A soil mass is a three phase

system consisting of solid

particles, water and air. The void
space between soil particles is
filled partly with water and
partly with air.
1. Definitions
1.1 water content (Wc):
The water content (also called the moisture content)
Defined as the ratio between the weight of water (Ww) to the weight of solids (Ws) in a
𝑾𝒘
given soil mass; Wc = .
𝑾𝒔

1.2 Specific gravity (Gs):

𝑾𝒔
𝜸𝒔 ( 𝑽𝒔 )
Defined as the ratio between unit weight of soil solids to that of water; Gs = =
𝜸𝒘 𝜸𝒘

𝑾𝒔
For γw = 1 gm/cm3 or (1 t/m3): Gs =
𝑽𝒔
1.3 Unit weight of solid mass (Density of soil):

(a) Bulk Density (γb):

𝑾
Defined as the total weight of soil mass (W) per unit of its total volume (V); γb =
𝑽

(b) Dry Density (γd):

𝑾𝒔
Defined as the weight of solids (Ws) per unit of its total volume (V); γd =
𝑽

(c) Saturated Density (γsat):

𝑾𝒔𝒂𝒕
Defined as the total weight of a saturated soil mass per unit of its total volume; γsat =
𝑽

(d) Submerged Density (γsub.):

When a soil mass is submerged under water its weight is reduced due to bouyancy.
γsub = γsat - γw

Note: For γw = 1 gm/cm3 or (1 t/m3): γsub = γsat – 1.00

1.4 Void ratio (e):
𝑽𝒗
Defined as the ratio between volume of voids to volume of solid particles; e=
𝑽𝒔

1.5 Porosity (n):

𝑽𝒗
Defined as the ratio between volume of voids to total volume; n=
𝑽𝒕

1.6 The relative density

𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝒆
Dr =
𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏

Relative density % Description of compactness

< 15 Very loose
15 - 35 Loose
35 - 65 Medium dense
65 - 85 Dense
> 85 Very dense
1.7 Degree of saturation (Sr):
𝑽𝒘
Defined as the ratio between volume of water to volume of voids; Sr =
𝑽𝒗

For saturated soil Sr = 1 (or 100%) & For dry soil Sr = 0.

1.8 Air ratio (ac):

𝑽𝒂
Defined as the ratio between volume of air to volume of voids; ac =
𝑽𝒗
2. Functional relations
Wc . Gs = e . Sr ………………….….1
γb = γd . (1 + Wc) …………….……..…2
Gs + e . Sr
γb = . γw ..………………….…3
1+e
Gs
γd = . γw …………….…………4
1+e
Gs + e
γsat = . γw ……………….………5
1+e
Gs − 1
γsub = . γw ……………….………6
1+e
e n
n= e= ……………………….7
1+e 1−n

ac = 1 – Sr …………………...…8
3. Solved Examples
1. The weight of a partially saturated soil sample is 600 gm and its volume is
365 cm3. After oven drying the weight of the sample reduces to 543 gm.
Taking the specific gravity 2.67, find the water content, void ratio and degree
of saturation. If the sample is saturated with water without change of its
volume, find the saturated density.

7
Solution
Ww = W – Ws = 600 – 543 = 57 gm
Ww 57
Wc = .= = 0.105
Ws 543
Ws 543
γd = = = 1.488 gm/cm3 365
V 365
600
Gs
γd = . γw 543
1+e
2.67
1.488 = x 1.00 >>> e = 0.794
1+e
Gs = 2.67
Wc . Gs = e . Sr
0.105 x 2.67 = 0.794 x Sr >>> Sr = 0.353
Gs + e 2.67 + 0.794
γsat = . γw = = 1.93 gm/cm3
1+e 1+0.794
8
2. The bulk density of a soil sample is 1.97 gm/cm3 and its water content is
20.6 %. Taking the specific gravity 2.65, find the void ratio and degree of
saturation. Draw the 3-phase diagram taking Vs = 1 cm3.

Solution
γb = γd . (1 + Wc)
1.97 = γd x ( 1 + 0.206) >>> γd = 1.633 gm/cm3
Gs
γd = . γw
1+e
2.65
1.633 = x 1.00 >>> e = 0.622
1+e
Wc . Gs = e . Sr
0.206 x 2.65 = 0.622 x Sr >>> Sr = 0.877
9
3. The porosity of a sand sample is 40%, if the max. And min. dry densities
of sand determined from lab are 2.20 and 1.45 gm/cm3 respectively.
Determine relative density taking Gs = 2.60.
Solution
n 0.4
e= = = 0.667
1 − n 1 − 0.4
Gs
γdmax = . γw
1+emin
2.60
2.20 = x 1.00 >>> emin = 0.182
1+emin
Gs
γdmin = . γw
1+emax
2.60
1.45 = x 1.00 >>> emax = 0.793
1+emax
emax − e 0.793 − 0.667
Dr = = = 0.206 >>> Compactness: Loose
emax − emin 0.793 − 0.182
CHAPTER2
Index properties of soil
In order to relate soil behavior to its physical properties, it is convenient to have standard
procedures for testing and reporting of results. This Chapter introduces concepts and
definitions for index properties for soil constituents and soil mass.
.‫الخواص التبويبية للتربة هي تلك الخواص التي تستخدم لتقسيم التربة الي مجموعات لها صفات هندسية مشتركة‬
‫وعند اقامة مشروع تتحدد تلك الخواص لطبقات التربة المؤثرة وبالتالي يمكن تقدير صفاتها الهندسية التي تلزم‬
.‫لدراسة المشروع‬
‫‪1. Water (moisture) content:‬‬
‫‪Water content can be determined‬‬
‫‪by different methods. The most‬‬
‫‪accurate method is the oven‬‬
‫‪drying method.‬‬
‫خطوات االختبار‪:‬‬
‫يتم وزن عينة من التربة‪ ،‬وتوضع في علبة‬
‫نظيفة معلومة الوزن‪ ،‬ثم يتم وضعها في فرن‬
‫درجة حرارته تتراوح من ‪ 110-105‬درجة‬
‫مئوية‪ .‬التجفيف الكامل يستغرق حوالي ‪24‬‬
‫ساعة‪.‬‬
‫‪2. Particle size distribution‬‬
‫التدرج من أهم خواص التربة خاصة الزلطية والرملية ويفييد معرفته في تقييم التربة ألعمال انشاء األساسات وغيرها‬
‫من التطبيقات العملية‪.‬‬
‫‪Main Soils‬‬

‫‪Coarse grained‬‬ ‫‪Fine‬‬

‫‪soil‬‬ ‫‪grained soil‬‬

‫‪Gravel‬‬ ‫‪Sand‬‬ ‫‪Silt‬‬ ‫‪Clay‬‬

(a) Sieve analysis

Sieving is performed by arranging the various sieves one over the

other, the largest aperture sieve is placed at the top and the smallest
aperture sieve is placed at the bottom. A receiver is placed at the
bottom, and a cover is placed at the top. The soil sample is put on
the top sieve and the sieves are put on a sieve shaker, for about 10
minutes.

:‫خطوات االختبار‬
‫يتم ترتيب مجموعة المناخل بحيث يتم وضع األكبر قطرا في األعلى واألصغر قطرا في‬
‫ ثم يتم وضع عينة التربة على المنخل‬.‫ ويتم وضع وعاء استقبال في األسفل‬,‫األسفل‬
‫ ثم يتم وزن المحجوز علي‬.‫ دقائق‬10 ‫العلوي ويتم الهز يدوي أو ميكانيكي لمدة حوالي‬
.‫كل منخل وبالتالي يمكن حساب نسب المحجوز والمار من كل منخل‬
‫منحنى التدرج الحبيبي يعطي‬
‫فكرة عن نوع وتدرج التربة‪.‬‬
‫عينة التربة قد تكون إما "ذات‬
‫تدرج حبيبي جيد" أو "ذات‬
‫تدرج حبيبي سيئ"‪ .‬فالتربة ذات‬
‫التدرج الحبيبي الجيد تحتوي‬
‫علي جزيئات من جميع‬
‫المقاسات‪ ,‬بينما التربة ذات‬
‫التدرج الحبيبي السئ لديها نقص‬
‫في بعض المقاسات أو معظم‬
‫جزيئاتها من نفس المقاس‪.‬‬
‫ حيث يستخدم فى توصيف التربة بانها ذات تدرج‬،"‫ يقاس منحنى التدرج الحبيبي بمعامل يسمى "معامل االنتظام‬
."‫حبيبي جيد أو سيئ وهناك ايضا "معامل االنحناء‬

Uniformity coefficient (u)

𝐷60
𝑈=
𝐷10
Where
D60: Particle diameter at which 60% of the soil is finer.
D10: Particle diameter at which 10% of the soil is finer.
: Called effective diameter.

