upholding law requiring new or small parties to proceed by
petition or convention at their own expense rather than by publicly funded
primary], as long as new or small parties are given some effective way to
qualify for the general election [Williams v. Rhodes, 393 U.S. 23 (1968)—
unduly burdensome petition requirements for new or small parties struck
down as not justified].

2. Dilution of Right to Vote

a. One Person, One Vote Principle

The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment has been inter-
preted to prohibit state dilution of the right to vote, and Article I has been inter-
preted to place the same type of restriction on the federal government.

1) Establishing Voting Districts

Whenever a governmental body establishes voting districts for the election
of representatives, the number of persons in each district may not vary
significantly. This is commonly referred to as the one person, one vote
principle.

a) Congressional Elections—Almost Exactly Equal

States establish the districts for congressional elections. However,
the Supreme Court requires almost exact mathematical equality
between the congressional districts within a state; thus, deviations
of even a few percentage points between the congressional districts
within a state may result in the invalidation of the congressional district
plan.

(1) Compare—Apportionment Among the States

Congress apportions representatives among the states “according
to their respective numbers.” [Art. I, §2] Congress’s good
faith choice of method in so apportioning the representatives
commands far more deference than state districting decisions and
is not subject to the same precise mathematical standard as state
plans. [United States Department of Commerce v. Montana, 503
U.S. 442 (1992)]

b) State and Local Elections—Variance Not Unjustifiably Large

The variance in the number of persons included in districts for the
purpose of electing representatives to a state or local governmental
116. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

body must not be unjustifiably large, but the districts need not be
within a few percentage points of each other: If a state can show
that the deviation from mathematical equality between districts is
reasonable and tailored to promote a legitimate state interest, the law
establishing the districts may be upheld. [Mahan v. Howell, 410 U.S.
315 (1973)—16% variance in district populations was upheld in light
of state’s interest in preserving political subdivisions, although 30%
variance would be excessive]

(1) Exception—Some Variances Presumptively Valid

The Court has indicated that variances of 10% or less are
presumptively constitutional. Therefore, the state is not required
to justify variances within that range. [See Harris v. Arizona
Independent Redistricting Commission, 578 U.S. 253 (2016)]

c) Districts Can Be Measured Using Total Population

States need not measure the equality of their districts by counting only
persons eligible to vote. It is sufficient to count the total population.
[Evenwel v. Abbott, 578 U.S. 54 (2016)—representatives serve all the
residents of their districts, not merely those eligible to vote; The one
person, one vote principle is best served by taking the entire popula-
tion into consideration]

d) Scope
The one person, one vote principle applies to almost every election
where a person is being elected to perform normal governmental
functions. [Hadley v. Junior College District, 397 U.S. 50 (1970)—
trustees for junior college district] However, there are a few exceptions
to note:

(1) Exception—Appointed Officials and Officials Elected “At

Large”
The apportionment requirement is inapplicable to appointed
officials. Neither is it applicable in at-large systems of election,
because in such a system there are no electoral districts to
violate the one person, one vote principle. However, if an at-large
voting system were established or maintained for the purpose of
suppressing the voting power of minority race voters, it would be
unconstitutional.

(2) Exception—Special Purpose Government Units (Water

Storage Districts)
The government can limit the class of persons who are allowed
to vote in an election of persons to serve on a special purpose
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 117.

government unit if the government unit has a special impact on

the class of enfranchised voters. To date, the Supreme Court has
found only “water storage districts” to be so specialized that their
governing boards are not subject to the one person, one vote
principle. [Salyer Land Co. v. Tulare Lake Basin Water Storage
District, 410 U.S. 719 (1973); Ball v. James, 451 U.S. 355 (1981)—
apportionment rules do not apply to water district even if the
district is major supplier of electricity in the state]

2) Standardless Recount
Counting uncounted ballots in a presidential election without standards to
guide ballot examiners in determining the intent of the voter violates the
Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause. [Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98
(2000)]

b. Gerrymandering

1) Racial Gerrymandering
As indicated above, race (and presumably other suspect classifications)
cannot be the predominant factor in drawing the boundaries of a voting
district unless the district plan can pass muster under strict scrutiny. [See
Miller v. Johnson, XVIII .D.1.c., supra] Moreover, a district’s bizarre shape
can be used to show that race was the predominant factor in drawing
the district’s boundaries [see Shaw v. Reno, XVIII.C.1.a., supra], although
a bizarre shape is not necessary to such a finding. Note that the person
challenging the reapportionment has the burden of proving the race-based
motive. [Shaw v. Hunt, 517 U.S. 899 (1996)]

2) Partisan Gerrymandering
Partisan gerrymandering (drawing district boundaries to favor one political
party over another) presents a political question beyond the reach of the
federal courts. Accordingly, federal courts will not strike down partisan
gerrymandering on constitutional grounds. [Rucho v. Common Cause, 139
S. Ct. 2484 (2019)]

c. Multi-Member Districts
A state is generally free to have some multi-member districts together with
some single-member districts, as long as the number of members representing
a district is proportional to its population. However, single-member or multi-
member districts will be held to violate equal protection (even though they meet
the one person, one vote principle) if the district lines were drawn on the basis
of unconstitutional criteria, such as to suppress the voting power of racial minori-
ties or an identifiable political group.
118. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

d. States May Use Independent Commissions to Draw Districts

To avoid gerrymandering, states may use independent commissions to adopt
congressional districts, rather than allowing the state legislature to redistrict.
[Arizona State Legislature v. Arizona Independent Redistricting Commission, 576
U.S. 787 (2015)]

3. Candidates and Campaigns

a. Candidate Qualifications

1) Fee Must Not Preclude Indigents as Candidates

States may not charge candidates a fee that results in making it impos-
sible for indigents to run for office. An unreasonably high filing fee (which
was not tailored to promote a substantial or overriding state interest) might
be held totally invalid so that no candidate would have to pay the fee. A
reasonable, valid fee would have to be waived for an indigent candidate
who could not pay the fee.

2) Restrictions on Ability of Person to Be a Candidate

Restrictions on the ability of persons to be candidates must be examined to
see if they violate either the First Amendment right of political association
or the Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause. Such regulations
are judged on a sliding scale of scrutiny. (See XXI.B., infra.)

EXAMPLE
The Court invalidated a March deadline for filing a nominating petition for
independent candidates for a November election where the state allowed
the major political parties to name their candidates later in the year. [Ander-
son v. Celebrezze, 460 U.S. 780 (1983)]

Note: A state may require candidates to show reasonable support (signa-

tures or votes) to qualify to have their names placed on the ballot. [Munro
v. Socialist Workers Party, 479 U.S. 189 (1986)—upholding requirement of
receipt of at least 1% of the votes cast in the primary election]

3) Required Resignation of Office Is Permissible

A state may require state officials to resign their office if they enter an
election for another government office. [Clements v. Fashing, 457 U.S. 957
(1982)]

b. Campaign Funding, Contributions, and Expenditures

Government may allocate more public funds to the two “major” parties than
to “minor” parties for political campaigns, and may withhold public funding
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 119.

from candidates who do not accept reciprocal limits on their total campaign
expenses; but such expenses cannot otherwise be limited, unlike campaign
contributions to political candidates, which may be limited if government
chooses. (XXI.B., infra.)

4. Extraordinary Majorities—Referendum Elections

The government may require a supermajority vote for voter referendums, even
though such a requirement might give a minority disproportionate power. [Gordon
v. Lance, 403 U.S. 1 (1971)—upholding 60% requirement for referendum approval;
Town of Lockport v. Citizens for Community Action, 430 U.S. 259 (1977)—upholding
requirement that new county charter be approved by separate majorities of city and
noncity voters]

5. Replacement of Incumbent Legislators

A state may validly give to a political party the right to name an interim appointee
to the legislature to fill out the unexpired term of a legislator from that political party
who left office. No voter is denied equal protection by this system. [Rodriguez v.
Popular Democratic Party, 457 U.S. 1 (1982)]

D. RIGHT TO TRAVEL
1. Interstate Travel

a. Nature of the Right

Individuals have a fundamental right to travel from state to state, which encom-
passes the right: (1) to leave and enter another state, and (2) to be treated
equally if they become permanent residents of that state. [Saenz v. Roe, VII.C.3.,
supra—striking down California law that limited welfare benefits for new
residents to what they would have received in their prior state of residence]

b. Standard of Review
When a state uses a durational residency requirement (a waiting period) for
dispensing benefits, that requirement normally should be subject to the “strict
scrutiny” test. This means that the government must show that the waiting
period requirement is tailored to promote a compelling or overriding interest.
However, in some right to travel cases, the Court has not been clear as to
whether it is using this strict scrutiny, compelling interest standard of review.
The important point to note for the bar exam is that state residency require-
ments should not be upheld merely because they have some theoretical
rational relationship to an arguably legitimate end of government.

1) Examples
Because of the ad hoc nature of these rulings, we will list four examples of
Supreme Court decisions in this area:
120. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

a) A one-year waiting period before a person may receive subsistence

welfare payments is invalid. Similarly, a law providing that persons
residing in the state for less than a year may receive welfare benefits
no greater than those paid in the state of prior residence is also invalid.
[Saenz v. Roe, supra]

b) A one-year waiting period for state subsidized medical care is invalid.

c) A one-year waiting period to get a divorce is valid.

d) A state may require a voter to register to vote in a party primary 10

months before the primary election (to avoid interparty “raiding”).
However, a 23-month registration period would be invalid.

c. Distinctions Between Old and New Residents

Some state laws that have an adverse impact on new residents do not involve a
waiting period. For example, a state may attempt to dispense state benefits on
the basis of the length of time a person has resided in the state. A state law that
distinguishes between residents of the state on the sole basis of their length
of residency will serve no legitimate state interest. This type of law should be
stricken under the rational basis test because it has no rational relationship to
any legitimate state interest.

EXAMPLES
1) A state statute that dispensed differing amounts of state money to residents
of the state based on each resident’s length of residence was held invalid.
2) A state statute that grants an annual property tax exemption to a veteran of
military service only if he resided in the state before a specific date (May 1976) is
invalid.
3) A state law that grants a hiring preference (for civil service employment) to a
veteran only if he was a resident of the state prior to joining the armed services
is invalid.

2. International Travel
The Supreme Court has not yet declared that the right to international travel is
fundamental, although the right appears to be protected from arbitrary federal
interference by the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment. The Court has
held that this right is not violated when the federal government refuses to pay Social
Security benefits to persons who leave the country. The test here is “mere rationality,
not strict scrutiny.” [Califano v. Aznavorian, 439 U.S. 170 (1978)] Congress may give
the executive branch the power to revoke the passport of a person whose conduct
in another country presents a danger to United States foreign policy. [Haig v. Agee,
453 U.S. 280 (1981)] The Treasury Department, with congressional authorization,
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 121.

could restrict travel to and from Cuba without violating the Fifth Amendment. [Regan
v. Wald, 468 U.S. 222 (1984)]

E. RIGHT TO REFUSE MEDICAL TREATMENT

The Supreme Court had held that the right to refuse medical treatment is a part of an
individual’s “liberty” that is protected by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendment Due
Process Clauses. However, the Supreme Court has not ruled that this aspect of liberty is
a “fundamental right” and has not explained which standard of review should be used.
Nevertheless, the Court has ruled on the validity of several types of legislation.

1. Vaccination
An individual can be made to submit to vaccination against contagious diseases
because of the governmental and societal interest in preventing the spread of
disease. [Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11 (1905)]

2. Refusal of Medical Treatment

The Supreme Court has assumed (without deciding) that a mentally competent adult
has the right to refuse lifesaving medical treatment (including lifesaving nutrition).
[Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health, 497 U.S. 261 (1990)]

a. Compare—No Right to Assisted Suicide

There is no general right to commit suicide; thus, a state may ban persons from
giving individuals assistance in committing suicide. [Washington v. Glucksberg,
521 U.S. 702 (1997)] It is not irrational to permit competent persons to refuse life-
sustaining treatment but prohibit physicians to assist in suicide because there is
a logical, rational, and well-established distinction between letting someone die
and making someone die. [Vacco v. Quill, 521 U.S. 793 (1997)]

b. Compare—Criminal Defendants
Under the Due Process Clause, the government may involuntarily administer
antipsychotic drugs to a mentally ill defendant facing serious criminal charges
in order to make him competent to stand trial if: (1) the treatment is medically
appropriate, (2) the treatment is substantially unlikely to cause side effects
that may undermine the fairness of the trial, and (3) considering less intrusive
alternatives, the treatment is necessary to further important governmental trial-
related interests. [Sell v. United States, 539 U.S. 166 (2003)]

F. RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS

The Second Amendment protects the right of individuals to keep and bear arms.

1. Right to Self Defense

Self defense is at the core of a person’s right to keep and bear arms. A person has
a right to keep a handgun at home for self defense and a right to carry a handgun
outside the home for self defense. [District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008);
122. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen, No. 20-843, 2022 WL 2251305
(U.S. June 23, 2022)]

2. Standard of Review
A regulation of the right to bear arms will be upheld only if the government demon-
strates that the regulation is consistent with the country’s historical tradition of
firearm regulation. Simply positing that the regulation promotes an important interest
will not suffice. [New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen, supra]

a. Prohibited Regulations

1) In-Home Possession
A total ban on handgun possession in the home is unconstitutional. As is
a trigger-lock requirement because it makes it impossible for citizens to
use the weapons for the core lawful purpose of self defense. [District of
Columbia v. Heller, supra]

2) “May Issue” and Special Need Regimes

A discretionary licensing regime (known as a “may-issue” regime) that
gives broad discretion to licensing officials and requires applicants to show
some special need beyond a general desire to protect one’s self or one’s
property to obtain a license to carry a firearm is unconstitutional. [New York
State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen, supra]

b. Acceptable Regulations
Some regulations are permissible based on historical tradition.

1) “Shall Issue” Regimes

Some “shall-issue” licensing regimes (that is, regimes in which authorities
must issue licenses whenever applicants satisfy certain threshold require-
ments) are constitutionally sound. Permissible regulations may involve
background checks, reviews of mental health records, and training require-
ments. [New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen, supra]

2) “Sensitive Places”
It is also permissible to prohibit the carrying of arms in “sensitive places,”
such as legislative assemblies, courthouses, and polling places, but arms
may not be banned in urban areas broadly. [New York State Rifle & Pistol
Association v. Bruen, supra]

PART FIVE: FIRST AMENDMENT FREEDOMS

The First Amendment prohibits Congress from establishing a religion or interfering with the
exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech or the press, or interfering with the
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 123.

right of the people to assemble. These prohibitions have been made applicable to the states
through the Fourteenth Amendment. The freedoms, however, are not absolute, and exam
questions often focus on their boundaries. The following material will outline the scope of
each freedom.

XX. FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND ASSEMBLY

A. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
The freedoms of speech and assembly protect the free flow of ideas, a most important
function in a democratic society. Thus, whenever the government seeks to regulate these
freedoms, the Court will weigh the importance of these rights against the interests or
policies sought to be served by the regulation. When analyzing regulations of speech
and press, keep the following guidelines in mind:

1. Government Speech
The Free Speech Clause restricts government regulation of private speech; it does
not require the government to aid private speech nor restrict the government from
expressing its views. The government generally is free to voice its opinions and
to fund private speech that furthers its views while refusing to fund other private
speech, absent some other constitutional limitation, such as the Establishment
Clause or Equal Protection Clause. Because government speech does not implicate
the First Amendment, it is not subject to the various levels of scrutiny that apply to
government regulation of private speech (see infra). [Pleasant Grove City, Utah v.
Summum, 555 U.S. 460 (2009)] Generally, government speech and government
funding of speech will be upheld if it is rationally related to a legitimate state
interest.

EXAMPLES
1) The government may choose to aid a union representing government employees
by providing for payroll deductions of general union dues while refusing to allow
payroll deductions that will be used by unions to fund political activities. The deci-
sion not to collect funds for political activities is rationally related to a legitimate gov-
ernment interest (i.e., avoiding the appearance of favoritism), and thus the refusal to
collect such funds is constitutional. [Ysursa v. Pocatello Education Association, 555
U.S. 353 (2009)]
2) The government may fund family planning services but except from funding ser-
vices that provide abortion information. [Rust v. Sullivan, 500 U.S. 173 (1991)]
3) The government may refuse to fund artists whose work it finds offensive. [National
Endowment for the Arts v. Finley, 524 U.S. 569 (1998)]
4) The government may reject proposed specialty license plate designs submitted
by private individuals while accepting others. Since license plates are issued by the
124. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

state and bear the state name, this is a form of government speech, and states are
entitled to refuse to issue plates featuring certain messages or images. [Walker v.
Texas Division, Sons of Confederate Veterans, 135 S. Ct. 2239 (2015)]

a. Limitation
Spending programs may not impose conditions that limit First Amendment
activities of fund recipients outside of the scope of the spending program
itself. For example, while the government could prohibit the use of federal
funds to advocate for or support abortion [Rust v. Sullivan, supra], it could not
require recipients of federal funds given to organizations to combat HIV/AIDS
to agree in their funding documents that they oppose prostitution. [Agency for
International Development v. Alliance for Open Society International, Inc., 570
U.S. 205 (2013)]

b. Public Monuments
A city’s placement of a permanent monument in a public park is government
speech and thus is not subject to Free Speech Clause scrutiny. This is true
even if the monument is privately donated. By displaying the monument, the
government is disseminating a message, and the message is not necessarily
the message of the donor(s). As a corollary, the government cannot be forced
to display a permanent monument with a message with which the govern-
ment disagrees, and the government’s refusal to display a proffered monument
likewise is not subject to Free Speech Clause scrutiny.

EXAMPLE
A city with a Ten Commandments monument in its park was not required to
display a religious monument of another religion (the “Seven Aphorisms” of the
Summum faith). The Ten Commandments monument, although privately do-
nated, was deemed government speech. When the government is the speaker,
it may engage in content-based choices. [Pleasant Grove City, Utah v. Summum,
supra] (Note: While an Establishment Clause issue was not raised in Summum, a
concurring opinion suggested that the Ten Commandments monument did not
violate the Establishment Clause because it was one of 15 monuments in the
park recognizing the historical roots and morals of the community.)

c. Compare—Government Funding of Private Messages

In contrast to government funding of speech for the purpose of promoting its
own policies (such as the family planning services involved in Rust v. Sullivan,
supra), when the government chooses to fund private messages, it gener-
ally must do so on a viewpoint neutral basis. [See Rosenberger v. Rector and
Visitors of the University of Virginia, 515 U.S. 819 (1995)—state university exclu-
sion of religious magazine from program financially supporting many other types
of student publications violates the First Amendment]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 125.

1) Exception—Funding of the Arts

From a financial standpoint, the government cannot fund all artists, and
choosing among those it will fund and those it will not inevitably must be based
on the content of the art. [National Endowment for the Arts v. Finley, supra]

d. Trademark Protection
Trademark protection is not government speech, thus, it is subject to strict
scrutiny. Trademarks are private speech because they are produced by private
individuals and merely protected by government.

EXAMPLE
As part of a statutory scheme to grant trademark protection, Congress adopts a
rule prohibiting the registration of derogatory or disparaging trademarks. A rock
band adopted the derogatory term “Slants” as its name in an effort to reclaim the
term. The federal government’s denial of the band’s trademark application on
the grounds that the trademark was derogatory was unconstitutional because
the rule was viewpoint based and its enforcement would allow the government
to suppress speech from certain viewpoints. [Matal v. Tam, 137 S. Ct. 1744 (2017)]

2. Content vs. Conduct

A regulation seeking to forbid communication of specific ideas (i.e., a content regula-
tion) is less likely to be upheld than a regulation of the conduct incidental to speech.

a. Content
It is presumptively unconstitutional for the government to place burdens on
speech because of its content. To justify such content-based regulation of
speech, the government must show that the regulation (or tax) is necessary to
serve a compelling state interest and is narrowly drawn to achieve that end.
[Simon & Schuster, Inc. v. Members of the New York State Crime Victims Board,
502 U.S. 105 (1991)—striking a law requiring that proceeds to criminals from
books and other productions describing their crimes be placed in escrow for
five years to pay claims of victims of the crimes]

EXAMPLE
A state may not prohibit the sale or rental of violent video games to minors.
Such a prohibition is content-based, and the Supreme Court found that the pro-
hibition was not narrowly tailored to serve a compelling interest. It found the law
both underinclusive, because psychological studies show that such games have
only a small effect on youth violence, and overinclusive, because only some
parents object to them. The Court also declined to add violence as an additional
area of unprotected speech (see below). [Brown v. Entertainment Merchants As-
sociation, 564 U.S. 786 (2011)]
126. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

1) Exception—Unprotected Categories of Speech

The Supreme Court has previously determined that certain categories of
speech (e.g., obscenity, defamation, and “fighting words”; see C., infra)
generally are proscribable despite the First Amendment. Even in these
cases, however, the Court is less likely to uphold a prior restraint (i.e.,
a regulation prohibiting speech before it occurs) than a punishment for
speech that has already occurred.

a) Falsity in and of Itself Does Not Make Speech Unprotected

A statute criminalizing speech merely because it is false is a content
regulation. And while some categories of false speech are unpro-
tected (e.g., defamation, false advertising, fraud, and perjury), those
categorical exceptions are based on the harm caused. Speech is not
unprotected merely for being false. [United States v. Alvarez, 567 U.S.
709 (2012)—Stolen Valor Act making it a crime to falsely claim to have
received military decorations is unconstitutional; while the govern-
ment may have a compelling interest in maintaining the integrity of
military honors, nothing indicates that the law here is necessary to that
purpose]

2) Content-Neutral Speech Regulations

While content-based regulation of speech is subject to strict scrutiny,
content-neutral speech regulations generally are subject to intermediate
scrutiny—they will be upheld if the government can show that: (1) they
advance important interests unrelated to the suppression of speech, and
(2) they do not burden substantially more speech than necessary or are
narrowly tailored to further those interests. [Turner Broadcasting System,
Inc. v. FCC, 512 U.S. 622 (1994)]

b. Conduct
The Court has allowed the government more leeway in regulating the conduct
related to speech, allowing it to adopt content-neutral, time, place, and manner
regulations. Regulations involving public forums (i.e., forums historically linked
with the exercise of First Amendment freedoms) must be narrowly tailored to
achieve an important government interest (e.g., a prohibition against holding a
demonstration in a hospital zone). Regulations involving nonpublic forums must
have a reasonable relationship to a legitimate regulatory purpose (e.g., a law
prohibiting billboards for purposes of traffic safety).

3. Reasonableness of Regulation

a. Overbroad Regulation Invalid

Since the purpose of the freedoms of speech and assembly is to encourage
the free flow of ideas, a regulation will not be upheld if it is overbroad (i.e.,
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 127.

prohibits substantially more speech than is necessary). If a regulation

of speech or speech-related conduct punishes a substantial amount of
protected speech, judged in relation to the regulation’s plainly legitimate
sweep, the regulation is facially invalid (i.e., it may not be enforced against
anyone—not even a person engaging in activity that is not constitutionally
protected) unless a court has limited construction of the regulation so as to
remove the threat to constitutionally protected expression. [Virginia v. Hicks,
539 U.S. 113 (2003)] If a regulation is not substantially overbroad, it can be
enforced against persons engaging in activities that are not constitutionally
protected.

EXAMPLES
1) The Supreme Court struck down as overbroad an ordinance that prohibited
speech that “in any manner” interrupts a police officer in the performance of
her duties. [Houston v. Hill, 482 U.S. 451 (1987)]
2) An airport authority rule that bans “all First Amendment activities” within the
“central terminal area” is invalid as being substantially overbroad. [Board of Air-
port Commissioners v. Jews for Jesus, 482 U.S. 569 (1987)]
3) A law banning all door-to-door solicitations will be struck as being overbroad
[Martin v. City of Struthers, 319 U.S. 141 (1943)], but a law requiring solicitors to
obtain a homeowner’s consent to solicit is valid. [Breard v. City of Alexandria,
341 U.S. 622 (1951)]
4) An ordinance that prohibited all canvassers from going onto private residential
property to promote any cause without first obtaining a permit was overbroad.
While the government may have an interest in preventing fraud from door-to-
door solicitation, the permit requirement here went beyond cases where fraud
was likely to occur, and applied to religious proselytization, advocacy of political
speech, and enlisting support for unpopular causes. [Watchtower Bible and Tract
Society of New York, Inc. v. Village of Stratton, 536 U.S. 150 (2002)]
5) A city ordinance that prohibits homeowners from displaying any sign on their
property except “residence identification” or “for sale” signs is invalid because the
ordinance bans virtually all residential signs. [Ladue v. Gilleo, 512 U.S. 43 (1994)]

1) Burden on Challenger
The person challenging the validity of the regulation has the burden of
showing substantial overbreadth. [Virginia v. Hicks, supra]

b. Void for Vagueness Doctrine

If a criminal law or regulation fails to give persons reasonable notice of what
is prohibited, it may violate the Due Process Clause. This principle is applied
128. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

somewhat strictly when First Amendment activity is involved in order to avoid

the chilling effect a vague law might have on speech (i.e., if it is unclear what
speech is regulated, people might refrain from speech that is permissible for
fear that they will be violating the law). Vagueness issues most often arise in
relation to content regulations, but the same principles would apply to time,
place, and manner restrictions.

EXAMPLES
1) A municipal ordinance that prohibited vagrants was held void for vagueness
when it defined vagrants as “rogues and vagabonds . . . lewd, wanton, and las-
civious persons . . . persons wandering or straying around from place to place
without any lawful purpose or object . . . .” [Papachristou v. City of Jacksonville,
405 U.S. 156 (1972)]
2) A statute that prohibits attorneys representing clients in a pending case from
making statements that would have a substantial likelihood of prejudicing a trial,
but that also allows attorneys to make public statements regarding the “general
nature of the defense” they will present at trial, is void for vagueness, because it
does not give fair notice of the types of trial-related statements that are punish-
able. [Gentile v. State Bar, 501 U.S. 1030 (1991)]

1) Funding Speech Activity

Greater imprecision is allowed when the government acts as a patron in
funding speech activity than when enacting criminal statutes or regulatory
schemes, because speakers are less likely to steer clear of forbidden areas
when only a subsidy is at stake. [National Endowment for the Arts v. Finley,
1., supra—requirement that NEA consider standards of “decency” and
“respect for values of American people” is not invalid on its face]

c. Cannot Give Officials Unfettered Discretion

A regulation cannot give officials broad discretion over speech issues; there
must be defined standards for applying the law. The fear, of course, is that the
officials will use their discretionary power to prohibit dissemination of ideas
that they do not agree with. This issue usually arises under licensing schemes
established to regulate the time, place, and manner of speech. To be valid,
such licensing schemes must be related to an important government interest,
contain procedural safeguards (see D.2., infra), and not grant officials unbridled
discretion.

