Icaew Mi WB 2023

The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales
Management
Information
Workbook
For exams in 2023
icaew.com
Management Information
The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales
ISBN: 978-1-0355-0153-3
Previous ISBN: 978-1-5097-4203-5
e-ISBN: 978-1-0355-0212-7
First edition 2007
Sixteenth edition 2022
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The content of this publication is intended to prepare students for the ICAEW
examinations, and should not be used as professional advice.
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Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence
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© ICAEW 2022
Contents
Welcome to ICAEW iv
Management Information v
Key resources vi
Professional skills required by the ACA qualification vii
1 The fundamentals of costing 1

2 Calculating unit costs (Part 1) 37
3 Calculating unit costs (Part 2) 65
4 Marginal costing and absorption costing 109
5 Pricing calculations 139
6 Budgeting 167
7 Working capital 227
8 Performance management 267
9 Standard costing and variance analysis 313
10 Breakeven analysis and limiting factor analysis 353
11 Investment appraisal techniques 389
Discount tables 433

Notes 435
Glossary of terms 437
Index 447
Questions within the Workbook should be treated as preparation questions, providing you with a
firm foundation before you attempt the exam-standard questions. The exam-standard questions are
found in the Question Bank.
ICAEW 2023 Contents iii

Welcome to ICAEW
I’d like to personally welcome you to ICAEW.
As we continue the global recovery from COVID-19, the role of the accountancy profession has never
been more important.
As an ICAEW Chartered Accountant, you will make decisions that will define the future of global
business in a fast-changing and volatile world.
Whether studying for our internationally recognised Certificate in Finance, Accounting and Business
(ICAEW CFAB) or our world-leading chartered accountancy qualification, the ACA, you will acquire
exceptional knowledge and skills – with technology, sustainability and ethics at the heart of your
learning. A focus on capabilities such as judgement and scepticism will enable you to make the right
decisions in diverse and often complex environments.
You will be equipped to flourish and to lead in areas that are transforming the business landscape.
This includes embracing technological change and harnessing digital disruption, to help our
profession deliver greater value. It also includes putting climate change and sustainability at the heart
of business strategy. We will equip you to be adaptable and agile in your work and all within a set of
values fundamental to trust and transparency, which will set you apart from others.
Joining over 195,000 ICAEW Chartered Accountants and students worldwide, you are now part of a
global community. This unique network of talented and diverse professionals work in the public
interest to build economies that are sustainable, accountable and fair.
You are also joining a community of 1.8m chartered accountants and students as part of Chartered
Accountants Worldwide – a family of leading institutes, of which we are a founder member.
We will support you through your studies and throughout your career: this is the start of a lifetime
relationship, and we will be with you every step of the way to ensure you are ready to face the
challenges of the global economy. Visit the Key resources section to review the resources available as
you study.
With our training, guidance and support, you will join our members in realising your career
ambitions, developing world-leading insights and maintaining a competitive edge.
We will enable a world of sustainable economies, together.
I wish you the best of luck with your studies.
Michael Izza
Chief Executive
ICAEW
iv Management Information ICAEW 2023

Management Information
You can access this guide and more exam resources on our website. If you are studying this exam as
part of the ACA qualification go to icaew.com/examresources or if you are studying the ICAEW CFAB
qualification go to icaew.com/cfabstudents.
Module aim
To enable you to prepare essential financial information for the management of a business.
On completion of this module, you will be able to:
• calculate the costs of products and services and use them to determine sales and transfer prices;
• identify appropriate budgeting and forecasting approaches and methods and prepare budgets;
• identify key features of effective performance management systems, select and calculate
appropriate performance measures, calculate differences between actual performance and
standards or budgets, and identify the key features, risks and benefits of a range of approaches to
management information operations; and
• identify and calculate relevant data for use in management decision-making.
Method of assessment
The Management Information exam is 1.5 hours long. 20% of the marks are allocated in one
scenario-based question. This will cover a single syllabus area, either: costing and pricing; budgeting
and forecasting; performance management; or management decision-making. The remaining 80%
of the marks are from 32 multiple choice, multi-part multiple choice or multiple response questions.
The 33 questions cover the areas of the syllabus in accordance with the weightings set out in the
specification grid.
Ethics and professional scepticism

Ethics is fundamental to the sound provision of management information upon which basis
sustainable business decisions can be made. This will form a backdrop to an overall culture of
business trust as well as business efficiency. It is treated as ingrained across the syllabus with a
weighting of marks being given within the ‘Costing and Pricing’ syllabus area. Students will be
expected to apply professional scepticism.
Specification grid
This grid shows the relative weightings of subjects within this module and should guide the relative
study time spent on each. Over time the marks available in the assessment will equate to the
weightings below, while slight variations may occur in individual assessments to enable suitably
rigorous questions to be set.
Syllabus area Weighting (%)
1 Costing and pricing; 5 Ethics 25
2 Budgeting and forecasting 25
3 Performance management and management information 25

operations
4 Management decision-making 25
ICAEW 2023 Introduction v

Key resources
Whether you’re studying the ICAEW CFAB or ACA qualification with an employer, at university,
independently, or as part of an apprenticeship, we provide a wide range of resources and services to
help you in your studies.
ACA students, you can access dedicated exam resources, guidance and information for the ACA
qualification via your dashboard at icaew.com/dashboard.
ICAEW CFAB students, you can also access dedicated exam resources, guidance and information at
icaew.com/cfabstudents.
Syllabus and technical knowledge grids

The syllabus presents the learning outcomes for each exam and should be read in conjunction with
the relevant technical knowledge grids.
Exam support
A variety of exam resources and support have been developed to help you through your studies and
each exam. This includes expert guides, sample exams, hints and tips, webinars and more.
Tuition
The ICAEW Partner in Learning scheme recognises tuition providers who comply with our core
principles of quality course delivery. If you are not receiving structured tuition and are interested in
doing so, take a look at ICAEW recognised Partner in Learning tuition providers in your area at
icaew.com/tuitionproviders
Errata sheets
These documents will correct any omissions within the learning materials once they have been
published. You should refer to them when studying.
Student support team

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studentsupport@icaew.com or call +44 (0)1908 248 250. If you are browsing our website, look out
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Student Insights
Access our practical and topical student content on our dedicated online student hub, Student
Insights at icaew.com/studentinsights. You’ll find interviews, guides and features giving you fresh
insights, innovative ideas and an inside look at the lives and careers of our ICAEW students and
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ICAEW Business and Finance Professional (BFP)

ICAEW Business and Finance Professional (BFP) is an internationally recognised designation and
professional status. It demonstrates your business knowledge, your commitment to professionalism
and that you meet the standards of a membership organisation. Once you have completed the
ICAEW CFAB qualification or the ACA Certificate Level, you are eligible to apply towards gaining BFP
status. Start your application at icaew.com/becomeabfp.
vi Management Information ICAEW 2023

Professional skills required by the ACA qualification
The following professional skills areas are present throughout the ACA qualification.
Skill area Overall objective
Assimilating and using Understand a business or accounting situation, prioritise by

information determining key drivers, issues and requirements and identify any
relevant information.
Structuring problems and Structure information from various sources into suitable formats for
solutions analysis and provide creative and pragmatic solutions in a business
environment.
Applying judgement Apply professional scepticism and critical thinking to identify faults,
gaps, inconsistencies and interactions from a range of relevant
information sources and relate issues to a business environment.
Concluding, Apply technical knowledge, skills and experience to support

recommending and reasoning and conclusion and formulate opinions, advice, plans,
communicating solutions, options and reservations based on valid evidence and
communicate clearly in a manner suitable for the recipient.
The level of skill required to pass each exam increases as ACA trainees progress upwards through
each Level of the ACA qualification. The skills progression embedded throughout the ACA
qualification ensures ACA trainees develop the knowledge and professional skills necessary to
successfully operate in the modern workplace and which are expected by today’s forward-thinking
employers.
At Certificate Level, the ACA Professional Skills which you are expected to demonstrate in the exam
are summarised as follows:
Assimilating and using information
• Understanding the situation and the requirements
• Identifying and using relevant information
• Identifying and prioritising key issues
Structuring problems and solutions
• Structuring data
• Developing solutions
Applying judgement
• Applying professional scepticism and critical thinking
• Relating issues to the broader business environment, including ethical issues
To help you develop your ability to demonstrate competency in each professional skills area, each
chapter of this Workbook includes up to four Professional Skills Guidance points.
Each Professional Skills Guidance point focuses on one of the four ACA Professional Skills areas and
explains how to demonstrate a particular aspect of that professional skill relevant to the topic being
studied. It is advised you refer back to the Professional Skills Guidance points while revisiting specific
topics and during question practice.
ICAEW 2023 Introduction vii

viii Management Information ICAEW 2023
Chapter 1
The fundamentals of costing
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Chapter study guidance
Learning topics
1 What is cost accounting?
2 Basic cost accounting concepts
3 Cost classification for inventory valuation and profit measurement
4 Cost classification for planning and decision making
5 Cost classification for control
6 Ethics and professional scepticism
7 Sustainability, governance and corporate responsibility
Summary
Further question practice
Self-test questions
Answers to Interactive questions
Answers to Self-test questions
Introduction
Learning outcomes
• Recognise the use of cost information for different purposes
• Classify costs as fixed, variable, direct or indirect
• Identify and explain ethical issues relating to the preparation, presentation and interpretation of
financial information for the management of a business
The specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 1a, b, 5a.
1
Syllabus links
An understanding of how costs may be classified in different ways according to the purpose of the
information being prepared is fundamental to this syllabus and underpins many of the learning
outcomes. It also has links to the Accounting syllabus in the context of understanding how costs are
classified for the purposes of inventory valuation and profit measurement.
1
Examination context
Many of the fundamental aspects of costing covered in this chapter do not lend themselves easily to
numerical objective test questions.
Therefore, you are more likely to see the majority of these subjects in narrative questions. For
example, you might be required to pick out correct definitions or statements from a number of
statements supplied in a question, or you might have to identify an appropriate cost unit from a
number of suggestions for a particular organisation to use as the basis of its accounting system.
In the examination, students may be required to:
• understand the purpose of a cost unit
• classify costs as fixed, variable and semi-variable (or semi-fixed)
• understand what is meant by the elements of cost
• understand the difference between a direct cost and an indirect cost, between a controllable cost
and an uncontrollable cost and between a product cost and a period cost
• identify ethical issues relating to the preparation, presentation and interpretation of financial
information
Knowing the various definitions is fundamental to answering questions in this area. For example, it is
essential to determine the ‘cost object’ in a question (ie, the thing being costed), in order to
determine whether costs are direct or indirect as regards that cost object.
1

Use this schedule and your study timetable to plan the dates on which you will complete your study
of this chapter.
Topic Practical significance Study approach Exam approach Interactive

questions
1 What is cost Approach Many of the

accounting? Read quickly fundamental aspects
All businesses, through section 1 of costing covered in
including sole traders, of the chapter to this chapter do not
partnerships and set cost accounting lend themselves
companies incur costs in context. easily to numerical
every day. Accounting objective test
systems can be set up questions.
to record the amount Stop and think
2 Management Information ICAEW 2023

questions
of expenditure Why do you think Therefore, you are

incurred on different that management more likely to see
types of cost, such as accounting is an the majority of these
rent, power (gas and internal service for subjects in narrative
electricity) and a business’s questions.
salaries. managers? Why For example,
Such systems can are management objective test
include methods for accounts not questions on this
business managers to usually distributed section may test the
obtain the information to interested differences between
they need to manage parties outside the financial, cost and
the business on a day- business? management
to-day basis. For accounting.
example, providing
detailed answers to
questions such as the
following.
What did it cost to
provide a particular
service to a particular
client?
What price should be
tendered for a
contract?
What is the cost of
operating different
departments each
period?
How much sales
revenue is generated
by a particular
product?
Are the actual costs
incurred on a
particular activity
higher or lower than
the planned costs?
The aim of the cost
accounting system
within an overall
accounting system is
to provide the
information that helps
to answer these and
similar questions. The
cost accounts form the
basis of the internal
management
accounting
information that
managers will use for
planning, control and
decision-making.
ICAEW 2023 1: The fundamentals of costing 3

questions
2 Basic cost accounting Spend time making Objective test IQ1: Cost units
concepts sure that you questions may This question
The cost unit and cost understand the require you to pick tests your
object are important basic concepts in out correct understanding of
terms. Determining section 2. definitions or cost units.
the cost per cost unit statements from a
is vital for planning, number of
Stop and think statements supplied
control and decision
making What are the cost in a question, or you
units in the may have to identify
business you work an appropriate cost
for? unit from a number
of suggestions for a
particular
organisation to use
as the basis of its
accounting system.
3 Cost classification for Learn the two Objective test

inventory valuation definitions in questions could ask
and profit section 3 – direct you to classify
measurement and indirect costs, particular costs.
You will come across as well as the
cost classifications in a difference between
variety of contexts in product and period
your working life. For costs. You will need
example, when to know these for
inventories are being later chapters on
valued it is important absorption and
to be able to identify marginal costing.
which costs are direct
costs of the inventory Stop and think
items and which are
indirect costs and Can an indirect
cannot be directly cost in one type of
attributed to the business be a
inventory items. direct cost in a
Correct cost different type of
classification is business?
fundamental to the
determination of the
cost of any cost
object.
4 Cost classification for Once you have You are likely to see IQ2: Fixed,
planning and decision read through cost behaviour variable or semi-
making section 4, practise questions in the variable
This section covers drawing all of the exam. You could, for This is a basic
cost behaviour. If a cost behaviour example, be asked question about
business understands patterns you have to identify the type the cost
how its costs behave learned about. of behaviour of a behaviour of
in relation to particular cost. Or specific costs.
production volumes, it you could be asked
Stop and think to identify a type of
can use this
information for Always look at the cost behaviour from IQ4: Cost
planning (eg, labels on the axes a graph. behaviour graphs
budgeting) and of cost behaviour

questions
making decisions (eg, graphs. Do not This question

pricing). confuse a graph of tests your
total fixed costs understanding of
with a graph of the cost behaviour
variable cost per and is the sort of
unit. question you may
see in your exam.
5 Cost classification for Skim through Objective test

control section 5 and learn questions may
As well as knowing the definitions. You require you to pick
how to classify costs will meet all of out correct
for planning and these concepts definitions or
decision making, it is again in Chapter 8. statements from a
essential that number of
managers are aware of statements supplied
Stop and think in a question, or may
their areas of
responsibility in order Responsibility require you to
to monitor accounting is identify controllable
performance and linked to and non-controllable
exercise control. Costs motivation. costs.
can be controllable or
non-controllable.
6 Ethics and Work through the Objective test

professional ethical principles in questions could ask
scepticism section 6 and make you about the
Management sure you could fundamental
accounting identify them if principles.
information must be faced with an
reported fairly, ethical dilemma in
honestly and in a scenario.
accordance with
professional Stop and think
standards. ICAEW
provides ethical You should be
guidance to help aware of ethical
ensure that this behaviour from the
happens. All start of your
accountants should accountancy
apply professional career.
scepticism.
7 Sustainability, Read through this Objective test

governance and introduction to questions are likely
corporate sustainability to to cover the topics of
responsibility understand the fair payment
Sustainability is a large focus for the practices (Chapter
subject encompassing Management 7), sustainability
environmental, social Information exam. targets (Chapter 8)
and ethical factors, as and environmental
well as governance, costing (Chapter 11).
Stop and think
which you will study
throughout your You should be
ICAEW studies. aware of the
increasing
importance of

questions
sustainability
considerations for
businesses.
Once you have worked through this guidance you are ready to attempt the further question practice
included at the end of this chapter.

1 What is cost accounting?
Section overview
• The management information system provides information to help management with planning,
control and decision making.
• In general terms, financial accounting is for external reporting whereas cost and management
accounting is for internal reporting.
• The financial accounting and cost accounting systems both record the same basic data but each
set of records may analyse the data in a different way. Ultimately, financial results from both
systems can, and should be, reconciled with each other.
1.1 The cost accountant

The cost accountant or a person having access to cost information should be able to provide the
answers to questions such as the following.
• What was the cost of goods produced or services provided last period?
• What was the cost of operating a department last month?
• What revenues were earned last week?
Knowing about costs incurred or revenues earned enables management to do the following.
• Assess the profitability of a product, a service, a department, or the whole organisation.
• Determine appropriate selling prices with due regard to the costs of sale and target profit
margins.
• Put a value on inventory (whether raw materials, work in progress, or finished goods) that is still
held at the end of a period, for preparing a balance sheet of the company’s assets and liabilities,
and determining the cost of materials (goods) used or sold in a period.
These are all historical questions. The cost accountant also needs to provide information to help
provide forecasts or estimates for the future, such as:
• What are the future costs of goods and services likely to be?
• What information does management need in order to make sensible decisions about future
profits and costs?
• What financial resources will be needed to fund future growth or activities?
1.2 Cost accounting and management accounting

Originally cost accounting dealt with ways of accumulating historical costs and of charging these
costs to units of output, or to departments, in order to establish inventory valuations, profits or losses
and balance sheet items. It has since been extended into planning, control and decision making, so
that the cost accountant is now able to answer both sets of questions in the section above. In today’s
environment the role of cost accounting in the provision of management information is therefore
almost indistinguishable from that of management accounting, which is basically concerned with the
provision of information to help management with planning, control and decision making.
1.3 Cost accounting systems

The managers of a business have responsibility for planning and controlling the resources used. To
carry out this task effectively they must be provided with sufficiently accurate and detailed
information, and the cost accounting system should provide this. Indeed, a costing system provides
the foundations for an organisation’s internal financial information system for managers.
Cost accounting systems are not restricted to manufacturing operations.
• Cost accounting information is also used in service industries, government departments and not-
for-profit organisations, including charities.
• Within a manufacturing organisation itself, the cost accounting system should be applied not only
to manufacturing operations but also to administration, selling and distribution, research and
development and so on.