Curvature coefficient (C)

𝐷30 2
𝐶=
𝐷60 ∗ 𝐷10
Where
D30: Particle diameter at which 30% of the soil is finer.
Solved Examples
1. Results of particle size distribution analysis of a soil sample weighing 2.77 kg are
given. Draw the grading curve.
Solution:
Sieve size )mm) 9.52 4.80 2.40 1.20 0.60 0.42 0.21 0.15 0.075

Weight retained
0 56 189 421 778 444 417 361 55
(gm)
Weight retained Cum. Weight
Sieve Size % retained % finer
(gm) retained
9.52 0 0 0 100
4.8 56 56 2 98
2.4 189 245 8.8 91.2
1.2 421 666 24 76
0.6 778 1444 52.1 47.9
0.42 444 1888 68.2 31.8
0.21 417 2305 83.2 16.8
0.15 361 2666 96.2 3.8
0.075 55 2721 98.2 1.8
Pan 49 2770 100 0
From curve :
D10= 0.18 mm
D60= 0.83 mm
D60 0.83
U = D10 = 0.18 =6.50
 ‫مالحظات‪:‬‬
‫‪ ‬المنخل رقم ‪200(200‬فتحة فى البوصة المربعة ‪ /‬طول ضلع الفتحة ‪0.075‬مم) هو المنخل الفاصل بين المحجوز‬
‫من زلط ورمل ‪،‬والمار من طمى وطين‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬مرور أكثر من ‪ %10‬من وزن العينة من المنخل رقم ‪ 200‬يدل على أن التربة تحتوى على نسبة عالية من المواد‬
‫الناعمة‪ ,‬ولذلك يجب اجراء اختبار اخر لرسم منحنى التدرج الحبيبي للمواد الناعمة وهو ‪Sedimentation‬‬
‫)‪.analysis (Hydrometer‬‬
 ‫يمكن تحديد نسب مكونات التربة من زلط ورمل وطمي وطين‬
‫وذلك عن طريق منحني التدرج الحبيبي ومقاسات التربة المعطاة بواسطة الكود المصري‬

‫ثم يتم استخدام احدي نظم التوصيف في وصف التربة ومنها‪:‬‬

‫‪1. MIT classification‬‬
‫‪2. Textural (triangular) classification‬‬
‫‪3. Unified classification‬‬
3. Soil consistency
This term is used for fine grained soils and is related to the water content. If soil is mixed
with a large quantity of water, it forms a suspension. If water is evaporated, the soil passes
through various "states of consistency". These states are Liquid state, Plastic state, Semi–
solid state and Solid state.
‫حدود القوام للتربة الطينية والطميية هما حد السيولة واللدونة ويتم تعيينهما بالتجارب المعملية بهدف معرفة مدي قابلية‬
.‫التربة للتشكل واالنضغاط‬
 Atterberg limits
‫‪(a) Liquid limit test‬‬
‫هو المحتوى المائي الفاصل بين حالة السيولة وحالة اللدونة‪ .‬وهو أقل محتوى المائي تكون فيه التربة في حالة السيولة‪.‬‬

‫‪(b) Plastic limit test‬‬

‫هو المحتوى المائي الفاصل بين حالة اللدونة وحالة شبه الصالبة‪ .‬وهو أقل محتوي مائي تكون عنده التربة في حالة لدنة‪.‬‬

‫‪(c) Shrinkage limit‬‬

‫هو المحتوي المائي الفاصل بين حالة شبه الصالبة وحالة الصالبة‪ ,‬و هوأقل محتوي مائي تكون عنده التربة في الحالة المشبعة‪.‬‬

‫بالنسبة لحد األنكماش فقد دلت بعض االبحاث على أنه‬

‫كلما قل حد األنكماش للتربة الطينية كان ذلك مدلوالا على‬
‫أن معدن الطين قابل لألنتفاش‪.‬‬
Basic definitions:

Plasticity index (PI) = L.L – P.L ‫مبين اللدونة‬

𝐿.𝐿−𝑊𝑐
Consistency index (IC) = ‫مبين القوام‬
𝐿.𝐿−𝑃.𝐿

𝑊𝑐−𝑃.𝐿
Liquidity index (IL) = ‫مبين السيولة‬
𝐿.𝐿−𝑃.𝐿
CHAPTER 3:
Soil Classification Systems
The purpose of soil classification is to arrange various types of soil into groups according
to their engineering characteristics.
Soil is generally composed of a mix of several components. These components are
described individually in the following section.

‫ ومجموعات التربة لها صفات‬.‫يعتبر التصنيف الخطوة األولى التى تجرى لتحديد "مجموعة" تنتمى اليها التربة‬
.‫هندسية متنبؤ بهــا‬
‫والواقع أنه ألعمال اإلنشاء الصغيرة يكتفى بالتصنيف لتقدير خواص التربة الهندسية ويتم تصميم األساسات وأعمال‬
.‫الحفر وخالفه بناء على ذلك‬
1. Particle size classification
(M.I.T Classification)

Percentage of
Tool ‫األداة‬ Example ‫مثال‬
Component
And ‫و‬ 50 – 35 Sand and Silt ‫رمل و طمي‬
---ly ‫صفة‬ 35 – 15 Silty Sand ‫رمل طميي‬
Some ‫بعض‬ 15 – 5 Sand, Some silt ‫رمل وبعض طمي‬
Traces of ‫أثار‬ 5–1 Sand, Traces of silt ‫رمل وأثار طمي‬
Solved Example:
Solved Example:
2. For the shown particle size distribution, find the effective diameter, uniformity
coefficient and coefficient of curvature. Describe the soil according to the M.I.T.
 Sand Gravel
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse
18 45 27 10 --- ---
90 10

Description according to M.I.T. system:

Sand, some gravel √√√

D60 D302
D60 D30 D10 U= C=
D10 D60 . D10

0.57 0.28 0.14 4.1 0.98

‫‪2. Triangular classification‬‬
‫يعطى تصنيف الـ ‪ M.I.T‬إنطباعا مباشراا غير‬
‫واقعى عن خواص التربة خاصة عند إحتوائها‬
‫على تربة خشنة مع نسبة من الطمى والطين‪.‬‬

‫فمثال إذا تكونت تربة من‬

‫‪ % 40‬رمل‪ % 28 ,‬طمى‪ % 32 ,‬طين‪,‬‬
‫فبنظام ‪ M.I.T.‬يطلق على هذه التربة اسم‬
‫"رمل طيني طميي"‪.‬‬
‫ولكن الواقع أن حبيبات الطين الهائلة العدد‬
‫ستغلف حبيبات الرمل والطمى وتصبح هى‬
‫الروابط بينهم مما يجعل خصائص الطين تسيطر‬
‫على سلوك التربة‪.‬‬
Solved Example:
3. Results of a particle size distribution test give:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
6% 68 % 10 % 16 %

Classify according to triangular classification system.

 The sum of soil contents is: 68 + 10 + 16 = 94 %.

 To apply the triangular classification system:
100
Sand content = 68 x = 72.34%
94
100
Silt content = 10 x = 10.64 %
94
100
Clay content = 16 x = 17.02 %
94
 The point corresponding to the adjusted contents is plotted as follows: Clayey sand
 Adding the effect of gravel content, the soil is classified as: Clayey sand, some gravel.
CHAPTER 4:
Soil Exploration
Introduction
 Soil exploration is the first step in any project.
 Determining the type of foundation depend on the type of soil and its
bearing capacity.