EXAMPLE
County required persons desiring to hold a parade, march, or rally to first obtain
a permit from the county administrator. The administrator was empowered to
charge up to $1,000 for the permit, but could adjust the fee to meet the neces-
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 129.

sary expenses of administration and police protection. This scheme is invalid

because it gives the administrator unbridled discretion despite the $1,000 limit.
It also is unconstitutional because it is a content-based restriction (the adminis-
trator theoretically would adjust the costs based on the popularity of the subject
at issue—an unpopular subject would require greater police protection). [For-
syth County, Georgia v. Nationalist Movement, 505 U.S. 123 (1992)]

1) Unlimited Discretion—Void on Face

If a statute gives licensing officials unbridled discretion, it is void on its
face, and speakers need not even apply for a permit. They may exercise
their First Amendment rights even if they could have been denied a permit
under a valid law, and they may not be punished for violating the licensing
statute. [Lovell v. City of Griffin, 303 U.S. 444 (1938)]

EXAMPLES
1) An ordinance vesting officials with the power to grant or deny parade per-
mits based on their judgment as to the effect of the parade on community
“welfare” or “morals” is unconstitutional on its face. [Shuttlesworth v. Bir-
mingham, 394 U.S. 147 (1969)] Similarly, ordinances giving officials broad dis-
cretion as to who may place magazine racks on public property or who may
obtain licenses to solicit door to door are invalid. [City of Lakewood v. Plain
Dealer Publishing Co., 486 U.S. 750 (1988); Lovell v. City of Griffin, supra]
2) A statute prohibiting excessively loud sound trucks is valid [Kovacs v.
Cooper, 336 U.S. 77 (1949)], but an ordinance giving officials discretion as
to who may use sound trucks is invalid [Saia v. New York, 334 U.S. 558
(1948)].

2) Statutes Valid on Face

If the licensing statute is valid on its face because it contains adequate
standards, a speaker may not ignore the statute, but must seek a permit. If
he is denied a permit, even if he believes the denial was incorrect, he must
then seek reasonably available administrative or judicial relief. Failure to
do so precludes later assertion that his actions were protected by the First
Amendment. [Poulos v. New Hampshire, 345 U.S. 395 (1953)]

4. Scope of Speech

a. Includes Freedom Not to Speak

The freedom of speech includes not only the right to speak, but also the right to
refrain from speaking or endorsing beliefs with which one does not agree—the
government may not compel an individual personally to express a message with
which he disagrees.
130. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

EXAMPLES
1) A state cannot force school children to salute or say a pledge to the flag.
[West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624 (1943)]
2) A motorist could not be punished for blocking out the portion of his auto-
mobile license plate bearing the motto “Live Free or Die”; as long as he left the
license plate in a condition that served its auto identification purpose, he did not
have to display a slogan endorsed by the state. [Wooley v. Maynard, 430 U.S.
705 (1977)]
3) A state may not require private parade organizers to include in their parade
groups with messages with which the organizers disagree. [Hurley v. Irish-Amer-
ican Gay, Lesbian & Bisexual Group of Boston, 515 U.S. 557 (1995)]
4) A state cannot force all licensed clinics that offered pregnancy-related servic-
es to provide a government-drafted notice about the availability of abortion and
contraception. [National Institute of Family and Life Advocates v. Becerra, 138 S.
Ct. 2361 (2018)]

1) Mandatory Financial Support

Although the government may not compel a person to express a message,
the government may tax people and use the revenue to express a message
with which people disagree.

a) Government Speech
The Court has held that compelled support of government speech does
not raise First Amendment concerns. [Johanns v. Livestock Marketing
Association, 544 U.S. 550 (2005)—beef producers can be required to
pay an assessment to support generic advertising of beef approved by
a semi-governmental producers’ board and ultimately by the Secretary
of Agriculture—even if they think generic advertising is a waste of
money—because the advertisements are governmental speech]

b) Compare—Private Speech
On the other hand, people cannot be compelled to subsidize private
messages with which they disagree.

EXAMPLE
Non-union members cannot be forced to pay a proportionate share of
union dues on the ground that they too benefit from collective bargain-
ing agreements because such a requirement would force the non-
union members to financially support political views that they might not
endorse. [Janus v. American Federation of State, County, and Munici-
pal Employees, 138 S. Ct. 2448 (2018)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 131.

(1) Exception—University Activity Fees

The government can require public university students to pay a
student activity fee even if the fee is used to support political and
ideological speech by student groups whose beliefs are offensive
to the student, as long as the program is viewpoint neutral (see
B.2.a., infra). [Board of Regents v. Southworth, 529 U.S. 217 (2000)]

2) State Can Require Shopping Center to Permit Persons to Exercise

Speech Rights
Note that the freedom not to speak does not prohibit a state’s requiring
a large shopping center (that is open to the public) to permit persons to
exercise their speech rights on shopping center property—at least as long
as the particular message is not dictated by the state and is not likely to
be identified with the owner of the shopping center. [Pruneyard Shopping
Center v. Robins, 447 U.S. 74 (1980)]

b. Includes Symbolic Conduct

Speech includes not only verbal communication, but also conduct that is
undertaken to communicate an idea. Of course, not all regulation of symbolic
conduct is prohibited. The Court will uphold a conduct regulation if: (1) the
regulation is within the constitutional power of the government; (2) it furthers
an important governmental interest; (3) the governmental interest is unrelated
to suppression of speech; and (4) the incidental burden on speech is no
greater than necessary. [United States v. O’Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968)—
upholding a prohibition against burning draft cards to protect the government’s
important interest in facilitating the smooth functioning of the draft system]
Note, however, that a regulation is not invalid simply because there is some
imaginable alternative that might be less burdensome on speech. [Rumsfeld
v. Forum for Academic and Institutional Rights, 547 U.S. 47 (2006)—statute
requiring schools of higher education to grant the military access to recruit
on campus is not invalid merely because the military could take out ads in
newspapers, on television, etc.]

EXAMPLE
A state may prohibit public nudity, even as applied to nude dancing at bars
and places of adult entertainment. Although nude dancing is marginally within
the protections of the First Amendment—because it involves the communi-
cation of an erotic message—the government has a “substantial” interest in
combating crime and other “secondary effects” caused by the presence of
adult entertainment establishments that is unrelated to the suppression of free
expression. [Barnes v. Glen Theatre, Inc., 501 U.S. 560 (1991); City of Erie v.
Pap’s A.M., 529 U.S. 277 (2000)—city council made findings regarding sec-
ondary effects]
132. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

COMPARE
1) A prohibition against students wearing armbands to protest the war in Viet-
nam was struck because it had no regulatory interest other than prohibiting the
communicative impact of the conduct. [Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Com-
munity School District, 393 U.S. 503 (1969)]
2) A prohibition against mutilating a United States flag (except in cases of proper
disposal of a soiled flag) was held invalid as an attempt to restrain speech; the
Court found that no imminent breach of the peace was likely to result, and the
government has no other interest in prohibiting such burnings. [United States v.
Eichman, 496 U.S. 310 (1990)]

c. Excludes Freedom to Bar Military Recruitment

Requiring schools of higher education to allow military recruiters to recruit on
campus or risk losing federal funding does not implicate free speech rights. This
is so even if the schools disagree with the military’s ban against homosexuals.
School recruitment receptions are not inherently expressive from the schools’
standpoint; they are merely a way to help students obtain jobs. Schools are not
being asked to say or refrain from saying anything, and neither are they being
asked to associate with the military in any significant way. Moreover, there is
little chance that a person would attribute the military’s positions to the schools.
Therefore, there is no First Amendment violation. [Rumsfeld v. Forum for
Academic and Institutional Rights, supra]

5. Prison Speech
A regulation concerning the activities of prison inmates, including any First
Amendment speech activities, is governed by a different standard in order to facili-
tate prison order: The regulation will be upheld if it is reasonably related to legiti-
mate penological interests. [Shaw v. Murphy, 532 U.S. 223 (2001)] Thus, a restriction
on incoming mail will be upheld if it is rational; a restriction on outgoing mail must
be narrowly tailored because there is less of a penological interest involved. [See
Thornburgh v. Abbott, 490 U.S. 401 (1989)]

B. TIME, PLACE, AND MANNER RESTRICTIONS—REGULATION OF

CONDUCT
All speech is conveyed through physical action (e.g., talking, writing, distributing
pamphlets, etc.), and while the freedom of belief is absolute, the freedom to convey
beliefs cannot be. The extent to which government may regulate speech-related conduct
on government property depends on whether the property involved is a public forum, a
designated public forum, a limited public forum, or a nonpublic forum.

1. Public Forums and Designated Public Forums

Public property that has historically been open to speech-related activities (e.g.,
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 133.

streets, sidewalks, public parks and the Internet) is called a public forum. Public
property that has not historically been open to speech-related activities, but which
the government has thrown open for such activities on a permanent or temporary
basis, by practice or policy (e.g., school rooms that are open for after-school use by
social, civic, or recreation groups), is called a designated public forum. The govern-
ment may regulate speech in public forums and designated public forums with
reasonable time, place, and manner regulations.

a. Test
To avoid strict scrutiny, government regulations of speech and assembly in
public forums and designated public forums must:

(i) Be content neutral (i.e., subject matter neutral and viewpoint neutral);

(ii) Be narrowly tailored to serve an important government interest; and

(iii) Leave open alternative channels of communication.

Remember: Even if a regulation meets the above conditions, it might still be

struck down on other grounds (e.g., overbreadth, vagueness, unfettered discre-
tion; see A.3., supra).

1) Content Neutral
The regulation cannot be based on the content of the speech—i.e., it must
be subject matter neutral and viewpoint neutral—absent substantial justifi-
cation (see C., infra).

EXAMPLES
1) The Court held invalid an ordinance allowing peaceful labor picketing
near schools, but prohibiting all other picketing, since it was a content-
based restriction. [Police Department of City of Chicago v. Mosley, 408 U.S.
92 (1972)]

2) A law may not forbid only those signs within 500 feet of a foreign em-
bassy that are critical of the foreign government. [Boos v. Barry, 485 U.S.
312 (1988)]

2) Narrowly Tailored
The regulation must be narrowly tailored (i.e., it may not burden substan-
tially more speech than is necessary to further the significant government
interest). However, the regulation need not be the least restrictive means
of accomplishing the goal.
134. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

EXAMPLE
A law requiring persons performing at a city’s theater to use the city’s
sound equipment is narrowly tailored to the city’s interest in preventing
excessive noise. [Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781 (1989)]

COMPARE
1) An ordinance that prohibited all canvassers from going onto private resi-
dential property to promote any cause without first obtaining a permit was
not narrowly tailored to the interest of preventing fraud because it included
too much speech that was not likely to give rise to fraud (e.g., religious
proselytization, advocacy of political speech, and enlisting support for
unpopular causes). [Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. v.
Village of Stratton, A.3.a., supra]

2) A ban on all leafletting was not narrowly tailored to the state’s interest in
controlling litter because it would suppress too much speech. [Schneider v.
New Jersey, 308 U.S. 147 (1939)]
3) Banning registered sex offenders from all social media websites was not
narrowly tailored to the state’s interest in preventing sex crimes. [Packing-
ham v. North Carolina, 137 S. Ct. 1730 (2017)]

Note: A regulation that is not narrowly tailored might also fail on

overbreadth grounds. (See A.3.a., supra.)

3) Important Interest
The regulation must further an important government interest. Such inter-
ests include: traffic safety, orderly crowd movement, personal privacy, noise
control, litter control, aesthetics, etc.

4) Alternative Channels Open

The law must leave open alternative channels of communication; i.e., other
reasonable means for communicating the idea must be available.

b. Examples—Residential Areas

1) Targeted Picketing
The Supreme Court upheld a statute that prevented focused residential
picketing (i.e., picketing in front of a single residence). The street/sidewalk
involved was a public forum, but the ordinance passed the three-part test:
(1) it was content neutral because it regulated the location and manner of
picketing rather than its message; (2) it was narrowly tailored to the impor-
tant interest of protecting a homeowner’s privacy (because it applied only
to focused picketing); and (3) alternative means of communications were
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 135.

available because the protesters could march through the neighborhood in

protest. [Frisby v. Schultz, 487 U.S. 474 (1988)]

2) Charitable Solicitations
Charitable solicitations for funds in residential areas are within the protection
of the First Amendment. However, they are subject to reasonable regulation.

EXAMPLE
A state cannot require professional fundraisers (before making an appeal
for funds) to disclose to potential donors the percentage of contributions
collected over the previous year that were actually turned over to the char-
ity. The disclosure is not necessary to promote the state interest of protect-
ing the public from fraud. However, the state can require a fundraiser to
disclose her professional status. [Riley v. National Federation of the Blind
of North Carolina, 487 U.S. 781 (1988)] In Riley, the Court also invalidated a
restriction on the fees that professional fundraisers could charge a charity,
because the particular statute was not narrowly tailored to protect either
the public or the charities.
COMPARE
States have a significant interest in preventing fraudulent charitable solici-
tations. This interest justifies charging a telemarketing firm with fraud for
telling persons solicited that the firm pays “a significant amount of each
donation” to the charity, when in fact the firm keeps 85% of gross receipts.
[Illinois ex rel. Madigan v. Telemarketing Associates, Inc., 538 U.S. 600
(2003)]

3) Permits
A state may not require persons to obtain permits in order to canvass door
to door for noncommercial or nonfundraising purposes. [Watchtower Bible
and Tract Society of New York, Inc. v. Village of Stratton, supra]

c. Example—Buffer Zones
Laws and injunctions restricting expression within so-called “buffer zones” are
often found in the context of cases dealing with demonstrations on streets
and sidewalks outside abortion clinics. These laws typically set boundaries
of a specified number of feet from clinic entrances within which anti-abortion
protesters may not approach women entering the clinics, in order to ensure
unobstructed access and maintain public safety and the free flow of vehicular
and pedestrian traffic.

1) Content-Neutral/Important Government Interest

The Supreme Court has for the most part found buffer-zone laws to be
reasonable, content-neutral regulations of speech that further the important
136. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

state interest of preserving access to healthcare facilities and maintaining

public order.

EXAMPLE
The Court upheld the constitutionality of a state law prohibiting persons
within 100 feet of a clinic from approaching within eight feet of those
seeking access to the clinic for purposes of oral protest, education, or
counseling. [Hill v. Colorado, 530 U.S. 703 (2000)—statute upheld against
challenge by petitioners who wished to “counsel” women as they enter
abortion clinics]

2) Narrowly Tailored
Under the second prong of the time, place, and manner test, buffer-zone
laws will be upheld only if they burden no more speech than necessary
to achieve the purpose of protecting access to healthcare facilities and
maintaining order on public rights-of-way. Moreover, the right of access
does not amount to a right to be free from all communication in the
vicinity of a facility that might be unwelcome. Court decisions in this area
tend to be very fact-specific, and the Court has indicated it is more likely
to find a buffer-zone law narrowly tailored if the state has first tried less-
restrictive measures to address the problems created by anti-abortion
protests.

EXAMPLE
A targeted injunction establishing a 36-foot buffer zone between specific
protesters and abortion clinic entrances was upheld where previous mea-
sures had failed to achieve the goal of ensuring public order and safety.
[Madsen v. Women’s Health Center, 512 U.S. 753 (1994)]

COMPARE
1) An injunction providing for a “floating buffer zone” of 15 feet between
protesters and persons entering and leaving an abortion clinic was held to
violate the First Amendment. The floating zone barred all verbal and written
communication from a normal conversational distance on public sidewalks,
and thus burdened more speech than necessary to ensure ingress and
egress from the clinic. [Schenck v. Pro-Choice Network of Western New
York, 519 U.S. 357 (1997)]

2) Anti-abortion pamphleteers challenged a state law that made it a crime

for anyone except clinic patients and workers to “enter or remain in” an
area within 35 feet of entrances to abortion clinics. The Court held that
this provision of the law violated the Free Speech Clause because it was
not narrowly tailored to achieve the interests of public safety and access
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 137.

to healthcare facilities. The law burdened more speech than necessary

because only one clinic in the state was the site of disruptive abortion
demonstrations one day a week; the state had not first tried “less intrusive”
measures (e.g., enforcing an unchallenged section of the law prohibiting
harassment and intimidation, or seeking a targeted injunction as in Mad-
sen, supra); and the asserted rationale that the law made the jobs of police
“easier” was not sufficient to justify such a sweeping restriction on speech.
[McCullen v. Coakley, 573 U.S. 464 (2014)]

d. Example—Designated Public Forum

Schools generally are not public forums. However, if a public school or univer-
sity allows private organizations and members of the public to use school
property for meetings when school programs or classes are not in session, the
property is a designated public forum for that time, and the school cannot deny
a religious organization permission to use the property for meetings merely
because religious topics will be discussed. Such a restriction would be content
discrimination. [Widmar v. Vincent, 454 U.S. 263 (1981); Lamb’s Chapel v. Center
Moriches Union Free School District, 508 U.S. 384 (1993)]

e. Injunctions
Injunctions that restrict First Amendment activity in public forums are treated
differently from generally applicable ordinances because injunctions present a
greater risk of censorship and discriminatory application. The test to be used to
determine whether an injunction that restricts speech or protest is constitutional
depends on whether the injunction is content neutral.

1) Content Based—Necessary to a Compelling Interest

If the injunction is content based, it will be upheld only if it is necessary to
achieve a compelling government interest.

2) Content Neutral—Burdens No More Speech than Necessary

If the injunction is content neutral, it will be upheld only if it burdens no more
speech than is necessary to achieve an important government purpose.

2. Limited Public Forums and Nonpublic Forums

Other than streets, sidewalks, parks, and designated public forums, most public
property is considered to be a limited public forum (e.g., government property
opened up for a specific speech activity, such as a school gym opened on a partic-
ular night to host a debate on a particular community issue) or a nonpublic forum.
The government can regulate speech in such forums to reserve them for their
intended use. Regulations will be upheld if they are:

(i) Viewpoint neutral; and

138. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

(ii) Reasonably related to a legitimate government purpose.

a. Viewpoint Neutral
Regulations on speech in nonpublic forums need not be content neutral; i.e.,
the government may allow speech regarding some subjects but not others.
However, such regulations must be viewpoint neutral; i.e., if the government
allows an issue to be presented in a nonpublic forum, it may not limit the
presentation to only one view.

EXAMPLE
If a high school newspaper is a nonpublic forum, a school board could decide to
prohibit articles in the paper regarding nuclear power. However, it may not allow
an article in favor of nuclear power and prohibit an article against nuclear power.

Similarly, the government may discriminate based on the identity of the speaker
in nonpublic forums (e.g., a school board might limit speakers to licensed
teachers).

b. Reasonableness
Regulation of speech and assembly in nonpublic forums need only be rationally
related to a legitimate governmental objective.

EXAMPLE
A city bus is not a public forum. The city, therefore, may constitutionally sell
space for signs on the public buses for commercial and public service advertis-
ing while refusing to sell space for political or public issue advertising in order
to minimize the appearance of favoritism and the risk of imposing on a captive
audience. [Lehman v. Shaker Heights, 418 U.S. 298 (1974)]

c. Significant Cases

1) Military Bases
Military bases are not public forums; thus, on-base speech and assembly
may be regulated, even during open houses where the public is invited to
visit. [See United States v. Albertini, 472 U.S. 675 (1985)] However, if the
military leaves its streets open as thoroughfares, they will be treated as
public forums. [Flower v. United States, 407 U.S. 197 (1972)]

2) Schools
Generally, schools and school-sponsored activities are not public forums.
Thus, speech (and association) in schools may be reasonably regulated
to serve the school’s educational mission. Schools generally cannot
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 139.

restrict a student’s off-campus speech, unless the restriction is related to a

regulatory interest like preventing cheating, harassment, or bullying. [See
Mahanoy Area Sch. Dist. v. B. L. by & through Levy, 141 S. Ct. 2038 (2021)—
school’s suspension of a student from the cheerleading team due to use
of profanity in a social media post that criticized the school and the team
violated the First Amendment, considering that the language occurred off
campus and outside school hours and did not cause school disruption or
lower team morale]

EXAMPLES
1) Schools can control the content of student speeches or student newspa-
pers for legitimate pedagogical concerns. [See, e.g., Bethel School District
No. 403 v. Fraser, 478 U.S. 675 (1986)—student suspended for sexually
explicit speech at school assembly] Similarly, a school may prohibit student
speech that may be interpreted as advocating or celebrating the use of ille-
gal drugs (“BONG HiTS 4 JESUS”) during a school-supervised activity (e.g.,
a field trip). [Morse v. Frederick, 551 U.S. 393 (2007)]
2) To be given access to the platform of official school recognition and
school funding, a public law school may require extracurricular student
groups to accept all students regardless of their “status or beliefs.” [Chris-
tian Legal Society v. Martinez, 561 U.S. 661 (2010)—school could deny fund-
ing to group that limited membership to persons who were willing to sign
a statement of faith based on Christianity and excluded persons who sup-
ported homosexuality and premarital sex; and see XXI.D., infra]

3) A state association that regulates interscholastic high school sports of

schools that voluntarily join may prohibit certain recruiting statements to
middle-school students for athletic programs. Even if the message involves
a matter of public concern, the rule is necessary for managing an effective
high school athletic league. [Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Associa-
tion v. Brentwood Academy, 551 U.S. 291 (2007)]

COMPARE
A school was forbidden to prohibit the wearing of black armbands in the
school (to protest government policies), because that prohibition was de-
signed to suppress communication, i.e., not related to a regulatory interest
(like prohibiting substantial disruption of the school). [Tinker v. Des Moines
Independent Community School District, A.4.b., supra]

3) Government Workplace or Charity

Neither a government workplace (including a court building and its
grounds) nor a government controlled charity drive constitutes a public
forum.
140. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

EXAMPLES
1) The government may conduct an annual fundraising drive that includes
some charities but excludes others on some ideologically neutral basis
(e.g., all charities that lobby). However, it cannot exclude a charity merely
because it disagrees with the organization’s political views. [Cornelius v.
NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc., 473 U.S. 788 (1985)]
2) A state may develop a system for meeting with and hearing the views of
a select group of its employees (e.g., union representatives) while denying
the ability to voice opinions at such restricted meetings to other govern-
ment employees. [Minnesota State Board v. Knight, 465 U.S. 271 (1984)]
COMPARE
In a public forum, the government cannot restrict the ability to participate
in public speech on the basis of union membership. Thus, the Court has
held that a teacher cannot be constitutionally prohibited from speaking at
a meeting of the school board that was open to the public. [City of Madison
Joint School District No. 8 v. Wisconsin Employment Relations Commission,
429 U.S. 167 (1976)]

4) Postal Service Property

Although sidewalks generally are public forums, sidewalks on postal
service property are not public forums. [United States v. Kokinda, 497 U.S.
720 (1990)]

5) Signs on Public Property

The Supreme Court has upheld a city ordinance prohibiting posting signs
on public property (including sidewalks, crosswalks, street lamp posts, fire
hydrants, and telephone poles), even if the sign is temporary in nature and
could be removed without damage to the public property. [Members of City
Council v. Taxpayers for Vincent, 466 U.S. 789 (1984)]

6) Airport Terminals
Airport terminals operated by a public authority are not public forums. Thus,
it is reasonable to ban solicitation within airport terminals, since it presents
a risk of fraud to hurrying passengers. [International Society of Krishna
Consciousness v. Lee, 505 U.S. 672 (1992)] However, it is not reasonable to
ban leafletting within multipurpose terminals having qualities similar to a
shopping mall [Lee v. International Society of Krishna Consciousness, 505
U.S. 830 (1992)]; although such leafletting can still be subject to reasonable
time, place, and manner regulations (see B.1., supra).

7) Candidate Debates on Public Television

A public television station debate for congressional candidates from major
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 141.

parties or who have strong popular support is not a “public forum” because
such debates are not open to a class of speakers (e.g., all candidates),
but rather to selected members of the class. Exclusion of candidates who
are not from a major party and who lack popular support is permissible
because these criteria are (1) viewpoint neutral and (2) reasonable in light
of the logistics for an educationally valuable debate. [Arkansas Educational
Television Commission v. Forbes, 523 U.S. 666 (1998)]

8) Mailboxes
A letter/mailbox at a business or residence is not a public forum. Thus, the
government may prohibit the placing of unstamped items in post boxes to
promote efficient mail service. [United States Postal Service v. Council of
Greenburgh Civic Association, 453 U.S. 114 (1981)]

9) Polling Places
A polling place is not a public forum since a polling place is, at least on
Election Day, government-controlled property set aside for the sole purpose
of voting and as such is a special enclave, subject to greater restrictions. A
state may reasonably decide that the interior of the polling place should
reflect that distinction by excluding some forms of advocacy from the polling
place. [Minnesota Voters Alliance v. Mansky, 138 S. Ct. 1876 (2018)]

C. UNPROTECTED SPEECH—REGULATION OR PUNISHMENT BECAUSE OF

CONTENT
Restrictions on the content of speech must be necessary to achieve a compelling govern-
ment interest. As indicated above, very few restrictions on the content of speech are
tolerated. The Court allows them only to prevent grave injury. The following is a list of the
only reasons for which the Court has allowed content-based restrictions on speech (i.e.,
the following are categories of unprotected speech):

(i) It creates a clear and present danger of imminent lawless action.

(ii) It constitutes “fighting words” as defined by a narrow, precise statute.

(iii) The speech, film, etc., is obscene. (This category includes “child pornography.”)

(iv) The speech constitutes defamation, which may be the subject of a civil “penalty”
through a tort action brought by the injured party in conformity with the rules set out
infra.

(v) The speech violates regulations against false or deceptive advertising—commer-

cial speech is protected by the First Amendment and it cannot be proscribed simply
to help certain private interests.
142. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

(vi) The government can demonstrate a “compelling interest” in limitation of the First
Amendment activity.

Recall that even if a regulation falls within one of the above categories, it will not neces-
sarily be held valid; it might still be held to be void for vagueness or overbreadth. (See
A.3., supra.)

1. Clear and Present Danger of Imminent Lawlessness

A state cannot forbid advocating the use of force or of law violation unless such
advocacy (1) is directed to producing or inciting imminent lawless action, and (2) is
likely to produce or incite such action. [Brandenberg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444 (1969)]

EXAMPLE
The “clear and present danger” test has been applied to hold that a state may not
punish as contempt out-of-court utterances critical of a judge, absent special circum-
stances showing an extremely high likelihood of serious interference with the admin-
istration of justice. [See Wood v. Georgia, 370 U.S. 375 (1962)]

a. Allows for Sanctions Against Speech

The test allows for sanctions against speech causing demonstrable danger to
important government interests. Disclosure of United States intelligence opera-
tions and personnel is “clearly not protected” speech. [Haig v. Agee, 453 U.S.
280 (1981)]

b. Compelling Justification Test

A similar test—one of “compelling justification”—was employed to hold uncon-
stitutional the Georgia legislature’s refusal to seat Julian Bond, an elected black
representative, where Bond’s speeches, critical of United States policy on
Vietnam and the draft, led the legislature to doubt his fitness and his ability to
take the oath of office in good faith. [Bond v. Floyd, 385 U.S. 116 (1966)]

2. Fighting Words

a. True Threats
The First Amendment does not protect “true threats”—statements meant to
communicate an intent to place an individual or group in fear of bodily harm.
[Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343 (2003)—a state may ban cross burning done with
an intent to intimidate; because of cross burning’s long history as a signal of
impending violence, the state may specially regulate this form of threat, which is
likely to inspire fear of bodily harm]

b. States May Ban Words Likely to Incite Physical Retaliation

States are free to ban the use of “fighting words,” i.e., those personally abusive
epithets that, when addressed to the ordinary citizen, are inherently likely to
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 143.

incite immediate physical retaliation. [Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U.S.