Cost accounting is concerned with providing information to help the following.
• Establishing inventory valuations, profits or losses and balance sheet items
• Planning (for example, the provision of forecast costs at different activity levels)
• Control (such as the provision of actual and standard costs (see Chapter 9) for comparison
purposes)
• Decision making (for example, the provision of information about actual unit costs for the period
just ended for pricing decisions)
1.4 Financial accounting versus cost accounting

The financial accounting and cost accounting systems in a business both record the same basic data
for income and expenditure, but each set of records may analyse the data in a different way. This is
because each system has a different purpose.
• Financial accounts are usually prepared for stakeholders external to an organisation, eg,
shareholders, banks, customers, suppliers, HMRC and employees.
• Management accounts are usually prepared for internal managers of an organisation.
The data used to prepare financial accounts and management accounts are the same. The
differences between the financial accounts and the management accounts arise because the data is
usually analysed differently.
Financial accounts Management accounts
Financial accounts detail the performance of an Management accounts are used to aid
organisation over a defined period, including its management to record, plan and control the
cash flows and the state of affairs at the end of organisation’s activities and to help the
that period. decision-making process.
In the UK, limited companies must, by law, There is no legal requirement to prepare
prepare financial accounts. management accounts.
The format of published financial accounts is The format of management accounts is entirely
determined by law (mainly the Companies at management discretion: no strict rules
Acts), and by Financial Reporting Standards. In govern the way they are prepared or presented.
theory the accounts of different organisations Each organisation can devise its own
can therefore be easily compared. management accounting system and format of
reports.
Financial accounts often concentrate on the Management accounts can focus on specific
business as a whole, aggregating revenues and areas of an organisation’s activities such as
costs from different operations, and are wholly operating departments, individual sites or
historical. business streams. Information may be produced
to aid a decision rather than to be an end
product of a decision.
Most financial accounting information is of a Management accounts incorporate non-

monetary nature. monetary measures. Management may need to
know, for example, tonnes of product
produced, monthly machine hours, or miles
travelled by sales representatives. These are
often called ‘Key Performance Indicators’.
Financial accounts present an essentially Management accounts are both a historical

historical picture of past operations. record and a future planning tool, linking to
budgets and forecasts.

Definition
Management accounting systems: Provide information specifically for the use of managers within an
organisation.
IAS 1 changes the titles of financial statements as they will be used in IFRS Standards.
• ‘Balance sheet’ will become ‘statement of financial position’.
• ‘Income statement’ will become ‘statement of comprehensive income’.
• ‘Cash flow statement’ will become ‘statement of cash flows’.
Entities are not required to use the new titles in their financial statements. Consequently, this
Workbook may use these terms interchangeably.
2 Basic cost accounting concepts

Section overview
• A cost object is anything for which we are trying to ascertain the cost.
• Cost units are the basic control units for costing purposes.
• The term ‘cost’ can be used as a noun or as a verb.
• Costs need to be arranged into logical groups or classified in order to facilitate an efficient system
for collecting and analysing costs.
2.1 Functions and departments

An organisation, whether it is a manufacturing company, a provider of services (such as a bank or a
hotel) or a public sector organisation (such as a hospital), may be divided into a number of different
functions, within which there are a number of departments. A manufacturing organisation might be
structured as follows.
Board of directors
Production Administration Marketing
Mixing Baking Stores
Figure 1.1: Manufacturing organisation structure
Suppose the organisation above produces chocolate cakes for a number of supermarket chains. The
production function is involved with the making of the cakes, the administration department with the
preparation of accounts and the employment of staff and the marketing department with the selling
and distribution of the cakes.
Within the production function there are three departments, two of which are production
departments (the mixing department and the baking department), which are actively involved in the
production of the cakes, and one of which is a service department (stores department), which
provides a service or back-up to the production departments.
A service business, such as a hotel, may be structured as follows.

Board of directors
Service personnel Administration Marketing
Front office Housekeeping Maintenance Catering
Figure 1.2: Service organisation structure
2.2 Cost objects
Definition
Cost object: Anything for which we are trying to ascertain the cost.
Examples of cost objects include:

• a unit of product (eg, a car)
• a unit of service (eg, a valet service of a car)
• a department or function (eg, the accounts department)
• a project (eg, the installation of a new computer system)
• a new product or service (eg, to enable the cost of development to be identified)
In the example above, cost objects could include:
• individual chocolate cakes
• the administration function or mixing department
2.3 Cost units
Definition
Cost unit: The basic measure of product or service for which costs are determined.
Businesses are often interested in one particular cost object – the cost unit – and the cost per cost
unit. Determining the cost per cost unit can help with pricing decisions, which you will study in more
detail in Chapter 5.
Organisation Possible cost unit
Steelworks Tonne of steel produced

Tonne of coke used
Hospital Patient/day
Operation
Out-patient visit
Freight organisation Tonne/kilometre
Passenger transport organisation Passenger/kilometre
Accounting firm Audit performed

Chargeable hour

Organisation Possible cost unit
Restaurant Meal served
2.4 Composite cost units

Notice that some of the cost units in the above table are made up of two parts; for example, the
patient/day cost unit for the hospital. These two-part cost units are known as composite cost units
and they are used most often in service organisations.
Composite cost units help to improve cost control. For example, the measure of ‘cost per patient’
might not be particularly useful for control purposes. The cost per patient will vary depending on the
length of the patient’s stay, therefore monitoring costs using this basis would be difficult.
The cost per patient/day is not affected by the length of the individual patient’s stay. Therefore it
would be more useful for monitoring and controlling costs. Similarly, in a freight organisation the
cost per tonne/kilometre (the cost of carrying one tonne for one kilometre) would be more
meaningful for control than the cost per tonne carried, which would vary with the distance travelled.
Interactive question 1: Cost units

Identify which of the following cost objects would be suitable cost units for a hotel.
Cost objects Suitable cost unit?
Bar
Restaurant
Room/night
Meal served
Conference delegate
Fitness suite
Conference room/day
See Answer at the end of this chapter.
2.5 The concept of cost

The term ‘cost’ can be used as a noun when describing the amount of money incurred in producing a
product: ‘The cost to produce 100 units of product X last period was £3,400’.
Alternatively, ‘cost’ can be used as a verb, for example when describing the act of determining the
amount of money incurred in operating a department: ‘Please gather the information necessary to
cost the quality control activity’.
You will rarely see the word ‘cost’ used alone. Costs need to be classified in some way so that they
can be arranged into logical groups in order to facilitate an efficient system for collecting and
analysing costs.
As you work through this Workbook you will encounter many different types of cost, each of which
has its usefulness and limitations in various circumstances.
2.6 Direct v indirect costs and cost objects

Direct costs are costs identified with a cost object. Indirect costs cannot be identified with a particular
cost object. For example, if a chair is a cost object then certain costs such as materials and the labour
required to assemble the chair would be classed as direct costs for an individual chair. Factory rent

could not be associated with an individual chair so would be classed as an indirect cost of the chair.
However, if the cost object were the factory itself then the rent is a direct cost of the factory.
3 Cost classification for inventory valuation and profit

measurement
Section overview
• The total cost of a cost unit is usually made up of three cost elements: materials, labour and other
expenses. Each of these cost elements can be classified as direct costs or indirect costs.
• A direct cost can be traced in full to the cost unit that is being costed.
• The total direct cost (or ‘prime cost’) is the sum of the direct material cost + direct labour cost +
direct expenses.
• An indirect cost (or overhead) cannot be traced directly and in full to the cost unit that is being
costed.
• Types of indirect cost (or overhead) include production overhead, administration overhead,
selling overhead and distribution overhead.
• Product costs are costs identified with goods produced or purchased for resale. These costs are
allocated to the value of inventory until the goods are sold.
• Period costs are costs deducted as expenses during a particular period. These costs are not
regarded as part of the value of inventory.
In this section we are only concerned with cost units (ie, an individual job or unit of product or unit of
service) as the cost object.
3.1 Cost elements

For the purposes of inventory valuation and profit measurement, the cost of one unit must be
determined. The total cost of a cost unit of product or service is made up of the following three
elements of cost.
• Materials
• Labour
• Other expenses (such as rent and rates, interest charges and so on)
Cost elements can be classified as direct costs or indirect costs as far as cost units are concerned.
3.2 Direct cost and prime cost
Definitions
Direct cost: A cost that can be traced in full to the cost unit.
Prime cost: The sum of all the direct costs.
There are three types of direct cost.

• Direct material costs are the costs of materials that are known to have been used in making and
selling a unit of product (or providing a service). Examples are components and packing
materials.
• Direct labour costs are the specific costs of the workforce used to make a unit of product or
provide a service. Direct labour costs are established by quantifying the cost of the time taken for
a job, or the time taken in ‘direct production work’. For example, the wages paid to an employee
sewing buttons on a coat is a direct cost of that cost unit.

• Other direct expenses are those expenses that have been incurred in full as a direct consequence
of making a unit of product, or providing a service, or running a department. For example, the
cost of hiring a special machine for a job is a direct cost of that job.
Another term used to describe the total direct cost is prime cost.
Prime cost = total direct cost = direct material cost + direct labour cost + direct expenses
3.3 Indirect cost and overhead
Definition
Indirect cost (or overhead): A cost that is incurred which cannot be traced directly and in full to the
cost unit.
Examples of indirect costs, where the cost object is a unit of output, might be the cost of supervisors’
wages on a production line or cleaning materials and buildings insurance for a factory. These costs
cannot be traced directly and in full to the cost unit in question.
Total expenditure may therefore be analysed as follows.
Materials cost = Direct materials cost + Indirect materials cost

+ + +
Labour cost = Direct labour cost + Indirect labour cost
+ + +
Expenses = Direct expenses + Indirect expenses
Total cost = Direct cost/prime cost + Indirect cost/overhead
3.3.1 Production overhead

Production (or manufacturing or factory) overhead includes all indirect material costs, indirect wages
and indirect expenses incurred in the factory from receipt of the order until its completion,
including:
• indirect materials, which cannot be traced to units of the finished product.
– Consumable stores, eg, material used in negligible amounts or across several different
products
• indirect wages, meaning all wages not charged directly to a unit of product.
– Salaries of non-productive personnel in the production department, eg, supervisor
• indirect expenses (other than material and labour) not charged directly to units of production.
– Rent, rates and insurance of a factory
– Depreciation, fuel, power and maintenance of plant and buildings
3.3.2 Administration overhead

Administration overhead is all indirect material costs, wages and expenses incurred in the direction,
control and administration of an undertaking, including:
• depreciation of office equipment;
• office salaries, including the salaries of secretaries and accountants; and
• rent, rates, insurance, telephone, heat and light cost of general offices.
3.3.3 Selling overhead

Selling overhead is all indirect materials costs, wages and expenses incurred in promoting sales and
retaining customers, including:
• printing and stationery, such as catalogues and price lists
• salaries and commission of sales representatives
• advertising and sales promotion, market research

• rent, rates and insurance for sales offices and showrooms
3.3.4 Distribution overhead

Distribution overhead is all indirect material costs, wages and expenses incurred in making the
packed product ready for despatch and delivering it to the customer, including:
• cost of packing cases
• wages of packers, drivers and despatch clerks
• depreciation and running expenses of delivery vehicles
3.4 Product costs and period costs
Definitions
Period cost: A cost relating to a period of time.
Product cost: The cost of a finished product made up of its cost elements.
For the preparation of financial statements, costs are often classified as either product costs or period
costs. Product costs are costs identified with goods produced or purchased for resale. Period costs
are costs deducted as expenses during a particular period.
Consider a retailer who acquires goods for resale without changing their basic form. The only
product cost is therefore the purchase cost of the goods. Any unsold goods are held as inventory.
The inventory is valued at the lower of purchase cost and net realisable value, which is the valuation
basis stipulated in accounting standards, and included as an asset in the balance sheet. As the goods
are sold, their cost becomes an expense in the form of ‘cost of goods sold’. A retailer will also incur a
variety of selling and administration expenses. Such costs are period costs because they are
deducted from revenue without ever being regarded as part of the value of inventory.
Now consider a manufacturing firm in which direct materials are transformed into saleable goods
with the help of direct labour and factory overheads. All these costs, even the factory overheads, are
product costs because they are allocated to the value of inventory until the goods are sold (see
Chapter 3). As with the retailer, selling and administration expenses are regarded as period costs.
4 Cost classification for planning and decision making

Section overview
• Costs can be classified according to how they vary in relation to the level of activity.
• A knowledge of how the cost incurred varies at different activity levels is essential to planning and
decision making.
• A fixed cost is not affected by changes in the level of activity.
• A variable cost increases or decreases as the level of activity increases or decreases.
• A semi-variable cost is partly fixed and partly variable and is therefore partly affected by a change
in the level of activity.
• The relevant range is the range of activity levels within which assumed cost behaviour patterns
occur.
4.1 Cost behaviour patterns
Definition
Cost behaviour: The way in which costs are affected by changes in the level of activity where ‘activity’
can be volume of output, number of production runs etc.

A different way of classifying costs is in terms of their behaviour patterns. This means grouping costs
according to how they vary in relation to the level of activity.
The level of activity can be measured in a variety of different ways depending on the circumstances.
Examples of possible ways of measuring the level of activity are as follows.
• The volume of production in a period
• The number of items sold
• The number of invoices issued
• The number of units of electricity consumed
Planning and decision making are concerned with future events and so managers require
information on expected future costs and revenues. A knowledge of how the cost incurred varies at
different levels of activity is essential to planning and decision making.
For our purposes in this chapter, the level of activity will generally be taken to be the volume of
production/output or sales.
4.2 Fixed costs
Definition
Fixed costs: Costs that, within a relevant range of activity levels, are not affected by increases or
decreases in the level of activity.
Fixed costs are a period charge, in that they relate to a span of time; as the time span increases, so
too will the fixed costs. The figure below shows a sketch graph of a fixed cost.
Graph of fixed cost
£
Cost
Volume output (level of activity)
Figure 1.3: Fixed cost
Examples of fixed costs include the following.

• The salary of the managing director (per month or per annum)
• The rent of a single factory building (per month or per annum)
• Straight-line depreciation of a single machine (per month or per annum)
4.3 Variable costs
Definition
Variable cost: A cost that increases or decreases as the level of activity increases or decreases.
A variable cost tends to vary directly with the level of activity. The variable cost per unit is the same
amount for each unit produced whereas total variable cost increases as volume of output increases.
The figure below shows a sketch graph of a variable cost.

Graph of variable cost
£
Cost
Volume of output
Figure 1.4: Variable cost
Examples of variable costs include the following.

• The cost of raw materials (where there is no discount for bulk purchasing, since bulk purchase
discounts reduce the unit cost of purchases).
• Direct labour costs, which are usually classed as a variable cost even though basic wages are
often fixed.
• Sales commission that is variable in relation to the volume or value of sales.
4.4 Semi-variable costs (or semi-fixed costs or mixed costs)
Definition
Semi-variable, semi-fixed or mixed costs: Costs that are part-fixed and part-variable and are
therefore partly affected by changes in the level of activity.
Examples of semi-variable costs include the following.

• Electricity and gas bills. There may be a ‘standing’ basic charge plus a charge per unit of
consumption.
• Sales representative’s salary. The sales representative may earn a basic monthly amount plus a
commission based on the value of sales made.
The behaviour of a semi-variable cost can be presented graphically, as shown in the figure below.
£
Cost
Variable part
Fixed part
Volume of output
(or, say, value of sales)
Figure 1.5: Semi-variable cost
4.5 Cost behaviour and total and unit costs

If the variable cost of producing a unit is £5 per unit then it will remain at that cost per unit no matter
how many units are produced (within the relevant range).
However, if the business’s fixed costs are £5,000 then the fixed cost per unit will decrease the more
units are produced: for example, one unit will have fixed costs of £5,000 per unit; if 2,500 are

produced the fixed cost per unit will be £2; if 5,000 are produced the fixed cost per unit will be only
£1. Thus as the level of activity increases the total costs per unit (fixed cost plus variable cost) will
decrease.
In sketch-graph form this may be illustrated as shown in the figure below.
Variable cost Fixed cost Total cost
Cost Cost Cost

per per per
unit unit unit
£ £ £
Number of units Number of units Number of units
Figure 1.6: Cost behaviour
Interactive question 2: Fixed, variable or semi-variable cost?