Objectives of a site exploration :

 Determine the location and thicknesses of soil layers.
 Determine the location of groundwater table.
 Recover samples for testing and evaluation.
 Conduct tests (field and laboratory).
 Define special problems and concerns.
 ‫تخطيط الجسات‬ ‫مناطق البحث‬
‫تخطط الجسات االسترشادية علي شبكة من ‪ 200 x 200‬متر الي ‪ 400 x 400‬متر‪ ,‬وفي حالة األبحاث التفصيلية يزداد عدد‬
‫‪Spacing between‬‬ ‫الجسات للحصول علي قطاعات جيولوجية دقيقة‪.‬‬
‫المواقع العمرانية‬

‫‪boreholes‬‬
‫يتم اختيار الجسات بصفة عامة بواقع جسة لكل ‪ 300‬متر مربع‪ ,‬وال يقل عددها عن جستين في حالة ما يكون المسطح من‬
‫‪according to‬‬ ‫‪ 100‬الي ‪ 300‬متر مربع‪ .‬أما في حالة المباني التي يقل مسطحها عن ‪ 100‬متر مربع كغرف الحراسة وغرف المولدات‬
‫الكهربائية فيكتفي بعمل جسة واحدة مع األسترشاد بالجسات المجاورة اذا أمكن ذلك‪ ,‬واال فيتم عمل جستين علي األقل‪.‬‬
‫‪ECP-Part1:‬‬ ‫وفي حالة المنشأت ذات المسطحات الكبيرة يتحدد عدد الجسات بواقع جسة لكل من ‪ 300‬الي ‪ 500‬متر مربع‪ ,‬وذلك حسب‬ ‫مواقع البناء المعتادة‬
‫المعلومات المتوفرة عن تكوينات التربة في المنطقة‪.‬‬
‫وفي حالة المنشأت الموزعة علي مسطحات كبيرة مثل القري السياحية أو ما شابه فيتوقف عدد الجسات علي المسافة بين‬
‫المنشأت المختلفة وحجم هذه المنشأت مع األسترشاد بما تقدم‪.‬‬

‫يتم اختيار الجسات بحيث تكون المسافة بينها في حدود من ‪ 50‬الي ‪ 200‬متر‪ .‬وتقل المسافة بين الجسات عند منطقة منتصف‬ ‫السدود وخزانات المياه‬
‫المنشأ لتصبح حوالي ‪ 30‬متر في حالة السدود أو المناطق األكثر تحميال من الناحية األستاتيكية‪ .‬وفي جميع األحوال يتوقف عدد‬ ‫والترع والجسور والحوائط‬
‫الجسات علي طول المنشأ ونوعية طبقات التربة المتوقعة‪.‬‬ ‫الساندة‬

‫يتم عمل جسة كل ‪ 250‬متر في األراضي الزراعية‪ ,‬وجسة كل ‪ 150‬متر أو أقل في األراضي الصحراوية‪ ,‬وجسة في كل من‬ ‫خطوط المياه والصرف‬
‫أماكن غرف المحابس وغرف التفتيش والمطابق‪.‬‬ ‫الصحي‬

‫خطوط كهرباء الضغط العالي يتم عمل جسة أو أثنين بموقع كل برج ويعتمد ذلك علي مساحة األساس المتوقع للبرج‪ .‬وفي حالة األبراج ذات الشد فتعمل جسة‬
‫في موقع الشداد اذا لزم األمر‪.‬‬ ‫وأبراج االتصاالت‬
‫يتم اختيار الجسات بحيث تكون المسافة بينها في حدود من ‪ 10‬الي ‪ 20‬متر طبقا لتجانس طبقات التربة وبعدد ال يقل عن‬
‫أكتاف الكباري‬
‫جستين بموقع كل كتف‪.‬‬
‫خزانات المياه ذو األبعاد‬
‫يتم اختيار الجسات بحيث تكون المسافة بينها في حدود من ‪ 10‬الي ‪ 20‬متر طبقا لتجانس طبقات التربة‪.‬‬
‫الكبيرة‬
 ‫تخطيط الجسات‬ ‫مناطق البحث‬

‫‪Depth between‬‬ ‫يتم عمل الجسات بعمق ال يقل عن ‪ 10‬متر‪ ،‬كما يتم عمل حفر استكشافية مفتوحة بأعماق ال تقل عن ‪ 5‬متر ما أمكن‬
‫المواقع العمرانية‬
‫للحصول علي عينات في حالتها الطبيعية‪ ،‬ويعمل جسات عميقة بواقع ‪ %10‬من عدد الجسات المطلوبة‪.‬‬
‫‪boreholes‬‬
‫في جميع األحوال ال تقل أعماق الجسات عن ‪ 10‬متر‪ .‬وتزداد أعماق الجسات طبقا لطبيعة التربة بالموقع وطبيعة المنشأ‬
‫‪according to‬‬ ‫وأحماله‪ .‬وفي حالة األساسات العميقة مثل الخوازيق يجب أن يصل عمق الجسات الي ‪ 5‬متر علي األقل عن النهاية المتوقعة‬ ‫مواقع البناء المعتادة‬
‫‪ECP-Part1:‬‬ ‫الرتكاز الخوازيق‪.‬‬

‫يجب أال تقل أعماق الجسات عن مرتين األرتفاع الحر للحائط مقاسا من منسوب األرض أمام الحائط‪.‬‬
‫السدود وخزانات المياه‬
‫وفي حالة الجسور ال تقل عمق الجسة عن مرة ونصف العرض الكامل لقطاع الجسر خالل الطبقات المتجانسة‪ ،‬مع زيادة هذا‬
‫والترع والجسور والحوائط‬
‫العمق في حالة ظهور طبقات ضعيفة‪ .‬كما يجب أن تصل أعماق الجسات الي عمق أكبر من مستوي سطح األنهيار المحتمل‬
‫الساندة‬
‫في حالة دراسة الميول‪ ،‬أو أن تصل الجسات الي عمق كافي للوصول للطبقات الصلبة‪.‬‬

‫ال يقل عمق الجسة عن ‪ 5‬متر وبحيث يكون عمق الجسة أسفل الراسم السفلي للماسورة بقدر ‪ 6‬مرات قطر الماسورة أو ‪3‬‬ ‫خطوط المياه والصرف‬
‫متر أيهما أكبر‪ .‬وفي حالة األعمال الصناعية علي الخط ال يقل عمق الجسة عن ‪ 10‬متر‪.‬‬ ‫الصحي‬

‫خطوط كهرباء الضغط العالي ال يقل عمق الجسة عن ‪ 15‬متر‪ .‬وفي حالة أبراج الشد واألبراج ذات أرتفاع أكبر من ‪ 100‬متر يكون عمق الجسة ‪ 20‬متر‬
‫علي األقل‪.‬‬ ‫وأبراج االتصاالت‬

‫ال يقل عمق الجسات عن ‪ 10‬متر وتزداد أعماق الجسات طبقا لطبيعة التربة‪.‬‬ ‫أكتاف الكباري‬

‫يتم عمل الجسات بأعماق كبيرة خاصة في حالة وجود التربة اللينة أو الرخوة‪ .‬وعلي كل حال فيتم عمل ‪ %20‬من عدد‬ ‫خزانات المياه ذو األبعاد‬
‫الجسات علي األقل أو جستين بعمق ال يقل عن قطر الخزان أو البعد األصغر للخزانات المستطيلة‪.‬‬ ‫الكبيرة‬
Soil exploration consists mainly of boring, sampling, testing,
analysis and report.

(a) Methods of soil borings:

1. Test pits
 Up to 3.00 m.
 Used for all types of soil.

2. Post hole augers

 Up to 3.00 m.
 Used for cohesive soils.
3. Hand and mechanical auger borings
Hand auger borings
 Up to 7.00 m, but it is possible to drill
holes up to 30.00 m.
 Used for cohesive and cohesionless
soils.