568 (1942)] Chaplinsky has, however, been narrowly read. Thus, in Cohen v.
California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971), the Court held that the state may not punish the
defendant for wearing a jacket bearing the words “Fuck the Draft,” pointing out
that “while the four-letter word displayed by Cohen in relation to the draft is
commonly employed in a personally provocative fashion, in this instance, it was
clearly not directed to the person of the hearer.”

c. Statutes Regulating Fighting Words Tend to Be Overbroad or Vague

While this classification of punishable speech continues to exist in theory,
the Court rarely upholds punishments for the use of such words. Statutes that
attempt to punish fighting words will tend to be overbroad or vague; the statute
will define the punishable speech as “opprobrious words,” “annoying conduct,”
or “abusive language.” Such statutes will fail, as their imprecise terms could be
applied to protected (nonfighting words) speech. Such a statute could not be
used to punish a person for saying to a police officer, “White son of a bitch, I’ll
kill you.” [Gooding v. Wilson, 405 U.S. 518 (1972); Lewis v. City of New Orleans,
415 U.S. 130 (1974)]

d. Statutes Cannot Be Viewpoint-Based—Limits Hate Crime Legislation

Although the general class of “fighting words” is proscribable under the First
Amendment, the Supreme Court generally will not tolerate in fighting words
statutes restrictions that are designed to punish only certain viewpoints (i.e.,
proscribing fighting words only if they convey a particular message). [R.A.V.
v. City of St. Paul, 505 U.S. 377 (1992)—ordinance that applies only to those
fighting words that insult or provoke violence on the basis of race, religion, or
gender is invalid]

1) Compare—Punishing Racially Motivated Conduct

The First Amendment does not protect conduct simply because it happens
to be motivated by a person’s views or beliefs. Thus, a state can increase a
convicted defendant’s sentence for aggravated battery based on the fact
that the defendant selected the victim of his crime because of the victim’s
race. [Wisconsin v. Mitchell, 508 U.S. 476 (1993)] However, punishment
may not be increased merely because of the defendant’s abstract beliefs.
[Dawson v. Delaware, 503 U.S. 159 (1992)—unconstitutional to increase
defendant’s sentence merely because it was proved that he belongs to an
organization that advocates racism]

3. Obscenity
Obscenity is not protected speech. [Roth v. United States, 354 U.S. 476 (1957)] The
Court has defined “obscenity” as a description or depiction of sexual conduct that,
taken as a whole, by the average person, applying contemporary community
standards:
144. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

(i) Appeals to the prurient interest in sex;

(ii) Portrays sex in a patently offensive way; and

(iii) Does not have serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value—using a
national, reasonable person standard, rather than the contemporary community
standard. [Miller v. California, 413 U.S. 15 (1973); Pope v. Illinois, 481 U.S. 497 (1987)]

a. Elements

1) Appeal to Prurient Interest

The dominant theme of the material considered as a whole must appeal to the
prurient interest in sex of the average person. The Supreme Court has found
this to include that which appeals to shameful or morbid interests in sex, but
not that which incites lust (insofar as lust may include a normal interest in sex).
[Brockett v. Spokane Arcades, Inc., 472 U.S. 491 (1985)] Mere portrayals of
nudity do not appeal to the prurient interest and are not obscene.

a) Average Person
Both sensitive and insensitive adults may be included in determining
contemporary community standards, but children may not be consid-
ered part of the relevant audience.

b) Material Designed for Deviant Group

Where the allegedly obscene material is designed for and primarily
disseminated to a clearly defined deviant sexual group (e.g., sadists),
rather than to the public at large, the prurient appeal requirement
is satisfied if the dominant theme of the material, taken as a whole,
appeals to the prurient interest of that group. [Mishkin v. New York,
383 U.S. 502 (1966)]

2) Patently Offensive

a) Community Standard
The material must be patently offensive in affronting contemporary
community standards regarding the description or portrayal of sexual
matters.

b) National Standard Not Required

A statewide standard is permissible but not mandatory. A juror may
draw on knowledge of the community or vicinity from which he
comes, and the court may either direct the jury to apply “community
standards” without specifying the “community,” or define the standard
in more precise geographic terms. [Hamling v. United States, 418 U.S.
87 (1974); Jenkins v. Georgia, 418 U.S. 153 (1974)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 145.

3) Lacking in Serious Social Value

The fact that the material may have some redeeming social value will not
necessarily immunize it from a finding of obscenity. It must have serious
literary, artistic, political, or scientific value, using a national standard. [Pope
v. Illinois, supra]

4) Standard May Be Different for Minors

The state can adopt a specific definition of obscenity applying to materials
sold to minors, even though the material might not be obscene in terms of
an adult audience. [Ginsberg v. New York, 390 U.S. 629 (1968)] However,
government may not prohibit the sale or distribution of material to adults
merely because it is inappropriate for children.

EXAMPLE
Because of the present lack of “gateway” technology that would permit
speakers on the Internet to block their communications, a federal statute’s
bar on transmitting “indecent” or “patently offensive” messages to minors
effectively amounts to a total ban and thus violates the First Amendment
right of adults to receive such materials. [Reno v. American Civil Liberties
Union, 521 U.S. 844 (1997)]
COMPARE
To prevent minors from getting harmful material, the government may con-
dition its support of Internet access in public libraries on their installing soft-
ware to block obscenity and child pornography—at least when the library
will unblock filtered material on any adult user’s request. [United States v.
American Library Association, Inc., 539 U.S. 194 (2003)]

a) Pictures of Minors
To protect minors from exploitation, the government may prohibit the
sale or distribution of visual depictions of sexual conduct involving
minors, even if the material would not be found obscene if it did not
involve children. [New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747 (1982)] The govern-
ment may also prohibit offers to provide (and requests to obtain)
material depicting children engaged in sexually explicit conduct when
the prohibition requires scienter and does not criminalize a substantial
amount of protected speech. Such offers of material that is unlawful
to possess have no First Amendment protection. [United States v.
Williams, 553 U.S. 285 (2008)]

b) Compare—Simulated Pictures of Minors

The government may not bar visual material that only appears to
depict minors engaged in sexually explicit conduct, but that in fact
146. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

uses young-looking adults or computer-generated images. [Ashcroft

v. Free Speech Coalition, 535 U.S. 234 (2002)] A holding otherwise
would bar speech that is not obscene under the Miller test and that
does not involve the exploitation of children as in Ferber.

b. Question of Fact and Law

1) Jury Question
The determination of whether material is obscene is a question of fact for
the jury. Of course, the judge can grant a directed verdict if the evidence is
such that a reasonable, unprejudiced jury could not find that all parts of the
test have been met.

2) Independent Review by Appellate Court

Appellate courts will conduct an independent review of constitutional claims,
when necessary, to assure that the proscribed materials “depict or describe
patently offensive ‘hard core’ sexual conduct.” [Jenkins v. Georgia, supra]

3) Evidence of Pandering
In close cases, evidence of “pandering”—commercial exploitation for the
sake of prurient appeal—by the defendant may be probative on whether the
material is obscene. Such evidence may be found in the defendant’s adver-
tising, his instructions to authors and illustrators of the material, or his intended
audience. In effect, this simply accepts the purveyor’s own estimation of the
material as relevant. [Ginzburg v. United States, 383 U.S. 463 (1966)]

4) Evidence—Similar Published Materials Not Automatically Admissible

The state need not produce expert testimony. Evidence that similar
materials are available on community newsstands, or that the publication
has acquired a second-class mailing privilege, does not necessarily show
that the material is not obscene and hence is not automatically admissible.
Nor is there any automatic right to have other materials held not to be
obscene admitted into evidence. [Hamling v. United States, supra]

c. Statutes Must Not Be Vague

1) Sweeping Language
Attempts to define obscenity broadly have encountered difficulties before
the Court.

EXAMPLES
1) A statute banning publication of news or stories of “bloodshed or lust
so massed as to become vehicles for inciting crime” is unconstitutionally
vague and uncertain. [Winters v. New York, 333 U.S. 507 (1948)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 147.

2) The Court held invalid a statute prohibiting the sale of any book “tending
to the corruption of the morals of youth.” [Butler v. Michigan, 352 U.S. 380
(1957)]

2) Construction May Save Vague Statute

A state statute will be upheld if it meets the tests as construed by the
courts of the state. Thus, a seemingly vague obscenity statute may be
saved by a state supreme court opinion that limits it to a proscription of
depictions of specific types of sexual conduct. [Ward v. Illinois, 431 U.S. 767
(1977)]

d. Land Use Regulations

A land use (or zoning) regulation may limit the location or size of adult enter-
tainment establishments (i.e., businesses that focus on sexual activities) if the
regulation is designed to reduce the secondary effects of such businesses
(e.g., rise in crime rates, drop in property values and neighborhood quality, etc.).
However, regulations may not ban such establishments altogether. [City of Los
Angeles v. Alameda Books, Inc., 535 U.S. 425 (2002)]

EXAMPLE
A city ordinance limiting adult entertainment establishments to one corner of
the city occupying less than 5% of the city’s area was deemed constitutional.
[City of Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc., 475 U.S. 41 (1986)]

e. Liquor Regulation
The Twenty-First Amendment grants states more than the usual regulatory
authority with respect to intoxicating beverages. Therefore, regulations prohib-
iting explicit live sexual entertainment and films in establishments licensed to
sell liquor by the drink, even though proscribing some forms of visual presenta-
tion that would not be obscene under Miller, do not violate the First Amendment
as long as they are not “irrational.”

f. Display
The Court has suggested that the state may regulate the display of certain
material, to prevent it from being so obtrusive that an unwilling viewer cannot
avoid exposure to it. [Redrup v. New York, 386 U.S. 767 (1967)]

g. Private Possession of Obscenity

Private possession of obscenity at home cannot be made a crime because of
the constitutional right of personal privacy. [Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557
(1969)] However, the protection does not extend beyond the home. Thus, impor-
tation, distribution, and exhibition of obscene materials can be prohibited.
148. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

1) Exception—Child Pornography
The state may make private possession of child pornography a crime, even
private possession for personal viewing in a residence. [Osborne v. Ohio,
495 U.S. 103 (1990)]

4. Defamatory Speech
When a person is sued for making a defamatory statement, the First Amendment
places restrictions on the ability of the government (through its tort law and courts)
to grant a recovery where the person suing is a public official or public figure, or
where the defamatory statement involves an issue of public concern. In these cases,
the plaintiff must prove not only the elements of defamation required by state law,
but also that the statement was false and that the person making the statement was
at fault to some degree in not ascertaining the truth of the statement.

a. Falsity
At common law, a defamatory statement was presumed to be false; to avoid
liability for an otherwise defamatory statement on the ground that it was true, the
defendant had to assert truth as an affirmative defense. The Supreme Court has
rejected this presumption in all public figure or public concern cases. In these
cases, the plaintiff must prove by clear and convincing evidence that the state-
ment was false. [Philadelphia Newspapers, Inc. v. Hepps, 475 U.S. 767 (1986)]

1) Requirement of Factual Statement

To be defamatory, the false statement must be viewed by a reason-
able person as a statement of fact, rather than as a statement of opinion
or a parody. Furthermore, a public figure cannot circumvent the First
Amendment restrictions by using a different tort theory to collect damages
for a published statement about him that is not a false statement of fact.

EXAMPLE
Even though a publisher may have intended to cause psychological dis-
tress to a public figure by publishing statements about him that were
derogatory, the public figure cannot receive a judgment for “emotional
distress” damages if a reasonable person who read or viewed the publica-
tion would not understand it to contain a statement of fact about that public
figure. [Hustler Magazine Inc. v. Falwell, 485 U.S. 46 (1988)]

Note: The fact that a publisher labels a statement as “opinion” will not provide
First Amendment protection if the statement would reasonably be understood
to be a statement of fact. [Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co., 497 U.S. 1 (1990)]

b. Fault
At common law, a defendant who had no reason to know that the statement he
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 149.

was making was false and defamatory could still be liable for defamation. Now,
however, a plaintiff in a public figure or public concern case must prove fault on
the part of the defendant. The degree of fault required is higher when the plain-
tiff is a public official or public figure than when the plaintiff is a private person
suing on a matter of public concern.

1) Public Official or Public Figure—Actual Malice Required

A public official may not recover for defamatory words relating to his
official conduct or a matter of public concern without clear and convincing
evidence that the statement was made with “actual malice” (defined below).
[New York Times v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1964)] This rule has since been
extended to public figure plaintiffs. (Note that while the Supreme Court has
not specifically held that all statements regarding public officials or public
figures necessarily involve matters of public concern, a case to the contrary
should be rare.)

a) Actual Malice Defined

Actual malice was defined by the Supreme Court in New York Times v.
Sullivan as:

(i) Knowledge that the statement was false, or

(ii) Reckless disregard as to its truth or falsity.

The plaintiff must show that the defendant was subjectively aware that
the statement he published was false or that he subjectively enter-
tained serious doubts as to its truthfulness.

(1) Actual Malice in False Quotation Cases

Proof that a defamation plaintiff was inaccurately quoted does
not, by itself, prove actual malice, even if the quotation was inten-
tionally altered by the defendant. If the published “quotation” is
substantially accurate, the plaintiff may not collect damages. To
show actual malice, the public figure plaintiff must prove that the
defendant’s alteration of the quotation materially changed the
meaning of the actual statements made by the plaintiff. [Masson v.
New Yorker Magazine, Inc., 501 U.S. 496 (1991)]

(2) Permitted Inquiries by Plaintiff

In attempting to prove knowing or reckless disregard of the truth,
the plaintiff may inquire into the state of mind of those who edit,
produce, or publish (i.e., conversations with editorial colleagues).
[Herbert v. Lando, 441 U.S. 153 (1979)]
150. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

(3) Petition Clause Does Not Protect Defamatory Statement

Made with Actual Malice
The First Amendment guarantees individuals the right to “petition
government for a redress of grievances.” However, this right to
petition the government does not grant absolute immunity to
persons who make defamatory statements about public officials or
public figures in their communications with government officials.
The defamed individual may prevail by meeting the New York
Times requirements. [McDonald v. Smith, 472 U.S. 479 (1985)]

b) Two Ways to Become a Public Figure

(1) General Fame or Notoriety

A person may be a public figure for all purposes and all contexts
if he achieves “general fame or notoriety in the community
and pervasive involvement in the affairs of society,” although “a
citizen’s participation in community and professional affairs” does
not render him a public figure for all purposes.

(2) Involvement in Particular Controversy

A person may “voluntarily inject himself or be drawn into a partic-
ular controversy to influence the resolution of the issues involved”
and thereby become a public figure for a limited range of issues.
[Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323 (1974)]

Note that Gertz appears to allow for the possibility of a person’s

being an involuntary public figure for a limited range of issues,
although such a case would be “exceedingly rare.”

c) Examples of Persons Not Deemed Public Figures

(1) Spouse of Wealthy Person

Marriage to an extremely wealthy person and divorcing such a
person does not amount to voluntarily entering the public arena,
even though press conferences are held by the plaintiff, because
going to court is the only way she could dissolve her marriage.
[Time, Inc. v. Firestone, 424 U.S. 448 (1976)]

(2) Person Engaging in Criminal Conduct

A person who engages in criminal conduct does not automati-
cally become a public figure even when the defamatory state-
ments relate solely to his conviction. [Wolston v. Reader’s Digest
Association, 443 U.S. 157 (1979)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 151.

(3) Scientist in Federally Funded Program

A behavioral scientist engaged in federally funded animal
research studies is not a public figure because he applies for
federal grants and publishes in professional journals. [Hutchinson
v. Proxmire, 443 U.S. 111 (1979)]

d) Who Are Public Officials?

Public officials for defamation purposes include (1) those holding or
running for elective office (at any level), and (2) public employees
in positions of public importance (for example, prosecutor, school
principal, police officer). [Rosenblatt v. Baer, 86 S. Ct. 669 (1966);
Greenbelt Co-op. Pub. Ass’n. v. Bresler, 90 S. Ct. 1537 (1970)]

2) Private Individual Suing on Matter of Public Concern—At Least

Negligence Required
When a private individual is defamed, there is less of a need to protect
freedom of speech and press and more of a need to protect private individ-
uals from injury from defamation because they do not have opportunities
as effective for rebuttal as public figures. Accordingly, defamation actions
brought by private individuals are subject to constitutional limitations only
when the defamatory statement involves a matter of public concern. And
even in those cases, the limitations are not as great as those established
for public officials and public figures. [Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., supra]
When the defamatory statement involves a matter of public concern, Gertz
imposes two restrictions on private plaintiffs: (1) it prohibits liability without
fault, and (2) it restricts the recovery of presumed or punitive damages.

a) No Liability Without Proof of at Least Negligence

The plaintiff must show that the defendant was negligent in failing to
ascertain the truth of the statement. If the plaintiff establishes negli-
gence but not actual malice, which is a higher degree of fault, he
also has to provide competent evidence of “actual” damages. (This
changes the common law rule that damages would be presumed by
law for injury to reputation and did not need to be proved by the plain-
tiff.) Actual damages may be awarded not only for economic losses
but also for injury to the plaintiff’s reputation in the community and for
personal humiliation and distress.

b) Presumed or Punitive Damages Allowed Only If Actual Malice

Established
If the plaintiff establishes that the defendant made the statement
with actual malice, the actual damage requirement is extinguished.
The plaintiff can recover whatever damages are permitted under
state law (usually presumed damages and even punitive damages in
152. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

appropriate cases). In other words, there is no constitutional protection

for statements made with actual malice, even though a matter of public
concern is involved.

c) What Is a Matter of Public Concern?

Matters of public concern are issues important to society or democ-
racy. The courts decide on a case-by-case basis whether the defama-
tory statement involves a matter of public concern, looking at the
content, form, and context of the publication. [Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v.
Greenmoss Builders, Inc., 472 U.S. 749 (1985); Snyder v. Phelps, 562
U.S. 443 (2011)]

EXAMPLE
In Dun & Bradstreet, the Court determined that a credit agency’s er-
roneous report of plaintiff’s bankruptcy, distributed to five subscribers,
was speech solely in the private interest of the speaker and its specific
business audience. Therefore, because a matter of public concern was
not involved, the First Amendment restrictions did not apply and the
state court award of presumed and punitive damages was upheld.

d) Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress

Damage actions by private individuals for intentional infliction of
emotional distress are subject to the First Amendment rights of defen-
dants if the speech relates to a matter of public concern, despite
its “outrageous” and “particularly hurtful” quality. [Snyder v. Phelps,
supra—peaceful picketing accompanied by signs critical of govern-
ment policy regarding the political and moral conduct of the United
States and homosexuality in the military that was conducted in a public
place near, but not visible from, nor disruptive of, a military funeral is
protected speech]

3) Private Individual Suing on Matter Not of Public Concern

The Supreme Court has not imposed constitutional restrictions on defama-
tion actions brought by private individuals that do not involve a matter of
public concern. Hence, presumed and punitive damages can be recovered
even if actual malice is not established.

c. Procedural Issues

1) Federal Summary Judgment Standard

When ruling on a motion for summary judgment in a federal court defama-
tion action in a case involving an issue of public concern, a judge must
apply the clear and convincing evidence standard (i.e., the judge should
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 153.

grant the motion unless it appears that the plaintiff could meet his
burdens of proving falsity and actual malice at trial by clear and convincing
evidence). However, the Supreme Court has not clearly held that state
courts must follow this practice under similar circumstances.

2) Judicial Review
An appellate court must review a defamation case by conducting an
independent review of the record to determine if the finder of fact (the jury)
could have found that the malice standard was met in the case. [Harte-
Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton, 491 U.S. 657 (1989)]

d. Recovery for Depiction in a False Light

To recover damages for depiction in a false light (as opposed to a defamatory
injury to reputation) arising out of comments directed at activities of public
interest, an individual must establish falsity and actual malice whether or
not he qualifies as a public figure under Time, Inc. v. Hill, 385 U.S. 374 (1967).
However, it is assumed that the Court would now modify this to mirror the Gertz
negligence rule for private plaintiffs.

e. True Privacy Actions

1) Publishing True Fact of Public Record

A newspaper or broadcaster cannot be sued for publishing a true fact once
it is lawfully obtained from the public record or otherwise released to the
public. [Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn, 420 U.S. 469 (1975)—rape victim’s
name already in court records open to the public; The Florida Star v. B.J.F.,
491 U.S. 524 (1989)—rape victim’s name inadvertently given to the press by
police]

2) Publishing Name of Juvenile Charged with Crime

A state cannot require judicial approval before the media can print the
name of a juvenile charged with murder where the name of the juvenile
was obtained through legal means (reporter heard name of defendant over
police frequency radio and questioned witnesses to the crime). [Smith v.
Daily Mail Publishing Co., 443 U.S. 97 (1979)]

3) Publishing Information on Judge’s Competency

A state cannot make it a crime to publish information, released in a confi-
dential proceeding, concerning the competency of members of the state
judiciary. [Landmark Communications v. Virginia, 435 U.S. 829 (1978)]

f. Commercial Privacy—Disclosing a Private Performance Can Violate “Right

to Publicity”
In Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co., 433 U.S. 562 (1977), the Court
154. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

held that state law could award damages to an entertainer who attempted to
restrict the showing of his act to those who paid admission, when a television
station broadcast his entire act. Here the “human cannonball” had his entire
15-second act broadcast over his objection.

g. Copyright Infringement
The First Amendment does not require an exception to copyright protection
for material written by a former President or other public figures. Magazines
have no right to publish such copyrighted material beyond the statutory fair
use exception. [Harper & Row Publishers v. Nation Enterprises, 471 U.S. 539
(1985)]

5. Some Commercial Speech

False advertising is not protected by the First Amendment, although commercial
speech in general does have some First Amendment protection. In determining
whether a regulation of commercial speech is valid, the Supreme Court asserts that
it uses a four-step process. However, it may be easiest to think about this as an initial
question followed by a three-step inquiry. First, determine whether the commer-
cial speech concerns a lawful activity and is not misleading or fraudulent. Speech
proposing an unlawful transaction (e.g., “I will sell you this pound of heroin for X
dollars”) and fraudulent speech may be outlawed. If the speech regulated concerns
a lawful activity and is not misleading or fraudulent, the regulation will be valid
only if it:

(i) Serves a “substantial” government interest;

(ii) “Directly advances” the asserted interest; and

(iii) Is narrowly tailored to serve the substantial interest. This part of the test does
not require that the “least restrictive means” be used. Rather, there must be a
reasonable fit between the legislation’s end and the means chosen. [Board of
Trustees of State University of New York v. Fox, 492 U.S. 469 (1989)]

[Central Hudson Gas v. Public Service Commission, 447 U.S. 557 (1980)]

EXAMPLES
1) A city could not prohibit the use of newsracks on sidewalks for the distribution
of commercial publications (such as free publications advertising products or real
estate for sale) if the city allowed sidewalk newsracks for the distribution of news-
papers. There is no “reasonable fit” between the category of commercial speech
and any substantial interest. Commercial newsracks do not cause any physical or
aesthetic harm different from that caused by newspaper newsracks. [Cincinnati v.
Discovery Network, Inc., 507 U.S. 410 (1993)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 155.

2) Similarly, a law prohibiting beer bottle labels from displaying alcohol content
was held invalid because, although the government has a substantial interest in
preventing “strength wars,” the government did not show that the label prohibition
advanced this interest in a material way. [Rubin v. Coors Brewing Co., 514 U.S. 476
(1995)]
3) The Court struck down a statute prohibiting pharmacies from selling information
about doctors and the medications they prescribe “for marketing or promoting a
prescription drug” without the prescriber’s consent. The statute also prohibited phar-
maceutical companies from using such information in marketing drugs without the
prescriber’s consent. This is a content-based, viewpoint-based, and speaker-based
restriction and is subject, at the least, to the scrutiny applied in commercial speech
cases. Even assuming that the state has a substantial interest in protecting prescrip-
tion confidentiality, the law is not narrowly tailored because it allows pharmacies to
disclose prescriber information to anyone for any reason other than marketing. [Sor-
rell v. IMS Health, Inc., 564 U.S. 552 (2011)]

a. Complete Bans
Complete bans on truthful advertisement of lawful products are very unlikely to
be upheld due to a lack of tailoring. Thus, the Court has struck down total bans
against advertising:

(i) Legal abortions;

(ii) Contraceptives;

(iii) Drug prices;

(iv) Attorneys’ services; and

(v) Liquor prices.

Note that the Twenty-First Amendment—giving states the power to regulate

liquor commerce within their borders—does not give states power to override
First Amendment protections.

1) Commercial Sign Regulation

It is unclear whether billboards may be totally banned from a city. However,
they can be regulated for purposes of traffic safety and aesthetics.

a) Blockbusting
A town could not prohibit the use of outdoor “for sale” signs by owners
of private homes as a way of reducing the effect of “blockbusting”
real estate agents (i.e., encouraging homeowners to sell at reduced
156. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

prices because of the threat of a sudden influx of minorities). [Linmark

Associates v. Willingboro Township, 431 U.S. 85 (1977)]

b. Required Disclosures
Commercial speech is protected largely because of its value to consumers.
Thus, the government may require commercial advertisers to make certain
disclosures if they are not unduly burdensome and they are reasonably related
to the state’s interest in preventing deception. [See, e.g., Milavetz, Gallop &
Milavetz, P.A. v. United States, 559 U.S. 229 (2010)—advertisements by lawyers
(and others) as debt relief agencies may be required to include information
about their legal status and the nature of the assistance provided, as well as the
possibility of the debtor’s filing for bankruptcy]

c. Special Attorney Advertising Rules

The Court has upheld prohibitions against in-person solicitation by attorneys for
pecuniary gain [Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar, 436 U.S. 447 (1978)—state interest in
protecting laypersons from fraud and overreaching is substantial, and prohibi-
tion here is narrowly tailored and directly advances that interest] and sending
mail solicitations to accident victims and their relatives within 30 days following
an accident [Florida Bar v. Went For It, Inc., 515 U.S. 618 (1995)—state interest in
protecting lawyers’ reputation is substantial, and ban here is narrowly tailored
and directly advances that interest].

D. PRIOR RESTRAINTS
A prior restraint is a court order or administrative system that keeps speech from occur-
ring (e.g., a licensing system, a prohibition against using mails, an injunction). Prior
restraints are not favored in our political system; the Court would rather allow speech
and then punish it if it was unprotected. However, the Court will uphold prior restraints if
some special harm would otherwise result. As with other restrictions on speech, a prior
restraint must be narrowly tailored to achieve some compelling or, at least, significant
governmental interest. The Court has also required that certain procedural safeguards be
included in any system of prior restraint.

1. Sufficiency of Governmental Interest

The Supreme Court has not adopted a brightline standard for determining when a
prior restraint is justified, but it has said that the government’s burden is heavy. For
exam purposes, you should ask whether there is some special societal harm that
justifies the restraint.

a. National Security
National security is certainly a sufficient harm justifying prior restraint. Thus, a
newspaper could be prohibited from publishing troop movements in times of
war. [Near v. Minnesota, 283 U.S. 697 (1931)] However, the harm must be more
than theoretical. Thus, the Court refused to enjoin publication of The Pentagon
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 157.