Fill in the correct type for each cost in the table below.
Fixed/Variable/Semi-variable?
Telephone bill
Annual salary of the chief accountant
Cost of materials used to pack 20 units of

product X into a box
4.6 The relevant range
Definitions
The relevant range: The range of activity levels within which assumed cost behaviour patterns occur.
Step fixed cost: A cost that is fixed for a certain range of activity but increases to a new fixed level
once a critical level of activity is reached.
For example, a fixed cost is only fixed for levels of activity within the relevant range, after which it
could ‘step up’.
The relevant range also broadly represents the activity levels at which an organisation has had
experience of operating in the past and for which cost information is available. It can, therefore, be
dangerous to attempt to predict costs at activity levels that are outside the relevant range (
extrapolation).
For example, the rent of a factory is generally assumed to be a fixed cost. However, if the volume of
activity increases beyond the relevant range then it may be necessary to rent an extra factory. The
rent cost will then increase to a new, higher level. This is called a step increase in fixed cost and can
be represented graphically as shown in the figure below.

£
Cost
Relevant
range
Level of activity
Figure 1.7: Step increase
Interactive question 3: Activity levels

Fill in the blanks using the one of the following options:
• fall
• rise
• stay the same
In general, as activity levels rise within a relevant range, the variable cost per unit will
, the fixed cost per unit will and the total cost per unit will
.
Interactive question 4: Cost behaviour graphs

There are four sketches below. In each case the vertical axis relates to total cost, the horizontal axis to
activity level.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
Requirement
Match the graphs to the listed items of expense below by writing the relevant graph number in the
box provided.
Note: Each graph may be used more than once.

Expense description Graph number
Electricity bill: a standing charge for each period plus a charge for
each unit of electricity consumed.
Supervisory labour, which is paid as a monthly salary.
Sales commission, which amounts to 2% of sales revenue.
Machine rental cost of a single item of equipment. The rental

agreement is that £10 should be paid for every machine hour
worked each month, subject to a maximum monthly charge of £480.
Photocopier rental costs. The rental agreement is that £80 is paid

each month, plus £0.01 per photocopy taken.
Professional skills focus: Assimilating and using information
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Interpret information
provided in various formats’. This could include graphs.
5 Cost classification for control

Section overview
• For control purposes the most effective classification of costs is by responsibility, ie, according to
whether the costs are controllable or uncontrollable by a particular manager.
• A system of responsibility accounting segregates costs and revenues into areas of personal
responsibility in order to monitor and assess the performance of each part of the organisation.
• A responsibility centre is a part of a business whose performance is the direct responsibility of a
specific manager.
• An uncontrollable cost is a cost that cannot be influenced by a manager within a given time span.
5.1 Responsibility accounting

Allocating costs to products is not always useful for the purposes of control, as the production of a
product, say, may consist of a number of operations, each of which is the responsibility of a different
person. A product cost does not therefore provide a link between costs incurred and areas of
responsibility. So costs (or revenues) must be traced in another way to the individuals responsible for
each cost or revenue. This ‘other way’ is known as responsibility accounting.
Definitions
Responsibility accounting: A system of accounting that segregates revenue and costs into areas of
personal responsibility in order to monitor and assess the performance of each part of an
organisation.
A responsibility centre: A department or function whose performance is the direct responsibility of a
specific manager.

Managers of responsibility centres should only be held accountable for costs over which they have
significant influence. From a motivation or incentivisation point of view this is important because it
can be very demoralising for managers to have their performance judged on the basis of something
over which they have no influence. It is also important from a control point of view that management
reports should ensure that information on costs is reported to the manager who is able to take action
to control them.
Responsibility accounting attempts to associate costs, revenues, assets and liabilities with the
managers most capable of controlling them. As a system of accounting, it therefore distinguishes
between controllable and uncontrollable costs.
5.2 Controllable and uncontrollable costs
Definitions
Controllable cost: A cost that can be influenced by management decisions and actions.
Uncontrollable cost: A cost that cannot be affected by management within a given time span.
Most variable costs within a department are thought to be controllable in the short term because
managers can influence the efficiency with which resources are used, even if they cannot do anything
to raise or lower price levels.
A cost that is not controllable by a junior manager might be controllable by a senior manager. For
example, there may be high direct labour costs in a department caused by excessive overtime
working. The junior manager may feel obliged to continue with the overtime to meet production
schedules, but his senior may be able to reduce costs by hiring extra full-time staff, thereby reducing
the requirements for overtime.
A cost that is not controllable by a manager in one department may be controllable by a manager
in another department. For example, an increase in material costs may be caused by buying at
higher prices than expected (controllable by the purchasing department) or by excessive wastage
(controllable by the production department) or by a faulty machine producing rejects (controllable
by the maintenance department).
Some costs are non-controllable, such as increases in expenditure due to inflation. Other costs are
controllable, but in the long term rather than the short term. For example, production costs might be
reduced by the introduction of new machinery and technology, but in the short term, management
must attempt to do the best they can with the resources and machinery at their disposal.
6 Ethics and professional scepticism

Section overview
What are the ethical issues relating to the preparation, presentation and interpretation of financial
information? What is professional scepticism?
Professional skills focus: Structuring problems and solutions
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify ethical dimensions
of possible solutions’.
6.1 Introduction
Cost accountants are often involved in the preparation and reporting of information to help
management with planning, control and decision making. Such information may include forecasts,
budgets and variance analysis which we will consider in detail in later chapters.

6.2 ICAEW ethical guidance for accountants involved in the preparation and reporting
of information
6.2.1 Fundamental principles
ICAEW provides ethical guidance that will ensure professional accountants in business prepare and
report information fairly, honestly and in accordance with relevant professional standards so that
the information will be understood in its context. The guidance is also designed to ensure that
professional accountants in business take reasonable steps to maintain information for which they
are responsible in a manner that:
• describes clearly the true nature of business transactions, assets or liabilities
• classifies and records information in a timely and proper manner
• represents the facts accurately and completely in all material respects
The guidance can be found at icaew.com and much of this is dealt with in the certificate level
Business, Technology and Finance syllabus.
The guidance is applicable to both members in practice and members in business (eg, professional
accountants involved in the preparation and reporting of information to help management).
Fundamental Principle 1 – ‘Integrity’
A member should behave with integrity in all professional and business relationships.
Integrity implies not only honesty but fair dealing, truthfulness and being straightforward. A
member’s advice and work must be uncorrupted by self-interest and not be influenced by the
interests of other parties. A member should not be associated with information that is false or
misleading or supplied recklessly.
Fundamental Principle 2 – ‘Objectivity’
A member should strive for objectivity in all professional and business judgements.
Objectivity is the state of mind which has regard to all considerations relevant to the task in hand but
no other. There should be no bias, conflict of interest or undue influence of others.
Fundamental Principle 3 – ‘Professional competence and due care’
When providing professional services ‘professional competence and due care’ therefore mean:
• having appropriate professional knowledge and skill
• having a continuing awareness and an understanding of relevant technical, professional and
business developments
• exercising sound and independent judgement
• acting diligently, that is:
– carefully
– thoroughly
– on a timely basis
– in accordance with the requirements of an assignment
• acting in accordance with applicable technical and professional standards
• distinguishing clearly between an expression of opinion and an assertion of fact
Professional skills focus: Applying judgement
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Appreciate when more
expert help is required’. This relates to professional competence and due care.
Fundamental Principle 4 – ‘Confidentiality’

The professional accountant should assume that all unpublished information about a prospective,
current or previous client’s or employer’s affairs, however gained, is confidential. Information should
then:
• be kept confidential (confidentiality should be actively preserved);
• not be disclosed, even inadvertently such as in a social environment; and

• not be used to obtain personal advantage.
Fundamental Principle 5 – ‘Professional behaviour’
Behaving professionally means:
• complying with relevant laws and regulations
• avoiding any action that discredits the profession (the standard to be applied is that of a
reasonable and informed third party with knowledge of all relevant information)
• conducting oneself with:
– courtesy; and
– consideration.
When marketing themselves and their work, professional accountants should:
• be honest and truthful;
• avoid making exaggerated claims about:
– what they can do;
– what qualifications and experience they possess; and
• avoid making disparaging references to the work of others.
The fundamental principles can be found here:
www.icaew.com/international-accounting-and-auditing/international-standards-ethics/ethics-
introduction-and-fundamentals
6.2.2 Threats and safeguards

Threats to compliance with the fundamental principles, such as self-interest or intimidation threats to
objectivity or professional competence and due care, are created where a professional accountant in
business is pressured (either externally or by the possibility of personal gain) to become associated
with misleading information or to become associated with misleading information through the
actions of others.
Accordingly, professional accountants should take steps to ensure they are not associated with
reports, returns, communications or other information where they believe that the information:
• contains a materially false or misleading statement
• contains statements or information furnished recklessly
• omits or obscures information required to be included where such omission or obscurity would
be misleading
The significance of such threats depends on factors such as the source of the pressure and the
degree to which the information is, or may be, misleading. The significance of the threat should be
evaluated and safeguards applied where necessary to eliminate them or reduce them to an
acceptable level. Such safeguards include consultation with superiors within the employing
organisation (such as a line manager), the audit committee, or those charged with governance of the
organisation, or ICAEW.
Where it is not possible to reduce the threat(s) to an acceptable level, the professional accountant in
business should refuse to be or remain associated with any information they determine to be
misleading.
Sometimes, a professional accountant in business may be unknowingly associated with misleading
information. Upon becoming aware of this, the professional accountant in business should take steps
to be disassociated from the information.
In determining whether there is a requirement to report, the professional accountant in business may
consider obtaining legal advice. In addition, the professional accountant my consider whether to
resign.
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify ethical issues
including public interest and sustainability issues within a scenario’. The fundamental principles
should guide you on ethical issues.

6.3 Professional scepticism
Definition
Professional scepticism: Assessing information, estimates and explanations critically, with a
questioning mind, and being alert to possible misstatements due to error or fraud.
There may be deliberate or accidental mistakes within information and professional scepticism
means being aware of this and accepting that verification may be necessary. This is particularly
important for audit but is also important for management information. For example, if a colleague
provides you with data and asks you to write a report about that data, you should want to verify that
the data is correct, particularly if it came from the internet.
7 Sustainability, governance and corporate responsibility

Section overview
• Sustainability is about maintaining the world’s resources rather than depleting or destroying them.
This will ensure they support human activity now and in the future.
• Corporate responsibility includes the actions, activities and obligations of business in achieving
sustainability.
• Governance refers to the way organisations are directed and controlled by senior officers.
• ESG (environmental, social and governance) is a set of criteria used to measure and report
sustainability.
7.1 What are sustainability, governance and corporate responsibility?
Definitions
Sustainability: The ability to ‘meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs’ (Brundtland Report 1987).
Sustainable development: The process by which we achieve sustainability.
Corporate responsibility: The actions, activities and obligations of business in achieving
sustainability.
Governance: The way organisations are directed and controlled by senior officers.
Sustainability is not limited to the environment. Interpretations of the scope of sustainable

development have developed from a narrow interpretation which focused on ‘green issues’ to
broader interpretations which include concerns such as:
• Increasing extremes of poverty and wealth
• Population growth
• Biodiversity loss
• Deteriorating air and water quality
• Climate change
• Human rights
A commonly employed and useful way of thinking about sustainability issues is under three key
headings: social, environmental and economic.
Issue Examples
Social Health and safety, workers’ rights (in the business itself and its
supply chain), pay and benefits, diversity and equal opportunities,

impacts of product use, responsible marketing, data protection and
privacy, community investment, and bribery/corruption.
Environmental Climate change, pollution, emissions levels, waste, use of natural

resources, impacts of product use, compliance with environmental
legislation, air quality.
Economic Economic stability and growth, job provision, local economic

development, healthy competition, compliance with governance
structures, transparency, long-term viability of businesses,
investment in innovation/new product development.
Businesses are becoming aware that economic sustainability requires consideration not just of short-
term financial performance, but of the wider impact on society and the environment. The three types
of sustainability are therefore interlinked. The connection to governance is that boards of directors
need to be actively considering what their organisations are doing to try to address sustainability.
Governance factors relate to the procedures in place to manage economic, environmental and social
performance.
Issue Examples
Governance Leadership and structure, pay scales, whether shareholders can

vote, bribery and corruption prevention measures.
7.2 Sustainability vs ESG
Definition
ESG: ESG (environmental, social and governance) is a set of criteria used to measure and report
sustainability. Therefore, ESG reporting involves disclosing operational data on areas of ESG.
The words sustainability and ESG are sometimes used interchangeably but their meaning is slightly
different. Sustainability is a general term that can mean different things to different people, whereas
ESG is specific and measurable. ESG reporting is still voluntary (apart from certain groups), however,
many organisations publish sustainability reports that aim to show the impact on society and their
commitment to sustainability.
7.3 Global initiatives to promote sustainable development

Sustainable development recognises the interdependence between business, society and the
environment, since without the environment neither business nor society could exist. Thus, for
businesses to deliver value to their shareholders, they must respond to the needs and priorities of
their stakeholders and not exhaust the world’s capital.
There are a wide variety of UK, European and global initiatives to foster sustainable development,
including steps taken by governments, businesses and other organisations. Such actions are shown
to take the form of different mechanisms:
• Corporate policies
• Supply chain pressure (societal expectations)
• Stakeholder engagement
• Voluntary codes
• Rating and benchmarking
• Taxes and subsidies
• Tradable permits

7.4 Focus for Management Information exam
Sustainability is a large subject encompassing environmental, social and ethical factors, as well as
governance, and you will study sustainability throughout your ICAEW studies. However, for the
purposes of the Management Information exam, you need knowledge of the following:
• Good, fair payment practices (Chapter 7)
• Tracking sustainability performance against targets (Chapter 8)
• Environmental costing (Chapter 11)
You also need to be aware of risk management. For example, there are risks arising from climate and
environmental change and instability which may affect businesses operationally. The UK Corporate
Governance Code includes a requirement to ‘promote the long-term sustainable success of the
company’ and this change was introduced in 2018. Ignoring the ESG narrative is risky for a business,
but it is not just its reputation that could be at stake. For certain industries, ignoring sustainability
issues could have a negative effect in terms of the business model (for example, a food manufacturer
cannot ignore the impact that climate change has on crop harvests).

Summary
Financial information
Financial accounting Management accounting

Aggregate information Internal management information
for external reporting for planning, control and decision
making
Classification for planning Classification for control

Cost objects
and decision making System of responsibility
Requires knowledge of cost accounting segregates
behaviour patterns controllable costs and
uncontrollable costs
Cost units
Basic control unit for
costing purposes Fixed cost Variable cost Semi-variable
Not affected Changes in cost
by changes line with level Partly affected
in activity of activity by changes in
Classification for inventory
activity
valuation and profit
measurement
Cost elements = materials,
labour and other expenses
Direct cost or Indirect cost or Product cost Period cost

prime cost can be overhead cannot Allocated to value Deducted as
traced in full to be traced in full to of inventory until expenses in a
cost object being cost object being sold particular period
costed costed

1 Knowledge diagnostic
Before you move on to question practice, confirm you are able to answer the following questions
having studied this chapter. If not, you are advised to revisit the relevant learning from the topic
indicated.
Confirm your learning
1. Do you know the differences between financial and management accounts? (Topic 1)
2. Can you explain the terms cost object and cost unit? (Topic 2)
3. What is the meaning of prime cost? (Topic 3)
4. What are indirect costs? (Topic 3)
5. Can you draw the graphs for the various types of cost behaviour? (Topic 4)
6. What are the fundamental principles in the ICAEW ethical guidance? (Topic 6)
7. What is professional scepticism? (Topic 6)
8. What is sustainability and ESG? (Topic 7)
2 Chapter Self-test question practice

Aim to complete all the self-test questions at the end of this chapter. Once completed, attempt all the
questions in ‘The fundamentals of costing’ chapter of the Management Information Question Bank.
Refer back to the learning in this chapter for any questions which you did not answer correctly or
where the suggested solution has not provided sufficient explanation to answer all your queries.
Once you have attempted these questions, you can move on to the next chapter.

Self-test questions
Answer the following questions.