Mechanical auger borings

 Up to 100 m.
 Used for cohesive and cohesionless
soils.
4. Wash borings
 Up to 15 m.
 Used for cohesionless soils.
 The most common used method.
 The soil samples are disturbed.

5. Rotary drilling
 Used in rock and other types of soil.

6. Percussion drilling
 Used in rock and other types of soil.
(b) Soil sampling
 Every 1.00 to 2.00 m.
 Samples can be disturbed or undisturbed.

The type of the sampler depends on soil type:

 Split spoon sampler:
Used for cohesionless and cohesive soils.
 Thin wall tube (Shelby tube):
Used for cohesive soils.
 Piston sampler:
Used for soft or loose soils.
 Core sampler:
Used for rock samples.
CHAPTER 5:
Lateral Earth Pressure
Introduction
Many theoretical theories are developed to estimate the acting lateral earth
pressure, each theory has its own assumptions. So during application, it
should be considered the compatibility between the theory and the retaining
structure conditions.
.‫ ولكل نظرية االفتراضات الخاصة بها‬,‫العديد من النظريات تستخدم لحساب ضغط التربة الجانبي‬
.‫ولذلك أثناء التطبيق العملي ينبغي التأكد من مالئمة فروض النظرية المستخدمة‬
Rankine (1857)
 Presented a solution for lateral earth pressures in retaining walls based on
the theory of plastic equilibrium.
 Assumed that there is no friction between the retaining wall and the soil.
Active case:
pa = σ'v Ka – 2c' √Ka
For smooth vertical wall and horizontal ground surface
1−𝑆𝑖𝑛 φ
Ka =
1+𝑆𝑖𝑛 φ
For smooth vertical wall and Inclined surface
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛷
Ka = Cos β
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛷

Passive case:
pp = σ'v Kp – 2c' √Kp
For smooth vertical wall and horizontal ground surface)
1+𝑆𝑖𝑛 φ
Kp =
1−𝑆𝑖𝑛 φ
For smooth vertical wall and Inclined surface
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛷
Kp = Cos β
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛷
where
pa: effective active earth pressure.
pp: effective passive earth pressure.
σ'v: effective vertical pressure.
Ka , Kp: Rankine’s coefficient of active and passive earth pressure.
c' , Φ' : effective cohesion and angle of friction.
β: Inclination angle of ground surface.
Solved examples:
1. A retaining wall 6.00 m high has a smooth vertical back. The backfill is sand with a horizontal surface at
the top of the wall. The density of the backfill is 1.80 t/m3, its angle of shearing resistance (angle of internal
friction) is 300. Draw active pressure distribution diagram, and find its magnitude and point of application
per unit length of the wall.

Solution
1−sin φ 1−sin 30
Ka = = = 0.33
1+sin φ 1+sin 30
pa = (q + Σγ . H) . Ka – 2c√Ka
pa1 = (1.80 x 0) x 0.33 – 2 x 0 x √0.33 = zero
pa2 = (1.80 x 6) x 0.33 – 2 x 0 x √0.33 = 3.60 t/m2

Magnitude of the pressure & and point of application:

Force Value Location Value

H 6.00
Pa 0.50 . pa2 . H = 0.5x3.60x6.0 = 10.80 t/m' Y = = 2.0 m
3 3
Solved examples:
2. A retaining wall 8.00 m high has a smooth vertical back. The backfill is sand with a horizontal surface at
the top of the wall. The density of the backfill is 1.85 t/m3, its angle of shearing resistance (angle of internal
friction) is 250. There is a uniform distributed surcharge load of 2.00 t/m2. Draw active pressure diagram,
and find its magnitude and point of application.

Solution
1−sin φ 1−sin 25
Ka = = = 0.41
1+sin φ 1+sin 25
pa = (q + Σγ . H) . Ka – 2c√Ka
pa1 = (2.0 + 1.85 x 0) x 0.41 – 2 x 0 x √0.41 = 0.82 t/m2
pa2 = (2.0 + 1.85 x 8) x 0.41 – 2 x 0 x √0.41 = 6.89 t/m2
Magnitude of the pressure & and point of application:

Force Value Location Value

H 8.00
Pa1 pa1 . H = 0.82 x 8.0 = 6.56 y1 = = 4.00
2 2

0.50 . (pa2 – pa1) . H H 8.00

Pa2 y2 = = 2.67
0.50 x (6.89 – 0.82) x 8.0 = 24.28 3 3

Pa = Pa1 + Pa1 = 6.56 + 24.28 = 30.84 t/m'

Pa . Y = Pa1 . y1 + Pa2 . y2
30.84 x Y = 6.56 x 4.00 + 24.28 x 2.67 >>> Y = 2.95 m
Solved examples:
3. A retaining wall 6.00 m high has a smooth vertical back. The backfill is sand with a horizontal surface at
the top of the wall. The density of the backfill is 1.80 t/m3, its angle of shearing resistance (angle of internal
friction) is 300. There is a ground water table located at depth 2.00 m below ground surface. Draw active
pressure diagram, and find its magnitude and point of application.

Solution
1−sin φ 1−sin 30
Ka = = = 0.33
1+sin φ 1+sin 30
pa = (q + Σγ . H) . Ka – 2c√Ka
pa1 = (1.80 x 0) x 0.33 = zero
pa2 = (1.80 x 2.0) x 0.33 = 1.19 t/m2
pa3 = (1.80 x 2.0 + 0.80 x 4.0) x 0.33 = 2.24 t/m2
pw = γw . hw = 1.00 x 4.0 = 4.00 t/m2
Magnitude of the pressure & and point of application:
Force Value y Value
H1 2
Pa1 0.50 . pa2 . H1 = 0.50 x 1.19 x 2.0 = 1.19 y1 + 4.00 = 3 + 4.00 = 4.67
3

H2 4.00
Pa2 pa2 . H2 = 1.19 x 4.0 = 4.76 y2 = = 2.00
2 2

0.50 . (pa3 – pa2) . H2 H2 4.00

Pa3 y3 = = 1.33
0.50 x (2.24 – 1.19) x 4.0 = 2.10 3 3

Hw 4.00
Pw 0.50 . pw . Hw = 0.50 x 4.0 x 4.0 = 8.00 yw = = 1.33
3 3
Pa = Pa1 + Pa2 + Pa3 + Pw
= 1.19 + 4.76 + 2.10 + 8.00 = 16.05 t/m'
Pa . Y = Pa1 . y1 + Pa2 . y2 + Pa3 . y3 + Pw . yw
16.05 x Y = 1.19 x 4.67 + 4.76 x 2.00
+ 2.10 x 1.33 + 8.00 x 1.33 >>> Y = 1.78 m
Solved examples:
4. A vertical wall 8.00 m high supports a cohesive backfill with a horizontal surface. The back fill has a
density of 1.90 t/m3, angle of internal friction 200 and cohesion of 0.10 kg/cm2. Calculate the depth of
tension cracks, and draw the active pressure diagram and its magnitude and point of application.