Papers on the basis that publication might possibly have a detrimental effect on
the Vietnam War. [New York Times v. United States, 403 U.S. 713 (1971)]

b. Preserving Fair Trial

Preserving a fair trial for an accused might be a sufficient basis for prior restraint.
However, the restraint will be upheld only if it is the only sure way of preserving
a fair trial. [Nebraska Press Association v. Stuart, 427 U.S. 539 (1976)]

1) Compare—Grand Jury Prior Restraint

A state law prohibiting a grand jury witness from ever disclosing the testi-
mony he gave to the grand jury (even after the grand jury term had ended)
violates the First Amendment. Such a law is not narrowly tailored to a
compelling interest, since any such interest that the government may have
in protecting the grand jury process can be protected by a nonpermanent
prohibition. [Butterworth v. Smith, 494 U.S. 624 (1990)]

c. Contractual Agreements
The Supreme Court has held that prior restraint is permissible where the parties
have contractually agreed to the restraint. [Snepp v. United States, 444 U.S. 507
(1980)—CIA agent contractually agreed to give agency a prepublication review
of any item related to his employment]

d. Military Circumstances
The Supreme Court has held that the interests of maintaining discipline among
troops and efficiency of operations on a military base justify a requirement that
persons on a military base obtain the commander’s permission before circu-
lating petitions.

e. Obscenity
The Court has held in a number of cases that the government’s interest in
preventing the dissemination of obscenity is sufficient to justify a system of prior
restraint.

2. Procedural Safeguards
The Supreme Court has held that no system of prior restraint will be upheld unless
it provides the persons whose speech is being restrained certain procedural
safeguards. The safeguards arose in the context of movie censorship for obscenity,
but the court has held that similar safeguards must be provided in all prior restraint
cases:

a. The standards must be “narrowly drawn, reasonable, and definite,” so as to

include only prohibitable speech (e.g., improper to permanently enjoin witness
from disclosing grand jury testimony; government interest can be protected by
nonpermanent injunction [Butterworth v. Smith, supra]);
158. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

b. If the restraining body wishes to restrain dissemination of an item, it must

promptly seek an injunction (e.g., improper to allow 50 days before seeking
injunction [Teitel Film Corp. v. Cusack, 390 U.S. 139 (1968)]); and

c. There must be a prompt and final judicial determination of the validity of the
restraint (e.g., improper to leave an injunction in place pending an appeal that
could take up to a year; government must either lift the injunction or expedite
the appeal [National Socialist Party v. Village of Skokie, 432 U.S. 43 (1977)]).

A number of other cases, especially in the area of movie censorship, also provide
that the government bears the burden of proving that the speech involved is unpro-
tected. [Freedman v. Maryland, 380 U.S. 51 (1965)]

EXAMPLE
A federal statute authorized the Postmaster General (1) to deny use of the mails and
postal money orders for materials found to be obscene in an administrative hearing,
and (2) to obtain a court order, upon a showing of probable cause, to detain incom-
ing mail pending completion of the administrative hearing. The Court found that this
denial of use of the mails violated the First Amendment: The procedures did not re-
quire the government to initiate proceedings to obtain a final judicial determination
of obscenity, failed to assure prompt judicial review, and failed to limit any restraint in
advance of a final judicial determination to preserving the status quo for “the short-
est fixed period compatible with sound judicial resolution.” [Blount v. Rizzi, 400 U.S.
410 (1971)]

3. Obscenity Cases
Much of the case law in the area of prior restraint has arisen in connection with
banning obscenity.

a. Seizure of Books and Films

As with any seizure by the government, seizures of books and films may be
made only upon probable cause that they contain obscenity or are otherwise
unlawful. (See Criminal Procedure outline.)

1) Single Seizures
Seizures of a single book or film (to preserve it as evidence) may be made
only with a warrant issued by a neutral and detached magistrate. And even
here, a prompt post-seizure determination of obscenity must be available.
If other copies of a seized film are not available to the exhibitor, he must
be allowed to make a copy so that he may continue showing the film until
a final determination has been made. [Heller v. New York, 413 U.S. 483
(1973)] Of course, if the materials are available for sale to the general public,
an officer may enter into the establishment and purchase the book or film
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 159.

to use it as evidence in a later prosecution without obtaining a warrant.

[Maryland v. Macon, 472 U.S. 463 (1985)]

2) Large Scale Seizures

“Large scale” seizures of allegedly obscene books and films—“to destroy
them or block their distribution or exhibition”—must be preceded by a full
adversary hearing and a judicial determination of obscenity. [Fort Wayne
Books, Inc. v. Indiana, 489 U.S. 46 (1989)]

3) Forfeiture of Business
The First Amendment does not prohibit forfeiture of a defendant’s adult
entertainment business after the defendant has been found guilty of
violating the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act and
criminal obscenity laws, even though the business assets included nonob-
scene books and magazines, where the entire business was found to be
part of the defendant’s racketeering activity. [Alexander v. United States,
509 U.S. 544 (1993)]

b. Injunction
After seizing material, the government may enjoin its further publication only
after it is determined to be obscene in a full judicial hearing. [Kingsley Books,
Inc. v. Brown, 354 U.S. 436 (1957)]

c. Movie Censorship
The Court has noted that movies are different from other forms of expression,
and that time delays incident to censorship are less burdensome for movies
than for other forms of expression. Thus, the Court allows governments to
establish censorship boards to screen movies before they are released in
the community, as long as the procedural safeguards mentioned above are
followed. The censor bears the burden of proving that the movie is unprotected
speech.

d. Burden on Government
When the government adopts a content-based, prior restraint of speech, the
government has the burden of proving that the restriction is the least restrictive
alternative to accomplish its goal. [Ashcroft v. American Civil Liberties Union,
542 U.S. 656 (2004)—upholding a preliminary injunction against enforcement of
a statute requiring age verification for access to Internet websites with sexually
explicit material, and criminalizing the failure to obtain age verification, because
less restrictive alternatives (e.g., parents installing filters) are available]

E. FREEDOM OF THE PRESS

As a general rule, the press has no greater freedom to speak than does the public.
However, a number of issues have arisen in the freedom of press context.
160. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

1. Publication of Truthful Information

Generally, the press has a right to publish information about a matter of public
concern, and this right can be restricted only by a sanction that is narrowly tailored
to further a state interest of the highest order. The right applies even if the informa-
tion has been unlawfully obtained in the first instance, as long as (1) the speech
relates to a matter of public concern, (2) the publisher did not obtain it unlawfully or
know who did, and (3) the original speaker’s privacy expectations are low. [Bartnicki
v. Vopper, 532 U.S. 514 (2001)]

EXAMPLE
During heated collective bargaining negotiations between a teachers’ union and a
school board, an unknown person intercepted a cell phone call between a union
negotiator and the union’s president. The tape was forwarded to a radio commen-
tator, who played it on the radio. The commentator was sued for damages under
civil liability provisions of state and federal wiretap laws that prohibited intentional
disclosure of the contents of an electronically transmitted conversation when one
has reason to know that the conversation was intercepted unlawfully. The Supreme
Court held that the statute violated the First Amendment as applied under these
circumstances. [Bartnicki v. Vopper, supra]

2. Access to Trials
The First Amendment guarantees the public and press a right to attend criminal
trials. But the right may be outweighed by an overriding interest articulated in
findings by the trial judge. [Richmond Newspapers v. Virginia, 448 U.S. 555 (1980)—
no majority opinion] The right probably applies to civil trials, although the Supreme
Court has not conclusively resolved that issue.

a. Access to Voir Dire Examination

The First Amendment guarantee of public and press access to criminal trials
also includes access to proceedings involving the voir dire examination of
potential jurors. In Press-Enterprise Co. v. Superior Court, 464 U.S. 501 (1984),
the Court found that a trial court could not constitutionally close voir dire exami-
nation of potential jurors without consideration of alternatives to closure even
though, in some circumstances, there may be a compelling interest in restricting
access to such proceedings to protect the privacy of potential jurors or the
fairness of the trial.

b. Access to Other Pretrial Proceedings

Pretrial proceedings are presumptively subject to a First Amendment right
of access for the press and public. Thus, a law requiring that all preliminary
hearings be closed to the press and public violates the First Amendment. [El
Vocero de Puerto Rico (Caribbean International News Corp.) v. Puerto Rico, 508
U.S. 147 (1993)—per curiam] If the prosecution and defense counsel seek to
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 161.

have a judge close pretrial proceedings, the judge would have to make specific
findings on the record demonstrating (1) that closure was essential to preserve
“higher” or “overriding” values, and (2) that the closure order was narrowly
tailored to serve the higher or overriding value. [Press-Enterprise Co. v. Superior
Court, 478 U.S. 1 (1986)]

If the prosecution seeks to have a pretrial hearing or trial closed to the public
and the defendant objects to the closure, there will be a Sixth Amendment
violation if the judge excludes the public and the press from the hearing or
trial without a clear finding that a closure order was necessary to protect an
overriding interest.

c. Compelling Interest in Protecting Children

The government has a compelling interest in protecting children who are victims
of sex offenses. Portions of trials wherein such children testify may be closed to
the public and press, but only if the trial court makes a finding that such closure
is necessary to protect the child in the individual case. A state statute, however,
violates the First Amendment if it requires closure of the trial during testimony
of a child victim of a sex offense without a finding of necessity by the trial judge.
[Globe Newspaper Co. v. Superior Court, 457 U.S. 596 (1982)]

d. Protective Order in Publishing Information Gained in Pretrial Discovery

The Supreme Court has upheld a state trial court “protective order” prohibiting
a newspaper defendant in a defamation suit from publishing, disseminating,
or using information gained through pretrial discovery from the plaintiff in any
way except where necessary for preparation for trial. [See Seattle Times Co. v.
Rhinehart, 467 U.S. 20 (1984)]

3. Requiring Members of the Press to Testify Before Grand Juries

In Branzburg v. Hayes, 408 U.S. 665 (1972), the Court held that requiring a journalist
to appear and testify before state or federal grand juries does not abridge freedom
of speech or press, despite the claim that such a requirement would so deter the
flow of news from confidential sources as to place an unconstitutionally heavy
burden on the First Amendment interest in the free flow of information to the public.
The Court’s opinion refused to create—and even rejected—a conditional privilege
not to reveal confidential sources to a grand jury conducting a good faith inquiry.
This position was affirmed in New York Times v. Jascalevich, 439 U.S. 1331 (1978).

4. Interviewing Prisoners
Although the First Amendment protects prisoners, and especially those corre-
sponding with them by mail, from a sweeping program of censorship [Procunier
v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396 (1974)], it does not permit journalists to insist upon either
interviewing specified prisoners of their choice [Pell v. Procunier, 417 U.S. 817 (1974)]
or inspecting prison grounds [Houchins v. KQED, Inc., 438 U.S. 1 (1978)].
162. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

5. Business Regulations or Taxes

Press and broadcasting companies can be subject to general business regula-
tions (e.g., antitrust laws) or taxes (e.g., federal or state income taxes). Thus, a tax or
regulation applicable to both press and non-press businesses will be upheld, even
if it has a special impact on a portion of the press or broadcast media, as long as
it is not an attempt to interfere with First Amendment activities. However, no tax
or regulation impacting on the press or subpart of the press may be based on the
content of the publication absent a compelling justification.

EXAMPLES
1) State tax on publisher’s use of more than $100,000 of paper and ink products an-
nually violates the First Amendment. [Minneapolis Star & Tribune v. Minnesota Com-
missioner of Revenue, 460 U.S. 575 (1983)]
2) State sales tax or “receipts tax” on the sale of general interest magazines that
exempts newspapers and religious, professional, trade, and sports journals from the
tax violates the First Amendment. [Arkansas Writers’ Project, Inc. v. Ragland, 481 U.S.
221 (1987)]
3) A state sales tax that exempted the sales of newspapers and magazines from the
tax but did not give a similar exemption to the sale of broadcast services (cable or sub-
scription television) did not violate the First Amendment. The tax was not based on the
content of broadcasts and did not target a small category of publishers. The tax was
applicable to all cable or satellite television sales. (There is no comparable sale of “free
TV” such as network broadcasts.) [Leathers v. Medlock, 499 U.S. 439 (1991)]

6. Monetary Damages for Failure to Keep Identity Confidential

When a reporter or publisher promises a “source person” to keep his identity confi-
dential and then publishes the source person’s name, state contract law or promis-
sory estoppel law may allow the source person to recover from the reporter or
publisher any damages caused by the publication of his identity. [Cohen v. Cowles
Media Co., 501 U.S. 663 (1991)]

7. Broadcasting Regulations
Radio and television broadcasting may be more closely regulated than the press.
Rationale: Due to the limited number of frequencies available, broadcasters have
a special privilege—and, consequently, a special responsibility to give suitable
time to matters of public interest and to present a suitable range of programs. The
paramount right is the right of viewers and listeners to receive information of public
concern, rather than the right of broadcasters to broadcast what they please.

a. Fairness Doctrine
Accordingly, the Court has upheld, under a regulatory “fairness doctrine”
(which is no longer enforced), FCC orders requiring a radio station to offer free
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 163.

broadcasting time (1) to opponents of political candidates or views endorsed

by the station, and (2) to any person who has been personally attacked in the
course of a broadcast, for a reply to the attack. [Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v.
FCC, 395 U.S. 367 (1969)]

1) Compare—Grant of Equal Newspaper Space

A statute granting political candidates a right to equal space to reply to
criticism by the newspaper violates First Amendment freedom of the press.
Decisions respecting size and content of a newspaper are forbidden to
government. [Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo, 418 U.S. 241 (1974)]

b. Newspaper Ownership of Radio or TV Station

Similarly, to promote the diversity of information received by the public, the
FCC may forbid ownership of a radio or television station by a daily newspaper
located in the same community. [FCC v. National Citizens Committee, 436 U.S.
775 (1978)]

c. Prohibiting Indecent Speech

Because of a broadcast’s ability to invade the privacy of the home, the First
Amendment does not forbid imposing civil sanctions on a broadcaster for airing
a full monologue (in contrast to isolated use of a few such words) of “patently
offensive sexual and excretory speech,” even though it is not “obscene”—at
least at those times when children are likely to be listening. [FCC v. Pacifica
Foundation, 438 U.S. 726 (1978)]

d. Political Advertisements
The First Amendment does not require broadcasters to accept political adver-
tisements.

e. Elimination of Editorial Speech from Stations Receiving Public Grants

Congress violated the First Amendment when it forbade any noncommer-
cial educational station receiving a grant from the Corporation for Public
Broadcasting from engaging in “editorializing.” [FCC v. League of Women
Voters, 468 U.S. 364 (1984)] This was the suppression of speech because of
its content; the elimination of editorial speech from stations receiving public
grants of this type was not narrowly tailored to promote an overriding govern-
ment purpose regarding the regulation of broadcasting in general or noncom-
mercial broadcasters in particular. Congress could deny persons receiving the
federal funds the right to use those funds for editorial activities, but it could not
condition the receipt of those funds upon a promise not to engage in any such
speech.

8. Cable Television Regulation

While generally regulations of newspapers are subject to strict scrutiny, and
164. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

regulations of the broadcast media are subject to less critical review, regulations
of cable television transmissions are subject to review by a standard somewhere
between these two. Rationale: The physical connection to a viewer’s television set
makes the cable subscriber a more captive audience than a newspaper reader and
distinguishes cable from newspapers, which cannot prevent access to competing
newspapers. On the other hand, unlike broadcast media, which is limited to a small
number of frequencies (see 7., supra), there is no practical limitation on the number
of cable channels; thus, the government’s interest in protecting viewers’ rights is
weaker with regard to cable. [Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC, A.2.a.2),
supra]

EXAMPLE
A law requiring cable operators to carry local stations is subject to “intermediate
scrutiny” since it is content neutral (see A.2.a.2), supra). Since a “must carry” provi-
sion directly serves the important interest of preserving economic viability of local
broadcasters and promotes the dissemination of information to noncable viewers, it
is constitutional. [Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC, supra]

a. Compare—Content-Based Cable Broadcast Regulations

A content-based cable broadcast regulation will be upheld only if it passes
muster under the strict scrutiny test. [United States v. Playboy Entertainment
Group, Inc., 529 U.S. 803 (2000)—law requiring cable operators to limit
“sexually oriented” programs to after 10 p.m. is invalid because of the less
restrictive alternative of enabling each household to block undesired channels]

9. Internet Regulation
The strict standard of First Amendment scrutiny, rather than the more relaxed
standard applicable to broadcast regulation, applies to regulation of the Internet.
Rationale: In contrast to broadcasting, there is no scarcity of frequencies (see 7.,
supra) on the Internet and little likelihood that the Internet will unexpectedly invade
the privacy of the home (see 7.c., supra). [Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union,
C.3.a.4), supra]

XXI. FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION AND BELIEF

A. NATURE OF THE RIGHT

Although the First Amendment does not mention a right of freedom of association, the
right to join together with other persons for expressive or political activity is protected
by the First Amendment. However, the right to associate for expressive purposes is not
absolute. It may be infringed to serve a compelling government interest, unrelated
to the suppression of ideas, that cannot be achieved through means significantly
less restrictive of associational freedoms, at least when the infringement would not
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 165.

significantly affect an association's right to express its viewpoints. However, in some

cases, as noted below, a more lenient standard will apply.

EXAMPLES
1) A state’s interest in ending invidious discrimination justifies prohibiting private clubs
that are large and basically unselective in their membership, or that are often used for
business contacts, from discriminating on the basis of race, creed, color, national origin,
or sex—at least when it is not shown that this would impede the individual members’
ability to engage in First Amendment activity. [New York State Club Association, Inc. v.
New York City, 487 U.S. 1 (1988); Board of Directors of Rotary Club International v. Ro-
tary Club of Duarte, 481 U.S. 537 (1987); Roberts v. United States Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609
(1984)]
2) A federal statute making it a crime to provide “material support or resources” of any
kind to a foreign terrorist organization with knowledge of its being designated a foreign
terrorist organization by the federal government does not violate the freedom of associa-
tion (or speech). The statute does not forbid mere membership or association with the
organization, only material support (which was defined in the statute). Moreover, given
the difficulty of obtaining information about terrorist threats, any burden that the statute
places on a person’s freedom of association is justified. [Holder v. Humanitarian Law Proj-
ect, 561 U.S. 1 (2010)]
COMPARE
1) A state antidiscrimination law may not bar the Boy Scouts from excluding an openly
gay assistant scoutmaster from membership. Forced inclusion would significantly bur-
den the right of expressive association of the Boy Scouts, since one of the sincerely held
purposes of the Scouts is to instill certain moral values in young people, including the
value that “homosexual conduct is not morally straight.” [Boy Scouts of America v. Dale,
530 U.S. 640 (2000)]
2) A city ordinance that restricted admission to certain dance halls to persons between
the ages of 14 and 18 was constitutional; it did not have to be justified with a compelling
interest because the associational activity of meeting in a dance hall is not an activity
within the protection of the First Amendment. [Dallas v. Stanglin, 490 U.S. 19 (1989)]

B. ELECTORAL PROCESS
Laws regulating the electoral process might impact on First Amendment rights of
speech, assembly, and association. The Supreme Court uses a balancing test in deter-
mining whether a regulation of the electoral process is valid: If the restriction on First
Amendment activities is severe, it will be upheld only if it is narrowly tailored to achieve
a compelling interest, but if the restriction is reasonable and nondiscriminatory, it gener-
ally will be upheld on the basis of the states’ important regulatory interests. [Burdick v.
Takushi, 504 U.S. 428 (1992)—upholding prohibition against write-in candidates]
166. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

1. Ballot Regulation

a. Signature Requirements
The Court has found that the interest of running an efficient election supports a
requirement that candidates obtain a reasonable number of signatures to get on
the ballot. [Munro v. Socialist Workers Party, 479 U.S. 189 (1986)—1%] Similarly,
a state’s interest in promoting transparency and accountability in elections is
sufficient to justify public disclosure of the names and addresses of persons
who sign ballot petitions. [Doe v. Reed, 561 U.S. 186 (2010)] However, the Court
struck down a severe ballot restriction requiring new political parties to collect
twice as many signatures to run for county office as for state office. [Norman v.
Reed, 502 U.S. 279 (1992)]

b. Primary Voting Regulations

A state may enforce a party rule requiring that a person be registered as a member
of the party within a reasonable amount of time prior to a primary to be able to
vote. [Rosario v. Rockefeller, 410 U.S. 752 (1973)] It may also require that voters in
a party’s primary be registered either in the party or as independents. Rationale:
The burden on the party’s associational rights is not severe. Thus, strict scrutiny
does not apply and the state’s important regulatory interests (e.g., in preserving
political parties as viable identifiable groups, preventing party raiding, etc.) are
sufficient to justify the restriction. [Clingman v. Beaver, 544 U.S. 581 (2005)]
However, a state may not prohibit a party from allowing independent voters to vote
in the party’s primary if the party wishes to allow independent voters to partici-
pate; such a requirement constitutes a severe burden on the associational rights
of the party and can be justified only if it is narrowly tailored to serve a compelling
interest. [Tashjian v. Republican Party of Connecticut, 479 U.S. 208 (1986)]

c. Single Party Limitation

A state law that prohibits an individual from appearing on the ballot as the
candidate of more than one party does not impose a severe burden on the
association rights of political parties. The state’s interest in ballot integrity and
political stability are “sufficiently weighty” to justify the law. [Timmons v. Twin
Cities Area New Party, 520 U.S. 351 (1997)]

d. “Nonpartisan” Blanket Primary

A state primary ballot law providing that candidates self-identify their party
preference and that the two top vote getters advance to the general election
does not on its face violate the association rights of political parties. Rationale:
(1) The law does not state that any candidate is a party’s nominee, (2) there was
no evidence that voters would be confused by the self-identifications, and (3)
the state may design a ballot that will make this clear. [Washington State Grange
v. Washington State Republican Party, 552 U.S. 442 (2008)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 167.

2. Party Regulation
The state has less interest in governing party activities than in governing elections
in general. Thus, the Court has held invalid a statute prohibiting the governing
committee of a political party from endorsing or opposing candidates in primary
elections. [Eu v. San Francisco County Democratic Central Committee, 489 U.S. 214
(1989); and see California Democratic Party v. Jones, 530 U.S. 567 (2000)—state
cannot require political parties to allow nonparty members to vote in the party’s
primary election] Similarly, it has held invalid state regulations concerning the selec-
tion of delegates to a national party convention and the selection of candidates
at such elections. [Cousins v. Wigoda, 419 U.S. 477 (1975); Democratic Party v.
LaFolette, 450 U.S. 107 (1981)]

a. Judicial Candidate Selection

A state law that permits political parties to choose nominees for state judge-
ships at state conventions does not violate the freedom of association rights
of candidates for judgeships simply because the historic domination of party
leaders results in strongly favoring those that they support. Rationale: This
process “has been a traditional means of choosing party nominees.” [New York
State Board of Elections v. Lopez Torres, 552 U.S. 196 (2008)]

3. Limits on Contributions
A statute limiting election campaign contributions is not tested under a strict
scrutiny standard; rather, it must be “closely drawn” to match a “sufficiently impor-
tant interest”—an intermediate scrutiny standard. [McConnell v. Federal Election
Commission, 540 U.S. 93 (2003)]

a. To Political Candidate
Laws limiting the amount of money that a person or group may contribute to a
political candidate are valid, since the government has a sufficiently important
interest in stopping the fact (or appearance) of corruption that may result from
large contributions. Moreover, such laws do not substantially restrict freedom of
expression or freedom of association (as long as the contributor may spend his
money directly to discuss candidates and issues). [Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1
(1976)]

1) Equalizing Large Expenditures

A law increasing contribution limits for a candidate whose wealthy
opponent achieves an advantage by spending personal funds (exceeding
$350,000) violates the First Amendment. Rationale: Although Congress
may raise contribution limits for both candidates in situations of this kind,
“penalizing” a self-financing candidate who robustly expresses the right
to advocate his own election cannot be justified by leveling opportuni-
ties for candidates of different personal wealth. [Davis v. Federal Election
Commission, 554 U.S. 724 (2008)]
168. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

b. To Ballot Referendum Committee

The government may not limit contributions to a political committee that
supports or opposes a ballot referendum (as opposed to one that supports a
political candidate). Such a limitation on contributions to influence referendum
elections violates the freedoms of speech and association. [Citizens Against
Rent Control v. Berkeley, 454 U.S. 290 (1981)]

c. Disclosure of Contributors or Recipients of Money

The government may require a political party or committee to disclose the
names of contributors or recipients of money to or from the party or committee.
However, if the party or committee can show a “reasonable probability” that
disclosure will cause harm to the party, committee, or private individuals, they
have a First Amendment right to refuse to make such disclosures. [Brown v.
Socialist Workers ’74 Campaign Committee, 459 U.S. 87 (1982)]

d. Aggregate Contribution Limits Unconstitutional

The government may not limit the aggregate amount one person or entity
contributes to political candidates or committees during an election even
though it may limit the amount given to a single candidate. Aggregate limits
violate the First Amendment’s protection of political speech because unlike
individual contribution limits, they do not further the government’s interest
in preventing quid pro quo corruption or the appearance of such, and they
seriously restrict participation in the democratic process. Spending large
sums of money in connection with elections, but not in an effort to control the
exercise of a specific officeholder’s duties, does not give rise to such corrup-
tion, nor does the possibility that the contributor may garner “influence over or
access to” elected officials or political parties. [McCutcheon v. Federal Election
Commission, 572 U.S. 185 (2014)]

4. Limits on Expenditures
As discussed above, the government may limit the amount that a person is
permitted to contribute to another’s campaign. However, the government may not
limit the amount that a person expends on his own campaign. [Buckley v. Valeo,
supra] Neither may the government limit the amount that a person spends to get a
candidate elected, as long as the expenditures are not contributed directly to the
candidate nor coordinated with that of the candidate—i.e., the expenditures must be
independent of the candidate and not disguised contributions. Thus, corporations,
unions, etc., may spend whatever they desire to get a candidate elected. [See, e.g.,
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 558 U.S. 310 (2010)]

5. Compare—Regulations of Core Political Speech

Regulation of “core political speech” must be distinguished from regulation of the
process surrounding elections. Regulation of “core political speech” will be upheld
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 169.

only if it passes muster under strict scrutiny. [McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission,
514 U.S. 334 (1995)]

a. Prohibiting Any Election Day Campaigning

A state law prohibiting any campaigning on election day has been held
invalid as applied to a newspaper urging people to vote in a certain way. The
right to comment on political issues is one of the most essential elements of
free speech, and such conduct by newspapers would pose little danger to
conducting elections. [Mills v. Alabama, 384 U.S. 214 (1966)]

1) Compare—Hundred-Foot Limit
A law prohibiting campaign activity within 100 feet of a polling place is
valid. Even though the law is content based and concerns an essential
element of free speech, it is necessary to serve the compelling interest of
preventing voter intimidation and election fraud. [Burson v. Freeman, 504
U.S. 191 (1992)]

b. Prohibiting Anonymous Campaign Literature

Laws prohibiting distribution of anonymous campaign literature involve core
political speech and have been stricken because they were not narrowly
tailored to a compelling state interest. [McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission,
supra; Buckley v. American Constitutional Law Foundation, 525 U.S. 182 (1999)]

c. Prohibiting Judge Candidates from Announcing Their Views

A rule prohibiting candidates for judicial election from announcing their views
on disputed legal and political issues violates the First Amendment. This is both
a content-based restriction and a restriction on core political speech. In either
case, it can be justified only if it is necessary to a compelling state interest.
Two state interests were suggested to support the rule here: It is necessary to
maintain an impartial judiciary and it is necessary to preserve the appearance
of impartiality. The Court found that the rule is “woefully underinclusive” and so
is not tailored at all toward achieving these goals. For example, it allows candi-
dates to show bias toward political parties while it prohibits them from stating an
opinion about political issues. The Court also found that finding judges without
any preconceptions in favor of particular legal views is not a compelling interest
because it would be both impossible to find such a person and undesirable.
[Republican Party of Minnesota v. White, 536 U.S. 765 (2002)]

d. Distinguishing Political Speech from Candidate Advocacy

An ad concerning a political issue, even if sponsored by a corporation, run
during an election campaign will be considered to be core political speech—
rather than candidate advocacy—unless it is susceptible of no reasonable
interpretation other than one as an appeal to vote for or against a particular
candidate. [Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc., 551
170. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

U.S. 449 (2007)—ad urging voters to contact their senators to encourage them
to end a filibuster of federal judicial nominations was core political speech—
and could not be banned—even when one of the senators was running for
re-election]

e. Solicitation of Campaign Funds by Judicial Candidates

A state may ban personal solicitation of campaign funds by judicial candidates.
Rationale: If judicial candidates personally ask for money, individuals might
feel obligated to donate in the hopes of garnering a favor from the candidates
or from fear of retribution for not donating. The ban withstands strict scrutiny
because it “advances the state’s compelling interest in preserving public confi-
dence in the integrity of the judiciary, and it does so through means narrowly
tailored to avoid unnecessarily abridging speech.” [Williams-Yulee v. Florida Bar,
135 S. Ct. 1656 (2015)]

C. BAR MEMBERSHIP AND PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT

The government often requires persons who accept government jobs to submit to loyalty
oaths and refrain from certain conduct (e.g., campaigning). Such regulations often impact
upon the freedom of speech and association.