1
(1) A direct cost can be traced in full to the product, service or department that is being costed.
(2) A particular cost can be a direct cost or an indirect cost, depending on what is being costed.
(3) A direct cost might also be referred to as an overhead cost.
(4) Expenditure on direct costs will probably vary every period.
Requirement
Which of the statements above about a direct cost are correct?
A 1 and 2 only
B (1) and (3) only
C (1), (2) and (4) only
D (1), (2), (3) and (4)
2 Which one of the following items might be a cost unit within the management accounting system of
a university or college of further education?
A Business studies department
B A student
C A college building
D The university itself
3 Identify whether the statements shown below are true or false.
Statement True or False?
A cost unit is a unit of product that has costs

attached.
A cost object is always a unit of product or

service.
Costs can be divided into three elements:

materials, labour and expenses.
An overhead is another name for an indirect

cost.
4 Are the following likely to be classed as variable costs?
Yes or no
Telephone bill
A royalty payment for each unit produced
Direct materials for production
Annual salary of chief accountant
Annual salary of factory supervisor

5 A company hires its vehicles under an agreement where a constant rate is charged per mile travelled,
up to a maximum monthly payment regardless of the miles travelled. This cost is represented by
which of the following graphs?
(1)
Total
cost
Level of activity
(2)
Total
cost
Level of activity
(3)
Total
cost
Level of activity
(4)
Total
cost
Level of activity
Requirement
Select the correct answer.
A (1)
B (2)
C (3)
D (4)

6 Complete the sentence.
Cost units are:
A units of a product or service for which costs are ascertained.
B amounts of expenditure attributable to a number of different products.
C functions or locations for which costs are ascertained.
D things for which we are trying to ascertain the cost.
7 Which of the following items might be a suitable cost unit within the sales department of a
manufacturing company?
Suitable or unsuitable?
Sales commission
Order obtained
Unit of product sold
8 In a factory one supervisor is required for every five employees. Which one of the following graphs
depicts the cost of supervisors?
(1)
Total
cost
Number of employees
(2)
Total
cost
Number of employees

(3)
Total
cost
Number of employees
(4)
Total
cost
Number of employees
Requirement
Select the correct answer.
A (1)
B (2)
C (3)
D (4)
9 Which of the following might describe a cost unit?
A A unit of production or service to which costs can be related.
B A cost incurred in selling a product or service.
C A cost that can be traced in full to the product, service or department that is being costed.
D A cost identified with the goods produced or purchased for resale.
10 Complete the sentence.
Prime cost is:
A all cost incurred in manufacturing a product.
B the total of direct costs.
C the material cost of a product.
D the cost of operating a department.
Now go back to the Introduction and ensure that you have achieved the Learning outcomes listed for
this chapter.

Answer to Interactive question 1
Cost objects Suitable cost unit?
Bar No
Restaurant No
Room/night Suitable
Meal served Suitable
Conference delegate Suitable
Fitness suite No
Conference room/day Suitable
Fixed/Variable/Semi-variable?
Telephone bill Semi-variable
Annual salary of the chief accountant Fixed
Cost of materials used to pack 20 units of Variable

product X into a box

In general, as activity levels rise within a relevant range, the variable cost per unit will stay the same
, the fixed cost per unit will fall and the total cost per unit will fall .
The fixed cost per unit will fall because the same amount of fixed cost is spread over more units. The
total cost per unit will also fall because the fixed cost per unit included within the total cost will
reduce.
Electricity bill: a standing charge for each period plus a charge for (1)
each unit of electricity consumed.
Supervisory labour, which is paid as a monthly salary. (4)
Sales commission, which amounts to 2% of sales revenue. (2)
Machine rental cost of a single item of equipment. The rental (3)

agreement is that £10 should be paid for every machine hour
worked each month, subject to a maximum monthly charge of £480.

Photocopier rental costs. The rental agreement is that £80 is paid (1)
each month, plus £0.01 per photocopy taken.
Both the electricity bill and the photocopier rental costs are semi-variable costs, as they have both a
fixed element and a variable element that changes with the level of activity.
The supervisory labour is a fixed cost that remains constant within the relevant range.
Sales commission is a variable cost that varies in direct proportion to the level of activity.
For the equipment rental cost, the graph passes through the origin because at zero activity, no cost is
incurred. There is a variable cost pattern until maximum cost is reached; thereafter, cost is fixed.

1 Correct answer(s):
C (1), (2) and (4) only
Statement (1) is correct. Direct costs are specific and traceable to the relevant product, service or
department.
Statement (2) is correct. For example, a departmental manager’s salary is a direct cost of the
department but it is an indirect cost of the individual cost units passing through the department.
Statement (3) is incorrect. An indirect cost (not a direct cost) might also be referred to as an overhead
cost.
Statement (4) is correct. It is likely that activity will change from period to period, in which case so will
the expenditure on direct costs, as direct costs are traced directly to cost units.
B A student
A student is likely to be a cost unit (cost per student per course). The others are all cost objects but
not the most basic unit of product or service for which costs are determined.
3
Statement True or False?
A cost unit is a unit of product that has costs True

attached.
A cost object is always a unit of product or False

service.
Costs can be divided into three elements: True

materials, labour and expenses.
An overhead is another name for an indirect True

cost.
A cost object is anything for which we are trying to ascertain the cost. It could be a unit of product or
service but it could also be other items such as a department, a function or an item of equipment.
4
Yes or no
Telephone bill No
A royalty payment for each unit produced Yes
Direct materials for production Yes
Annual salary of chief accountant No
Annual salary of factory supervisor No
The royalty payments described and the cost of direct materials for production are likely to increase
in line with output levels and are therefore classed as variable costs.
A telephone bill is a typical example of a semi-variable cost, with a fixed line rental and a variable
cost element that relates to the number of telephone calls made.
Salaries are a typical example of a fixed cost.

C (3)
The cost described begins as a linear variable cost, increasing at a constant rate in line with activity.
After a certain level of activity is reached, the total cost reaches a maximum as demonstrated by the
horizontal line on the graph. The cost becomes fixed regardless of the level of activity.
A units of a product or service for which costs are ascertained.
Amounts of expenditure attributable to a number of products (Option B) are classed as overheads.
Functions or locations for which costs are ascertained (Option C) are cost objects.
Option D is the definition of a cost object.
7
Suitable or unsuitable?
Sales commission Unsuitable
Order obtained Suitable
Unit of product sold Suitable
Either calculating the cost of each order obtained or the cost of each unit of product sold would be
suitable cost units within the sales department.
Sales commission is an expense of the business, and therefore not suitable to use as a cost unit.
A (1)
A A unit of production or service to which costs can be related.
Cost units are the basic units for costing purposes. Different organisations would use different cost
units, such as patient/day in a hospital or meals served in a restaurant.
A cost incurred in selling a product or service (Option B) describes a period cost.
A cost that can be traced in full to the product, service or department that is being costed (Option C)
describes a direct cost.
A cost identified with the goods produced or purchased for resale (Option D) describes a product
cost.
B the total of direct costs.
Prime cost is the total of direct material, direct labour and direct expenses.
Option A describes total production cost, including a share of production overhead. Option C is only
a part of prime cost. Option D is an overhead or indirect cost.

Chapter 2
Calculating unit costs (Part

1)
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Learning topics
1 Identifying direct and indirect costs for cost units
2 Inventory valuation
Summary
Self-test questions
Introduction
Learning outcomes
• Classify costs as fixed, variable, direct or indirect
• Calculate overhead absorption rates, unit costs and profits/losses from information provided,
using:
– marginal costing
– absorption costing and reconcile the differences between the costs and profits/losses obtained
The specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 1b and c.
2
Syllabus links
A thorough understanding of the valuation of materials inventory will underpin your understanding
of inventory valuation for the Accounting syllabus.
2
Examination context
The context of much of this chapter provides scope for a range of numerical questions. However, you
should also be prepared to deal with narrative questions that examine your understanding of the
implications of the techniques you are using.
Narrative questions on the pricing of materials issues and on the classification of costs have been
popular in past examinations.
• classify costs as direct or indirect
• calculate the prime cost of a cost unit
• calculate the price of materials and the value of inventory using (‘first in, first out’) FIFO, (‘last in,
first out’) LIFO and average pricing methods
It is important to realise that in this chapter and the next, ideas from Chapter 1 are being applied in
determining the cost of a unit of output. The cost object is, therefore, the unit of output and all terms
such as direct and indirect are used in that context. It is also essential to appreciate that direct and
variable costs and indirect and fixed costs are not the same thing. The narrative is as important as the
calculations for FIFO, LIFO and weighted average inventory valuations.
2

of this chapter.

questions
1 Identifying direct and Approach The context of much of IQ1: Direct

indirect costs for cost Read quickly this chapter provides cost or
units through section 1 of scope for a range of indirect cost?
An important task to be Chapter 2 to numerical questions. This question
fulfilled by the reinforce your However, you should should
management understanding of also be prepared to highlight
information system is to direct and indirect deal with narrative whether you
provide unit costs as costs. Spend a little questions that examine understand
the basis for a variety of more time thinking your understanding of the
management planning about each item in the implications of the difference
and control activities. interactive question techniques you are between
1 and use this to using. For example, direct and

questions
This can be achieved test whether you objective test questions indirect costs.
by analysing costs as really understand may ask you to identify
direct costs (direct the concepts. a cost’s classification.
materials, direct labour,
direct expenses) or
indirect costs (indirect Stop and think
materials, indirect Are direct costs and
labour, indirect variable costs the
expenses). same thing?
2 Inventory valuation Section 2 of this The narrative is as IQ2: FIFO

If several different chapter is very important as the A real exam
batches of material are important and calculations for FIFO, question
purchased, all at requires you to be LIFO and weighted wouldn’t give
different prices, which actively involved. average inventory you a table
price should be Do not just skim valuations. Objective like this to fill
reported within unit over all the test questions may in. However,
costs for managers to workings. Get a require you to pick out it’s a good
use as the basis of their calculator and correct definitions or question to
day-to-day operational check that you statements from a practise the
and planning understand where number of statements layout of your
decisions? each figure in the supplied in a question, workings for
tabulations comes or you may have to a question on
Information providers from. Find a method perform inventory
need mechanisms to FIFO.
of laying out the valuation calculations.
systematically record calculations that IQ3:
the prices paid for works for you. Inventory
material and the valuation
quantities purchased Although you will methods
and issued to not receive marks
for workings in the These types
production or sales. of question
actual exam, you
will need to use a become easy
clear layout to with practice.
achieve the
necessary 100%
accuracy.
Stop and think
In times of rapid
inflation, why is it
important to use up
to date prices when
reporting costs to
the manager who is
responsible for
determining the
selling price of the
company’s main
products or
services?
ICAEW 2023 2: Calculating unit costs (Part 1) 39

1 Identifying direct and indirect costs for cost units
Section overview
• Direct costs are those that can be specifically identified with the cost unit being costed.
• Direct material cost is all material becoming part of the cost unit, unless used in negligible
amounts.
• Direct labour cost is all wages paid to labour that can be identified with a specific cost unit.
• Direct expenses are expenses incurred on a specific cost unit, other than direct material and direct
labour costs.
• Indirect costs are those that cannot be identified directly with the cost unit being costed.
For the purposes of this chapter and Chapter 3, the cost object is a cost unit (eg, a unit of product, a
job, a batch, a unit of service).
1.1 Direct material cost

Direct material is all material becoming part of the cost unit (unless used in negligible amounts
and/or having negligible cost).
Direct material costs are charged to the cost unit as part of the prime cost. Examples of direct
material are as follows.
• Component parts or other materials purchased for a particular product, service, job, order or
process
• Primary packing materials like cartons and boxes
Materials used in negligible amounts and/or having negligible cost can be grouped under indirect
materials as part of overhead.
1.2 Direct wages or direct labour costs

Direct wages are all wages paid for labour (either as basic hours or as overtime) that can be
identified with the cost unit.
Direct wages costs are charged to the cost unit as part of the prime cost.
Examples of groups of labour receiving payment as direct wages are as follows.
• Workers engaged in altering the condition, conformation or composition of the product
• Inspectors, analysts and testers specifically required for such production
1.3 Direct expenses

Direct expenses are any expenses that are incurred on a specific cost unit other than direct material
cost and direct wages.
Direct expenses are charged to the product as part of the prime cost. Examples of direct expenses
are as follows.
• The cost of special designs, drawings or layouts for a particular job
• The hire of tools or equipment for a particular job
1.4 Indirect costs

Indirect costs or overheads are those costs that cannot be traced in full to a specific cost unit.
For example, a garage carries out a repair job on a customer’s car.
• The direct material cost of the job will include the replacement parts used.
• The direct labour cost will be wages paid to the mechanics who carried out the work. The labour
is treated as a direct cost in this case, even if the mechanics are paid a fixed amount each period.
This is because it is possible to measure exactly how long each person worked on the repair, and
their hourly rate of pay.

• The indirect costs of the repair job will include a share of the overhead costs incurred in the
garage, such as the rent, the buildings insurance, the depreciation of the garage equipment and
so on. These costs cannot be traced to any single job worked on during the period.
For example, a beauty salon carries out a treatment for a customer.
• The direct material cost of the treatment will include the treatment materials, such as a face mask.
• The direct labour cost will be wages paid to the beauticians who carried out the treatment. The
labour is treated as a direct cost in this case, even if the beauticians are paid a fixed amount each
period. This is because it is possible to measure exactly how long each person worked on the
treatment, and their hourly rate of pay.
• The indirect costs of the treatment will include a share of the overhead costs incurred in the salon,
such as the rent, the buildings insurance, the salon cleaning costs and so on. These costs cannot
be traced to any single treatment worked on during the period.
Try the interactive question below to ensure you have understood the principle of how to distinguish
a direct cost from an indirect cost.
Interactive question 1: Direct cost or indirect cost?

A car repair in a garage was worked on in overtime hours, due to an unusually large number of
repairs being booked into the garage that day.
Requirement
Indicate whether each of the following costs would be classified as a direct cost or an indirect cost of
that particular car repair in a garage.
Cost incurred Direct or indirect?
The salary of the garage’s accountant
The cost of heating the garage
A can of engine oil used in the repair
A smear of grease used in the repair
An overtime premium paid to the mechanic

carrying out the repair
An idle time payment made to the mechanic

while waiting for a delivery of parts for a
number of jobs
The wages of the supervisor overseeing the

mechanic carrying out the repair
1.5 Direct and indirect costs: some further points

There are a few possible misconceptions about direct and indirect costs that should be clarified at
this stage.
(a) Direct costs are not necessarily bigger in size than indirect costs. In highly-automated service
industries, direct materials and direct labour costs are likely to be very small, relative to overhead
costs. The relative size of direct and indirect costs per unit of output varies according to the type
of output, the industry, the technology, etc.

(b) Indirect costs are not less important than direct costs. Although they cannot be directly
attributed to individual units of output or to individual jobs, they represent expenditure on
resources that are essential for the units to be made or the jobs to be done. In the example of
the garage repair job, the rent of the garage is an indirect cost, but the rental cost represents a
share of the use of the garage space, without which the job could not have been done.
(c) It is easy to confuse fixed and variable costs with indirect and direct costs. A direct cost is often
also a variable cost: for example, the cost of raw materials that goes into making a unit of
product is both a direct cost and a variable cost. However, a direct cost may be a fixed cost
rather than a variable cost. For example, the direct cost of the labour employed to do a certain
type of work is a fixed cost to the business if the employees are paid a fixed amount of wages or
salary regardless of the amount of work they do. Similarly, an indirect cost may a variable cost.
For example, the cost of heating in a manufacturing plant may rise as more hours are worked.
The cost of heating cannot be directly attributed to an individual job or unit of output. But, it is a
cost that rises with the level of activity, and is a variable cost. Variable indirect costs are more
commonly referred to as variable overheads.
2 Inventory valuation
Section overview
• The pricing of issues of inventory items and the valuation of closing inventory have a direct effect
on the calculation of profit. Several different methods can be used in practice.
• With FIFO all issues are priced at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in inventory.
• With LIFO all issues are priced at the cost of the most recent delivery remaining in inventory.
• The cumulative weighted average pricing method calculates a weighted average price for all units
in inventory whenever a new delivery of materials is received into store.
• The periodic weighted average pricing method calculates a single weighted average price at the
end of the period. The average is based on the opening inventory plus all units received in the
period.
• Each method of inventory valuation usually produces different figures for the value of closing
inventories and the cost of material issues. Therefore, profit figures using the different inventory
valuations are usually different.
2.1 Valuing inventory in financial accounts

You may be aware from your studies of Accounting that, for financial accounting purposes,
inventories are valued at the lower of cost and net realisable value. In practice, inventories will
probably be valued at cost in the store’s records throughout the course of an accounting period.
Only when the period ends will the value of the inventory in hand be reconsidered so that items with
a net realisable value below their original cost will be revalued downwards, and the inventory records
altered accordingly.
2.2 Charging units of inventory to cost of production or cost of sales

It is important to be able to distinguish between the way in which the physical items in inventory are
actually issued and the way in which inventory is costed. In practice a storekeeper may issue goods in
the following way.
• The oldest goods first
• The latest goods received first
• Randomly
• Those that are easiest to reach
By comparison, the cost of goods issued must be determined on a consistently applied basis, and
must ignore the likelihood that the materials issued will be costed at a price different from the
amount paid for them.

This may seem a little confusing at first, and it may be helpful to explain the point further by looking
at an example.
2.3 Example: Inventory valuation

Suppose that there are three units of a particular material in inventory.
Units Date received Purchase cost

A June 20X1 £100
B July 20X1 £106
C August 20X1 £109
In September, one unit is issued to production. As it happened, the physical unit actually issued was
B. The accounting department must put a value or cost on the material issued, but the value would
not be the cost of B, £106. The principles used to value the materials issued are not concerned with
the actual unit issued, A, B, or C. However, the accountant may choose to make one of the following
assumptions.
• The unit issued is valued as though it were the earliest unit received into inventory, ie, at the
purchase cost of A, £100. This valuation principle is called FIFO, or first in, first out.
• The unit issued is valued as though it were the most recent unit received into inventory, ie, at the
purchase cost of C, £109. This method of valuation is LIFO, or last in, first out.
• The unit issued is valued at an average price of A, B and C. The three units cost a total of £315, an
average of £105 each.
2.4 Pricing methods in inventory valuation

In the following sections we will consider each of the pricing methods detailed above, using the
following transactions to illustrate the principles in each case.
Transactions during May 20X6
Market value
per unit on
date of
Quantity Unit cost Total cost transaction
Units £ £ £
Opening balance, 1 May 100 2.00 200
Receipts, 3 May 400 2.10 840 2.11
Issues, 4 May 200 2.11
Receipts, 9 May 300 2.12 636 2.15
Issues, 11 May 400 2.20
Receipts, 18 May 100 2.40 240 2.40
Issues, 20 May 100 2.42
Closing balance, 31 May 200 2.45
1,916
2.5 FIFO (first in, first out)
Definition
FIFO (first in, first out): A method of pricing materials based on the cost of the oldest units held
regardless of the sequence in which the issue of the materials takes place.
FIFO assumes that materials are issued out of inventory in the order in which they were delivered into
inventory issues are priced at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in inventory.