Solution
1−𝑆𝑖𝑛 φ
Ka = = 0.49
1+𝑆𝑖𝑛 φ
pa = γ . h . ka – 2c √Ka
pa1 = 1.90 x 0 x 0.49 – 2 x 1 x √0.49 = – 1.4 t/m2
pa2 =1.9 x 8 x 0.49 – 2 x 1 x √0.49 = 6.05 t/m2
Depth of tension Cracks (at pa = 0.0):
0.0 = 1.9 x Hcr x 0.49 – 2 x 1 x √0.49 >>Hcr = 1.50 m

Magnitude and point of application:

Pa = 0.5 x 6.05 x (8-1.50) = 19.64 t/m'
1
y = (H – hcr) = 2.17 m
3
Solved examples:
5. A retaining wall 7.00 m high has a smooth vertical back, the wall supports a cohesive backfill with a
horizontal surface at the top of the wall. The backfill has the following properties: for the top 3.00 m, γ =
1.75 t/m3, ɸ = 15o and c = 0.15 kg/cm2, and for the lower 4.00 m, γ = 1.85 t/m3 , γsub = 0.95 t/m3, ɸ = 20o
and c = 0.10 kg/cm2. A ground water table is located at depth 5.00 m. Determine the depth of tension
cracks, draw active pressure diagram, and find its magnitude and point of application.
Solution
1−sin φ1 1−sin 15
Ka1 = = = 0.59
1+sin φ1 1+sin 15
1−sin φ2 1−sin 20
Ka2 = = = 0.49
1+sin φ2 1+sin 20

pa = (q + Σγ . H) . Ka – 2c√Ka
pa1 = (1.75 x 0) x 0.59 – 2 x 1.50 x √0.59 = – 2.30 t/m2
pa2 = (1.75 x 3) x 0.59 – 2 x 1.50 x √0.59 = 0.79 t/m2
pa3 = (1.75 x 3) x 0.49 – 2 x 1.00 x √0.49 = 1.17 t/m2
pa4 = (1.75 x 3 + 1.85 x 2) x 0.49 – 2 x 1.00 x √0.49 = 2.99 t/m2
pa5 = (1.75 x 3 + 1.85 x 2 + 0.95 x 2) x 0.49 – 2 x 1.00 x √0.49 = 3.92 t/m2
pw = γw . hw = 1.00 x 2 = 2.00 t/m2
Depth of tension Cracks (at pa = 0.0):
pa = (q + Σγ . H) . Ka – 2c√Ka
0.0 = (1.75 x Zcr) x 0.59 – 2 x 1.50 x √0.59 >>> Zcr = 2.23 m
Magnitude of the pressure & and point of application:

Force Value Y Value

0.50 . pa2 . (3 – Zcr) 3 − Zcr
Pa1 y1 + 4.00 = 4.26
0.50 x 0.79 x (3 – 2.23) = 0.30 3

2
Pa2 pa3 x 2 = 1.17 x 2.0 = 2.34 y2 + 2 = 3.00
2

0.50 . (pa4 – pa3) x 2 2

Pa3 y3 + 2 = 2.67
0.50 x (2.99 – 1.17) x 2 = 1.82 3

2
Pa4 pa4 x 2 = 2.99 x 2.0 = 5.98 y4 = 1.00
2

0.50 . (pa5 – pa4) x 2 2

Pa5 y5 = 0.67
0.50 x (3.92 – 2.99) x 2 = 0.93 3

Hw 2.00
Pw 0.50 . pw . Hw = 0.50 x 2.0 x 2 = 2.00 yw = = 0.67
3 3
Pa = Pa1 + Pa2 + Pa3 + Pa4 + Pa5 + Pw = 13.37 t/m'.
Pa . Y = Pa1 . y1 + Pa2 . y2 + Pa3 . y3 + Pa4 . y4 + Pa5 . y5 + Pw . yw
>>> Y = 1.58 m.
Solved examples:
6. A retaining wall 4.00 m high has a smooth vertical back. The backfill is sand with an inclined surface to
horizontal with 150. The density of the back fill is 1.90 t/m3, its angle of shearing resistance (angle of internal
friction) is 300. Calculate the acting earth pressure in case of active and passive conditions.

Solution
Since the wall with smooth back
Rankine theory can be used
In case of active condition:
where: β=15 & φ=30
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛷
Ka = Cos β = 0.373
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛷
pa = γ . H . Ka
pa = 1.9 x 4 x 0.373 = 2.83 t/m2
Resultant of the pressure:
Pa = 0.50 . pa . H
Pa = 0.5 x 2.834 x 4 = 5.67 t/m'
CHAPTER 6:
Retaining Walls
1. Introduction
Retaining wall are structures used to support earth or other materials, the
most common types may be classified into five main types.

‫ ويمكن‬,‫الحوائط الساندة هي المنشأت التي تستخدم في سند ضغوط التربة عند وجود أعمال حفر‬
‫ وهذا التصنيف على أساس طريقة تحقيق‬.‫تصنيف األنواع األكثر شيوعا إلى خمسة أنواع رئيسية‬
.‫الثبات‬
 2. Types of retaining walls

(a) Gravity (b) Semigravity (c) Cantliver (d) Counterfort (e) Buttress wall
Gravity wall:
It depends upon its own weight to resist the earth pressure.
Semi gravity wall:
A small amount of reinforcing steel is used to reduce the mass.
Cantliver wall:
It is a reinforced concrete wall in the form of an inverted T. It is economical for walls of
heights up to 8.0 m.
Counterfort wall:
The vertical slab and the base slab tied together by counterforts placed at suitable intervals
along the wall to reduce the bending moments and shears.
Buttressed wall:
It is similar to counterfort wall except that counterforts called buttresses are provided in
front of the wall and in compression instead of tension.
3. Common uses of retaining walls
 Check for overturning about its toe.
 Check for sliding failure along its base.
 Check for bearing capacity failure of the base.
 Check for settlement.
 Check for overall stability.

5. wall drainage
 To reduce the large lateral pressure resulting from a
saturated backfill.
 Achieved by providing a free draining material at
the back and longitudinal Collector drains.
 Drain pipes (about 7.5 to 10 cm in diameter) called
"weep holes" are run through the wall.
 Drain pipe is to be provided with a filter material to
prevent loss of fines.
Solved Example
1. Check the stability of the given retaining wall to retain earth embedment of 5.50 m high
above ground level, the foundation is to be 1.00 m deep. The net safe bearing capacity is
1.20 kg/cm2, the retained soil as shown in Figure 2.10. A ground water table is located as
indicated in Figure 2.14.
Solution
1. Horizontal loads:
1−sin 15 1−sin 32
Ka1 = = 0.59 Ka2 = = 0.31
1+sin 15 1+sin 32
pa = γ . h . Ka – 2c Ka
pa1 = 1.70 x zero x 0.59 – 2 x 4 x 0.59 = – 6.14 t/m2
pa2 = 1.70 x 3.5 x 0.59 – 2 x 4 x 0.59 = – 2.53 t/m2
pa3 = 1.70 x 3.5 x 0.31 = 1.85 t/m2
pa4 = (1.70 x 3.5 + 0.95 x 3.0) x 0.31 = 2.73 t/m2

Pa1 = pa3 x 3 = 1.85 x 3 = 5.55 t/m'

1
y1 = x 3 = 1.50 m
2
Pa2 = 0.5 x ( pa4 – pa3 ) x 3 = 0.5 x ( 2.73 – 1.85 ) x 3 = 1.32 t/m'
1
y2 = x 3 =1m
3
Solution

pw1 = γw x hw1 = 1x3 = 3.00 t/m2

Pw1 = 0.5xpw1xhw1 = 0.5 x 3 x 3 = 4.50 t/m‘
1
yw1 = x 3 = 1.00m
3

pw2 = γw x hw2 = 1 x 2 = 2.00 t/m2

Pw2 = 0.5xPw2xhw2 = 0.5 x 2 x 2 = 2.00 t/m‘
1
yw2 = x 2 = 0.67 m
3

u1= pw1 = 3.00 t/m2 u2= pw2 = 2.00 t/m2

Solution
2. Vertical loads:
Value Moment
W Weight Arm (m)
(ton) ( m.t )
2
W1 2.5 x ( 0.5 x 1.50 x 5.50 ) 10.31 0.50 + x 1.50 = 1.50 15.47
3
1
W2 2.5 x ( 1 x 5.50 ) 13.75 1.50 + = 2.0 27.50
2
1
W3 2.5 x ( 6.50 x 1 ) 16.25 4 - ( x 2.30) = 2.85 52.81
2
1.70 x ( 3.5 x 3.5 ) + 1.95 x ( 3.5 3.5
W4 34.48 6.50 - = 4.75 163.78
x2) 2
6.50
U1 - 6.50 x 2 13.00 = 3.25 -42.25
2
2
U2 - 0.50 x 6.50 x ( 3 – 2 ) 3.25 x 6.50 = 4.33 -14.07
3
ΣW 58.54 203.24
Solution
3. Check stability:
Against overturning:
Overturning moment = Pa1 . y1 + Pa2 . y2 + (Pw1 x yw1 – Pw2 x yw2)
O.T.M = 5.55 x 1.50 + 1.32 x 1 + (4.50 x 1 – 2 x 0.67) = 12.81 m.t.
Stabilizing moment = Σmoment due to vl loads
S.M = 203.27 m.t
S.M 203.27
F.S = = = 15.86 > 1.50 o.k.
O.T.M 12.81