1. Restraints on Speech Activities of Government Employees

Under the First Amendment, speech generally cannot be regulated or punished
based on the content of the speech unless the regulation or punishment is neces-
sary to achieve a compelling government interest. However, special rules apply
when the government seeks to punish a government employee for speech or
speech-related activities.

a. Speech Made Pursuant to Official Duties

A government employer may punish a government employee’s speech
whenever the speech is made on the job and pursuant to the employee’s official
duties. This is true even if the speech touches on a matter of public concern.
[Garcetti v. Ceballos, 547 U.S. 410 (2006)]

EXAMPLE
P, a district attorney, reviewed a case, concluded that there were irregulari-
ties in an underlying search warrant, contacted his supervisors, and suggested
dismissing the case. P’s supervisors nevertheless proceeded with the prosecu-
tion. At a hearing challenging the warrant, P again raised his concerns about
the warrant, but the court rejected the challenge. P claims that he was then
subjected to retaliatory employment actions because of his testimony and sued
his employer for violating his First Amendment rights. P’s employer denied
undertaking any retaliatory actions, but even if such actions did occur, no First
Amendment violation could occur here because the speech was undertaken as
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 171.

part of P’s job—a government employer may evaluate an employee based on

any writing or speech that the employee undertakes as part of his official duties.
[Garcetti v. Ceballos, supra]

b. Other Speech
If speech is not made pursuant to an employee’s official duties, two tests
apply. If a government employee’s speech does not involve a matter of public
concern, the courts give the government employer a wide degree of deference
and allow the employer to punish the employee if the speech was disruptive
of the work environment. However, if a matter of public concern is involved,
courts must balance the employee’s rights as a citizen to comment on a matter
of public concern against the government’s interest as an employer in efficient
performance of public service.

EXAMPLES
1) A teacher cannot be fired for writing a letter to a newspaper attacking the
school superintendent’s handling of proposals to raise new revenue for the
school—a matter of public concern. [Pickering v. Board of Education, 391 U.S.
563 (1968)]
2) The Court held invalid the firing of a clerical employee from a constable’s
office for expressing her disappointment that an assassination attempt on
President Reagan did not succeed, because in context the statement could not
be understood to be an actual threat or an action that would interfere with the
running of the office; rather, the Court viewed it as a commentary on the public
issue of the President’s policies. [Rankin v. McPherson, 483 U.S. 378 (1987)]
COMPARE
The Court upheld the firing of an attorney for circulating in the office a petition
regarding transfer policies. [Connick v. Myers, 461 U.S. 138 (1983)]

1) Petition Clause Claims Treated Similarly

A government employee’s right under the First Amendment to petition the
government for redress is governed by the principles discussed above.
Thus, unless a government employee’s grievance relates to a matter
of public concern, it is not a constitutionally protected activity, and the
employee may not bring a constitutional tort suit (under 42 U.S.C. section
1983) alleging that his employer took retaliatory actions in violation of the
employee’s right to petition. [Duryea v. Guarnieri, 564 U.S. 379 (2011)]

c. Participation in Political Campaigns

The federal government may prohibit federal executive branch employees from
taking an active part in political campaigns. The rationale is twofold: to further
172. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

nonpartisanship in administration and to protect employees from being coerced

to work for the election of their employers. [United Public Workers v. Mitchell,
330 U.S. 75 (1947)]

d. Bans on Receiving Honoraria

A provision of the Ethics in Government Act banning government employees
from accepting an honorarium for making speeches, writing articles, or making
appearances was held to violate the First Amendment when applied to “rank
and file” employees. Such a rule deters speech within a broad category of
expression by a massive number of potential speakers and thus can be justi-
fied only if the government can show that the employees’ and their potential
audiences’ rights are outweighed by the necessary impact the speech would
have on actual operation of the government. The government failed to cite any
evidence of misconduct related to honoraria by the rank and file employees,
and so failed to meet the burden here. [United States v. National Treasury
Employees Union, 513 U.S. 454 (1995)]

e. Patronage
The First Amendment freedoms of political belief and association forbid the
hiring, promotion, transfer, firing, or recall of a public employee because of the
person's political views or political party affiliation unless the hiring authority
demonstrates that party affiliation or beliefs are appropriate requirements for
the effective performance of the public office involved, e.g., “policymaking” or
“confidential” nature of work. [Rutan v. Republican Party of Illinois, 497 U.S. 62
(1990)]

2. Loyalty Oaths
It is permissible for the federal government to require employees and other public
officers to take loyalty oaths. However, such oaths will not be upheld if they are
overbroad (i.e., prohibit constitutionally protected activities) or are vague so that they
have a chilling effect on First Amendment activities.

a. Overbreadth

1) Knowledge of Organization’s Aim Required

Public employment cannot be denied to persons who are simply members
of the Communist Party because only knowing membership with “specific
intent to further unlawful aims” is unprotected by the First Amendment.
[Keyishian v. Board of Regents, 385 U.S. 589 (1967)]

2) Advocacy of Doctrine Protected

A political party may not be denied a place on the ballot for refusing to take
a loyalty oath that it does not advocate violent overthrow of the govern-
ment as an abstract doctrine. The First Amendment forbids “statutes
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 173.

regulating advocacy that are not limited to advocacy of action.” [Communist

Party v. Whitcomb, 414 U.S. 441 (1974)]

b. Vagueness

1) Oaths Upheld
Compare the following oaths that have been upheld:

a) To Support the Constitution

An oath that required public employees and bar applicants to “support
the Constitution of the United States” and the state constitution has
been upheld. [Connell v. Higginbotham, 403 U.S. 207 (1971)]

b) To Oppose the Overthrow of the Government

An oath required of all state employees “to oppose the overthrow
of the government . . . by force, violence, or by an illegal or unconsti-
tutional method” has also been upheld. The Court read this oath as
akin to those requiring the taker simply to “support” the Constitution,
“to commit themselves to live by the constitutional processes of our
system.” Moreover, the oath provided fair notice, because its violation
could be punished only by a prosecution for perjury, which required
proof of knowing falsity. [Cole v. Richardson, 405 U.S. 676 (1972)]

2) Oath Not Upheld

A loyalty oath for public employees that they “promote respect for the flag
and . . . reverence for law and order” is void for vagueness, since a refusal
to salute the flag on religious grounds might be found in breach thereof.
[Baggett v. Bullitt, 377 U.S. 360 (1964)]

3. Disclosure of Associations
Forcing disclosure of First Amendment activities as a condition of public employment,
bar membership, or other public benefits may have a chilling effect. Thus, the state
cannot force every prospective government employee to disclose every organiza-
tional membership. Such a broad disclosure has insufficient relation to loyalty and
professional competence, and the state has available less drastic means to achieve its
purpose. [Shelton v. Tucker, 364 U.S. 479 (1960)] The state may inquire only into those
activities that are relevant to the position. If the candidate fails to answer relevant
questions, employment may be denied. [Konigsberg v. State Bar of California, 366 U.S.
36 (1961)] The Court has extended this analysis to charitable disclosures. [Americans
for Prosperity Found. v. Bonta, 141 S. Ct. 2373 (2021)—invalidating a state statute
requiring charities to disclose donor information, given the lack of narrow tailoring]

a. Fifth Amendment Limitation

If the job candidate refuses to answer on a claim of the privilege against
174. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

self-incrimination, denial of the job violates the Fifth and Fourteenth

Amendments. [Spevack v. Klein, 385 U.S. 511 (1967)] However, if individuals are
ordered by appropriate authorities to answer questions “specifically, directly,
and narrowly relating to their official duties,” and they refuse to do so by
claiming the privilege against self-incrimination, they may be denied the job or
discharged without violating the Fifth Amendment, if they were given immunity
from the use of their answers or the fruits thereof in a criminal prosecution.
[Lefkowitz v. Turley, 414 U.S. 70 (1973); Gardner v. Broderick, 392 U.S. 273 (1968)]

4. Practice of Law
Regulation of the legal profession may conflict with the freedom of association rights
of certain groups because it may impair their ability to band together to advise each
other and utilize counsel in their common interest.

a. Countervailing State Interest Required

To overcome a group’s right to exercise its First Amendment rights, the state must
show a substantial interest, such as evidence of objectionable practices occurring
or an actual or clearly threatened conflict of interest between lawyer and client.

EXAMPLES
1) The NAACP encouraged, instructed, and offered to represent parents of black
children to litigate against school segregation. This was held to be protected politi-
cal expression. The state’s ban on solicitation of legal business was inapplicable be-
cause the NAACP sought no monetary gain. [NAACP v. Button, 371 U.S. 415 (1963)]
2) A railroad labor union recommended a specific lawyer to pursue rights of
members injured on the job, and also obtained a fee from a lawyer for perform-
ing investigative services. This was held protected. [Brotherhood of Railroad
Trainmen v. Virginia, 377 U.S. 1 (1964)]

D. SCHOOL SPONSORSHIP OF EXTRACURRICULAR CLUBS

The Supreme Court has held that the compelling interest test does not apply to infringe-
ment cases involving public school sponsorship of extracurricular clubs; instead, the test
used in limited-public-forum-speech cases applies—sponsorship of associations can be
subject to regulation that is viewpoint neutral and reasonably related to a legitimate
government interest. (See XX.B.2.c.2), supra.)

EXAMPLE
A public law school officially recognized student groups and gave them funding from
mandatory student activity fees only if the groups accepted all students regardless of
their “status or beliefs” (i.e., the “all comers” policy). A group that required students to
sign a statement of faith based on Christian beliefs and denied membership to persons
who supported homosexuality and premarital sex sought an exemption from the “all
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 175.

comers” policy and was denied. The group sued the school, claiming that the policy
violated members’ associational rights. Held: The “all comers” policy is constitutional. It is
viewpoint neutral in that it draws no distinctions on point of view. Moreover, it is reason-
ably related to school purposes such as encouraging tolerance and providing leadership,
educational, and social opportunities to all students. [Christian Legal Society v. Martinez,
XX.B.2.c.2), supra]

XXII. FREEDOM OF RELIGION

A. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION
The First Amendment provides “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.”

B. APPLICABILITY TO THE STATES

Both the Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses of the First Amendment apply to the
states under the Fourteenth Amendment.

C. FREE EXERCISE CLAUSE

1. No Punishment of Beliefs
The Free Exercise Clause prohibits the government from punishing (denying benefits
to, or imposing burdens on) someone on the basis of the person’s religious beliefs. It
is sometimes said that the government can engage in such activity only if it is neces-
sary to achieve a compelling interest; sometimes the rule is stated as a total prohibi-
tion of such government actions. In any case, the Supreme Court has never found an
interest that was so “compelling” that it would justify punishing a religious belief.

a. What Constitutes Religious Belief?

The Supreme Court has not defined what constitutes a religious belief.
However, it has made clear that religious belief does not require recognition
of a supreme being [Torcaso v. Watkins, 367 U.S. 488 (1961)], and need not
arise from a traditional, or even an organized, religion [see Frazee v. Illinois
Department of Employment Security, 489 U.S. 829 (1989)]. One possible defini-
tion is that the “belief must occupy a place in the believer’s life parallel to that
occupied by orthodox religious beliefs.” [United States v. Seeger, 380 U.S. 163
(1965)—interpreting statutory, rather than constitutional, provision] In any case,
the Court has never held an asserted religious belief to be not religious for First
Amendment purposes.

1) Courts May Not Find Religious Beliefs to Be False

The courts may not declare a religious belief to be “false.” For example, if
a person says he talked to God and that God said the person should solicit
money, he cannot be found guilty of fraud on the basis that God never
176. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

made such a statement. However, the court may determine whether the
person is sincerely asserting a belief in the divine statement. [United States
v. Ballard, 322 U.S. 78 (1944), as described in Employment Division v. Smith,
494 U.S. 872 (1990)]

b. States Must Act with Religious Neutrality

A state action might violate the Free Exercise Clause when the applicable law
is neutral with respect to religion on its face if, during adjudication of a case, a
state actor made disparaging remarks about religion to justify the state action.
[Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd. v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission, 138 S. Ct.
1719 (2018)—overturning a civil rights commission decision that a Christian baker
discriminated against a gay couple by refusing to bake a wedding cake because
a member of the commission said similar religion-supported arguments were
used to justify slavery and the Holocaust]

c. Religious Oaths for Governmental Jobs Prohibited

The federal government may not require any federal office holder or employee
to take an oath based on a religious belief as a condition for receiving the
federal office or job, because such a requirement is prohibited by Article VI of
the Constitution. State and local governments are prohibited from requiring
such oaths by the Free Exercise Clause. [Torcaso v. Watkins, supra]

d. States May Not Exclude Clerics from Public Office

A state may not exclude clerics (persons who hold an office or official position
in a religious organization) from being elected to the state legislature, or from
other governmental positions, because that exclusion would impose a disability
on these persons based upon the nature of their religious views and their
religious status. [McDaniel v. Paty, 435 U.S. 618 (1978)]

2. No Punishment of Religious Conduct Solely Because It Is Religious

The Supreme Court has stated that the Free Exercise Clause prohibits the govern-
ment from punishing conduct merely because it is religious or displays religious
belief (e.g., the state cannot ban the use of peyote only when used in religious
ceremonies). [Employment Division v. Smith, supra—dicta] A law that is designed to
suppress actions only because the actions are religiously motivated is not a neutral
law of general applicability. If a government policy burdens a sincere religious
practice and is not neutral or generally applicable, the government must satisfy strict
scrutiny. It must demonstrate its actions were justified by a compelling interest and
narrowly tailored to that interest. [Kennedy v. Bremerton School District, No. 21-418,
2022 WL 2295034 (U.S. June 27, 2022)]

EXAMPLE
A city law that prohibited the precise type of animal slaughter used in the ritual of a
particular religious sect violated the Free Exercise Clause because the Court found
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 177.

that the law was designed solely to exclude the religious sect from the city. The law
was not a neutral law of general applicability; nor was the law necessary to promote
a compelling interest. [Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. Hialeah, 508 U.S.
520 (1993)]
COMPARE
A state law that excluded pursuit of a degree in devotional theology from a col-
lege scholarship program for all students did not violate the Free Exercise Clause.
Although a school could provide such scholarships without violating the Establish-
ment Clause (see infra), the Free Exercise Clause does not require such scholar-
ships. The exclusion from scholarship eligibility does not show animus toward
religion, but rather merely reflects a decision not to fund this activity. Moreover, the
burden that the exclusion imposes on religion is modest, and there is substantial
historical support against using tax funds to support the ministry. [Locke v. Davey,
540 U.S. 712 (2004)]

a. No Exclusion from Government Benefits Programs Solely Because an

Organization Is Religious
A state may not limit eligibility for a governmental benefit to nonreligious organi-
zations. Even if a state has no obligation to create a benefit, once it has done so,
it may not ban religious groups similarly situated to eligible private parties from
receiving the benefit merely because they are religious.

EXAMPLES
1) A state creates a program to provide free playground upgrade materials to
playgrounds that apply and meet certain criteria. Because the state’s consti-
tution bans state funds from being used for the benefit of religious organiza-
tions, such organizations are excluded from the program. The state’s denial of
a church playground’s application violated the Free Exercise Clause. [Trinity
Lutheran Church of Columbia, Inc. v. Comer, 137 S. Ct. 2012 (2017)]
2) A state creates a scholarship program for students attending private schools.
As the state’s constitution barred government aid to religious schools, recipients
of the scholarship funds are prohibited from using them to attend such schools.
This prohibition violates the Free Exercise Clause because it is based solely on
the religious character of the schools. [Espinoza v. Montana Department of Rev-
enue, 140 S. Ct. 2246 (2020)]

b. Laws with System for Exceptions Not Generally Applicable

A law is not of general applicability, and therefore must meet strict scrutiny, if it
gives government officials discretion to grant exceptions from the law (even if
they never use it).
178. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

EXAMPLE
A city policy prohibited foster care agencies from rejecting foster parents based
on their sexual orientation, unless an exception was granted at the discretion of
a government official. The Court held that the city could not require a religious
foster care agency to approve same-sex foster parents, because the policy was
not generally applicable and the city could not meet strict scrutiny. [Fulton v. City
of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 141 S. Ct. 1868 (2021)]

3. States Can Regulate General Conduct—Criminal Laws and Other Regulations

Of course, states may prohibit or regulate conduct in general, and this is true even if
the prohibition or regulation happens to interfere with a person’s religious practices.
The Free Exercise Clause cannot be used to challenge a law of general applica-
bility unless it can be shown that the law was motivated by a desire to interfere with
religion. [Employment Division v. Smith, supra]

a. Generally No Exemptions Required

The Free Exercise Clause does not require exemptions from criminal laws or
other governmental regulations for a person whose religious beliefs prevent
him from conforming his behavior to the requirements of the law. In other words,
a law that regulates the conduct of all persons can be applied to prohibit the
conduct of a person despite the fact that his religious beliefs prevent him from
complying with the law.

1) Federal Statutory Exemption—Outside the Scope of Exam

The Religious Freedom Restoration Act (“RFRA”) allows a person to
challenge federal laws of general applicability as burdening his religious
beliefs and practices. If there is a substantial burdening of religious free
exercise, under RFRA the government must meet strict scrutiny. In Burwell
v. Hobby Lobby, Inc., 573 U.S. 682 (2014), the Court found that a federal
requirement that businesses include contraceptive coverage in their insur-
ance coverage for employees violates RFRA for close corporations whose
owners object to this on religious grounds. However, RFRA is statutory in
nature and is outside the scope of a constitutional law question.

b. Examples
The Supreme Court has held that no religious exemption was required from the
following religiously neutral regulations, even though certain groups objected
because the regulation interfered with conduct inspired by sincerely held
religious beliefs:

1) Prohibition against use of peyote [Employment Division v. Smith, supra—

challenged by person whose religious beliefs require use of peyote during
religious ceremony];
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 179.

2) Denial of tax exempt status to schools that discriminate on the basis

of race [Bob Jones University v. United States, 461 U.S. 574 (1983)—
challenged by religious school whose tenets require certain separations of
races];

3) Requirement that employers comply with federal minimum wage laws

[Tony and Susan Alamo Foundation v. Secretary of Labor, 471 U.S. 290
(1985)—challenged by employer that argued minimum wages interfere with
members’ religious desires to work without compensation];

4) Requirement that employers pay Social Security taxes [United States v.

Lee, 455 U.S. 252 (1982)—challenged by person whose religious beliefs
prohibited payment and receipt of Social Security type payments]; and

5) Sales and use taxes [Jimmy Swaggart Ministries v. Board of Equalization

of California, 493 U.S. 378 (1990)—challenged as applied to sales of goods
and literature by religious group].

c. Cases in Which Exemptions Were Required

1) Ministerial Exemption
The Supreme Court has held that religious organizations must be granted
an exemption from suits alleging employment discrimination by ministers
against their religious organizations. The government may not interfere
with a decision of a religious group to fire one of its ministers. Imposing
an unwanted minister would infringe on the Free Exercise Clause, which
protects a religious group’s right to shape its own faith through appoint-
ments. And allowing the government to determine who will minister within a
faith also violates the Establishment Clause by interfering with ecclesiastical
decisions. Moreover, this ministerial exemption is not limited to the head
of a religious congregation; it can extend to others in positions considered
by the congregation to be ministerial. [Our Lady of Guadalupe School v.
Morrissey-Berru, 140 S. Ct. 2049 (2020)—ministerial exemption applied to
parochial school teachers despite not having the title of “minister,” given
that they performed “vital religious duties,” including praying with students
and educating them in their faith]

2) Unemployment Compensation Cases—Some Exemptions Required

Many state unemployment compensation programs make payments only to
persons who are involuntarily unemployed (i.e., were fired or laid off rather
than resigned), and who are available for work (i.e., willing to accept offered
employment). Here, however, unlike other areas of regulation, the Supreme
Court has held that the states must grant religious exemptions. Thus, if a
person resigns from a job or refuses to accept a job because it conflicts
180. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

with her religious beliefs, the state must pay her unemployment compensa-
tion if she is otherwise entitled.

EXAMPLES
1) A state cannot deny unemployment compensation merely because the
applicant quit a job rather than work on a “holy day” on which religious
beliefs forbid work. [Sherbert v. Verner, 374 U.S. 398 (1963)]
2) A state cannot deny unemployment compensation merely because the
applicant quit his job rather than work on production of military equipment
after his factory converted from nonmilitary to military production. [Thomas
v. Review Board, 450 U.S. 707 (1981)]

a) Need Not Belong to Formal Religious Organization

A person does not have to be a member of a formal religious organiza-
tion to receive the above exemptions from unemployment compen-
sation requirements. All that is required is that the person sincerely
hold religious beliefs that prevent him from working on a certain day
or on military products. [Frazee v. Illinois Department of Employment
Security, 1.a., supra]

b) Limitation—Criminal Prohibitions
The unemployment compensation cases do not give individuals a
right to disregard criminal laws due to their religious beliefs. Thus,
unemployment compensation laws may disqualify persons fired for
“misconduct” (which includes any violation of criminal law).

EXAMPLE
A person was fired from his job as a counselor at a private drug abuse
clinic when it was discovered that he used peyote (at times when he
was not at work) for religious reasons. All use of peyote was illegal in
the state (even if the use was part of a religious ceremony). The Su-
preme Court held that unemployment compensation could properly be
denied here. [Employment Division v. Smith, supra]

3) Right of Amish Not to Educate Children

The Supreme Court has required an exemption for the Amish from a
neutral law that required school attendance until age 16, because a funda-
mental tenet of Amish religion forbids secondary education. The Court
found that the Amish are productive and law-abiding, and ruled that
the right to educate one’s children (see XIX .B.6.a., supra) and the Free
Exercise Clause outweighed the state’s interest here. [Wisconsin v. Yoder,
406 U.S. 205 (1972)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 181.

D. ESTABLISHMENT CLAUSE
The Establishment Clause, along with the Free Exercise Clause, compels the govern-
ment to pursue a course of neutrality toward religion. The Establishment Clause prohibits
government sponsorship of religion, meaning that the government cannot aid or formally
establish a religion. It does not mean that there is a violation whenever a public school
or other government entity fails to censor private religious speech. The line between the
permissible and the impermissible has to accord with history and faithfully reflect the
understanding of the Founding Fathers. [Kennedy v. Bremerton School District, supra]
The Establishment Clause cases can be grouped into four categories: (1) cases preferring
one religious sect over others; (2) a limited group of cases unconnected to financial aid
or education; (3) cases involving financial aid to religiously affiliated institutions; and (4)
cases concerning religious activities in public schools. The details regarding the Supreme
Court rulings are given below.

1. Sect Preference
Government action that prefers one religious sect over others violates the
Establishment Clause, at least if such action is not necessary to achieve a compelling
interest.

EXAMPLE
A state law created a public school district whose boundaries were intentionally set
to match the boundaries of a particular Jewish neighborhood (so that several handi-
capped students would not have to be sent outside their neighborhood to attend
special education classes that the state required and which the students’ private
school could not adequately provide). The Supreme Court found the law unconstitu-
tional. [Board of Education v. Grumet, 512 U.S. 687 (1994)]

2. Cases Unconnected to Financial Aid or Education

In cases unconnected to financial aid or education, a good rule of thumb is that a
law favoring or burdening religion or a specific religious group in particular will be
invalid, but a law favoring or burdening a larger segment of society that happens to
include religious groups will be upheld.

EXAMPLE
The government may not delegate governmental power to religious organizations.
[Larkin v. Grendel’s Den, Inc., 459 U.S. 116 (1982)—statute gave church-affiliated
schools power to veto nearby liquor licenses]
COMPARE
The IRS may deny tax exemptions claimed for religious donations when the sums
were paid to the church in exchange for services (e.g., classes) since this is a gener-
al rule that applies to all charities. [Hernandez v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
490 U.S. 680 (1989)]
182. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

a. State Legislature Can Employ a Chaplain

Despite the principle of separation of church and state, the Court has held that
a state legislature could employ a chaplain and begin each legislative day with
a prayer. [Marsh v. Chambers, 463 U.S. 783 (1983)] This decision was based on
the history of legislative prayer in America; it does not modify the “Religious
Activities in Public Schools” rulings examined below.

b. Town Board Can Begin Town Meetings with a Prayer

Extending Marsh v. Chambers, supra, the Court has held that a town board
may begin its meetings with prayers led by clergy members listed in the town’s
congregation directory, even if the clergy is predominately Christian. The Court
found the practice is consistent with the tradition of legislative prayer and does
not discriminate against minority faiths nor coerce the participation of nonadher-
ents, and therefore does not violate the Establishment Clause. The Constitution
requires only that the town is equitable in drawing from available clergy, not that
it ensure equal representation of all faiths. [Town of Greece v. Galloway, 572
U.S. 565 (2014)]

c. Displays of Religious Symbols on Public Property

Longstanding monuments are presumed constitutional because they likely have
historical significance and their original purpose may be unclear. [American
Legion v. American Humanist Association, 139 S. Ct. 2067 (2019)—holding that
a World War I memorial consisting of a 40-foot-tall cross did not violate the
Establishment Clause]

EXAMPLE
A monument of the Ten Commandments on a 22-acre State Capitol ground
displaying 17 monuments and 21 historical markers commemorating the state’s
“people, ideals, and events that compose its identity” communicated not only a
religious message but also a secular moral message, and its setting suggested
that the state intended the secular message to predominate. [Van Orden v.
Perry, 545 U.S. 677 (2005)]

d. Exemptions from Antidiscrimination Laws

The federal government may exempt religious organizations from the federal
statutory prohibition against discrimination in employment on the basis of
religion, at least regarding their nonprofit activities. Thus, a janitor can be
discharged from his employment at a gymnasium owned by a religious organi-
zation (which was open to the public and run as a nonprofit facility) because
he was not a member of that religious organization. [Corporation of the
Presiding Bishop of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints v. Amos,
483 U.S. 327 (1987)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 183.