Context example: FIFO
Using FIFO, the cost of issues and the closing inventory value of the transactions in section 2.4 would
be as follows.
Date of issue Quantity issued Value

Units £ £
4 May 200 100 b/f at £2 200
100 at £2.10 210
410
11 May 400 300 at £2.10 630
100 at £2.12 212
842
20 May 100 100 at £2.12 212
Cost of issues 1,464
Closing inventory 200 100 at £2.12 212
100 at £2.40 240
452
1,916
Using a tabular format, as below, is a practical way of tracking items when carrying out a FIFO
calculation:
£2.00 £2.10 £2.12 £2.40 Total

b/f 100 100
Receipt 3 May 400 400
Issue 4 May (100) (100) (200)
Issue 11 May (300) (100) (400)
Issue 20 May (100) (100)
– – 100 100 200
Notes
1 The cost of materials issued plus the value of closing inventory equals the cost of purchases plus
the value of opening inventory (£1,916).
2 The market price of purchased materials is rising dramatically. In a period of inflation, there is a
tendency with FIFO for materials to be issued at a cost lower than the current market value,
although closing inventories tend to be valued at a cost approximating to current market value.

2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of the FIFO method
Advantages Disadvantages
It is a logical pricing method, which probably FIFO can be cumbersome to operate because
represents what is physically happening: in of the need to identify each batch of material
practice the oldest inventory is likely to be used separately.
first.
It is easy to understand and explain to Managers may find it difficult to compare costs
managers. and make decisions when they are charged with
varying prices for the same materials.
The inventory valuation can be near to a In a period of high inflation, inventory issue
valuation based on replacement cost. prices will lag behind current market value.
Interactive question 2: FIFO

Complete the table below in as much detail as possible using the information from the last worked
example.
Receipts Inventory
Unit Unit
Amt Amt Unit
Date Qty price Qty price Qty Amt (£)
(£) (£) price (£)
(£) (£)

Receipts Inventory
Unit Unit
Amt Amt Unit
(£) (£) price (£)
(£) (£)
2.7 LIFO (last in, first out)
Definition
LIFO (last in, first out): A method of pricing materials based on the cost of the newest units held
LIFO assumes that materials are issued out of inventory in the reverse order from that in which they
were delivered.
Context example: LIFO

Using LIFO, the cost of issues and the closing inventory value of the transactions in the section above
called ‘Pricing methods in inventory valuation’ would be as follows.
Date of issue Quantity issued Valuation

Units £ £
4 May 200 200 at £2.10 420
11 May 400 300 at £2.12 636
100 at £2.10 210
846
20 May 100 100 at £2.40 240
Closing inventory 200 100 at £2.10 210
100 at £2.00 200
410
1,916
A tabular format similar to that in section 2.5 can also be used in section 2.7.
Notes
2 In a period of inflation there is a tendency with LIFO for the following to occur.
• Materials are issued at a price that approximates to current market value.

• Closing inventories become undervalued when compared to market value.
2.8 Advantages and disadvantages of the LIFO method
Inventories are issued at a price which is close to The method can be cumbersome to operate
current market value. because it sometimes results in several
batches being only part-used in the
inventory records before another batch is
received.
Managers are continually aware of recent costs LIFO is often the opposite of what is
when making decisions, because the costs being physically happening and can therefore be
charged to their department or products will be difficult to explain to managers.
current costs.
As with FIFO, decision making can be

difficult because of the variations in prices.
2.9 Cumulative weighted average pricing
Definition
Average cost: Defined by CIMA as a method ‘used to price issues of goods or materials at the
weighted average cost of all units held.’ (CIMA Official Terminology, 2005)
The cumulative weighted average pricing method calculates a weighted average price for all units in
inventory. Issues are priced at this average cost, and the balance of inventory remaining would have
the same unit valuation. The average price is determined by dividing the total cost by the total
number of units.
A new weighted average price is calculated whenever a new delivery of materials is received into
store. This is the key feature of cumulative weighted average pricing.
Context example: Cumulative weighted average pricing

Using cumulative weighted average pricing, issue costs and closing inventory values of the
transactions in section 2.4 would be as follows.
Total
Inventory
Received Issued Balance value Unit cost
Date
Units Units Units
Opening inventory 100 200 2.00
3 May 400 840 2.10
* 500 1,040 2.08
4 May 200 (416) 2.08 416
300 624 2.08
9 May 300 636 2.12
* 600 1,260 2.10
11 May 400 (840) 2.10 840
200 420 2.10

Total
Inventory
Received Issued Balance value Unit cost
Date
Units Units Units
18 May 100 240 2.40
* 300 660 2.20
20 May 100 (220) 2.20 220
Closing inventory value 200 440 2.20 440
1,916
* A new inventory value per unit is calculated whenever a new receipt of materials occurs.
Notes
2 In a period of inflation, using the cumulative weighted average pricing system, the value of
material issues will rise gradually, but will tend to lag a little behind the current market value at
the date of issue. Closing inventory values will also be a little below current market value.
2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of cumulative weighted average pricing
Fluctuations in prices are smoothed out, The resulting issue price is rarely an actual price
making it easier to use the data for decision that has been paid, and can run to several
making. decimal places.
It is easier to administer than FIFO and LIFO, Prices tend to lag a little behind current market
because there is no need to identify each values when there is gradual inflation.
batch separately.
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘appraise the effects of
alternative future scenarios’. For example, a question might ask about the differences between FIFO,
LIFO and cumulative weighted average pricing.
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘interpret information
provided in various formats’. This could include tables such as the one in the next activity.
Interactive question 3: Inventory valuation methods

Shown below is an extract from records for inventory item number 988988.

Receipts Issues Balance
Date Qty Value Total Qty Value Total Qty Value Total
£ £ £
5 June 30 2.50 75
8 June 20 3.00 60
10 June 10 A
14 June 20 B
18 June 40 2.40 96
20 June 6 C D
Requirements
The values that would be entered on the stores record for A, B, C and D in a cumulative weighted
average pricing system would be:
A=£
B=£
C=£
D=£
The values that would be entered on the stores record for A, B, C and D in a LIFO system would be:
A=£
B=£
C=£
D=£
2.11 Periodic weighted average pricing

This average method differs from the cumulative weighted average method. Instead of calculating a
new inventory value per unit whenever a receipt occurs, a single average is calculated at the end of
the period based on all purchases for the period. Unless stated to the contrary, assume the
cumulative method is required in an exam question.
Context example: Periodic weighted average pricing

Using periodic weighted average pricing, the issue costs and closing inventory of the transactions in
section 2.4 would be as follows.
Periodic weighted average price = (Cost of opening inventory + Total costs of receipts in
period)/(Units in opening inventory + Total units received in period)
= (£200 + £1,716)/(100 + 800)
= £2.129 per unit
This average price is used to value all the units issued and the units in the closing inventory.
£
Cost of issues = 700 units × £2.129 1,490
Closing inventory value = 200 units × £2.129

£
426
1,916
Notice that once again the cost of materials issued plus the value of closing inventory equals the cost
of purchases plus the value of opening inventory (£1,916).
2.12 Inventory valuation and profitability
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘identify a range of possible
solutions based on analysis’. Different methods of inventory valuation will provide different profit
figures.
Each method of inventory valuation usually produces different figures for the value of closing
inventories and the cost of material issues. A summary of the valuations based on the transactions in
section 2.4 is as follows.
Closing
inventory Cost of
Valuation method value issues Total
£ £ £
FIFO (section 2.5) 452 1,464 1,916
LIFO (section 2.7) 410 1,506 1,916
Cumulative weighted average (section 2.9) 440 1,476 1,916
Periodic weighted average (section 2.11) 426 1,490 1,916
Since material costs affect the cost of production, and the cost of production works through
eventually into the cost of sales (which is also affected by the value of closing inventories), it follows
that different methods of inventory valuation will provide different profit figures.
The following example will help to illustrate the point.
Worked example: Inventory valuation and profitability

On 1 November 20X2, Delilah’s Dresses Ltd held three pink satin dresses with orange sashes,
designed by Freda Swoggs. These were valued at £120 each. During November 20X2, 12 more of
the dresses were delivered as follows.
Date Dresses received Purchase cost per dress

10 November 4 £125
20 November 4 £140
25 November 4 £150
A number of the pink satin dresses with orange sashes were sold during November as follows.
Date Dresses sold Sales price per dress

14 November 5 £200
21 November 5 £200
28 November 1 £200

Requirements
1 Calculate the gross profit from selling the pink satin dresses with orange sashes in November
20X2, applying the following principles of inventory valuation.
(a) FIFO
(b) LIFO
(c) Cumulative weighted average pricing
2 Calculate gross profit using the formula: gross profit = (sales – (opening inventory + purchases –
closing inventory)).
Solution
1 The answers are as follows.
(a)
Closing
Date Cost of sales Total inventory
£ £
14 November 3 units × £120
+ 2 units × £125
610
+ 3 units × £140
670
28 November 1 unit × £140 140
Closing inventory 4 units × £150 600

1,420 600
(b)
Closing
Date Cost of sales Total inventory
£ £
+ 1 unit × £120
620
+ 1 unit × £120
680
28 November 1 unit × £150 150
Closing inventory 3 units × £150
+ 1 unit × £120
570
1,450 570

(c)
Balance in Cost of Closing

Unit cost inventory sales inventory
Units £ £ £ £
1 November 3 120.00 360
10 November 4 125.00 500
7 122.86 860
14 November 5 122.86 614 614
2 246
20 November 4 140.00 560
6 134.33 806
21 November 5 134.33 672 672
1 134
25 November 4 150.00 600
5 146.80 734
28 November 1 146.80 147 147
30 November 4 146.80 587 1,433 587
Weighted
Profitability FIFO LIFO average
£ £ £
Opening inventory 360 360 360
Purchases 1,660 1,660 1,660
2,020 2,020 2,020
Closing inventory 600 570 587
Cost of sales 1,420 1,450 1,433
Sales (11 × £200) 2,200 2,200 2,200
Gross profit 780 750 767
2.13 Profit differences

In this example, different inventory valuation methods produced different costs of sale and hence
different gross profits. As opening inventory values and purchase costs are the same for each
method, the different costs of sale are due to different closing inventory valuations. The differences in
gross profits therefore equal the differences in closing inventory valuations.
The profit differences are only temporary. In the example, the opening inventory in December 20X2
will be £600, £570 or £587, depending on the inventory valuation method used. Different opening
inventory values will affect the cost of sales and profits in December, so that in the long run,
inequalities in costs of sales each month will even themselves out.

One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify and prioritise key
issues and stay on task’. For questions on inventory valuation, stay on task by reading the questions
carefully to establish whether the closing inventory, cost of issues or profit are required.

Summary
Calculating unit costs
Direct costs Indirect costs

Can be traced in full to cost Cannot be traced in full to
unit being costed cost object being costed
Direct material cost Direct labour cost Direct expenses

All material becoming part Wages that can be identified Non-material and labour cost
of the cost unit with a specific cost unit that can be identified with a
specific cost unit
FIFO LIFO Weighted average

Issues priced at oldest prices Issues priced at latest prices Issues priced at a calculated
in inventory in inventory weighted average
Cumulative weighted average Periodic weighted average

New average calculated whenever Single average calculated at
a delivery is received end of each period

indicated.
1. Would materials used in negligible amounts be classed as direct or indirect materials?

(Topic 1)
2. Can you give an example of a direct labour cost? (Topic 1)
3. Can you give an example of a direct expense? (Topic 1)
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the FIFO, LIFO and cumulative weighted
average pricing methods? (Topic 2)
5. Under the cumulative weighted average pricing method, when is a new weighted average
price calculated? (Topic 2)

questions in the Calculating unit costs (Part 1) chapter of the Management Information Question
Bank. Refer back to the learning in this chapter for any questions which you did not answer correctly
or where the suggested solution has not provided sufficient explanation to answer all your queries.

Self-test questions

1 Which two of the following are cost objects?
A A packing machine
B The factory canteen
C Direct materials for production
D Annual salary of the chief accountant
E A telephone bill
2 Which two of the following are classified as indirect costs of individual units of output or of individual
projects?
A The cost of overtime worked specifically to complete a one-off project
B The depreciation of a machine on an assembly line
C Primary packing materials, eg, cartons and boxes
D The hire of maintenance tools or equipment for a factory
3 Which one of the following would be classified as an indirect cost of individual batches of output,
units of service or of individual projects of the organisation concerned?
A The cost of sugar used for a batch of cakes in a bakery
B The lease rental cost of a leased car used by a site foreman travelling to a specific construction
project
C The accountant’s salary in a factory
D The cost of drinks served on an intercity train journey
4 When costing cost units, wage payments for idle time within a production department are classified
as:
A Direct labour cost
B Prime cost
C Administration overhead
D Factory overhead
5 A retailer currently uses the LIFO method to value its inventory of goods for sale.
Requirement
If the retailer decides instead to use the FIFO method, in a period of rising prices:
A The closing inventory value will be lower and the gross profit will be lower
B The closing inventory value will be lower and the gross profit will be higher
C The closing inventory value will be higher and the gross profit will be lower
D The closing inventory value will be higher and the gross profit will be higher
6 A wholesaler had an opening inventory of 750 units of geronimos valued at £80 each on 1 March.
The following receipts and sales were recorded during March.
4 March Received 180 units at a cost of £85 per unit

18 March Received 90 units at a cost of £90 per unit
24 March Sold 852 units at a price of £110 per unit

Requirement
Using the weighted average cost method of valuation, what was the cost of geronimos sold on 24
March? (To the nearest £.)
A £35,320
B £38,016
C £38,448
D £69,660
7 At the beginning of Week 10 there were 400 units of component X held in the stores. 160 of these
components had been purchased for £5.55 each in Week 9 and 240 had been purchased for £5.91
each in Week 8.
On day 3 of Week 10 a further 120 components were received into stores at a purchase cost of £5.96
each.
The only issue of component X occurred on day 4 of Week 10, when 150 units were issued to
production.
Requirement
Using the FIFO valuation method, what was the value of the closing inventory of component X at the
end of Week 10?
A £1,980.45
B £2,070.15
C £2,135.10
D £2,200.55
8 A wholesaler had an opening inventory of 330 units of product T valued at £168 each on 1 April.
The following receipts and sales were recorded during April.
4 April Received 180 units at a cost of £174 per unit

18 April Received 90 units at a cost of £186 per unit
24 April Sold 432 units at a price of £220 per unit
Requirement
Using the LIFO valuation method, what was the gross profit earned from the units sold on 24 April?
A £16,350
B £18,120
C £18,520
D £19,764
9 Are the following statements true or false?
True or false?
Using LIFO, managers are continually aware of recent costs when

making decisions, because the costs being charged to their
departments or products will be current costs.
FIFO lets managers value issues at current prices in a period of high

inflation.
The use of the cumulative average pricing method of inventory

valuation is easier to administer than FIFO and LIFO because there
is no need to identify each batch separately.
10 A business buys and sells boxes of item J. The transactions for the latest quarter are shown below.

Opening inventory 400 boxes valued at £1,000
Purchases Sales
Boxes Value Boxes
£
July 1,000 2,600 1,100
August 1,200 3,300 900
September 1,000 3,000 800
The business values its inventories using a periodic weighted average price calculated at the end of
each quarter.
Requirement
Complete the sentence.
To the nearest £, the value of the inventory at the end of September is £ .
this chapter.