Against sliding:
Sliding force = Pa1 + Pa2 + (Pw1 – Pw2)
S.F = 5.55 + 1.32 + 4.50 – 2.00 = 9.37 t/m2
Resisting force = Resulting friction from vl loads
3
R.F = ∑(W - U) . tanδ = 58.54 x tan 32 = 26.06 t/m'
4
R.F 26.06
F.S = = = 2.78 > 1.50 o.k.
S.F 9.37
Solution
Against bearing capacity failure:
Net moment = (S.M – O.T.M) = 203.24 – 12.81 = 190.43 m.t
Total vertical load = 58.54 ton.

190.43
Distance of resultant x from toe is: x = = 3.24 m.
58.54
𝐵 6.5
Eccentricity from base mid: e = – x = – 3.24 = 0.01 < B/6
2 2

Σw 6e 58.54
qtoe = 1+ B = 1 + 6X0.01
6.5
= 9.09 t/m2 < qall.
BL 6.5 X 1
Σw 6e 58.54
qheel = 1− B = 1 − 6X0.01
6.5
= 8.92 t/m2 <qall.
BL 6.5 X 1
CHAPTER 7:
Bearing Capacity Of Soil
Introduction
Building loads are transmitted by columns, bearing walls to foundation system. The
foundation is the lower part of the structure which transmits loads to the underlying soil
without causing a shear failure of the soil or excessive settlement. The foundations are
classified as shallow and deep foundations according to the depth of construction.
‫ واألساسات هي الجزء السفلي من الهيكل‬.‫تنتقل أحمال المباني عن طريق األعمدة والحوائط الحاملة الي األساسات‬
‫ وتصنف األساسات‬.‫االنشائي الذي ينقل األحمال الي التربة التحتية دون التسبب في انهيار للتربة أو الهبوط الزائد لها‬
.‫الي نوعين وهما األساسات الضحلة واألساسات العميقة طبقا لعمق التأسيس‬
Terms of bearing capacity
 Ultimate bearing capacity (qu); it is defined as the minimum gross pressure at the base
of the footing at which the soil fail in shear. It is determined by empirical equations or
by field tests.

 Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu); it is defined as the minimum net pressure at the
base of the footing at which the soil fail in shear. It can be calculated as; qnu = qu – qo
Where
qo = Effective pressure at founding level = γ1 . Df

 Net allowable bearing capacity (qna);

qnu
qna =
F.S

 Allowable bearing capacity (qall); it is defined as the maximum pressure which is

considered safe with respect to shear failure and settlement.
Egyptian Code of Practice equation
qu = c2 . Nc . λc + γ1 . Df . Nq . λq + γ2 . B . Nγ . λγ

Where:
Nc , Nq and Nγ : bearing capacity factors.
λc , λq and λγ : bearing capacity factors shape factors.
Angle of shearing
Nc Nq Nγ
resistance )φ2)
0 5.0 1.0 0.0
5 6.5 1.5 0.0
10 8.5 2.5 0.5
15 11.0 4.0 1.0
20 15.0 6.5 2.0
22.5 17.5 8.0 3.0
25 20.5 10.5 4.5
27.5 25.0 14.0 7.0
30 30.0 18.0 10.0
32.5 37.0 25.0 15.0
35 46.0 33.0 23.0
37.5 58.0 46.0 34.0
40 75.0 64.0 53.0

Footing Shape λc λq λγ
Strip 1.0 1.0 1.0
B B B
Rectangular 1 + 0.30 x L 1 + 0.30 x L 1 – 0.30 x L
Square&Circular 1.3 1.3 0.7
Effect of ground water variation
Case 1
If dw ≥ B >> G.W.T has no effect.
γ1 = γ2 = γb
Case 2
If dw < B >> G.W.T has effect.
γ1 = γb & γ2 = γsub + Fw ( γb – γsub )
Case 3
If dw = Df >> G.W.T has effect.
γ1 = γb & γ2 = γsub
Case 4
If dw < Df >> G.W.T has effect.
γ1 . Df = γb . dw + γsub . (Df – dw)
γ2 = γsub
Case 5
If G.W.T at surface >> γ1 = γ2 = γsub
Effect of load eccentricity
MB
eB = >>> B’ = B – 2eB
P
ML
eL = >>> L’ = L – 2eL
P

Notes:
 In calculating the ultimate bearing
capacity use the effective
dimensions.
 In calculating the actual pressure
use the actual dimensions.

Bearing capacity from field tests

The most famous tests are standard penetration test and plate loading test.
Solved Examples
1. Find out the allowable bearing capacity of a clayey soil supporting a square footing 2.20
x 2.20 m2. The footing is founded at a depth 2.0 m below the ground level. The bulk unit
weight of the soil is 2.0 t/m3. Soil is clay with cohesion of 4.0 t/m2.
Solution
Using Egyptian Code
qu = c2 . Nc . λc + γ1 . Df . Nq . λq + γ2 . B . Nγ . λγ
= 4.0 x 5 x 1.30 + 2.0 x 2.0 x 1 x 1.30 + 2.0 x 2.20 x zero x 0.70
= 31.20 t/m2

Where:
ɸ = zero >>> Nc = 5, Nq = 1 and Nγ = zero
Square footing >>> λc = λq = 1.30 and λγ = 0.70

qnu = qu – γ1 . Df = 31.20 – 2.0 x 2.0 = 27.20 t/m2

qnu 27.20
qna = = = 9.67 t/m2
F.S 3
2. A square footing 2.50 x 2.50 m2 carries a pressure of 40 t/m2 at a depth of 1.50 m in a
sand deposit. The bulk and saturated unit weights are 1.70 t/m3 and 2.00 t/m3. The shear
strength parameters are c = zero and ɸ = 35o. Determine the factor of safety with respect to
shear failure for the following cases:
(a) G.W.T at 5.0 m below ground level.
(b) G.W.T at 1.0 m below ground level.
(c) G.W.T at ground level.
Solution
G.W.T at 5.0 m below ground level
dw = 5.0 – Df = 5.0 – 1.50 = 3.50 m > B >>>G.W.T has no effect.
γ1 = γ2 = 1.70 t/m3

Using Egyptian Code

qu = c2 . Nc . λc + γ1 . Df . Nq . λq + γ2 . B . Nγ . λγ
= zero + 1.70 x 1.50 x 33 x 1.30 + 1.70 x 2.50 x 23 x 0.70
= 177.82 t/m2
Where:
ɸ = 35o >>> Nc = 46, Nq = 33 and Nγ = 23
Square footing >>> λc = λq = 1.30 and λγ = 0.70

qnu = qu – γ1 . Df = 177.82 – 1.70 x 1.50 = 175.27 t/m2

qnu 175.27
F.S = = = 4.38
qact 40
G.W.T at 1.0 m below ground level
γ1 . Df = 1.70 x 1.0 + (2.0 – 1.0) x 0.50 = 2.20
γ2 = (2.0 – 1.0) = 1.0 t/m3

Using Egyptian Code

qu = c2 . Nc . λc + γ1 . Df . Nq . λq + γ2 . B . Nγ . λγ
= zero + 2.20 x 33 x 1.30 + 1.0 x 2.50 x 23 x 0.70 = 134.63 t/m2
Where:
ɸ = 35o >>> Nc = 46, Nq = 33 and Nγ = 23
Square footing >>> λc = λq = 1.30 and λγ = 0.70

qnu = qu – γ1 . Df = 134.63 – 2.20 = 132.43 t/m2

qnu 132.43
F.S = = = 3.31
qact 40
G.W.T at ground level
γ1 = γ2 = (2.0 – 1.0) = 1.0 t/m3