3. Cases Involving Financial Benefits to Church-Related Institutions

A statute authorizing governmental aid to a religiously affiliated institution (hospital,
school, etc.) must also pursue a course of neutrality toward religion. However, the
Supreme Court applies this test with greater strictness when the government aid is
going to a religiously affiliated grade school or high school than it does when the
aid is going to another type of religiously affiliated institution (such as a college or
hospital).

a. Recipient-Based Aid
The government may give aid in the form of financial assistance to a defined
class of persons as long as the class is defined without reference to religion or
religious criteria. Such a program is valid even if persons who receive the finan-
cial assistance are thereby enabled to attend a religiously affiliated school.

EXAMPLES
1) The Supreme Court upheld a state program that made education subsidy pay-
ments directly to a blind or disabled student even though a student used his aid
to study at a Christian college for the purpose of becoming a pastor or mission-
ary. The class of persons who received the aid was defined without reference to
any religious criteria; only an incidental benefit would go to the religiously affili-
ated college or vocational training institution. [Witters v. Washington Department
of Services, 474 U.S. 481 (1986)]
2) The Court held that the Establishment Clause would not prevent a public
school district from paying for a sign language interpreter for a deaf student at
a religious high school under a religiously neutral program of aid to all handi-
capped schoolchildren in both public and private schools. [Zobrest v. Catalina
Foothills School District, 509 U.S. 1 (1993)]
3) The Supreme Court upheld a program that provided tuition vouchers to par-
ents of poor children in kindergarten through the eighth grade which could be
used to pay for attending participating public or private schools of their parents’
choice, even though a very high percentage of the recipients chose to attend
religiously affiliated schools. The program was part of a larger program that also
created publicly funded magnet schools and community schools that were inde-
pendent from the local school district. Any benefit to the religious schools re-
sulted from parents choosing to send their children to those schools and was not
attributable to the government. [Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, 536 U.S. 639 (2002)]

1) Compare—Tuition Tax Deductions or Credits Limited to Religious

School Tuition
A state may not use a system of statutory grants, tax credits, or tax deduc-
tions to reimburse parents or students for tuition paid only to religiously
affiliated schools. However, a tax deduction to all students or parents
184. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

based on the actual expenditures for attending any public or private school
(including religious schools) has been upheld. [Mueller v. Allen, 463 U.S.
388 (1983)]

It would appear that a valid tax deduction statute must allow a deduc-
tion for: (1) expenditures for public as well as private schools; and (2) some
expenditures other than tuition (such as expenditures for school supplies or
books) so that public school students or their parents may benefit from the
deduction.

b. Aid to Colleges, Hospitals, Etc.

The Court will uphold a government grant of aid to the secular activity of a
religiously affiliated hospital or college (such as a grant to build a new hospital
ward or a laboratory-classroom building). [Tilton v. Richardson, 403 U.S. 672
(1971); Bradfield v. Roberts, 175 U.S. 291 (1899)]

EXAMPLE
The Adolescent Family Life Act—which provides for grants of government funds
to a variety of public and private (including religiously affiliated) agencies to
provide counseling and educational services to young people regarding sexual
activity—has been upheld. [Bowen v. Kendrick, 487 U.S. 589 (1988)]

c. Aid to Religiously Affiliated Grade Schools or High Schools

Programs of aid to these institutions are subject to the same test as are all other
laws under the Establishment Clause. Most of the time, programs that include
both religious and secular private schools will be valid.

1) Aid Upheld
The Supreme Court has upheld state programs that:

a) Provide state-approved textbooks to all students [Board of Education

v. Allen, 392 U.S. 236 (1968)] (but note that the state may not loan
textbooks to students attending schools that discriminate on the basis
of race, since this would violate the Fourteenth Amendment [Norwood
v. Harrison, 413 U.S. 455 (1973)]);

b) Lend religiously neutral instructional materials (e.g., library books,

computers) to parochial schools as well as to public and other nonprofit
private schools, where the program did not define recipients by refer-
ence to religion and the challenger did not prove that the neutral aid
was used for religious indoctrination. [Mitchell v. Helms, 530 U.S. 793
(2000)—overruling Meek v. Pittenger, 421 U.S. 349 (1975)];

c) Provide transportation to and from school to all students [Everson v.

Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947)];
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 185.

d) Reimburse private schools for the expenses of compiling state-

required data, such as student attendance records, or administering
and grading standardized state educational achievement tests
[Committee for Public Education and Religious Liberty v. Regan, 444
U.S. 646 (1980)]; and

e) Provide “auxiliary services” (e.g., remedial education, guidance, or

job counseling) to all disadvantaged children at their school, including
children at parochial schools [Agostini v. Felton, 521 U.S. 203 (1997)].

2) State Must Not Discriminate

If a state subsidizes private education, it cannot deny the same funding to
religious schools. Such across-the-board funding, treating religious private
schools the same as non-religious private schools, does not violate the
Establishment Clause and is required by the Free Exercise Clause under
the neutrality principle. [Carson v. Makin, No. 20-1088, 2022 WL 2203333
(U.S. June 21, 2022)]

d. Tax Exemption for Religious, Charitable, or Educational Property

An exemption from property taxation for “real or personal property used exclu-
sively for religious, educational, or charitable purposes” does not violate the
Establishment Clause. The “government does not transfer part of its revenue to
churches but simply abstains from demanding that the church support the state
. . . .” [Walz v. Tax Commission, 397 U.S. 664 (1970)]

e. Tax Exemption Available Only to Religions

Although religious schools or religious associations may be included in tax
exemptions available to a variety of secular and religious organizations, a tax
exemption that is available only for religious organizations or religious activi-
ties violates the Establishment Clause. [Texas Monthly, Inc. v. Bullock, 489 U.S.
1 (1989)—an exemption from the sales and use tax for religious magazines or
books (but no other publications) violates the Establishment Clause]

4. Religious Activities in Public Schools

a. Prayer and Bible Reading

Prayer and Bible reading in school are invalid as establishments of religion.
[Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962); Abington School District v. Schempp, 374
U.S. 203 (1963)] It does not matter whether participation is voluntary or involun-
tary, and neither does it matter that the prayer period is designated as a period
of silent prayer or meditation. [Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38 (1985)] This rule
extends to prohibit public school officials from having clerics give invocation and
benediction prayers at graduation ceremonies. [Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577
(1992)] Similarly, a school policy authorizing students to elect whether to have a
186. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

student invocation before varsity games, to select a student to deliver it, and to
decide its content violates the Establishment Clause. Unlike student speeches
at an open public forum (see d., below), this policy’s purpose is to encourage
religious messages. [Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe, 530 U.S. 290
(2000)]

b. Posting Ten Commandments in Classroom Is Invalid

Posting the Ten Commandments on the walls of public school classrooms
plainly serves a religious purpose and is invalid, despite the legislature’s state-
ment that it was for a secular purpose. [Stone v. Graham, 449 U.S. 39 (1980)]

c. Released-Time Programs

1) In Public School Building

Programs in which regular classes end an hour early one day a week and
religious instruction is given in public school classrooms to students who
request it are invalid. [McCollum v. Board of Education, 333 U.S. 203 (1948)]

2) Nonpublic Building Used

Programs in which participating children go to religious classes conducted
at religious centers away from the public school do not violate the
Establishment Clause. [Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U.S. 306 (1952)]

d. Accommodation of Religious Students—On-Campus Meetings

As discussed at XX.B.1.d., supra, under the Free Speech Clause, if a public
school allows members of the public and private organizations to use school
property when classes are not in session, it cannot deny a religious organization
permission to use the property for meetings merely because religious topics will
be discussed. Such an “equal access rule” does not violate the Establishment
Clause because the primary purpose of such programs is secular (to accommo-
date all interests), people are not likely to assume that the government endorses
the religious ideas discussed, and there is no excessive government entangle-
ment, at least where the meetings are not run by school personnel. [Good News
Club v. Milford Central School, 533 U.S. 98 (2001)]

e. Curriculum Controls
A government statute or regulation that modifies a public school curriculum will
violate the Establishment Clause if it was enacted to promote religion.

EXAMPLE
A state statute that prohibited the teaching of human biological evolution in the
state’s public schools was held to violate the Establishment Clause because the
Supreme Court found that the legislature had a religious purpose for enacting
the statute. [Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 97 (1968)] Similarly, the Court invali-
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 187.

dated a state statute that prohibited instruction regarding “evolution science”

(the theory of human biological evolution) in the public schools unless that
instruction was accompanied by instruction regarding “creation science,” be-
cause the Court found that the legislature enacted this statute for the purpose
of promoting religion. [Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578 (1987)]
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW CHARTS 1.

SOURCES OF CONGRESSIONAL POWER

Government Action Source of Power

1. Congress enacts divorce laws for the General federal police power for D.C. (as
District of Columbia. well as military bases and federal lands).

2. Congress pays for highways. Spending Power and Commerce Clause.

3. Federal income tax. Sixteenth Amendment Taxing Power.

4. Congress conditions aid to states for Spending Power.

medical programs on state funding of
AIDS research.

5. Congress adopts a tax to regulate Power to coin money.

banknotes rather than to raise revenue.

6. Congress prohibits hunting on Property Power.

federal lands.

7. Congress bars racial discrimination at Commerce Clause.

places of public accommodation.

8. Congress requires all employers, Commerce Clause.

including state governments, to
comply with federal minimum wage
and overtime provisions.

Note: The Amendments to the Constitution may also be a source of power (e.g., the
Thirteenth Amendment gives Congress power to outlaw badges of slavery; thus
Congress may require a private seller to sell land to blacks as well as whites).

CMR Chart
2. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW CHARTS

STATE REGULATION OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE

Does the state regulation affect an Yes Invalid state regulation if

activity addressed by federal legislation? federal law preempts the
field or the state law conflicts
with the federal law. Valid
state regulation if the federal
No law authorizes the state law*

Does the state regulation discriminate Yes Invalid unless:

against interstate commerce? (i) It furthers an important,
noneconomic state interest
and there are no reasonable
nondiscriminatory alternatives;
(ii) The state is acting as a
market participant; or
No
(iii) It involves government
action regarding the
performance of a traditional
government function

Does the state regulation burden Yes Invalid unless the state’s
interstate commerce? interest in the regulation
outweighs the burden on
interstate commerce
No

Valid state regulation

*Of course, Congress has no power to authorize legislation that would violate other
constitutional provisions, such as the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV.

CMR Chart
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW CHARTS 3.

STATE ACTION VS. NO STATE ACTION

State Action No State Action

Public Function
Running a town Running a shopping mall (does not have
all the attributes of a town)

Conducting an election Holding a warehouseman’s lien sale

Significant State Involvement

Enforcing restrictive covenants Granting a license and providing essential
prohibiting sale or lease of property services to a private club
through use of state courts

Leasing premises to a discriminatory Granting a monopoly to a utility

lessee where state derives extra benefit
from the discrimination (i.e., symbiotic Heavily regulating an industry
relationship exists)

Allowing state official to act in Granting a corporation its charter and

discriminatory manner under exclusive name
“color of state law”

Administering a private discriminatory

trust by public officials

CMR Chart
4. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW CHARTS

SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS OR EQUAL

PROTECTION QUESTIONS

EQUAL PROTECTION DUE PROCESS

Regulation affects certain Regulation affects
person or class of people everyone

No Suspect or Quasi-Suspect Suspect Fundamental No

Quasi-Suspect Classification Classification Rights Fundamental
Classification Involved Involved Involved Rights
and No (Gender, (Race, National (Privacy, Involved
Fundamental Legitimacy) Origin, Interstate
Right Involved Sometimes Travel,
Alienage) Voting, First
Amendment)

Rational Basis Test Intermediate Strict Scrutiny Test Rational Basis Test
(see right) Scrutiny Test Test: Is the law Test: Is the law
Test: Is the law necessary to rationally related
substantially achieve a to a legitimate
related to an compelling government
important government purpose?
government purpose? Burden: Burden: On
purpose? On government challenger
Burden: On
government

CMR Chart
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

INTRODUCTORY NOTE
You can use the sample multiple-choice questions below to review the law and practice your under-
standing of important concepts that you will likely see on your law school exam. More questions are
available through the 1L and 2L/3L Mastery programs on the BARBRI website.

Question 1 Question 2

A 15-year-old sophomore high school student The owner of a chain of natural food stores
became pregnant, and the school board required located within a particular state contracted with
her to attend a special program for pregnant landowners and construction firms in a neigh-
students instead of her regular classes. The girl boring state in preparation for the opening of
did not want to attend a special program; rather, several new stores in the neighboring state. The
she wanted to attend her regular classes. chain’s products are stored and sold in bulk
within the stores. Consumers remove the amount
She sued the school district in federal district of product they want from bins within the stores,
court, demanding that she be allowed to attend place the product in plastic bags, and then
her regular classes. Before her case came to trial, present their bags at a checkout counter. Statutes
the girl gave birth to the child. Subsequently, the in the neighboring state in which the chain
district reinstated her in her regular classes. owner would like to open its new stores prohibit
the sale of food in bulk due to the health hazards
When her suit comes before the federal associated with bulk storage and contamination
district court, what should the court do? from consumer access to food sold from bins.
The state has prosecuted other grocers’ viola-
(A) Dismiss the action, because she is no lon- tions of the statute in the past.
ger pregnant.
The chain store owner seeks an injunction
(B) Dismiss the action, because she is no longer against state officials in the federal district
required to attend the special classes. court with jurisdiction over the matter. The state
officials move to dismiss the suit on the ground
(C) Hear the case on the merits, because she that the corporation lacked standing to sue.
may get pregnant again before she gradu-
ates from the high school. What would be the probable outcome?
(D) Hear the case on the merits, because it (A) The suit would be dismissed, because the
impacts the right to privacy, which is an owner has suffered no injury.
important federal issue.
(B) The suit would be dismissed, because the
challenged state legislation has no effect on
civil liberties.

(C) The federal court would hear the suit,

because a federal question—interstate
commerce—is involved.

(D) The federal court would hear the suit,

because the owner has undertaken substan-
tial steps to open outlets in the state.
2. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Question 3 Question 4

Congress enacted a statute that provided for To gain progress on critical treaty negotiations
direct money grants to the various states to be with another country, the President issued an
distributed by them to police agencies within official pardon to the leader of a radical group
their jurisdictions for the purpose of purchasing who was in a state prison after being convicted
gas-efficient patrol vehicles. One of the objec- of a violent crime in the state. The President
tives of the statute was to help reduce the depen- directed the governor of the state to free the
dency of the United States on imported oil. leader but the governor refused. The Justice
Department brought an action in federal district
Which of the following would provide the best court seeking an order compelling his release.
constitutional justification for the statute?
How is the federal court most likely to rule?
(A) The Commerce Clause.
(A) For the state, because a state official act-
(B) The power to tax and spend for the general ing pursuant to his state’s constitution need
welfare. not obey inconsistent orders from a federal
official.
(C) The Necessary and Proper Clause.
(B) For the state, because the President’s consti-
(D) The power to conduct the foreign relations tutional power to pardon prisoners extends
of the United States. only to those convicted of federal offenses.

(C) For the state, because the President’s order

and the pardon given to the convicted
leader violate his duty to see that the laws
of the United States are faithfully executed.

(D) For the federal government, because the

President’s actions are authorized by his
power to enter into treaties with other
nations.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 3.

Question 5 Question 6

A state statute prohibited the sale or posses- A state located in the southern half of the
sion of any food product containing more than United States experienced a strong influx of
one part per billion of a dangerous pesticide. An retirees, due in part to its mild winters and in
out-of-state driver taking her recreational vehicle part to the generous health benefits that the state
through a corner of the state was stopped at a historically provided to its elderly residents who
state inspection station. When the state trooper fell below the federal poverty line. The state’s
learned that the pantry of her RV was stocked Office of Budget Management determined that
with food, he asked to test a few samples of her the influx of retirees would bankrupt the state’s
baked goods. The samples contained about 600 health care benefit fund within five years. To
parts per billion of the prohibited pesticide, and preserve the fund and ensure the health of its
all of the other baked goods in her possession citizens, the state revised its health care statute
were tested and found to have the same level of to make persons ineligible for coverage until
pesticide. All of her baked goods, worth about they have lived in the state for at least one year.
$150, were confiscated and destroyed.
If a retiree who was denied benefits because
The state in which the driver lived has no she just moved to the state challenges the consti-
laws governing the pesticide level of baked tutionality of the statute in federal court, is she
goods. A federal law designed to protect agricul- likely to prevail?
tural workers requires that any food product
containing more than 500 parts per billion of the (A) No, because the state has a compelling
toxic pesticide must be labeled as such and be in interest in maintaining the fiscal integrity
special containers. The driver brings an action of its health care fund.
in federal court asserting that the state statute
is invalid because it is preempted by the federal (B) No, because the states do not have a consti-
law. tutional duty to provide health care benefits
to retirees even if they fall below the federal
How should the court rule as to this claim? poverty line.

(A) For the state, because the purposes of the (C) Yes, because the requirement improperly
federal law are different from those of the burdens the right of interstate travel in
challenged statute. violation of the Equal Protection Clause of
the Fourteenth Amendment.
(B) For the state, because regulation of food
quality is a power reserved to the states by (D) Yes, because the requirement deprives some
the Tenth Amendment. retirees of certain privileges and immuni-
ties in violation of the Privileges and
(C) For the driver, because the federal law does Immunities Clause of Article IV.
not expressly permit states to enact more
stringent pesticide level controls.

(D) For the driver, because the federal law and

the state statute regulate the same subject
matter.
4. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Question 7 Question 8

A state’s pension program provided supple- An abortion provider in a city closed her clinic
mental state pension benefits to surviving after protestors picketed in front of her home
spouses and children of state employees. The for long periods of time. The city was left with
program provided that when the spouse remar- just one other clinic providing abortions. The
ried, that spouse’s benefits would be gradu- city then adopted an ordinance prohibiting any
ally terminated based on a statutory formula. picketing on a public sidewalk or street adjacent
Because of statistics showing past disparities to and directed at a specific residence.
between the household income levels of male
surviving spouses and female surviving spouses, A group that wished to picket in front of a
different formulas were used for the termination business owner’s home because of his labor
schedule depending on whether the surviving practices challenged the constitutionality of the
spouse was male or female. ordinance in federal court.

A widower of a state employee was informed Will the group’s challenge to the ordinance
after he remarried that his pension benefits likely prevail?
would be terminated in 90 days according to
the applicable formula. Upon learning that a (A) No, because the ordinance is a permissible
similarly situated widow would have continued regulation of the location and manner of
to receive benefits for six months after remar- picketing.
rying, the widower decided to file suit in federal
court, alleging that the state program is uncon- (B) No, because the ordinance is a means of
stitutional because it is discriminatory and it preserving a woman’s fundamental right
unfairly burdens his right to marry. of access to clinics providing abortion
services.
Which of the following best states the burden
of persuasion in this case? (C) Yes, because the government cannot show
that the ordinance is necessary to achieve a
(A) The state must demonstrate that the pro- compelling government interest.
gram is narrowly tailored to achieve a
compelling government interest. (D) Yes, because sidewalks and streets in
residential neighborhoods are public
(B) The state must demonstrate that the forums.
program is substantially related to an
important government interest.

(C) The widower must demonstrate that the

program is not substantially related to an
important government interest.

(D) The widower must demonstrate that the

program is not rationally related to a legiti-
mate government interest.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 5.

Question 9 Question 10

On completion of a major expansion project, The legislature of a state was concerned that
a city’s public library board adopted a usage the numerous and strident television, radio,
policy for the new meeting room that was added and newspaper advertisements by auto dealer-
to the facility. To alleviate the scheduling burden ships annoy and mislead the public. Therefore,
on the staff if the meeting room were open to it enacted comprehensive legislation regulating
all groups, the policy provided that the meeting the timing and content of such ads, limiting their
room was to be used only for “library purposes” duration, frequency, and the types of claims and
by the library staff, the library board, or groups information made and given.
affiliated with the library, such as the library’s
teen advisory group or volunteer “Friends of Which of the following statements is most
the Library” group. A local organization that accurate as to the constitutionality of the state’s
promoted the political interests of an ethnic ad regulation?
minority in and around the city requested use of
the meeting room for an informational meeting (A) It is unconstitutional, because it infringes
that would be open to the public. Although on the First and Fourteenth Amendment
no other event was scheduled for the meeting rights of auto dealers to free speech.
room at the time requested, the library director
declined the organization’s request, citing the (B) It is constitutional if it does not prohibit the
meeting room policy adopted by the library dissemination of truthful information about
board. The organization filed suit in federal price and the availability of products, and
district court, challenging the library’s policy is narrowly tailored to serve a substantial
and seeking access to the meeting room. government interest.

How is the court likely to rule? (C) It is constitutional, because it is within the
police power of the state and no federal
(A) The library’s policy is valid, because limit- constitutional rights are infringed.
ing the meeting room’s use to library pur-
poses is reasonably related to a legitimate (D) It is unconstitutional, because it infringes
government purpose. on the rights of the auto dealers to enter
into contracts for advertising.
(B) The library’s policy is valid, because
limiting the meeting room’s use to library
purposes is narrowly tailored to serve a
significant government interest.

(C) The library’s policy is not valid, because

limiting the meeting room’s use to library
purposes is restricting speech based on its
content.

(D) The library’s policy is not valid unless there

are alternative facilities in the area available
for groups to hold meetings.
6. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Question 11 Question 12

To combat fraud and misuse of driver’s The mayor of a small city decided that he
licenses, a state’s department of motor vehicles would like to start each city council meeting
enacted new regulations for the issuance of with a nonsectarian prayer. Several city council
driver’s licenses. One of the regulations, which members and citizens objected to the proposal,
were authorized by state law, required for the claiming that it would violate the Establishment
first time that driver’s licenses display a photo- Clause of the First Amendment. The mayor
graph of the person whose name is on the argued that it would not constitute the estab-
license. The regulations did not provide for lishment of a religion because he would invite
any exemptions from this requirement. Living clerics from all of the different religious sects
entirely within the state was a religious sect to take turns giving the prayer at the meetings.
whose followers devoutly believed that allowing When the council members still objected, the
oneself to be photographed was sinful. However, mayor asked the city attorney to research the
because much of the state was rural and sparsely constitutionality of his proposal.
populated, members of the sect needed to travel
by automobile to obtain necessary services and How should the attorney advise the mayor?
to gather for worship. A member of the sect who
was refused a driver’s license because he would (A) The proposal is constitutional, because
not allow himself to be photographed challenged by varying the clerics who will give the
the state regulation in federal court. prayer, it does not constitute an establish-
ment of religion.
Is the court likely to uphold the application of
the regulation to the religious group? (B) The proposal is constitutional, because
there is a long history in this country of
(A) Yes, because exempting the church’s mem- allowing prayer at legislative sessions.
bers from the regulation would not have a
secular purpose and would constitute im- (C) The proposal is unconstitutional, because it
proper state advancement of, and entangle- has no secular purpose.
ment with, religion.
(D) The proposal is unconstitutional, because
(B) Yes, because enactment of the regulation its primary effect advances religion.
was not motivated by a desire to interfere
with religion.

(C) No, unless the state shows that the regula-

tion is necessary to promote a compelling
governmental interest.

(D) No, because the opposition to the regulation

arises from a sincerely held religious belief.
 ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 7.

ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Answer to Question 1

(C) The court should hear the case on the merits. A real, live controversy must exist at all stages of
review, not merely when the complaint is filed. If a true controversy no longer exists, the court
will dismiss the complaint as moot. A case becomes moot, for example, when a party can no
longer be affected by the challenged statute. Here, even though the girl is no longer pregnant, she
can get pregnant again, at which time she will be affected by the policy once again. Thus, the
harm to the girl (being taken out of regular classes) is capable of repetition but evading review
because by the time the case comes to trial, the girl may have given birth, miscarried, or had
an abortion. (C) is therefore correct. (A) is incorrect because, as discussed, she may become
pregnant again prior to graduation from high school. (B) is incorrect because, as discussed, the
harm is capable of repetition. Specifically, if the girl gets pregnant again prior to graduation from
high school, she will be required to attend the special classes again. (D) is incorrect because it is
irrelevant. The fact that an important federal issue might be involved does not negate the “case or
controversy” requirement.

Answer to Question 2

(D) The owner has standing to sue because it can demonstrate a concrete stake in the outcome of the
controversy and an impairment of its rights by the state statute. Federal courts will not consider
a constitutional challenge to government action unless the person challenging the action has
standing to raise the constitutional issue. Under the Supreme Court test, the person must have an
injury in fact—both a particularized and a concrete injury that will be remedied by a decision
in his or her favor. Here, the store owner has taken substantial steps to open outlets in the state
by contracting with landowners and construction firms in that state, but cannot begin to operate
these outlets without violating the state statutes; obtaining the injunction against enforcement will
eliminate the problem. The court will therefore hear the suit. (A) is incorrect even though the store
owner has not yet been prosecuted for violating the statute. A person challenging the constitution-
ality of a statute does not need to violate it and await prosecution as the sole means of seeking
relief. Where there exists a clear threat of prosecution if the person fails to comply with the statute
(such as previous prosecutions of others), injury in fact is established. (B) is incorrect because
threatened economic injury as well as threatened injury to civil liberties will create standing. (C)
is incorrect. Although it is true that a federal question is involved, it is not enough that a federal
court has jurisdiction over the subject matter of the question. Federal courts are authorized to hear
cases and controversies, and the Supreme Court has interpreted this language to require the plain-
tiff to have standing—an injury in fact; a concrete stake in the outcome. The motion to dismiss
here was made on standing grounds. Choice (D) reflects the standing challenge, while choice (C)
does not. If the court accepts the state official’s claim that the store owner lacked standing to sue,
it would dismiss the suit regardless of the federal issues involved.