Cost incurred Direct or indirect?
The salary of the garage’s accountant Indirect
The cost of heating the garage Indirect
A can of engine oil used in the repair Direct
A smear of grease used in the repair Indirect
An overtime premium paid to the mechanic Indirect

carrying out the repair
An idle time payment made to the mechanic Indirect

while waiting for a delivery of parts for a
number of jobs
The wages of the supervisor overseeing the Indirect

mechanic carrying out the repair
The accountant’s salary and the heating are both overheads, which means they are indirect costs.
The can of engine oil cost can be directly attributed to this particular repair.
The smear of grease is negligible and would not be recorded separately as a direct cost.
The overtime was worked due to a generally heavy workload. This particular repair had not caused
the overtime premium to be incurred. The cost is indirect and must be shared over all the repair jobs
carried out.
The idle time payment cannot be identified with any particular repair job. Similarly, the supervisor is
overseeing all repair jobs being undertaken, so their wages are an indirect cost for this particular job.
Receipts Inventory
Unit Unit
Amt Amt Unit
(£) (£) price (£)
(£) (£)
1.5.X6 100 2.00 200.00
3.5.X6 400 2.10 840.00 100 2.00 200.00
400 2.10 840.00
500 1,040.00
4.5.X6 100 2.00 200.00

Receipts Inventory
Unit Unit
Amt Amt Unit
(£) (£) price (£)
(£) (£)
100 2.10 210.00 300 2.10 630.00
9.5.X6 300 2.12 636.00 300 2.10 630.00
300 2.12 636.00
600 1,266.00
11.5.X6 300 2.10 630.00
100 2.12 212.00 200 2.12 424.00
18.5.X6 100 2.40 240.00 200 2.12 424.00
100 2.40 240.00
300 664.00
20.5.X6 100 2.12 212.00 100 2.12 212.00
100 2.40 240.00
31.5.X6 200 452.00

A = £ 27
B = £ 54
C = £ 15
D = £ 135
WORKING
Cumulative weighted average price working
£
8 June Inventory balance = 30 units × £2.50 75
20 units × £3.00 60
50 135
Weighted average price = 135/50
= 2.70
10 June Issues = 10 units × £2.70 £27

£
18 June Inventory balance = remaining 20 units × £2.70 54
receipts 40 units × £2.40 96
60 150
Weighted average price = 150/60
= 2.50
Inventory balance = 54 units × £2.50 135
A = £ 30
B = £ 55
C = £ 14.40
D = £ 131.60
WORKING
LIFO working
£
10 June 10 units × £3.00 30.00
4 June Issues 10 units × £3.00 = 30.00
10 units × £2.50 = 25.00
55.00
20 June Issues: 6 units × £2.40 = 14.40
Balance: 34 units × £2.40 81.60
20 units × £2.50 50.00
54 131.60

A A packing machine
B The factory canteen
It is possible to ascertain the cost of these first two cost objects.
The other three items are costs that might be attributed to a particular cost object, but they are not
cost objects in themselves.
B The depreciation of a machine on an assembly line
D The hire of maintenance tools or equipment for a factory
The cost of overtime worked specifically to complete a one-off project (Option A) is direct labour.
Primary packing materials, eg, cartons and boxes, (Option C) are direct materials.
C The accountant’s salary in a factory
The accountant’s salary is an indirect cost because it cannot be traced to a specific cost unit. It would
be classified as an administration overhead.
All of the other costs can be traced to a specific cost unit: the cost of sugar would be a direct
ingredients’ cost of a specific batch of cakes; the lease rental cost would be a direct cost of a
construction project and the cost of drinks served would be a direct cost of a particular train journey.
D Factory overhead
Idle time is usually treated as an overhead; in this case it is within the production department and is
therefore a factory overhead.
D The closing inventory value will be higher and the gross profit will be higher
The FIFO method prices issues from inventory at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in
inventory.
The closing inventory will therefore be valued at the higher prices paid.
The charge to cost of sales will be lower than with LIFO, therefore the gross profit will be higher.
D £69,660
Weighted average cost per unit:

£
750 units × £80 60,000
180 units × £85 15,300
90 units × £90 8,100
1,020 83,400

Weighted average cost per unit = £83,400/1,020
= £81.76
Cost of units sold on 24 March = £81.76 × 852 units
= £69,660
C £2,135.10
Components issued on Day 4 = 150 from Week 8 receipts
Closing inventory Week 10:
£
Remaining 90 Components from week 8 × £5.91 531.90
160 Components from week 9 × £5.55 888.00
120 Components from week 10 × £5.96 715.20
370 2,135.10
D £19,764
The LIFO method uses the cost of the most recent batches first.
Cost of units sold on 24 April:

£
90 units × £186 16,740
180 units × £174 31,320
162 units × £168 27,216
432 75,276
Sales revenue = 432 units × £220 95,040

Less cost of units sold 75,276
Gross profit 19,764
True or false?
Using LIFO, managers are continually aware of recent costs when True
making decisions, because the costs being charged to their
departments or products will be current costs.
FIFO lets managers value issues at current prices in a period of high False
inflation.
The use of the cumulative average pricing method of inventory True

valuation is easier to administer than FIFO and LIFO because there
is no need to identify each batch separately.
FIFO lets managers value issues at current prices in a period of high inflation is incorrect. Under
FIFO, inventory issues are valued at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in inventory. In times of
inflation, this will mean that issue prices will be lower than current prices.

10 To the nearest £, the value of the inventory at the end of September is £ 2,200 .
Total inventory available during quarter:
Boxes Value
£
Opening inventory 400 1,000
Purchases: July 1,000 2,600
August 1,200 3,300
September 1,000 3,000
3,600 9,900
Periodic weighted average price = £9,900/3,600

= £2.75 per box
Closing inventory = 3,600 – (1,100 + 900 + 800)
= 800 boxes
Value of closing inventory = 800 × £2.75
= £2,200

Chapter 3
Calculating unit costs (Part

2)
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Learning topics
1 Absorption costing
2 Activity-based costing
3 Costing methods
4 Other approaches to cost management
Summary
Self-test questions
Introduction
Learning outcomes
using:
– marginal costing
• Select the most appropriate method of costing for a given product or service
The specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 1c and d.
3
Syllabus links
A knowledge of the method of determining a full unit cost will underpin your understanding of
inventory valuation for the Accounting syllabus.
3
Examination context
Numerical questions on the calculation of overhead absorption rates and of over- and under-
absorption of overheads have been popular in past exams.
You should also be prepared to tackle narrative questions on overhead absorption as well as on the
selection of the most appropriate costing method in specific circumstances.
You will not be required to answer numerical questions about activity-based costing but you should
be able to demonstrate a general understanding of the underlying principles of this costing system.
• calculate the full cost of a cost unit using absorption costing
• demonstrate an understanding of the basic principles of activity-based costing
• identify the most appropriate costing method in specific circumstances
• demonstrate an understanding of the general principles of target costing, life cycle costing and
just in time
It is essential to appreciate the difference between the allocation and apportionment of overheads,
which links back to the ideas about direct and indirect cost covered earlier.
A common difficulty is failing to allow for under/over absorption when predetermined overhead
rates are used.
3

of this chapter.

questions
1 Absorption costing Approach Numerical IQ1: Bases of

We have seen that it is Chapter 3 contains questions on the apportionment
possible to attribute a lot of very calculation of both You need to be
direct costs to important material. overhead able to recognise
individual cost units. Read quickly absorption rates appropriate bases
However, for certain through sections and over and under of apportionment
management 1.1 and 1.2. In absorption of to be able to
decisions, for example, section 1.3 skim overheads have answer longer
when determining through interactive been popular in calculation
selling prices or question 1 and then past exams. questions.

questions
valuing finished goods give the worked You should also be IQ3:
inventory, example extra prepared to tackle Apportioning
management might attention. Check narrative questions overheads
need to know the full that you on overhead This question
cost of the item, understand the absorption as well provides good
including a share of derivation of all of as on the selection practice at
the indirect costs or the figures in the of the most apportioning
overheads. final table. Think appropriate costing overheads.
Accordingly, a method about the method in specific
apportionment of circumstances. IQ6: Overhead
has to be devised for absorption rates
sharing the indirect service cost centre
costs: why it is and IQ8 Under
costs between all the and over
units that benefit from necessary and how
it is done. Work absorption of
them. overheads
carefully through
the interactive The knowledge
questions and required for these
examples. questions is very
Section 1.4 is of important.
vital importance.
The techniques and
principles that you
learn here will arise
a number of times
throughout this
syllabus so you
must get a firm
grasp of them
before you
continue. Work
carefully through
the example and
interactive
question.
Read quickly
through section 1.5
and then give
section 1.6 extra
attention. Students
often find the
calculation of under
and over
absorption difficult
so spend the time
necessary to gain a
good
understanding of
this topic.
Stop and think

It’s sometimes easy
to get caught up in
the calculations and
forget the purpose
of absorption

questions
costing. What is the

point of
implementing
absorption costing?
2 Activity-based costing Read section 2 You will not be

Activity-based costing quickly and ensure required to answer
is a form of absorption that you know the numerical
costing that can difference between questions about
provide more accurate activity-based activity-based
information for costing (ABC) and costing but you
management, but it is traditional should be able to
more expensive and absorption costing. demonstrate a
time consuming to Learn what is meant general
implement. by a cost driver and understanding of
a cost pool. Skim the underlying
through the worked principles of this
example to costing system.
reinforce your
understanding of
the difference
between the two
methods and the
overhead costs that
might be derived
from each.
Stop and think

Is there a difference
in total overhead
costs depending on
whether absorption
or activity based
costing is used?
3 Costing methods Read quickly Objective test IQ9: Costing

The costing method through section 3 questions may methods
used to determine an and make notes require you to pick This question tests
organisation’s unit about the different out correct your
costs will ultimately costing methods definitions or understanding of
depend on the nature and when each is statements from a the applicability
of the organisation’s most appropriate. number of of process, job,
operations. Try interactive statements contract and
question 9 to supplied in a batch costing.
ensure you have question, or you
understood the may have to
principles covered. identify an
appropriate costing
method from a
Stop and think number of
Why will the costing suggestions for a
method used by a particular
company that organisation.
builds motorway
bridges be different
from the costing

questions
method used by a
company that
manufactures
canned soup? What
aspects of their
operations mean
that a different
costing method will
be required?
4 Other approaches to Read quickly Objective test

cost management through section 4, questions may
Life cycle costing, paying particular require you to pick
target costing and just- attention to the out correct
in-time (JIT). diagrams which are definitions or
a good way of statements from a
fixing the principles number of
in your mind. statements
supplied in a
question. For
Stop and think example, you could
In the real world, be asked about
environmental how target costing,
concerns mean that life cycle costing or
life cycle costing is JIT operate.
becoming more
useful.

Section overview
• In absorption costing the full cost of a cost unit is equal to its prime cost plus an absorbed share
of overhead cost.
• The three stages in determining the share of overhead to be attributed to a cost unit are
allocation, apportionment and absorption.
• Overheads are absorbed into product or service costs using a predetermined overhead
absorption rate, usually set annually in the budget.
• The absorption rate is calculated by dividing the budgeted overhead by the budgeted level of
activity. For production overheads, the level of activity is often measured in terms of direct labour
hours or machine hours.
• Over- or under-absorption of overhead arises because the absorption rate is based on estimates.
1.1 Calculating the absorption cost of a cost unit
Definition
Absorption costing: The direct (or prime) cost of an item plus a fair share of the indirect (overhead)
costs.
To calculate the full cost of an item using absorption costing (sometimes referred to as full costing) it
is necessary first to establish its direct cost or prime cost and then to add a fair share of indirect costs
or overhead.
The full or absorption cost per unit is therefore made up as follows.
£
Direct materials X
Direct labour X
Direct expenses (if any) X
Total direct cost (prime cost) X
Share of indirect cost/overhead X
Absorption (full) cost X
There are three stages in determining the share of overhead to be attributed to a cost unit.
• Overhead allocation
• Overhead apportionment
• Overhead absorption
1.2 Overhead allocation
Definition
Allocation: The process by which overheads are charged directly to cost centres.
The first step in absorption costing is allocation. Allocation is the process by which whole cost items
are charged direct to a cost centre. A cost centre acts as a collecting place for costs before they are
analysed further.
Cost centres may be one of the following types.

• A production department, to which production overheads are charged.
• A production service department, to which production overheads are charged.
• An administrative department, to which administration overheads are charged.
• A selling or a distribution department, to which sales and distribution overheads are charged.
• An overhead cost centre, to which items of expense which are shared by a number of
departments, such as rent and rates, heat and light and the canteen, are charged.
The following are examples of costs that would be charged direct to cost centres via the process of
allocation.
• The cost of a warehouse security guard will be charged to the warehouse cost centre.
• Paper on which computer output is recorded will be charged to the computer department.
Context example: Overhead allocation

Consider the following costs of a company.
£
Wages of the supervisor of department A 200
Wages of the supervisor of department B 150
Indirect materials consumed in department A 50
Rent of the premises shared by departments A and B 300
Cost centre 101 Department A

102 Department B
201 Rent
Overhead costs would be allocated directly to each cost centre, ie, £200 + £50 to cost centre 101,
£150 to cost centre 102 and £300 to cost centre 201. The rent of the factory will be subsequently
shared between the two production departments, but for the purpose of day to day cost recording in
this particular system, the rent will first of all be charged in full to a separate cost centre.
1.3 Overhead apportionment
Definition
Apportionment: A process where indirect (overhead) costs are spread fairly between cost centres.
The next step in absorption costing is overhead apportionment. This involves apportioning general
overheads to cost centres (the first stage) and then reapportioning the costs of service cost centres to
production departments (the second stage).
1.3.1 First stage: apportioning general overheads

Overhead apportionment follows on from overhead allocation. The first stage of overhead
apportionment is to identify all overhead costs as production department, production service
department, administration or selling and distribution overhead. This means that the costs for heat
and light, rent and rates, the canteen and so on (that is, costs which have been allocated to general
overhead cost centres) must be shared out between the other cost centres.
Overhead costs should be shared out on a fair basis. You will appreciate that because of the
complexity of items of cost it is rarely possible to use only one method of apportioning costs to the
various cost centres of an organisation. The bases of apportionment for the most usual cases are
given below.

Overhead to which the basis applies Basis
Rent, rates, heating and light, repairs and Floor area occupied by each cost centre
depreciation of buildings
Depreciation, insurance of equipment Cost or book value of equipment
Personnel office, canteen, welfare, wages and Number of employees, or labour hours worked
cost offices, first aid in each cost centre
Heating, lighting (see above) Volume of space occupied by each cost centre
Interactive question 1: Bases of apportionment

The following bases of apportionment are used by a factory.
A Volume of cost centre
B Value of machinery in cost centre
C Number of employees in cost centre
D Floor area of cost centre
Requirement
Complete the table below using one of A to D to show the bases on which the production overheads
listed in the table should be apportioned.
Production overheads Basis
Rent
Heating costs
Insurance of machinery
Cleaning costs
Canteen costs
Context example: Overhead apportionment

McQueen Co has incurred the following overhead costs.
£’000
Depreciation of factory 100
Factory repairs and maintenance 60
Factory office costs (treat as production overhead) 150
Depreciation of equipment 80
Insurance of equipment 20
Heating 39
Lighting 10

£’000
Canteen 90
549
Information relating to the production and service departments in the factory is as follows.
Department
Production 1 Production 2 Service 100 Service 101
Floor space (square
metres) 1,200 1,600 800 400
Volume (cubic metres) 3,000 6,000 2,400 1,600
Number of employees 30 30 15 15
Book value of
equipment £30,000 £20,000 £10,000 £20,000
The overhead costs are apportioned using the following general formula.
(Total overhead cost/Total value of apportionment base) × Value of apportionment base of cost
centre
For example, heating for department 1 =
(£39,000/13,000) × 3,000 = £9,000
To department
Basis of
Item of cost apportionment Total cost 1 2 100 101
£ £ £ £ £
Factory
depreciation (floor area) 100 30.0 40 20.0 10.0
Factory repairs (floor area) 60 18.0 24 12.0 6.0
Factory office (number of
costs employees) 150 50.0 50 25.0 25.0
Equipment
depreciation (book value) 80 30.0 20 10.0 20.0
Equipment
insurance (book value) 20 7.5 5 2.5 5.0
Heating (volume) 39 9.0 18 7.2 4.8
Lighting (floor area) 10 3.0 4 2.0 1.0
(number of
Canteen employees) 90 30.0 30 15.0 15.0
Total 549 177.5 191 93.7 86.8
Interactive question 2: Allocating and apportioning overheads

Rose Ceramics Ltd rents office premises and owns a factory and a warehouse. There are four cost
centres in the factory, the offices are the fifth cost centre, and the warehouse forms a sixth.
On 25 January, several invoices were received for overheads.