Using Egyptian Code

qu = c2 . Nc . λc + γ1 . Df . Nq . λq + γ2 . B . Nγ . λγ
= zero +1.0 x 1.50 x 33 x 1.30+1.0 x 2.50 x 23 x 0.70=104.6 t/m2
Where:
ɸ = 35o >>> Nc = 46, Nq = 33 and Nγ = 23
Square footing >>> λc = λq = 1.30 and λγ = 0.70

qnu = qu – γ1 . Df = 104.60 – 1.0 x 1.50 = 103.10 t/m2

qnu 103.10
F.S = = = 2.58
qact 40
3. A rectangular footing 4.0 x 3.0 m2 is loaded by a vertical load of 200.0 ton. The footing
is founded at a depth of 2.50 m. The bulk and saturated unit weights are 1.93 t/m3 and 2.21
t/m3. Ground water table is located at ground surface. The shear strength parameters are c
= zero and ɸ = 35o. Determine the factor of safety with respect to shear failure.
Solution
Using Egyptian Code
qu = c2 . Nc . λc + γ1 . Df . Nq . λq + γ2 . B . Nγ . λγ
= zero + 1.21x2.50x33x1.225 + 1.21x3.0x23x0.775=187.61 t/m2
Where:
Rectangular footing 4.0 x 3.0 m2
B 3
λc = λq = 1 + 0.30 x = 1 + 0.30 x = 1.225
L 4
B 3
λγ = 1 – 0.30 x = 1 – 0.30 x = 0.775
L 4
γ1 = γ2 = (2.21 – 1.0) = 1.21 t/m3

qnu = qu – γ1 . Df = 187.61 – 1.21 x 2.50 = 184.57 t/m2

P 200 2 qnu 184.57
qact = = = 16.67 t/m F.S = = = 11.07
LXB 4.0 X 3.0 qact 16.67
4. A square footing is loaded by a vertical load of 180.0 ton. The footing is founded at a
depth of 1.50 m. The saturated unit weight is 2.10 t/m3. The footing is subjected to
flooding condition. The soil stratum beneath the footing consists of sand having an angle
of internal friction ɸ = 33o. It is required to calculate the footing size to achieve a factor of
safety not less than 3 against shear failure.
Solution:
Using Egyptian Code
qu = c2 . Nc . λc + γ1 . Df . Nq . λq + γ2 . B . Nγ . λγ
= zero + 1.10x1.50x25x1.30 + 1.10xBx15x0.70 = 53.63+11.55B
Where:
ɸ = 33o >>> Nc = 37, Nq = 25 and Nγ = 15
Square footing >>> λc = λq = 1.30 and λγ = 0.70
Flooding condition >>> γ1 = γ2 = (2.10 – 1.0) = 1.10 t/m3

qnu = qu – γ1 . Df = (53.63 + 11.55B) – 1.10x1.50 = 51.98 + 11.55B

P 180
qact = =
BXB B2
qnu 51.98 + 11.55 B
F.S = 3.0 = 180
qact
B2
11.55 B3 + 51.98 B2 – 540 = zero >>> B = 2.57 ≈ 2.60 m.
CHAPTER 8:
Foundation Design
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Shallow Deep
Foundations Foundations
Df ≤ 3 B Df > 3B
Advantages of shallow foundations Advantages of deep foundations
 Cost (affordable).  Settlement (minimum).
 Construction procedure (simple).  Bearing capacity (high).
 Material (mostly concrete).
 Labour (doesn’t need expertise).
Isolated footing

Strip footing
Combined footing

Strap beam
 If S > 5m
Strap beam is economic.
 If S < 5m
Combined footing is economic.
Raft Foundation
 when individual footings overlap each other.
 Structures like chimneys, silos, cooling
towers, buildings with basements where
continuous water proofing is needed.
 For foundations where differential settlement
can be a major concern.
 For soft soils strata or site with pockets of
weak soil.
1.1 Strip Footings

Case of using reinforced concrete Case of using reinforced concrete

+ plain concrete with thickness ≥ 20 cm + plain concrete with thickness < 20 cm
1. Design a strip footing to support a bearing wall with working load of 45t/m', the wall thickness of 25 cm.
The net allowable soil pressure of 1.25 kg/cm2. Use plain concrete of 30 cm, compressive strength of
concrete = 250 kg/cm2 and yield stress of steel = 3600 kg/cm2.

Solution
Dimensions of plain concrete
Pw x 1.05
qna = ′ ′
L .B
For strip footing, consider L' = 1.00 m
45 x 1.05
12.50 = ′ >>> B' = 3.78 ≈ 3.80 m.
1.00 x B
Pw x 1.05 45 x 1.05
Fn' (Actual stress to soil) = = = 12.43 t/m2 ≤ qna
L′ . B′ 1.00 x 3.80

Dimensions of reinforced concrete

x ≈ 0.50 x t' = 0.50 x 0.30 = 0.15 m.
L = 1.00 m, B = B' – 2x = 3.80 – 2 x 0.15 = 3.50 m.
Pw 45
Fn (stress to plain concrete) = = = 12.86 t/m2.
L .B 1.00 x 3.50
2. Design a strip footing to support a bearing wall with working load of 45t/m', the wall thickness of 25 cm.
The net allowable soil pressure of 1.25 kg/cm2. Use plain concrete of 10 cm, compressive strength of
concrete = 250 kg/cm2 and yield stress of steel = 3600 kg/cm2.

Solution
Dimensions of reinforced concrete
Pw x 1.05
qna =
L .B
For strip footing, consider L = 1.00 m
45 x 1.05
12.50 = >>> B = 3.78 ≈ 3.80 m.
1.00 x B
Pw x 1.05 45 x 1.05
Fn (Actual stress to soil) = = = 12.43 t/m2 ≤ qna
L.B 1.00 x 3.80
1.2 Isolated Footings

Case of using reinforced concrete Case of using reinforced concrete

+ plain concrete with thickness ≥ 20 cm + plain concrete with thickness < 20 cm
3. Design a rectangular footing to support a column 110 x 30 cm2, with working load of 200 ton. The net
allowable soil pressure of 2.10 kg/cm2. Use plain concrete of 30 cm, strength of concrete = 250 kg/cm2 and
yield stress of steel = 3600 kg/cm2.

Solution
Dimensions of plain concrete
Pw x 1.05
qna = ′ ′
L .B
200 x 1.05
21.00 = ′ ′ >>> L' . B' = 10 ……….. (1)
L x B
L' – B' = b – a = 1.10 – 0.30 = 0.80 >>> L' – B' = 0.80 ……….. (2)
From (2) >>> L' = B' + 0.80
In (1) >>> (B' + 0.80) . B' = 10 >>> B'2 + 0.80 B' – 10 = zero >>> B' = 2.79 ≈ 2.80 m.
L' = B' + 0.80 = 2.80 + 0.80 = 3.60 m.
Pw x 1.05 200 x 1.05
Fn' = ′ ′ = = 20.83 t/m2 ≤ qna
L .B 3.60 x 2.80

Dimensions of reinforced concrete

x ≈ 0.50 x t' = 0.50 x 0.30 = 0.15 m.
L = L' – 2x = 3.60 – 2 x 0.15 = 3.30 m.
B = B' – 2x = 2.80 – 2 x 0.15 = 2.50 m.
4. Design a rectangular footing to support a column 110 x 30 cm2, with working load of 200 ton. The net
allowable soil pressure of 2.10 kg/cm2. Use plain concrete of 10 cm, strength of concrete = 250 kg/cm2 and
yield stress of steel = 3600 kg/cm2.