Answer to Question 3

(B) The statute is authorized by Congress’s spending power. Article I, Section 8 gives Congress the
power to spend “to provide for the common defense and general welfare.” This power allows
Congress to spend for any public purpose as long as it does not infringe on other specific constitu-
tional restrictions (such as the Bill of Rights). The statute here is clearly for a public purpose and
is not otherwise unconstitutional; it is therefore within Congress’s spending power. (A) is not as
good a choice as (B). The statute arguably does involve the commerce power because Congress
8. ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

has very broad power to regulate interstate commerce, including any kind of commerce or trans-
portation within a state that has a substantial economic effect on interstate commerce. However,
that power is generally invoked for federal legislation that directly regulates the state activity.
Here, no government action is involved except for the grant of money, which more closely impli-
cates the spending power. (C) is incorrect because the Necessary and Proper Clause is not by
itself a basis of power; it merely gives Congress power to execute specifically granted powers. The
grant of money falls within a specific enumerated power of Congress; the Necessary and Proper
Clause is not the primary source of authority here. (D) is incorrect because the power to conduct
foreign relations is vested in the President. Congress shares some of this power in such cases as
approval of treaties, but the President’s power to act for the United States in day-to-day foreign
relations is paramount.

Answer to Question 4

(B) The federal court will rule for the state. The President is empowered by the Constitution to grant
reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.
Here, the President seeks to pardon a person who has been convicted of a violent crime in a
state. Thus, the President’s pardon power does not extend to this prisoner, and the state will not
be compelled to release him. (A) is incorrect because, pursuant to the Supremacy Clause of the
Constitution, the Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States take precedence over state
laws. Any state law that is inconsistent with federal law will be superseded by the federal law.
Although a state official may be acting pursuant to his state’s constitution, that constitution may
be in conflict with the United States Constitution or with other federal law. In such an instance,
the state official will be required to abide by proper directives of a federal official issued in
furtherance of the enforcement and execution of federal law. (C) is incorrect. As noted above, the
President does have the power to pardon those convicted of federal offenses. Thus, an attempted
pardon of a federal offender does not violate the President’s sworn duty to see that the laws of the
United States are faithfully executed; i.e., the President is not “subverting” the law by issuing a
pardon. It is in issuing a pardon for a crime that falls outside the scope of his pardon power that
the President runs afoul of the Constitution. (D) is incorrect because the President’s treaty power
does not authorize his actions here. Although the Constitution gives the President the power to
make treaties, he is not given the authority to use unconstitutional means to facilitate the making
of a treaty. The President is acting here with the goal of advancing negotiations on a critical treaty.
However, in doing so, the President may not disregard the Constitution by issuing a pardon that is
outside the limits of his constitutionally derived pardon power.

Answer to Question 5

(A) The court should rule for the state because the purpose of the federal law is different from the
purpose of the state law. The question here is whether the state law is preempted by the federal
law. Implied preemption will be found where it was the intent of the federal government to occupy
the entire field with its regulation, the state law directly conflicts with the federal law, or the state
provisions prevent achievement of federal objectives. Because the federal law here is aimed only
at occupational safety, no conclusion can be drawn that the federal government intended to occupy
the entire field of regulation of pesticides, and the state law does not interfere with the federal
law. For regulations involving health, safety, and welfare, the Court will presume that state police
powers are not preempted unless that was the clear and manifest purpose of Congress when it
enacted the federal law. Hence, the state law is not preempted, and (A) is correct and (D) is incor-
rect. (B) is incorrect because the Tenth Amendment reserves to the states only those powers not
granted to the federal government by the Constitution, and the federal government has the power
 ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 9.

to regulate pesticides under the Commerce Clause, which gives Congress very broad power to
regulate any activity that, either in itself or in combination with other activities, has a substantial
economic effect on, or effect on movement in, interstate commerce. The production and distribu-
tion of food products containing pesticides would be such an activity. (C) is incorrect because
there need be no specific authorization for a state to regulate, as long as federal preemption does
not apply. While congressional power over interstate commerce is very broad, it is not exclusive—
states may regulate local aspects of interstate commerce under certain conditions.
Answer to Question 6
(C) The court will likely find that the one-year residency requirement is unconstitutional because it
burdens the right to travel. An individual has a fundamental right to travel from state to state,
and a state law that is designed to deter persons from moving into the state is likely to violate the
Equal Protection Clause (as well as the Fourteenth Amendment Privileges or Immunities Clause).
When a state uses a durational residency requirement (a waiting period) for dispensing benefits,
that requirement normally should be subject to the strict scrutiny test, and usually will be found
not to have satisfied the test. One such requirement that has been invalidated on this basis is a
one-year waiting period for state-subsidized medical care, such as the one here. [See Memorial
Hospital v. Maricopa County (1974)] (A) is incorrect. The Supreme Court has specifically held
that a state’s interest in fiscal integrity is not sufficient to justify a one-year waiting period for
welfare or health benefits. (B) contains a true statement—the states have no constitutional duty
to provide health care benefits for those below the poverty line. However, once a state chooses
to provide such benefits, it may not do so in a manner that violates the Constitution, and, as
explained above, the restriction here violates the right to travel. (D) is incorrect because the privi-
leges and immunities protection of Article IV prohibits discrimination by a state against nonresi-
dents when fundamental national rights are involved. Here, the restriction differentiates between
residents. While that could violate the Fourteenth Amendment Privileges or Immunities Clause,
Article IV is not implicated.
Answer to Question 7
(B) The state has the burden of proving that the program is substantially related to an important
government interest. When analyzing government action based on gender, the courts will apply
an intermediate standard of review and strike the legislation unless it is substantially related to an
important government interest. In these cases, the government bears the burden of proving this
substantial relationship. Here, because the formula used to calculate termination of pension benefits
depended on whether the surviving spouse was male or female, the legislation discriminates on the
basis of gender. Thus, an intermediate scrutiny standard will be applied. (A) is wrong because the
court will not apply the strict scrutiny standard in this case. A suspect class is not involved, and the
program does not improperly burden a fundamental right. While marriage is a fundamental right,
strict scrutiny applies only to legislation that directly and substantially interferes with the right to
marry. Laws terminating certain benefits upon marriage do not directly and significantly interfere
with that right, and thus are not subject to strict scrutiny. (C) is wrong because the government,
rather than the challenger, bears the burden of proof in gender discrimination cases. (D) is wrong
for the same reason and also because it applies the incorrect standard; an intermediate scrutiny
standard is applied rather than the minimal scrutiny of the rational basis test.
Answer to Question 8

(A) The group’s challenge is not likely to prevail. To avoid strict scrutiny and be upheld, govern-
ment regulations of speech and assembly in public forums (such as streets and sidewalks)
10. ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

must (i) be content neutral, (ii) be narrowly tailored to serve an important government interest,
and (iii) leave open alternative channels of communication. A regulation such as the one here
satisfies this test. The statute is content neutral because it regulates the location and manner of
picketing without regard to its content. It is narrowly tailored to serve the important interest
of protecting the privacy of homeowners when they are in their homes. It leaves open alterna-
tive channels of communication because it does not ban marching through residential areas
or other means of protesting. Hence, the group’s challenge is not likely to prevail. [See Frisby
v. Schultz (1988)] (B) is incorrect. The Court has upheld limited “buffer-zone” restrictions on
protestors at clinics providing abortions, deeming the restrictions a reasonable time, place, and
manner regulation that served the important interest of preserving access to health care facili-
ties. [Hill v. Colorado (2000)] However, unlike an ordinance regulating picketing directly at
the clinics, an ordinance regulating residential picketing is not a narrowly tailored means of
achieving that interest. (C) is incorrect because time, place, and manner regulations of speech
need only be narrowly tailored to serve an important government interest as long as they are
content neutral; the government does not need to show a compelling interest. (D) is incor-
rect because, as discussed above, the ordinance here is a permissible regulation of speech in a
public forum.

Answer to Question 9

(A) The court is likely to rule that the library board’s meeting room policy is valid because it is
reasonably related to a legitimate government interest. The library board, as a government body,
may reasonably regulate speech-related conduct in public forums and designated public forums
through reasonable time, place, and manner regulations. Some public property, such as streets,
sidewalks, and parks, is so historically associated with the exercise of First Amendment rights
that it is categorized as a traditional public forum. Other public property may become a desig-
nated public forum when the government, by policy or practice, opens it for expressive activity.
However, most locations other than streets, sidewalks, and parks are not public forums and may
be reserved by the government for their intended activity. When a limited or nonpublic forum
is involved, government regulations designed to reserve the forum for its intended use will be
upheld if they are (i) viewpoint neutral, and (ii) reasonably related to the intended purpose of
the nonpublic forum (which must be a legitimate government purpose). Here, a library meeting
room is not a traditional public forum, and the library board has not designated it as a public
forum because its use is limited to library groups for library purposes. Thus, the court would
likely characterize it as a limited public forum or nonpublic forum. The restriction is viewpoint
neutral (i.e., it is not an attempt to limit the presentation of issues to only one viewpoint), and
it is rationally related to the legitimate objective of alleviating the staff’s scheduling burden.
Hence, the library’s policy would probably be upheld by the court. (B) is incorrect because it
states part of the standard for restricting speech in public forums. Speech in public forums may
be regulated by time, place, and manner regulations that (i) are content neutral (i.e., subject
matter neutral and viewpoint neutral), (ii) are narrowly tailored to serve an important govern-
ment interest, and (iii) leave open alternative channels of communication. Here, as discussed
above, the library meeting room probably would not be characterized as a public forum. (C)
is incorrect because the library, as a limited public forum or nonpublic forum, is permitted to
restrict speech based on content (i.e., subject matter) as long as the restriction is not based on
the viewpoint of the speech. (D) is incorrect because the requirement of alternative channels of
communication is a component of the public forum standard. Here, because the library meeting
room is not a public forum, the policy is valid regardless of the availability of alternative
meeting facilities.
 ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 11.

Answer to Question 10

(B) Of all the alternatives, statement (B) most accurately reflects the balance between the scope
of First Amendment protection for the dissemination of truthful commercial speech and the
state’s ability to enact narrowly drawn regulations to advance substantial governmental interests.
Although commercial speech is protected by the First Amendment, it is subject to significant
regulation. A state may outlaw commercial speech that proposes an unlawful transaction or that
is misleading or fraudulent. If commercial speech concerns a lawful activity and is not misleading
or fraudulent, the government regulation, to be valid, must directly advance a substantial govern-
mental interest and must be no more extensive than necessary to serve that interest. The regula-
tion must be narrowly drawn and there must be a reasonable fit between the legislation’s end and
the means chosen. If, as (B) states, the legislation here at issue does not prohibit the dissemination
of truthful information about prices and product availability, and is otherwise narrowly tailored
to serve a substantial state interest, the legislation probably will constitute a valid regulation of
commercial speech. (A) is incorrect because it would overly limit the ability of the state to reason-
ably regulate commercial speech. This legislation does not necessarily violate auto dealers’ rights
of free speech. If it does not prohibit the dissemination of truthful information and is otherwise
reasonable, the legislation is sufficiently narrow to pass constitutional muster. (C) incorrectly
implies that the state’s police power is broader than it actually is. This legislation does in fact
potentially infringe the federal constitutional right of free speech (which extends to commer-
cial speech). If the legislation does not satisfy the test for reasonable regulations of commercial
speech, the police power of the state would not save it from being found invalid. (D) is a misstate-
ment of the law. The Constitution prohibits any state from passing any law impairing the obliga-
tion of contract. This Contract Clause limits the ability of states to enact laws that retroactively
impair contract rights. (D) refers to infringement of the right to enter into a contract rather than
impairment of a currently existing contract. This is outside the purview of the Contract Clause.

Answer to Question 11

(B) The law will be upheld because it is a neutral law that is applicable to all drivers in the state.
The Free Exercise Clause does not require exemptions from government regulations for a person
whose religious beliefs prevent him from conforming his behavior to the requirements of the law.
Unless the law was motivated by a desire to interfere with religion, it can be applied to regulate
the conduct of one whose religious beliefs conflict with the law. Here, the sect member must allow
his photograph to be taken if he wants to obtain a driver’s license; the state is entitled to enforce
this regulation because it is a neutral law of general applicability. (A) is incorrect because it may
be possible for a state to make accommodations for groups objecting to a particular state regula-
tion without violating the Establishment Clause, even though it is not required to do so under the
Free Exercise Clause. The state here could permit an exemption from the photograph require-
ment for persons who present legitimate reasons for it; such an accommodation would not be an
impermissible advancement of religion. (C) is incorrect because the “compelling interest” test
is not currently used to judge the validity of neutral laws that happen to interfere with a person’s
religious practices. (D) is incorrect because the sincerity of the sect member’s beliefs does not
provide a basis for avoiding application of the law to them.

Answer to Question 12

(B) The attorney should advise the mayor that the proposal is constitutional. The First Amendment
prohibits government establishment of religion, and this prohibition has been applied to the states
through the Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause. Generally, under the Establishment
12. ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Clause, if government action involving religion does not include a sect preference, it is tested
under the Lemon test: It will be valid only if (i) it has a secular purpose; (ii) its primary effect
neither advances nor inhibits religion; and (iii) it does not produce excessive government entangle-
ment with religion. While it may seem that starting a legislative meeting with a prayer would not
pass the Lemon test, the Supreme Court has held that, because of the long history of legislative
prayer in America, such prayers do not constitute an establishment of religion, and it is permis-
sible for a legislative body, including a municipality, to invite members of the clergy to begin
sessions with a prayer. [Town of Greece v. Galloway (2014)] (A) is incorrect because it is incom-
plete; the mere fact that government action does not have a sect preference does not alone make it
constitutional under the Establishment Clause. (C) and (D) are incorrect because they run counter
to the Supreme Court decision discussed above.
 APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1.

APPROACH TO EXAMS
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
IN A NUTSHELL: The study of Constitutional Law is the study of the history of how the
Supreme Court has interpreted the Constitution. For purposes of law school, the Constitution
can be divided into a few main parts: the main body, the Bill of Rights, and the Civil Rights
Amendments. Among other things, the main body of the Constitution establishes a federal
government with limited power (i.e., only the power provided for in the Constitution) and
divides that power among three branches—the legislature (Article I), the executive (Article II),
and the judiciary (Article III). Basically, the legislature makes laws, the executive enforces laws,
and the judiciary applies laws and determines their constitutionality. This division of power
provides the basis for the separation of powers doctrine; i.e., one branch may not usurp the
power of another branch—at least not without the other branch’s permission (i.e., a delegation
of power). Fearing a strong central government, the drafters of the Constitution included the
Bill of Rights, a statement of the rights of individuals against the federal government. About
80 years later, after the Civil War, our country adopted the Civil Rights Amendments (i.e., the
13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments), which primarily guarantee individual rights against states.

I. IS THERE A CASE OR CONTROVERSY?

Federal courts are courts of limited jurisdiction/doctrine of strict necessity

A. No Advisory Opinions
1. Ripeness—harm must actually be threatened
2. Mootness—must be real, live controversy at all stages; if issue has been resolved,
court will not hear
a. Exception—situation capable of repetition yet evading review
3. Standing—plaintiff must have a concrete stake in the outcome at all stages of litiga-
tion
a. Injury in fact—specific injury, not theoretical
1) Taxpayers—too remote/abstract
a) Exception: Taxing and spending measure violating Establishment
Clause
b. Remediable by court decision
4. Adequate and independent state grounds—court will not hear appeal from state
court if adequate and independent nonfederal grounds support state decision

B. Abstention
If action already going on in state court on unsettled question of state law, federal court
will abstain so state can settle issue

C. Political Question
Court will not decide issue that is not suitable for judicial branch
2. APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

D. 11th Amendment and Sovereign Immunity

Generally cannot sue state in federal court for damages (without state’s permission)
1. Exceptions: Actions against state officers and removal of immunity under 14th
Amendment

II. IS LAW WITHIN CONGRESS’S POWER?

A. Necessary and Proper Clause

Congress has the power to make laws necessary and proper for executing any power
granted to any branch of federal government

B. Taxing Power
If revenue raising, generally valid

C. Spending Power
Spending may be for any public purpose; Congress may regulate beyond enumerated
powers by attaching strings to a grant as long as the strings are: (i) clearly stated, (ii)
related to the purpose of the grant, and (iii) not unduly coercive

D. Commerce Power
Congress may regulate:
1. Channels of interstate commerce—roads, rails, waterways, phones, etc.
2. Instrumentalities of interstate commerce—trucks, trains, planes, etc.
3. Activities having a substantial economic effect on interstate commerce
a. Generally must be economic or commercial activity

E. Property Power
Includes power of eminent domain, to dispose of federal property, and to make rules/
laws regulating federal lands and Indian reservations

F. Miscellaneous Other Powers

War (including power to declare war and fund war), investigatory, bankruptcy, postal,
citizenship, admiralty, coin money, fix weights and measures, and grant patents and
copyrights

G. Delegation
1. Congress may delegate its power to other branches
a. Intelligible standard “requirement” for delegation (almost anything suffices)

H. Speech or Debate Clause

Immunity for speech made within Congress
 APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 3.

I. Legislative Veto
Congress cannot make a law reserving to Congress the right to overturn discretionary
executive action without passing a new law and presenting it to the President for
approval

III. IS PRESIDENT ACTING WITHIN EXECUTIVE POWER?

A. Domestic Powers of President

1. Appointment and removal of officers and Supreme Court Justices with advice and
consent of Senate
2. Pardon—federal crimes only
3. Veto power—10 days to veto; if President does not do so and:
a. Congress in session = approval
b. Congress out = pocket veto
c. No line item veto
4. Power as chief executive/executive orders—Youngstown guidance from Justice
Jackson:
a. If express or implied authority from Congress—action likely valid
b. If Congress silent—action valid if it does not impinge on powers of another
branch
c. If against Congress’s will—action likely invalid

B. Power Over External Affairs

1. President may commit troops but power to “declare war” belongs to Congress
2. Treaty power—signs treaties with approval of two-thirds of Senate
a. Treaty is on par with other federal laws (“supreme law of land”)
b. Treaties cannot conflict with Constitution
3. Executive agreements—enforceable if not in conflict with federal law, treaties, or
Constitution

C. Executive Privilege/Immunity
1. Privilege extends to documents and conversations but must yield if court decides
information needed in criminal case
2. Immunity
a. President immune from suits for civil damages for actions taken as President
b. Immunity extends to aides exercising discretionary authority of President

D. Impeachment
President, vice president, and all U.S. civil officers may be impeached for treason, bribery,
high crimes, and misdemeanors by majority vote of the House; are tried by Senate; and
conviction requires two-thirds vote of Senate
4. APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

IV. FEDERAL VS. STATE POWER

A. Supremacy Clause
1. Most governmental power shared between state and federal government
2. Federal law supreme, and conflicting state law is invalid
a. Actual conflict—state law invalid
b. Interference with federal objectives—state law invalid
c. Preemption—no room for state legislation; Congress controls entire field
1) Express preemption—narrowly construed
2) Field (implied) preemption—if federal law comprehensive or a federal
agency oversees area, preemption may be found
3) Presumption that historic state police powers not intended to be preempted
unless that is the clear and manifest purpose of Congress
3. Dormant Commerce Clause (negative implications of Commerce Clause)
a. Congress may delegate commerce power to states
b. Absent delegation, states may not intentionally discriminate against interstate
commerce
1) Exception: Necessary to achieve an important state interest (i.e., no reason-
able alternatives available)
2) Exception: State acting as a market participant
a) Might still violate the Privileges & Immunities Clause
b) No downstream restrictions—state cannot control what happens to
goods after state sells them
3) Traditional government function
c. Nondiscriminatory state law—may not be unduly burdensome (burden on inter-
state commerce cannot outweigh promotion of the legitimate state interest
sought to be served)
1) Nondiscriminatory state tax affecting interstate commerce—must be:
a) Substantial nexus between object of tax and taxing state
b) Fair apportionment according to rational formula
c) Fair relationship to services or benefits provided by state
4. 21st Amendment—liquor regulation—states can regulate sale of liquor, but cannot
favor local businesses

B. Suits
1. The United States may sue states without their consent
2. States cannot sue the United States without its consent
3. State can sue state in federal court; Supreme Court has exclusive jurisdiction

C. Federal Taxation/Regulation of States—10th Amendment Concerns

1. Tax/regulation applying to both private and state entities—valid
2. Tax/regulation of states as states—generally invalid
 APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 5.

a. Commandeering state officials—cannot require states to regulate their own

citizens
b. Exceptions: Strings on federal grants of money and civil rights

D. State Taxation/Regulation of Federal Government

1. State cannot directly tax federal government
2. State cannot directly regulate federal government
3. State may tax federal employee and contractor salaries (indirect tax)

V. INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS

A. State Action Limitation

1. The Constitution limits actions of government, so there must be state (i.e., govern-
ment) action in order to find action unconstitutional
2. Private action can sometimes be attributed to government:
a. Traditional and exclusive government function (e.g., running a town or election)
b. Significant state involvement
1) Official encouragement or use of judicial machinery
2) Entwinement of state and private actors
3) But mere regulation, provision of public services, or licensing not enough

B. Article IV Privileges and Immunities

1. Prohibits states from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to
“fundamental” rights (Note: Corporations and aliens are not citizens)
2. Mainly used to prevent substantially unequal treatment regarding commercial activi-
ties
3. Substantial justification exception if nonresidents are part of problem and there are
no less restrictive means to solve problem

C. 14th Amendment Privileges or Immunities Clause

1. Prohibits states from denying their own citizens rights of national citizenship (corpo-
rations are not citizens)

D. Prohibitions Against Retroactive Legislation

1. Contracts Clause—applies only to states
a. Prevents only substantial impairment of a party’s rights under an existing
contract
b. Exception—law valid if:
1) Serves an important interest; and
2) Is narrowly tailored to promote that interest
c. Public contracts subject to stricter scrutiny
1) State cannot be obligated to refrain from exercising its police power
6. APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

2) Law should not broadly repudiate government contractual obligations

2. Ex post facto laws—prohibited
a. Makes criminal an act that was innocent when done
b. Prescribes greater punishment than what was prescribed when act was
committed
c. Reduces evidence required to convict
d. Specifically applies only to legislation, but due process prohibits similar changes
by the courts
3. Bills of attainder—prohibits laws inflicting punishment without a trial on people by
name or past conduct

E. Procedural Due Process

1. Two Due Process Clauses: 5th Amendment (federal government); 14th Amendment
(states)
2. Requires fair process/procedure when government acts intentionally or recklessly to
deprive a person individually of life, liberty, or property
a. Both actual bias and serious risk of actual bias unconstitutional
b. Liberty includes losses of significant freedom of action
c. Property includes legitimate claims/entitlements to government benefits
1) Public employment is a property right if claim to entitlement through
contract, policy, law, etc.
3. Balancing test for determining fair process in terms of timing (pre- vs. post-depriva-
tion) and scope of hearing. The Court weighs:
a. Importance of individual right
b. Value of specific procedural safeguard involved
c. Governmental interest in fiscal and administrative efficiency

F. Takings
1. If government takes land for public purpose, it must provide just compensation
2. Public purposes liberally construed
3. Actual or physical appropriation almost always a taking, even if property taken is
small
a. Exception: Emergencies
4. Use restrictions (action for inverse condemnation)
a. Denial of all economic value—taking
b. Decrease in economic value—generally not a taking if economically viable use
remains
c. Dedications—cannot condition building permits on forced dedication unless:
1) Government can show legitimate interest, and
2) Adverse impact of development roughly proportional to owner’s loss
5. Just compensation—reasonable (fair market) value of property taken at time of
taking
 APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 7.

G. Substantive Due Process

1. Two Due Process Clauses: 5th Amendment (federal); 14th Amendment (states)
2. Prohibition against unreasonable laws
3. Reasonableness test depends on interest involved
a. Fundamental right (voting, interstate travel, privacy, 1st Amendment rights)—
strict scrutiny
1) Government must prove action is necessary to achieve a compelling
government interest
b. All other interests—rational basis
1) Challenger must prove action not rationally related to any legitimate
government interest
4. Requires laws to give fair notice of conduct that is forbidden or required

H. Equal Protection
1. 14th Amendment prohibition against unreasonable discrimination by states
2. Test for reasonableness depends on criteria used to classify (suspect or quasi-
suspect classification) and nature of right (fundamental right)
a. Discriminatory intent by government:
1) Law discriminatory on its face
2) Discriminatory in application
3) Discriminatory motive
4) If facially neutral, no discriminatory application, and no discriminatory
motive, then rational basis test applies
b. Suspect classification (race and national origin) or fundamental right—strict
scrutiny
1) Government must prove action is necessary to achieve a compelling
government interest
2) Affirmative action (favoring minorities) invalid unless:
a) Seeking to remedy past discrimination within jurisdiction
3) Race can be a factor considered in admission of students in institutions of
higher education to achieve a diverse student body
a) Cannot be a special/weighty factor
4) Alienage can be considered for state employment positions involving
the self-government process—including police officers and primary and
secondary schoolteachers
c. Quasi-suspect classification (sex and legitimacy)—intermediate scrutiny
1) Government must show discrimination is substantially related to an impor-
tant government interest
2) Sex discrimination—exceedingly persuasive justification required
a) Interest must be genuine and not hypothesized
d. All other classifications—rational basis standard
8. APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

I. Abortion
1. Competing interests—mother’s right to privacy vs. fetus’s interest in becoming a
child
2. Pre-viability—no undue burdens on right to obtain an abortion
3. Post-viability—may prohibit abortion except when woman’s health threatened
4. No right to government funding of abortion services

J. Other Privacy Rights—marriage, use of contraceptives, obscene reading material in

the home (except child pornography), living with extended family, to educate and raise
children
1. Limitations generally subject to strict scrutiny or at least intermediate scrutiny but
language in cases not consistent
2. Intimate private, noncommercial sexual contact between fully consenting adults—not
a right, but court found no legitimate government interest in regulating

K. Voting Rights
1. Short residency requirement (e.g., 30 days)—valid
2. One person, one vote
a. Congressional elections—almost exact mathematical equality required (a few
percentage points may be fatal)
b. State and local elections—variance not unjustifiably large (16% variance upheld)
3. Fees—cannot preclude indigent candidates

L. Right to Travel Interstate

1. Durational residency requirements for dispensing benefits ordinarily subject to strict
scrutiny (30-day period probably okay; one year invalid)
2. Distinctions between old and new residents—invalid

M. Freedom of Speech
1. 1st Amendment limits government regulation of private speech
2. 1st Amendment inapplicable to government speech
a. Permanent monuments on government property a form of government
speech
b. Government funding of private speech—generally must be viewpoint neutral
1) Exception: Government funding of the arts
3. Regulation of speech based on content—generally prohibited
a. Exceptions: Unprotected categories (see 7., infra)
b. Speech of government employees
1) Official duties—government may punish public employee for unwanted
speech made as part of employee’s official duties
2) Private speech of government employee
a) Matter of public concern—balance employee’s right as a citizen to
 APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 9.

comment against government’s interest as employer in efficient perfor-

mance of public service
b) Not a matter of public concern—employer has broad discretion to
punish employee’s disruptive speech
4. Overbreadth and vagueness
a. Prohibition against substantially more speech than necessary voidable as to
affected person for overbreadth
b. Prohibition including a substantial amount of protected speech compared to its
legitimate sweep—void as to everyone
c. Regulation failing to give reasonable notice of what is prohibited has chilling
effect on speech and violates due process
d. Official cannot have unfettered discretion over speech issues
5. Scope of speech—includes freedom to refrain from speaking
a. Mandatory financial support of government speech—no 1st Amendment
concerns
b. Mandatory financial support of private speech—protected
c. Speech includes symbolic conduct
6. Time, place, and manner regulation
a. Public forums (e.g., sidewalks and parks) and designated public forums (e.g.,
schoolrooms open for use after school for social events)—regulation will avoid
strict scrutiny and be upheld if:
1) Content neutral
2) Narrowly tailored to serve an important government interest
3) Leaves open alternative channels of communication
b. Limited public forums (i.e., public property open for expressive activities only on
a certain topic) and nonpublic forums (i.e., public property not open for expres-
sive activities)—regulation valid if:
1) Viewpoint neutral
2) Reasonably related to a legitimate government purpose
7. Unprotected speech—some speech is not protected by 1st Amendment:
a. Clear and present danger of imminent lawless action
b. Fighting words (including true threats)
1) Statutes often overbroad or vague
c. Obscenity
1) Test:
a) Appeals to the prurient interest in sex;
b) Portrays sex in a patently offensive way; and
c) Does not have serious literary, political, or scientific value judged from
a national standard
2) Standard for minors may be different
3) Can prohibit pictures of minors engaging in sex that would not be obscene
if engaged in by adults
4) Zoning ordinances may limit the location of adult entertainment
10. APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

establishments if designed to reduce the secondary effects of such

businesses (e.g., rise in crime, reduction of property values)
d. Defamation
1) Public official or figure—plaintiff must prove actual malice
a) Actual malice = knowledge of falsity or reckless disregard as to truth
2) Private individual suing on matter of public concern—must prove at least
negligence
3) Privacy torts—media defendant cannot be sued for publishing a true fact
about a public record lawfully obtained
8. Commercial speech
a. If speech about unlawful activity or untrue or misleading speech—unprotected
b. Speech regarding lawful activity and not false or misleading—regulation valid if
it:
1) Serves a substantial government interest
2) Directly advances that interest
3) Is narrowly tailored to serve that interest
c. Complete bans usually invalid
9. Prior restraints
a. Invalid unless justified by a special societal harm or pursuant to contract
b. Procedural safeguards
1) Standards must be narrowly drawn, reasonable, and definite
2) Injunction must be sought promptly
3) There must be a prompt and final determination of validity of restraint
c. Broadcast media may be more closely regulated than press; cable TV between
the two; Internet regulation subject to strict scrutiny

N. Freedom of Association and Belief

1. Electoral process—sliding scale to judge restrictions on electoral process
a. Severe restriction on 1st Amendment activity must be narrowly tailored to
achieve a compelling purpose
b. Reasonable and nondiscriminatory regulations generally valid
2. Government employees may be sanctioned for speech undertaken as part of official
duties; balancing test determines whether other speech may be sanctioned—right to
comment on matter of public concern vs. government interest in efficient and orderly
workplace
3. Loyalty oaths for federal employees and public officials permissible if not overbroad
a. Oath to support the Constitution and to oppose illegal overthrow of government
okay
4. Disclosure of associations for government benefits/employment
a. Permissible if relevant to position
5. School sponsorship of extracurricular clubs
a. Can be content based if viewpoint neutral and reasonably related to a legitimate
government interest
 APPROACH TO CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 11.