Requirement
For each of these, decide:
• whether the cost would be allocated or apportioned
• the cost centre(s) to be charged
• a suitable basis, if apportionment is required
Overhead (a) Allocate or (b) Cost centre(s) (c) Basis of

apportion? charged? apportionment?
Factory light and heat
Rent
Factory rates
Office stationery
Cleaning of workers’ overalls
Roof repair to warehouse
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams covers structuring problems and solutions.
In the context of the MI exam, this means following the format of the questions such as the one
below.
Interactive question 3: Apportioning overheads

Pippin Co has three production departments (forming, machining and assembly) and two service
departments (maintenance and general).
The following is an analysis of budgeted overhead costs for the forthcoming 12-month period.
£ £
Rent and rates 8,000
Power 750
Light, heat 5,000
Repairs, maintenance:
Forming 800
Machining 1,800
Assembly 300
Maintenance 200
General 100
3,200
Departmental expenses:
Forming 1,500

£ £
Machining 2,300
Assembly 1,100
Maintenance 900
General 1,500
7,300
Depreciation:
Plant 10,000
Fixtures and fittings (F&F) 250
Insurance:
Plant 2,000
Buildings 500
Indirect labour:
Forming 3,000
Machining 5,000
Assembly 1,500
Maintenance 4,000
General 2,000
15,500
52,500
These overheads are to be allocated and apportioned as fairly as possible to the five departments
using the following information:
Floor area Plant value F&F Effective horsepower

2
m £ £
Forming 2,000 25,000 1,000 40
Machining 4,000 60,000 500 90
Assembly 3,000 7,500 2,000 15
Maintenance 500 7,500 1,000 5
General 500 – 500 –
10,000 100,000 5,000 150
Requirement
Allocate and apportion the budgeted overheads to the five departments.
Forming Machining Assembly Maint’nce General

£ £ £ £ £
Rent, rates
Power
Light, heat
Repairs, maintenance

Forming Machining Assembly Maint’nce General
£ £ £ £ £
Departmental expenses
Dep’n of plant
Dep’n of F&F
Insurance of plant
Insurance of buildings
Indirect labour
1.3.2 Second stage: service cost centre cost apportionment

The second stage of overhead apportionment concerns the treatment of service cost centres. For
example, a factory is divided into several production departments and also a number of service
departments, but only the production departments are directly involved in the manufacture of the
units. In order to be able to add production overheads to unit costs, it is necessary to have all the
overheads charged to (or located in) the production departments. The next stage in absorption
costing is, therefore, to apportion the costs of service cost centres to the production cost centres.
Examples of possible apportionment bases are as follows.
Service cost centre Examples of possible bases of apportionment
Stores Number of materials requisitions
Maintenance Hours of maintenance work done for each cost centre
Production planning Direct labour hours worked in each production cost centre
Interactive question 4: Production and service cost centres

Which of the following are production cost centres and which are service cost centres?
Cost centre Production cost centre? Service cost centre?
Finished goods warehouse
Canteen
Machining department
Offices
Assembly department
Worked example: Service centre cost apportionment

JPE Ltd is divided into five departments that are also cost centres. These are departments A, B and C
(through which cost units physically pass), an administrative department and a canteen.
Some details of the business are as follows:

A B C Canteen Admin
Floor area (sq metres) 5,000 5,000 4,000 4,000 2,000
Personnel (persons) 10 20 10 10 5
Remuneration per month:
Direct (£) 1,920 3,600 2,240 – –
Indirect (£) 360 480 240 320 870
Direct materials consumed (£) 5,500 250 400 – –
Machine hours per month 600 2,400 200 – –
Power costs per month (£) 50 500 20 80 –
General overheads per month (£) 1,000 2,000 1,200 650 1,230
The monthly takings of the canteen are £600. Food bills for the canteen totalled £470. None of the
administrative staff use the canteen.
The monthly electricity charge for heat and light is £1,000. The monthly rent of the company’s
premises is £6,000.
The administration costs are made up mainly of personnel-related costs.
Requirement
Apportion all overheads to the production cost centres.
Solution
Step 1: Primary allocation and apportionment
Where possible, costs should be allocated directly to each cost centre. Where costs are shared, a fair
basis of apportionment should be selected. Remember that the analysis is concerned only with
overheads. Direct material and direct wages costs are not included.
Basis of
Cost item apportionment A B C Canteen Admin
£ £ £ £ £
Indirect labour Allocation 360 480 240 320 870
Power Allocation 50 500 20 80 0
General overhead Allocation 1,000 2,000 1,200 650 1,230
Canteen takings Allocation (600)
Food Allocation 470
Rent Floor area 1,500 1,500 1,200 1,200 600
Electricity Floor area 250 250 200 200 100
3,160 4,730 2,860 2,320 2,800
Note: The apportionment of rental costs and electricity costs have been made on the basis of floor
area, because this seems ‘fair’. The choice of the fairest basis, however, in practice, is a matter for
judgement.
Step 2: Re-apportion the service centre costs
The next step is to apportion the costs of the service cost centres to the production cost centres. The
method illustrated here is as follows.
• The first apportionment is for the service cost centre with the largest costs. These costs are shared
between all the other cost centres, including the other service cost centre, on a fair basis.

• The costs of the second service cost centre, which will now include some of the first service cost
centre’s costs, are apportioned between the production cost centres, on a fair basis. This is
illustrated below.
Basis of
Cost item apportionment A B C Canteen Admin
£ £ £ £ £
Costs allocated
and
apportioned 3,160 4,730 2,860 2,320 2,800
Number of employees
Apportion admin excluding admin 560 1,120 560 560 (2,800)
3,720 5,850 3,420 2,880 0

Number of employees
Apportion canteen in A, B and C 720 1,440 720 (2,880) –
4,440 7,290 4,140 0 0
Notes
1 The costs of the administration department were taken first because these are the largest service
centre costs. The basis of apportionment selected is number of employees, since administration
costs are largely personnel-related.
2 The costs of the canteen have also been apportioned on the basis of number of employees,
because canteen work is primarily employee-related.
3 Service centre costs must ultimately be apportioned to the production cost centres; otherwise
there will be no mechanism for absorbing the costs into the cost of output units.
WORKINGS
(1) Apportionment of administration department costs
£2,800
= £56.00 per employee
(10 + 20 + 10 + 10)
The apportionment of costs is therefore (10 × £56) = £560 to Department A, (20 × £56) = £1,120
to Department B, (10 × £56) = £560 to Department C, and (10 × £56) = £560 to the canteen.
(2) Apportionment of canteen costs
£2,880
= £72.00 per employee
10 + 20 + 10
The apportionment of costs is therefore (10 × £72) = £720 to Department A, (20 × £72) = £1,440
to Department B, and (10 × £72) = £720 to Department C.
Interactive question 5: Reapportioning overheads

Shah Co has two production departments (machining and assembly) and two service departments
(maintenance and canteen). The accountant has already completed the initial allocation and
apportionment of budgeted overheads to the four departments and now wishes to reapportion the
service department overheads to the production departments. She has provided the following
information.
Machining Assembly Maintenance Canteen

Total overhead (£) 520,000 600,000 200,000 70,000
Number of employees 50 40 30 15

Maintenance works 40% of the time for Machining, 10% for Canteen and 50% for Assembly.
Requirement
Reapportion the service department overheads to the production departments, rounding to the
nearest £.

£ £ £ £
Total overhead 520,000 600,000 200,000 70,000
First reapportionment
Revised total overheads
Second reapportionment
Revised total overheads
1.4 Overhead absorption
Definition
Overhead absorption: The process whereby overhead costs allocated and apportioned to
production cost centres (in traditional costing systems) or cost pools (in activity-based costing
systems) are added to direct unit, job or batch costs. Overhead absorption is sometimes called
overhead recovery.
Having allocated and/or apportioned all overheads, the next stage in absorption costing is to add
them to, or absorb them into, the cost of production or sales.
• Production overheads are added to the prime cost (direct materials, labour and expenses), the
total of the two being the factory cost, or full cost of production. Production overheads are
therefore included in the value of inventories of finished goods.
• Administration, selling and distribution overheads are then included. The aggregate of the
factory cost and these non-production overheads is the total cost of sales. These nonproduction
overheads are therefore not included in the value of closing inventory.
1.4.1 Predetermined absorption rates

In absorption costing, it is usual to add overheads into product costs by applying a predetermined
overhead absorption rate. The predetermined rate is usually set annually in advance, as part of the
budgetary planning process.
Overheads are not absorbed on the basis of the actual overheads incurred but on the basis of
estimated or budgeted figures (calculated before the beginning of the period). There are several
reasons why the rate at which overheads are included in production costs (the absorption rate) is
determined before the accounting period begins.
• Goods are produced and sold throughout the year, but many actual overheads are not known
until the end of the year. It would be inconvenient to wait until the year end in order to decide
what overhead costs should be included in production costs.

• An attempt to calculate overhead costs more regularly (such as each month) is possible, although
estimated costs must be added for periodic expenditure such as rent and rates (usually incurred
quarterly). The difficulty with this approach would be that actual overheads from month to month
could fluctuate therefore overhead costs charged to production would be inconsistent. For
example, a unit made in one week might be charged with £4 of overhead, in a subsequent week
with £5, and in a third week with £4.50. Only units made in winter would be charged with the
heating overhead. Such charges are considered misleading for costing purposes and
administratively inconvenient.
• Similarly, production output might vary each month. For example, actual overhead costs might be
£20,000 per month and output might vary from, say, 1,000 units to 20,000 units per month. The
unit rate for overhead would be £20 and £1 per unit respectively, which would again lead to
administration and control problems.
1.4.2 Calculating predetermined overhead absorption rates

The absorption rate is calculated by dividing the budgeted overhead by the budgeted level of
activity. For production overheads the level of activity is often budgeted direct labour hours or
budgeted machine hours.
Overhead absorption rates are therefore predetermined as follows.
• The overhead likely to be incurred during the coming period is estimated.
• The total hours, units, or direct costs on which the overhead absorption rates are to be based (the
activity level) are estimated.
• The estimated overhead is divided by the budgeted activity level to arrive at an absorption rate
for the forthcoming period.
1.4.3 Selecting the appropriate absorption base

Management should try to establish an absorption rate that provides a reasonably ‘accurate’
estimate of overhead costs for jobs, products or services.
There are a number of different bases of absorption (or ‘overhead recovery rates‘) that can be used.
Examples are as follows.
• A rate per machine hour
• A rate per direct labour hour
• A rate per unit
• A percentage of direct materials cost
• A percentage of direct labour cost
• A percentage of prime cost
The choice of an absorption basis is a matter of judgement and common sense. There are no strict
rules or formulae involved, although factors that should be taken into account are set out below.
What is required is an absorption basis that realistically reflects the characteristics of a given cost
centre and avoids undue anomalies, for example:
• A direct labour hour basis is most appropriate in a labour-intensive environment.
• A machine hour rate would be used in departments where production is controlled or dictated by
machines. This basis is becoming more appropriate as factories become more heavily automated.
• A rate per unit is only effective if all units are identical in terms of the resources used in their
manufacture in each cost centre.
Context example: Overhead absorption bases

The budgeted production overheads and other budget data of Calculator Co are as follows.
Production Production
Budget dept 1 dept 2
Production overhead cost £36,000 £5,000
Direct materials cost £32,000
Direct labour cost £40,000

Production Production
Budget dept 1 dept 2
Machine hours 10,000
Direct labour hours 18,000
Units of production 1,000
The production overhead absorption rates using the various bases of apportionment would be as
follows.
• Department 1
– Percentage of direct materials cost = £36,000/£32,000 × 100% = 112.5%
– Percentage of direct labour cost = £36,000/£40,000 × 100% = 90%
– Percentage of prime cost = £36,000/£72,000 × 100% = 50%
– Rate per machine hour = £36,000/10,000 hrs = £3.60 per machine hour
– Rate per direct labour hour = £36,000/18,000 hrs = £2 per direct labour hour
• Department 2
– The department 2 absorption rate will be based on units of output.
– 5,000/1,000 units = £5 per unit produced
The choice of the basis of absorption is significant in determining the cost of individual units, or jobs,
produced. In this example, suppose that an individual product has a material cost of £80, a labour
cost of £85, and requires 36 labour hours and 23 machine hours to complete. The production
overhead cost of the product would vary, depending on the basis of absorption used by the
company for overhead recovery.
• As a percentage of direct materials cost, the overhead cost would be 112.5% × £80 = £90.00
• As a percentage of direct labour cost, the overhead cost would be 90% × £85 = £76.50
• As a percentage of prime cost, the overhead cost would be 50% × £165 = £82.50
• Using a machine hour basis of absorption, the overhead cost would be 23 hrs × £3.60 = £82.80
• Using a labour hour basis, the overhead cost would be 36 hrs × £2 = £72.00
In theory, each basis of absorption would be possible, but the company should choose a basis for its
own costs that seems to be ‘fairest’. In our example, this choice will be significant in determining the
cost of individual products, as the following summary shows, but the total cost of production
overheads is the budgeted overhead expenditure, no matter what basis of absorption is selected. It
is the relative share of overhead costs borne by individual products and jobs that is affected by the
choice of overhead absorption basis.
A summary of the product costs is shown below.
Basis of overhead recovery

Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Machining Direct labour
materials cost labour cost prime cost hours hours
£ £ £ £ £
Direct material 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00
Direct labour 85.00 85.00 85.00 85.00 85.00
Production
overhead 90.00 76.50 82.50 82.80 72.00
Total
production
cost 255.00 241.50 247.50 247.80 237.00

One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Evaluate the relevance of
information provided’. You will need to do this in the next question.
Interactive question 6: Overhead absorption rates
Forming Machining Assembly

Budgeted cost centre overheads £13,705 £28,817 £9,978
Budgeted direct labour hours per annum 5,482 790 4,989
Budgeted machine hours per annum 1,350 5,240 147
Requirement
Use the information above to determine suitable overhead absorption rates for a company’s three
production cost centres.
For each cost centre, fill in the blanks with the department rate and whether it is per direct labour
hour or per machine hour.
The forming department rate is £ per direct hour.
The machining department rate is £ per hour.
The assembly department rate is £ per direct hour.
1.4.4 Important note for the exam

It is usual to use predetermined absorption rates as described in 1.4.1 to 1.4.3. However, using
estimates for a predetermined rate may lead to an incorrect overhead charge (called over- or under-
absorption in section 1.6) which leads to an adjustment. In order to avoid this type of adjustment, you
may see actual absorption rates used in certain situations in the scenario-based questions. This will
make more sense when you start to practise some questions.
1.5 Blanket absorption rates and departmental absorption rates
Definition
Blanket absorption rate: An absorption rate used throughout a factory for all products irrespective of
the department in which they were produced.
A blanket or single factory overhead absorption rate is an absorption rate used throughout a factory
and for all jobs and units of output irrespective of the department in which they were produced.
For example, if total overheads were £500,000 and there were 250,000 machine hours during the
period, the blanket overhead rate would be £2 per machine hour and all units of output passing
through the factory would be charged at that rate.
Such a rate is not appropriate, however, if there are a number of departments and units of output do
not spend an equal amount of time in each department.
Worked example: Absorption rates

AB plc has two production departments, for which the following budgeted information is available.
Department 1 Department 2 Total

Budgeted overheads £360,000 £200,000 £560,000

Department 1 Department 2 Total
Budgeted direct labour hours 200,000 40,000 240,000
If a single factory overhead absorption rate is applied, the rate of overhead recovery would be:
£560,000/240,000 hours = £2.33 per direct labour hour
If separate departmental rates are applied, these would be:
Department 1 Department 2
£360,000/200,000 hours = £1.80 per direct £200,000/40,000 hours = £5 per direct labour
labour hour hour
Department 2 has a higher overhead cost per hour worked than department 1.
Now let us consider two separate products.
• Product A has a prime cost of £100, takes 30 hours in department 2 and does not involve any
work in department 1.
• Product B has a prime cost of £100, takes 28 hours in department 1 and 2 hours in department 2.
Requirements
What would be the production cost of each product, using the following rates of overhead recovery?
(a) A single factory rate of overhead recovery
(b) Separate departmental rates of overhead recovery
Solution
Using a single factory overhead absorption rate, both products would cost the same. However, since
product A is produced entirely within department 2 where overhead costs are relatively higher, and
product B is produced mostly within department 1, where overhead costs are relatively lower, it is
arguable that product A should cost more than product B. This can be seen to be the case if separate
departmental overhead recovery rates are used to reflect the work done on each job in each
department separately.
(a)
Product A Product B
Single factory rate £ £
Prime cost 100.00 100.00
Production overhead (30 × £2.33) 70.00 70.00
Production cost 170.00 170.00
(b)
Product A Product B
Separate departmental rates £ £
Prime cost 100.00 100.00
Production overhead:
Department 1 (0 × £1.80) 0.00 (28 × £1.80) 50.40
Department 2 (30 × £5) 150.00 (2 × £5) 10.00
Production cost 250.00 160.40

Interactive question 7: Calculating the overhead to be absorbed
In relation to calculating total absorption cost, label the following descriptions in the correct order as
Steps 1–5.
Description Step
Apportion fixed costs over cost centres
Establish the overhead absorption rate
Choose fair methods of apportionment
Apply the overhead absorption rate to products
Reapportion service cost centre costs
1.6 Over- and under-absorption of overheads

The overhead absorption rate is based on estimates (of both numerator and denominator) and it is
quite likely that either one or both of the estimates will not agree with what actually occurs. Actual
overheads incurred are unlikely to be equal to the overheads absorbed into the cost of production.
(a) Over-absorption means that the overheads charged to the cost of production are greater than
the overheads actually incurred.
(b) Under-absorption means that insufficient overheads have been included in the cost of
production.
Context example: Over- and under-absorption of overheads

Suppose that the budgeted production overhead in a production department is £80,000 and the
budgeted activity is 40,000 direct labour hours. The overhead recovery rate (using a direct labour
hour basis) would be £2 per direct labour hour.
Actual production overheads in the period are, say, £84,000, and 45,000 direct labour hours are
worked.
£
Overhead incurred (actual) 84,000
Overhead absorbed (45,000 × £2) 90,000
Over-absorption of overhead 6,000
In this example, the cost of produced units or jobs has been charged with £6,000 more than was
actually spent. An adjustment to reconcile the overheads charged to the actual overhead is
necessary and the over-absorbed overhead will be written as a credit to the income statement at the
end of the accounting period. By making this adjustment the total overhead in the income statement
would be reduced to £84,000, matching the overhead cost actually incurred.
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify and apply relevant
technical knowledge and skills to analyse a specific problem’. You may need to apply this in a
question to establish the reason for under/over absorbed overheads.