Solution
Dimensions of reinforced concrete
Pw x 1.05
qna =
L.B
200 x 1.05
21.00 = >>> L . B = 10 ……….. (1)
L.B
L – B = b – a = 1.10 – 0.30 = 0.80 >>> L – B = 0.80 ……….. (2)
From (2) >>> L = B + 0.80
In (1) >>> (B + 0.80) . B = 10 >>> B2 + 0.80 B – 10 = zero >>> B = 2.79 ≈ 2.80 m.
L = B + 0.80 = 2.80 + 0.80 = 3.60 m.
Pw x 1.05 200 x 1.05
Fn = = = 20.83 t/m2 ≤ qna
L.B 3.60 x 2.80
1.3 Combined Footings
5. Design a combined footing to support an interior column 80 x 40 cm2, with working load of 120 ton and an
exterior column 60 x 40 cm2, with working load of 90 ton. The allowed projection of exterior column is 40
cm. The distance between center lines of two columns is 4.75 m. The net allowable soil pressure of 1.20
kg/cm2. Compressive strength of concrete = 250 kg/cm2 and yield stress of steel = 3600 kg/cm2.

Solution
Dimensions of reinforced concrete
Resultant load (R) = Pint + Pext = 120 + 90 = 210 ton

Position of resultant load (X)

Taking Σmoments at center line of exterior column
Pint . (Cl – Cl) = R . X >>> 120 x 4.75 = 210 . X >>> X = 2.71 m.

For equilibrium, the resultant load should be at the center of reinforced concrete
L bext 0.60
=X+ + projection = 2.71 + + 0.40 = 3.41 >>> L = 6.82 ≈ 6.85 m
2 2 2

R x 1.10 210 x 1.10

qna = 12.00 = >>> B = 2.81 ≈ 2.85 m.
L.B 6.85 x B
1.4 Strap Beams
6. Design a strap footing to support an interior column 80 x 40 cm2, with working load of 140 ton and an exterior column
60 x 40 cm2, with working load of 100 ton. The allowed projection of exterior column is 30 cm. The distance between
center lines of two columns is 5.00 m. The net allowable soil pressure of 1.50 kg/cm2. Compressive strength of concrete =
250 kg/cm2 and yield stress of steel = 3600 kg/cm2.

Solution
Dimensions of reinforced concrete
Assume distance e = (0.10 to 0.20) spacing between columns
e = 0.10 x 5.00 = 0.50 m

Taking Σmoments at center line of interior column

Pext . S = Rext . (S – e)
100 x 5.00 = Rext . (5.00 – 0.50) >>> Rext = 111.11 ton.
For equilibrium, Σfy = zero
Pext + Pint = Rext + Rint
100 + 140 = 111.11 + Rint >>> Rint = 128.89 ton.

For exterior footing

Lext bext 0.60
2
=e+ 2
+ projection = 0.50 + 2
+ 0.30 = 1.10 >>> L = 2.20 m.
Rext x 1.05 111.11 x 1.05
qna = L.B
15.00 = 2.20 x B
>>> B = 3.54 ≈ 3.55 m.
For interior footing, we may use square footing
Rint x 1.05 128.89 x 1.05
qna = L . L 15.00 = >>> L = 3.00 m.
LxL
‫‪CHAPTER 9:‬‬
‫)‪Soil Stabilization (By Compaction‬‬
‫‪Importance‬‬
‫دمك التربة عملية ميكانيكية الغرض منها تحسين خواص‬
‫التربة وباألخص مقاومتها‪ .‬وهى عملية تتم أحيانا فى‬
‫الموقع على التربة الطبيعية لرفع مقاومة الطبقة الواقعة‬
‫أسفل أساس منشأ مباشرة أو أسفل أساس طريق‪ ,‬أو تتم‬
‫على طبقة مستجلبة من التربة توضع كطبقة إحالل‪.‬‬
‫وتتم عملية الدمك مع إضافة المياه الى التربة بدرجة‬
‫مناسبة حيث ان لكل نوع تربة محتوى رطوبة هو‬
‫"األمثل" لعملية التليين أثناء الدمك‪.‬‬
Standard Proctor test
 It is a dynamic compaction test.
 It is suitable for road construction.

Components
Cylindrical mould, 10 cm diameter and 12.7 cm high.
Base plate.
Collar 6 cm high.
Rammer of 2.5 kg, falling through a height of 30.5 cm.

Steps
 The soil is compacted in three equal layers, each layer by 25 blows of the rammer.
 The bulk density and the water content are determined, and the dry density is obtained.
 The test is repeated on soil samples with increasing water contents and a compaction
curve is plotted.
Percentage air voids lines
1−𝑛𝑎 . 𝐺𝑠
The relation; γd = . γw, gives the dry density for any given water
1+ ( 𝑊𝑐 . 𝐺𝑠)
content at certain percentage of air voids.

Helps as a check that compaction test

has been properly carried out.
Solved Examples
1. The following results were obtained from a standard compaction test. Plot
the compaction curve. Find the maximum dry density and corresponding
optimum moisture content. Plot also zero and 5 % air voids curves. Take Gs =
2.68.

Moisture content % 10.10 11.80 14.20 16.30 17.60 18.90

Bulk density (t/m3) 1.817 1.912 2.050 2.093 2.070 2.045
Solution:
Moisture content % 10.10 11.80 14.20 16.30 17.60 18.90
Bulk density (t/m3) 1.817 1.912 2.050 2.093 2.070 2.045
Dry density (t/m3) 1.650 1.710 1.795 1.800 1.760 1.720
Dry density (na=0) 2.109 2.036 1.941 1.865 1.821 1.779
Dry density (na=5%) 2.004 1.934 1.844 1.772 1.772 1.690
γb = γd . (1 + Wc)
10.10
1.817 = γd . (1 + ) >>> γd = 1.650 t/m3
100
1 − na . Gs
γd = . γw
1+ ( Wc . Gs)
1 − 0 x 2.68
γd = 10.10 x 1.00 >>> at na = 0, γd = 2.109 t/m3
1+ ( 100 x 2.68)
5
1 − 100 x 2.68
γd = 10.10 x 1.00 >>> at na = 5%, γd = 2.004 t/m3
1+ ( 100 x 2.68)
From the compaction curve:
γd (max) = 1.813 t/m3
O.M.C. = 15.4 %
CHAPTER 10:
Field Compaction Methods
1. Rolling
 Smooth-wheel rollers: one, two or three smooth steel wheel type, available
from 2 to 15 tons, suitable for compacting gravels, sand and crushed rock.
 Pneumatic tyre rollers: up to 200 tons, suitable for both cohesionless and low
cohesion soils.
 Sheep-foot rollers: consist of hollow cylindrical steel drum on which
projected feet are mounted, from 2.50 to 15 tons, can be increased by filling it
with water, suitable for compacting fine grained soils.
 Impact rollers: provides deeper compaction up to 2 to 3 m, therefore it is
suitable for use in airfields.
Smooth-wheel rollers Pneumatic tyre rollers

Sheep-foot rollers

Impact roller
2. Rammers
 From 30 to 150 kg.
 Frog rammers up to 1 ton.
 It is suitable for compacting soils in confined places.

3. Dynamic compaction
 Compacting the ground by a heavy weight of 5 to 30 ton, lifted to a height
of 10 to 30 m.
 It is suitable for granular soils, land fills and land with sink holes,
cavities in limestone.
Dynamic compaction.
4. Compaction by vibration

 Vibrating plates: used for compacting soil in small areas where no

heavy compaction is needed.

 Vibroflotation: Compacting loose sands and gravels by vibration up to

considerable depth. The device is known as the vibroflot, approximately
43 cm in out side diameter and about 2m long.
Vibrating plates.

The vibroflot.
Vibroflotation process.
5. Compaction by deep wetting

 Used for loose sand, or collapsible soil.

 Soil can be densified by inducing boreholes, 10 m deep, 2-3 m spacing.
 Plastic pipes with holes in their lower ends are installed, then water in
allowed to flow through the soil by gravity.

6. Pressure grouting

 Grouting is pumping materials into a soil under

pressure to change mechanical properties.
 Used for rock cavities and Collapsible soils.