O. Freedom of Religion
1. Free Exercise Clause
a. No punishment of beliefs—total freedom to believe as desired
b. Conduct cannot be punished solely because religious
c. General conduct regulation that incidentally burdens religious practice—gener-
ally valid
d. Exemptions for those following religious beliefs generally not required except:
1) Amish from mandatory secondary education
2) Conscientious objectors who refuse munitions work from unemployment
compensation laws requiring applicants to accept any job
2. Establishment Clause—government action/law respecting the establishment of
religion valid if action/law:
a. Has a secular purpose
b. Has a primary effect that neither advances nor prohibits religion
c. Does not cause excessive entanglement between government and religion
1) Prayer in public schools generally prohibited
2) Invocation prayer at legislative sessions and town hall meetings generally
valid (recognizes long history of prayer in America and adults not of tender
impressionable years)
3) Religious symbols in Christmastime displays valid if accompanied by nonre-
ligious symbols (recognizes historic roots of American Christmas holiday)
4) Displays of religious symbols (e.g., the Ten Commandments) on public
property invalid if shown to have a predominantly religious purpose
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM QUESTIONS 1.

ESSAY EXAM QUESTIONS

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

The essay questions that follow have been selected to provide you with an opportunity to experience
how the substantive law you have been reviewing may be tested in the hypothetical essay examination
question context. These sample essay questions are a valuable self-diagnostic tool designed to enable
you to enhance your issue-spotting ability and practice your exam writing skills.
It is suggested that you approach each question as though under actual examination conditions.
The time allowed for each question is 60 minutes. You should spend 15 to 20 minutes spotting issues,
underlining key facts and phrases, jotting notes in the margins, and outlining your answer. If you
organize your thoughts well, 40 minutes will be more than adequate for writing them down. Should
you prefer to forgo the actual writing involved on these questions, be sure to give yourself no more
time for issue-spotting than you would on the actual examination.
The BARBRI technique for writing a well-organized essay answer is to (i) spot the issues in a
question and then (ii) analyze and discuss each issue using the “CIRAC” method:
C — State your conclusion first. (In other words, you must think through your answer before you
start writing.)
I — State the issue involved.
R — Give the rule(s) of law involved.
A — Apply the rule(s) of law to the facts.
C — Finally, restate your conclusion.
After completing (or outlining) your own analysis of each question, compare it with the BARBRI
model answer provided herein. A passing answer does not have to match the model one, but it should
cover most of the issues presented and the law discussed and should apply the law to the facts of the
question. Use of the CIRAC method results in the best answer you can write.
2. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM QUESTIONS

EXAM QUESTION NO. 1

Sierra Toxics, Inc. (“Sierra”), is a privately owned company engaged in the business of disposing
of toxic waste generated by chemical and pharmaceutical plants. Sierra operates pursuant to a license
issued by the Commissioner of Ecological Preservation of the state of Alpha. This license authorizes
Sierra to contract with such plants to provide the following services: (i) collection of toxic waste at the
plant site; and (ii) transportation of that waste to Sierra’s disposal station, which is located in Alpha,
three miles from the border with the state of Beta.
Pursuant to the authority granted by its license, for the past 10 years Sierra has contracted to provide
services to plants in Alpha, and, a few years ago, expanded its business to serve plants just across the
border in Beta. The Beta plants that contract with Sierra dispose of approximately one-half their toxic
waste output through that company and the remainder of their waste through disposal companies
located in Beta.
Shortly after Sierra extended its services to the Beta plants, the residents of the town in which
Sierra’s disposal station is situated became alarmed at the amount of toxic waste stored there. These
residents were concerned about the proximity of such toxic waste, both to their homes and to the reser-
voir located in their town which supplies water to households in the immediate surrounding area.
The residents petitioned the Commissioner of Ecological Preservation to close Sierra’s disposal
station. Sierra objected. The Commissioner held an open hearing on the matter at which numerous
witnesses testified. After that hearing, the Commissioner resolved the dispute by issuing an order that,
effective immediately, use of Sierra’s disposal station would be limited to toxic waste removed from
chemical and pharmaceutical plants in Alpha only. The Beta plants were barred from disposing of their
toxic waste through Sierra.
Both Sierra and the state of Beta have filed suit against the Alpha Commissioner of Ecological
Preservation, seeking to rescind that order. The two lawsuits have been consolidated for trial before
the judge for whom you serve as law clerk. The judge has asked you to prepare a memorandum identi-
fying the claims raised and the defenses asserted, and analyzing the legal bases for all such claims and
defenses.
Prepare the memorandum.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM QUESTIONS 3.

EXAM QUESTION NO. 2

State University has had a nationally prominent football program for many years. A recent investiga-
tion by the American Athletic Association (“AAA”), consisting of public and private educational insti-
tutions nationwide, including State University, uncovered serious violations of the rules and regulations
of the Association. These included recruiting infractions which implicated the head football coach.
After a hearing conducted by the Association in which State University participated and in which
Coach was a witness, the Association placed State University on probation for two years. It ordered that
further sanctions will be imposed unless Coach is suspended for the probationary period. The president
of State University has notified Coach of his intent to impose the required suspension.
As part of his fight against the suspension, Coach granted an interview to the sports editor of the
student newspaper in which he disputed the Association’s charges. The president has directed the paper
not to publish the resulting article, and the editorial staff has complied.
Frustrated by his inability to tell his side of the story and threatened by loss of his job, Coach has
retained your law firm to institute appropriate action.
Prepare a legal memorandum setting forth Coach’s causes of action, the legal basis for each, and the
defenses to be anticipated.
4. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM QUESTIONS

EXAM QUESTION NO. 3

A bill has been introduced in the legislature of the state of Uphoria which would limit appointment
of members of the state police force to male citizens of the United States who are over the age of 20
years.
Senator Strate is chairman of the committee to which this bill has been referred, and he requires
a carefully written summary analyzing the legal principles implicated by this bill. He retains you
to prepare this summary in clear and concise language so that it may be used by members of his
committee in their consideration of the merits of the bill.
Comply with the senator’s request.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM QUESTIONS 5.

EXAM QUESTION NO. 4

Irma LaTouce and Lester DeJacques were employed as dancers at a Fun City cocktail lounge.
Both dancers received a weekly salary plus commissions on drinks purchased for them by customers
between performances. Police officers observed Irma and Lester socializing with lounge patrons and
brought charges against them under a local ordinance which provided:

Entertainers in business premises where alcoholic beverages are sold are prohibited from
mingling with customers.

The stated purpose of the ordinance was to prevent disorderly conduct in premises where liquor is
sold, to encourage temperance, and to discourage opportunities for the solicitation of prostitution or
engaging in any other immoral activity.
At the trial before the local municipal court, the dancers testified that the commissions were earned
for socializing with the clientele, which involved conversation and casual companionship with men
and women who patronized the club. They both admitted that the main purpose of this activity was
to get the customers to buy more drinks. It was stipulated that there had been no disorderly conduct
in the lounge and that neither defendant had solicited any act of prostitution or engaged in any other
immoral activity. The court found both dancers guilty as charged and imposed a fine as provided in the
ordinance.
Irma and Lester have now consulted you. They desire to appeal their convictions. Prepare a brief in
support of Irma and Lester as petitioners.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM ANSWERS 1.

ANSWERS TO ESSAY EXAM QUESTIONS

ANSWER TO EXAM QUESTION NO. 1

To: Judge
From: Law Clerk
Re: Sierra Toxics

Commerce Clause: The Commissioner of Ecological Preservation’s (“CEP’s”) order violates the
Commerce Clause. At issue is whether a state may prohibit hazardous waste disposal facilities within
the state from accepting hazardous wastes from outside the state.
The Commerce Clause gives Congress plenary power to regulate commerce among the states. This
power is not exclusive; the states may also regulate commerce. However, state regulation that discrimi-
nates against interstate commerce usually will be stricken as violating the Commerce Clause unless the
regulation is necessary to achieve an important state interest.
Here, the CEP’s order clearly discriminates against interstate commerce since it prohibits disposal
of out-of-state wastes but allows disposal of wastes generated within the state. The Commission would
no doubt argue that the state’s interest in the safety of residents around Sierra’s disposal facility neces-
sitates the limitation, but this argument will fail. A nondiscriminatory regulation (e.g., limiting the
amount of hazardous waste that may be disposed of at Sierra’s plant, regardless of where the hazardous
waste was generated) could provide the same protection as the prohibition here. Thus, the regulation
discriminates against interstate commerce without valid justification and so violates the Commerce
Clause.

Contracts Clause: The order of the CEP might also violate the Contracts Clause. At issue is
whether a state order that prohibits a waste disposal facility from accepting wastes from certain
customers violates the Contracts Clause.
The Contracts Clause generally prohibits states from acting to retroactively and substantially impair
existing contracts rights. However, the bar is not absolute; even if a state act substantially impairs
existing contract rights it still will be upheld if the impairment serves an important public interest and
the law is reasonable and narrowly tailored to promote that interest.
Here, it is not clear whether the CEP’s order substantially impairs any existing contract rights.
Although we are told that the order prohibits Sierra from accepting hazardous wastes from outside the
state, and that Sierra has contracted with out-of-state customers in the past, we are not told whether
Sierra has any continuing contracts that would be impaired by the CEP’s order. Assuming such
contracts exist, the order would violate the Contracts Clause. Since the CEP is a state agency, there is
action by the state. And while safeguarding the community from toxic wastes is clearly an important
interest, as discussed above the order here is not a reasonable way to deal with the problem because it
does nothing to prevent wastes generated within the state from jeopardizing the community’s safety.
Accordingly, the order violates the Contracts Clause.

Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV: The CEP order might violate the Privileges and
Immunities Clause of Article IV, at least with respect to the citizens of state Beta. At issue is whether a
state may prohibit nonresidents from contracting for commercial services in the state.
The Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV prohibits states from discriminating against
nonresidents in matters concerning fundamental rights, which include important commercial activi-
ties and civil liberties. However, even if a state discriminates against nonresidents, the discrimination
can be upheld if the state has a substantial justification for the different treatment and there are no less
restrictive means to accomplish the state’s goal. In any case, the Privileges and Immunities Clause is
available only to natural persons; corporations cannot take advantage of its protections.
2. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM ANSWERS

Here, we are not told whether any of Sierra’s customers are natural persons; they might all be
corporations. If Beta is allowed to represent the interests of natural persons who are being discrimi-
nated against by the CEP’s order, the order probably violates the Privileges and Immunities Clause.
Contracting for commercial waste disposal services probably is an important commercial activity, and
the CEP’s order discriminates against nonresidents by completely prohibiting them from contracting
on an equal basis with residents of Alpha. And while there probably is substantial justification for the
order (to protect the community from hazardous wastes), as discussed above, the order is not the least
restrictive means of protecting that interest. Thus, the order could violate the Privileges and Immuni-
ties Clause of Article IV.
Procedural Due Process: Finally, it could be argued that Sierra was denied its right to procedural
due process. At issue is whether Sierra had an adequate opportunity to present its case.
The Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment, made applicable to the states through the
Fourteenth Amendment, provides that the government shall not take a person’s life, liberty, or property
without due process of law. Due process contemplates fair procedures, which requires at least an
opportunity to present objections to the proposed action and a fair and neutral decisionmaker. The
timing and scope of the hearing due depend on the circumstances of the deprivation. In most cases, the
person being deprived of life, liberty, or property should receive notice of the government’s proposed
action and have an opportunity to respond before the deprivation.
Here, the CEP has limited Sierra’s right to contract, a liberty interest. The facts state that a public
hearing was held, but we are not told whether Sierra was given individual notice of the meeting or was
given an opportunity to speak. Presumably, sufficient notice and an opportunity to respond were given,
and thus Sierra was afforded adequate procedural due process.

ANSWER TO EXAM QUESTION NO. 2

To: Partner
From: Associate
Re: Coach’s Causes of Action

Coach v. AAA: Coach most likely has no constitutional claims against AAA because AAA is not a
state actor. The first issue is whether the action of AAA constitutes state action.
To find state action, an actor must perform public functions or have significant involvement with
the state. It appears, under this standard, that AAA is not a state actor; regulating sports at public
and private institutions nationwide is not a function traditionally reserved to the states and neither are
its activities so involved with the state as to rise to the level of state action. [Compare: Brentwood
Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association, 531 U.S. 288 (2001)—state action
found where, among other things, “private” regulating body operated in a single state, was made up
mostly of public school officials, and met during school hours]
Furthermore, AAA has given State University a choice of what to do, albeit a coercive choice. State
University does not have to suspend Coach; it could choose to accept further sanctions and not suspend
Coach. Therefore, no causes of action will lie against AAA because it merely made findings and left
it to State University to decide what actions to take. [See National Collegiate Athletic Association v.
Tarkanian, 488 U.S. 179 (1988)]
Coach v. State University: Coach can make a due process claim against State University. The
actions of State University through its president, constitute state action. The university is an institu-
tion of the state, as indicated by its name, and the president is a state actor. The question, then, is what
constitutional rights Coach has, and whether these rights were infringed by the university.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM ANSWERS 3.

The Due Process Clause, applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment, requires that
a person receive adequate notice and a fair hearing before being deprived of life, liberty, or property by
the government. Public employees have been found to have a property interest in their jobs and must
receive due process before being deprived of them. Coach is a public employee because he works for a
state university. Whether Coach suffered a deprivation of his due process rights depends on whether he
was removable for cause. An employee removable only for cause has a property interest in his job, and
thus is entitled to due process before the state deprives him of it.
Assuming Coach is removable only for cause, due process requires that he be given notice of the
charges against him, as well as a pretermination opportunity to respond to the charges. An evidentiary
hearing regarding the termination decision must be provided either before or after the termination, with
reinstatement if he prevails. If no cause is required for removal, Coach is an employee at will and is not
due any process before or after termination.
We should move to secure the above procedural safeguards for Coach. While Coach participated
in the AAA hearing, he appeared only as a witness and not as a party. Coach is entitled to a more
substantial opportunity to respond to the charges against him. Coach has received notice of the
decision to suspend him. He may respond to the president’s notification of suspension and is entitled to
an evidentiary hearing regarding his termination.
The university may assert that a two-year suspension is not the same as a termination. However, our
position is that a two-year loss of job and salary is an infringement of Coach’s property rights serious
enough to warrant a hearing.
Should we bring this claim, the university may raise a defense of ripeness. It could claim that no
action has been taken against Coach and that his claim is premature. However, an action is ripe for
review when there is the immediate threat of harm. Here, the president has notified Coach of its intent
to suspend him. Thus, Coach’s claim will not fail for lack of ripeness.
Coach’s First Amendment claim: Coach likely has no claims against the university for directing
the school newspaper not to publish its interview with him, because his constitutional rights probably
have not been violated. Under the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment, applicable to states
through the Fourteenth Amendment, government may not restrict freedom of speech or of the press.
In a public forum that has traditionally been open to speech activities, government restrictions on the
content of speech must be necessary to serve a compelling state interest. Further, the state may not
impose a prior restraint on the press by preventing publication of content that it finds objectionable,
absent extraordinary circumstances. Public schools and universities, however, have not traditionally
been considered public forums open to free speech activities, although the Supreme Court has found
that students at a public institution do not shed all First Amendment rights at the schoolhouse door.
Additionally, the contents of a school-funded newspaper can be regulated because the Court has found
that such papers are not public forums, but merely educational devices. If the student publication is part
of a class taught at the educational institution, its content may be regulated by the school for legitimate
pedagogical purposes.
In this case, even if the newspaper were a public forum, it would not give rise to a cause of action
by Coach. Generally, a party cannot assert the constitutional rights of others. To have standing, the
claimant must have suffered a direct impairment of his own constitutional rights. Here, a prior restraint
has been placed on the newspaper. This is a burden on the newspaper’s rights. And while Coach is
affected, it is not a direct impairment of his rights. Thus, he lacks standing to bring a suit based in the
First Amendment.

ANSWER TO EXAM QUESTION NO. 3

The state of Uphoria’s bill would be valid as to its age and citizenship requirements, but would be
unconstitutional due to its gender classification.
4. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM ANSWERS

Under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, government may not treat
similarly situated people in a dissimilar manner without a sufficient reason. The sufficiency of the
reason depends on the basis of the classification. There are three tests:
The first test is the strict scrutiny or compelling state interest test. This test is used if when govern-
ment action treats people differently based on a suspect classification, such as race, national origin, or
alienage. Under this test, the law is considered to be invalid unless the government can prove that it is
necessary to achieve a compelling state objective.
The second test involves intermediate scrutiny. Under this test, the court will strike down a law
unless the government can show that the law bears a substantial relation to an important government
interest. This is the test used when there is a classification based on gender. Gender classifications will
be struck down absent an exceedingly persuasive justification, and the government may not rely on
overbroad generalizations about males and females that will perpetuate the legal, social, and economic
inferiority of women.
The third test is the rational basis test (minimum scrutiny). Under this test, the government action
is valid if the action is related to achieving any conceivable legitimate governmental interest. In other
words, the person challenging the classification must prove that it is arbitrary or irrational. This is
a very “loose” test, and it is very difficult for a law to fail it. This test is used for all classifications
relating to matters of economics or social welfare.
The gender designation of Uphoria’s bill limiting the appointment of state police officers to males
would be subject to intermediate scrutiny review due to its facial gender classification. Therefore, this
component will only be upheld if it is substantially related to an important governmental interest.
This gender classification is not related to an important governmental interest. As in United States v.
Virginia, supra, the government will not be able to show that all women are incapable of performing
the duties of a state trooper. If Uphoria claims that its bill is based on ability to do the work, it can
design a test of each individual’s (male or female) ability to perform the work required of a state police
officer, and not unfairly discriminate against women. Accordingly, under the intermediate scrutiny test,
this bill would be found invalid due to the fact that it discriminates against women without an exceed-
ingly persuasive justification.
The bill also limits appointment of police officers to citizens of the United States. Since this compo-
nent of the bill is based on alienage, it ordinarily falls under the strict scrutiny-compelling interest test.
However, there is an exception to this rule which provides that if, as here, the law discriminates against
alien participation in the functioning of state government, the rational basis test is applied. Under
rational basis, a state can validly refuse to hire aliens as police officers, or for other positions which
have a direct effect on the function of government. [Ambach v. Norwick, 441 U.S. 68 (1979)] Accord-
ingly, the bill would be valid as far as its citizenship requirement is concerned.
The bill sets the age for appointment of a police officer to be over 20 years. The Supreme Court has
held that age is not a suspect classification, so a rational basis analysis can be applied. The 20-year-
old minimum age requirement in this statute would be held constitutional under the rational basis test
because of the state’s interest in having police officers who are physically and emotionally mature
enough to handle the stress of police work.

ANSWER TO EXAM QUESTION NO. 4

A. FIRST AMENDMENT ISSUES

Irma and Lester have several winnable First Amendment challenges to the ordinance. Under the
First Amendment, “Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ....”
This guarantee has been held applicable to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth
Amendment.
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM ANSWERS 5.

1. Freedom of Association and Belief: The First Amendment protects freedom of association.
First Amendment rights are considered fundamental rights, and government attempts to restrict them
are subject to strict scrutiny analysis. The government must show the restrictions are necessary to
promote a compelling interest. Under this standard, very few state restrictions on speech are upheld by
courts. Here, it appears that the ordinance impinges on the rights of the entertainers to talk and mingle
with the customers. As such, the ordinance has the effect of chilling their right to freely associate.
Thus, on this ground the ordinance is unconstitutional unless the government can show it is needed to
serve a compelling interest. While the town could argue that curbing disorderly conduct, prostitution,
and intemperance is a compelling interest, it would have a harder time showing that restricting the free
association rights of Irma and Lester in such a way is necessary to promote it and that there are no less
restrictive means available. The town's position is further weakened by the fact that the parties have
stipulated that no actual prostitution, disorderly conduct, or immoral activity took place as a result of
Irma's and Lester's behavior.
2. The Ordinance is Overbroad: If a regulation of speech or speech-related conduct punishes a
substantial amount of protected speech judged in relation to the regulation’s plainly legitimate sweep,
the regulation is facially invalid (i.e., it cannot be enforced against anyone—not even a person engaging
in activity that is not constitutionally protected). Here, the stated purposes of the ordinance are to (i)
prevent disorderly conduct; (ii) encourage temperance; (iii) discourage prostitution; and (iv) prevent
any other immoral activity. While these purposes are legitimate government interests, the ordinance
as written restricts expression and conduct that have only a peripheral connection with prostitution,
immoral activity, etc. Accordingly, the ordinance chills speech and conduct that are protected under
the First Amendment. Certainly, the ordinance could be worded to restrict only the activities that are
the focus of its basic purposes, i.e., preventing prostitution and drunkenness. Prohibiting mingling of
customers and entertainers goes beyond these legitimate purposes. Therefore, the ordinance is uncon-
stitutionally overbroad and cannot be enforced against anyone.
3. The Ordinance is Vague: Laws regulating speech-related activities are unconstitutional if
they are too vague to give notice of what conduct they forbid. To the extent their vagueness suggests
that they prohibit constitutionally protected speech, they have a chilling effect on speech. Here, the
ordinance prohibits the entertainers from “mingling” with customers. The word “mingling” is too
vague to define what conduct is proscribed by the ordinance. Thus, it appears that the entertainers may
be forced to refrain from conduct and expression protected by the First Amendment in order not to be
considered “mingling” with the customers. Because this ordinance has, in this manner, the effect of
chilling activity and expression that is protected by the First Amendment, it is unconstitutional.
4. Effect of Twenty-First Amendment on First Amendment Rights: The Twenty-First Amend-
ment gives the states much control over the sale and use of intoxicating liquor within their borders.
Thus, Fun City’s attorneys could argue that the ordinance is a valid exercise of the state’s constitu-
tionally granted powers with respect to intoxicating liquors. However, this argument fails because,
as a general rule, individual rights guaranteed by the Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment
outweigh state liquor control laws. Here, the ordinance, which constitutes a liquor control regulation,
chills First Amendment rights made applicable, to states under the Fourteenth Amendment. Accord-
ingly, the ordinance is unconstitutional.

B. SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS ISSUES

Irma and Lester can also challenge the ordinance as a violation of their rights under the Due Process
Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which applies to state and local governments. Substantive due
process protects certain fundamental rights not articulated within the text of the Constitution and
prohibits arbitrary government action.
Under substantive due process principles, where a fundamental right is limited, the law (or other
government action) must be necessary to promote a compelling or overriding state interest. Funda-
mental rights include interstate travel, privacy, voting, and all rights implied under the First Amendment.
6. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW EXAM ANSWERS

Here the ordinance, as discussed above, chills the entertainers’ First Amendment rights of associa-
tion and speech. From the facts, Fun City has shown no compelling or overriding interest to do so.
Accordingly, on this ground, the ordinance violates the substantive due process rights of Irma and
Lester.

C. EQUAL PROTECTION ISSUES

Irma and Lester have a strong Equal Protection argument as well. Under the Equal Protection
Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, governmental acts that classify people for differential treatment
may be invalid. It is unconstitutional for the government to treat similarly situated people in a dissim-
ilar manner absent sufficient justification. Where a suspect classification is involved (i.e., race, national
origin, or alienage), the differential treatment is subject to the strict scrutiny test and must be necessary
to promote a compelling state interest. For nonsuspect classifications of individuals, a law need only
be rationally related to a legitimate government purpose, and will be upheld unless unreasonable or
arbitrary.
Here, the ordinance seeks to prevent people who work as entertainers in establishments where
alcohol is served from socializing with patrons of the business. Ordinarily, a law that singles out
people in a certain line of work for differing treatment would be subject only to the rational basis test,
as entertainer is not a suspect classification. However, when a classification affects the exercise of a
fundamental right, it is subject to strict scrutiny. Irma and Lester are being prevented from exercising
their fundamental First Amendment right to freely associate. Thus, to sustain the classification, Fun
City must show that it has a compelling interest to impose such restraints on entertainers and no less
restrictive means of achieving the interest. Clearly, Fun City does not have a compelling interest in so
restricting Irma and Lester's rights and, therefore, the ordinance violates equal protection.

D. CONCLUSION
For the foregoing reasons, Irma’s and Lester’s convictions should be reversed. Irma and Lester have
been charged with violating an ordinance that is constitutionally overbroad and infringes on their First
and Fourteenth Amendment rights.