1.6.1 The reasons for under/over absorbed overheads
The overhead absorption rate is predetermined from budget estimates of overhead cost and the
expected volume of activity. Under or over recovery of overhead will occur in the following
circumstances:
• actual overhead costs are different from budgeted overheads; or
• the actual activity level is different from the budgeted activity level.
It is mathematically possible, but unlikely, that if both variations occur together they could cancel
each other out so that no over- or under-absorption occurs.
Interactive question 8: Under- and over-absorption of overheads
Forming Machining Assembly

Actual direct labour hours 5,370 950 5,400
Actual machine hours 1,300 6,370 100
Actual overhead £13,900 £30,300 £8,500
Requirement
Using your answer to Interactive question 6 and the information above, determine whether the
overhead in each of the three production departments is under or over absorbed and by how much
for the year.
The overhead in the forming department is absorbed by £ .
The overhead in the machining department is absorbed by £ .
The overhead in the assembly department is absorbed by £ .
2 Activity-based costing
Section overview
• Activity-based costing (ABC) is a development of absorption costing.

• ABC involves the identification of the factors (cost drivers) that cause the costs of an organisation’s
major activities.
• Activity costs are assigned to products or services on the basis of the number of the activity’s cost
drivers that each product or service generates.
• The resulting product costs provide more accurate information for cost management and control.
In applying judgement, you need to be able to ‘Identify assumptions or faults in arguments’. Activity-
based costing aims to rectify the problems with assumptions made in absorption costing.
2.1 The problem with traditional absorption costing

We have seen that the traditional absorption costing system relies on subjective judgement
concerning the basis of apportionment of overheads to cost centres. To a greater or lesser extent, all
methods of apportionment and absorption are arbitrary in nature. Where overheads form a relatively

low proportion of the total costs of a business, the arbitrary nature of overhead apportionment and
absorption may not be a serious issue. However, a significant feature of many modern businesses is
the relatively high level of overhead costs in relation to total costs. In this situation, the traditional
absorption costing system can create a problem for management seeking to accurately identify unit
costs and exert control over these costs. This problem has particular significance given the highly
competitive environment faced by many businesses.
Context example: The problem with traditional absorption costing

A business sells 20,000 coffee mugs per year comprising large mugs (10,000), medium size mugs
(8,000) and small mugs (2,000). The time spent by direct labour is the same for each mug and the
time spent on the machines is also the same for each mug. This will mean that, using either the direct
labour hour method or the machine hour method of apportionment, the overheads absorbed by
each mug will be the same. Thus, assuming the total overheads are £15,000, each mug will bear
£0.75 (ie, £15,000/20,000) of the total overheads.
Overall, the large mugs will absorb 50% of the total overheads (ie, 10,000/20,000), the medium size
mugs will absorb 40% of the total overheads (ie, 8,000/20,000) and the small mugs will absorb 10%
(ie, 2,000/20,000). However, this may not be an equitable apportionment of overhead costs. For
example, where there are high set up costs or there are demanding requirements concerning a
particular product, the volume of output may be an unreliable guide to the time and effort expended
by the service departments on each product. It may be that each type of mug produced places equal
demands on the support departments such as administration, distribution, packaging, etc. If this
situation occurs, it can be argued that the large mugs and medium size mugs, which are the higher
volume items, will bear too high a proportion of the total overheads and the small mugs, which have
a lower volume of output, will bear too low a proportion of the total overheads if the traditional
approach is followed.
2.2 The activity-based costing approach
Definition
Activity-based costing: An alternative to traditional absorption costing where overheads are related
to output using multiple cost drivers (activities which cause the overheads).
Activity-based costing (ABC) provides an alternative to the traditional method of absorption costing.
The objective of this method is to establish a better means of relating overheads to output. It is
claimed that the ABC method provides managers with a better basis for both cost control and for
the analysis of profitability.
The major concepts underlying ABC can be demonstrated as follows.

Traditional absorption costing
assigns a large share of overhead This is because overheads are usually absorbed using
to large volume items and a small an hourly rate.
share to small volume items.
In high-technology production
and in service operations there
Activities include setting up machines and order processing.
are many 'support' activities that
are not related to output.
Products create a demand for the activities, but not

Activities cause costs.
necessarily in relation to the volume manufactured.
The costs of an activity are caused The cost of the ordering activity might be driven by the
or driven by factors known as number of orders placed, the cost of the despatching
cost drivers. activity by the number of despatches made.
The costs of an activity are If product A requires five orders to be placed, and product B
assigned to products on the basis 15 orders, ¼ (ie, 5/(5 + 15)) of the ord e ring cost will be
of the number of cost drivers. assigned to product A and ¾ (ie, 15/(5 + 15)) to product B.
Figure 3.1: Activity-based costing
2.2.1 Cost drivers
Definitions
Cost driver: Something which causes costs to change eg, volume of output, number of production
runs etc.
Cost pool: A grouping of costs relating to a particular activity in an activity-based costing system.
For those costs that vary with production levels in the short term, ABC uses volume-related cost
drivers such as labour hours or machine hours. The cost of oil used as a lubricant on machines would
therefore be added to products on the basis of the number of machine hours, since oil would have
to be used for each hour the machine ran.
For costs that vary with some other activity and not volume of production, ABC uses transaction-
related cost drivers such as the number of production runs for the production scheduling activity.
2.2.2 Calculating product costs using ABC

Step 1 Identify an organisation’s major activities.
Step 2 Identify the factors (cost drivers) which cause the costs of the activities.
Step 3 Collect the costs associated with each activity into cost pools.
Cost pools are equivalent to cost centres used with traditional absorption costing.
Step 4 Charge the costs of activities to products on the basis of their usage of the activities. A
product’s usage of an activity is measured by the quantity of the activity’s cost driver it
generates.
Suppose the cost pool for the ordering activity totalled £100,000 and that there were 10,000
orders (orders being the cost driver). Each product would therefore be charged with £10 for
each order it required. A batch requiring five orders would therefore be charged with £50.

Note: Although you will not be required to perform numerical calculations using ABC in your exam,
the following example will help to clarify the differences between ABC and traditional absorption
costing.
Context example: Comparing ABC with traditional absorption costing

Suppose that Cooplan plc manufactures four products, W, X, Y and Z. Output and cost data for the
period just ended are as follows.
Number of Direct labour Total machine

production runs Material cost hours per Machine hours or labour
Output in the period per unit unit per unit hours
Units £
W 10 2 20 1 1 10
X 10 2 80 3 3 30
Y 100 5 20 1 1 100
Z 100 5 80 3 3 300
14
Direct labour cost per hour is £10. Overhead costs are as follows.
£
Short-run variable costs 3,080
Setup costs 10,920
Production and scheduling costs 9,100
Materials handling costs 7,700
30,800
Traditional absorption costing

Using absorption costing and an absorption rate based on either direct labour hours or machine
hours, the product costs would be as follows.
W X Y Z Total
£ £ £ £ £
Direct material 200 800 2,000 8,000 11,000
Direct labour 101100 300 111,000 3,000 44,400
Overheads * 700 2,100 7,000 21,000 30,800
1,000 3,200 10,000 32,000 46,200
Units produced 10 10 100 100
Cost per unit £100 £320 £100 £320
* £30,800 ÷ 440 hours = £70 per direct labour or machine hour

Activity-based costing
Using activity-based costing and assuming that the number of production runs is the cost driver for
set up costs, production and scheduling costs and materials handling costs and that machine hours
are the cost driver for short run variable costs, unit costs would be as follows.

W X Y Z Total
£ £ £ £ £
Direct material 200 800 2,000 8,000 11,000
Direct labour 100 300 1,000 3,000 4,400
Short-run variable overheads (W1) 70 210 700 2,100 3,080
Set-up costs (W2) 1,560 1,560 3,900 3,900 10,920
Production and scheduling costs
(W3) 1,300 1,300 3,250 3,250 9,100
Materials handling costs (W4) 1,100 1,100 2,750 2,750 7,700
4,330 5,270 13,600 23,000 46,200
Units produced 10 10 100 100
Cost per unit £433 £527 £136 £230
WORKINGS
(W1) £3,080 ÷ 440 machine hours = £7 per machine hour
(W2) £10,920 ÷ 14 production runs = £780 per run
Summary
Absorption costing
Product unit cost ABC unit cost Difference
£ £ £
W 100 433 + 333
X 320 527 + 207
Y 100 136 + 36
Z 320 230 – 90
The figures suggest that the traditional volume-based absorption costing system is flawed.
• It under allocates overhead costs to low volume products (here, W and X) and over allocates
overheads to higher volume products (here Z in particular).
• It under allocates overhead costs to less time-consuming products (here W and Y with just one
hour of work needed per unit) and over allocates overheads to more time-consuming products
(here X and particularly Z).
3 Costing methods
Section overview
• An organisation’s costing method will depend on the nature of its operations.

• Specific order costing methods are appropriate when each cost unit is separately identifiable.
• Types of specific order costing method are job, batch and contract costing.
• Job and batch costing are appropriate when jobs are of relatively short duration. Each batch is a
separate job consisting of a number of identical units.

• Contract costing is appropriate when cost units are of relatively long duration. Contracts are
usually undertaken away from the organisation’s own premises.
• The process costing method is appropriate when output consists of a continuous flow of identical
units.
• In a process costing environment unit costs are determined on an averaging basis.
Regardless of the materials pricing method that is selected by management or whatever basis is
used to absorb overheads into cost units, the overall costing method used by an organisation will
ultimately depend on the nature of the organisation’s operations.
3.1 Specific order costing

Some organisations produce ‘one off’ products or services to a customer’s specific requirements,
where each cost unit is separately identifiable from all others. The operations of these organisations
can range from providing plumbing services, repairing vehicles or manufacturing a custom-made
garden bench, to building a school or a hospital or a block of flats.
3.1.1 Job costing
Definition
Job costing: The costing method used where work is undertaken to customers’ special requirements
and each order is of comparatively short duration.
Job costing is appropriate where each separately identifiable cost unit or job is of relatively short
duration, such as the plumbing services and the garden bench in the examples above. Each job
would be allocated a separate job number and costs would be accumulated against this number in
order to determine the total cost of the job.
• Issues of direct material would be charged to each job using FIFO or LIFO, etc.
• Direct labour charges would be determined from detailed time records kept for each employee.
• Overhead costs would be absorbed into the total cost of each job using the predetermined
overhead absorption rate for each cost centre through which the job passes.
Direct material issues Direct labour costs

FIFO, LIFO etc Based on time records
Job number
XXXX
Production overhead costs

Absorbed from cost centre A,
cost centre B, etc
Figure 3.2: Job costing
3.1.2 Contract costing
Definition
Contract costing: A form of specific order costing where costs are attributed to contracts.

Contract costing is appropriate where each separately identifiable cost unit is of relatively long
duration, such as the building of the school or hospital in the examples above. Contracts are often
undertaken away from the organisation’s own premises.
Each contract would be allocated a separate number and costs would be accumulated against this
number in order to determine the total cost of the contract.
• Many direct materials would be delivered straight to the contract but issues of direct material
from stores would be charged to each contract using FIFO or LIFO, etc.
• Many direct employees would be permanently employed on the contract site but direct labour
charges for those employees travelling between sites would be determined from detailed time
records kept for each employee.
• Many overhead costs can be allocated directly to the contract but administrative overhead might
be absorbed into contract costs using some form of absorption basis.
3.1.3 Batch costing
Definition
Batch costing: A costing method applied where a group (batch) of identical items is treated as a cost
unit. The cost per item = total batch cost ÷ number of items in the batch.
Batch costing is similar to job costing except that each separately identifiable cost unit would be a
batch of identical items. For example, batch costing can be applied when production takes the form
of separately identifiable batches of shoes or batches of printed advertising leaflets.
Each batch would be allocated a number to identify it and costs would be accumulated for the batch
in the same way as for a job in job costing. The cost per unit manufactured in a batch is the total
batch cost divided by the number of units in the batch.
3.2 Process (continuous operation) costing
Definition
Process costing: A form of costing applicable to continuous processes where process costs are
attributed to the number of units produced.
Some organisations have a continuous flow of operations and produce a large number of identical
products. Food processing is one example and oil refining is another.
Such operations often consist of a number of consecutive processes where the output of one
process becomes the input of the subsequent process and so on until the finished output is
produced.
For example, the processes involved in making bottled sauces might be as follows.
Mixing Cooking Bottling Packing Output to

Process Process Process Process finished goods
Figure 3.3: Process costing example
Each process usually acts as a cost centre and material, labour and overhead costs are collected to
derive a total cost for each process for each period. The cost per unit of output from each process is
determined by dividing the total process cost by the number of units produced each period. This
unit cost then becomes an input cost for the subsequent process and so on until the final cost of a
completed unit is accumulated.

Additional materials
and labour
Materials
Process 1 input Average total unit
Labour Process 1 Process 2
cost to finished goods
Overhead
Additional overhead
Figure 3.4: Accumulation of costs
Process costing can also be applied in a service environment. For example, in an organisation that
provides a shirt laundering service the processes involved might be as follows.
Washing Drying Pressing Packing Finished

Process Process Process Process output
Figure 3.5: Process costing in a service environment
The cost per shirt laundered would be determined by the same averaging process as described
earlier.
Interactive question 9: Costing methods

Choose one costing method that would be appropriate in each of the following industries.
Process Job Contract Batch
Fitting kitchens
Manufacturing components
Manufacturing chemicals
Building offices
4 Other approaches to cost management

Section overview
• Life cycle costing tracks and accumulates the costs and revenues attributable to each product
over its entire life cycle.
• Life cycle costs include those incurred in developing the product and bringing it to market, as well
as the costs incurred after sales of the product have ceased.
• Target costing begins with a concept for a new product for which a required selling price is
determined after consideration of the market conditions.
• The required profit margin is deducted from the selling price to determine the target cost for the
product.
• The costs to be incurred over the product’s entire life cycle are then examined to ensure that the
target cost is achieved.
• Just-in-time (JIT) is an approach to operations planning and control based on the idea that goods
and services should be produced only when they are needed.

4.1 Life cycle costing
Definition
Life cycle costing: A costing method that takes into account all of the costs and revenues of a
product over its entire life span.
A product incurs costs over the whole of its life cycle, from the design stage through development to
market launch, production and sales, and its eventual withdrawal from the market.
Component elements of a product’s costs over its life cycle include the following.
• Research and development costs: design, testing and so on
• Training costs: including initial operator training
• Production costs: materials, labour and so on
• Distribution costs: transportation, handling, inventory cost
• Marketing costs: advertising, customer service
• Retirement and disposal costs: dismantling specialised equipment
Costs
incurred Costs incurred during production
and sales stage, eg, direct materials,
marketing costs
Costs incurred before
production and sales
begin, eg, R&D Costs incurred once
production has ceased,
eg, disposal costs
Time
Figure 3.6: Costs incurred during the life cycle of a product or service
Traditional management accounting systems are based on the accounting year and tend to dissect
the product’s life cycle in a series of annual sections. This means that a product’s profitability over its
entire life is not assessed, but rather its profitability is assessed on a periodic basis.
In contrast, life cycle costing tracks and accumulates actual costs and revenues attributable to each
product over its entire life cycle, hence the total profitability of any given product can be
determined.
4.2 Target costing
Definition
Target costing approach: A process that begins with the development of a product concept followed
by the determination of the price customers would be willing to pay for that concept. The desired
profit margin is deducted from the price, leaving a figure that represents total cost. This is the target
cost.
We have seen how the full cost of a product can be determined using some form of absorption
costing. This full cost is often used as the basis of the selling price decision: a desired profit mark-up
is added to the full cost to determine the product’s selling price.
Target costing works the other way round. It begins with a concept for a new product and, after
considering the situation in the potential market for the product, a required selling price is
determined.

From this price is deducted the desired profit margin, and the resulting acceptable cost becomes the
target cost. Thus the selling price determines the cost rather than the other way round.
Determine Determine
unit cost target cost
Add desired Deduct

profit margin desired profit
Determine Determine
selling price selling price
Traditional pricing Target costing
Figure 3.7: Traditional pricing vs target pricing
The costs to be incurred over the product’s entire life cycle are then examined and engineered in
order to ensure that the target cost is achieved.
Of particular importance is the initial design of the product. This is because many of the costs to be
incurred over the product’s entire life cycle are built into the product at the design stage.
4.3 Just-in-time
Definitions
Just-in-time (JIT): A system whose objective is to produce or to procure products or components as
they are required by a customer or for use, rather than for inventory. A JIT system is a ‘pull’ system,
which responds to demand, in contrast to a ‘push’ system, in which inventories act as buffers
between the different elements of the system, such as purchasing, production and sales.
Just-in-time production: A system which is driven by demand for finished products whereby each
component on a production line is produced only when needed for the next stage.
Just-in-time purchasing: A system in which material purchases are contracted so that the receipt and
usage of material coincide to the maximum extent possible.
Just-in-time (JIT) is an approach to operations planning and control based on the idea that goods
and services should be produced only when they are needed. They should not be produced too
early, so that inventories build up, nor too late, so that the customer has to wait.
JIT consists of JIT purchasing and JIT production.
• JIT production is driven by demand for a product so that no items are produced until they are
needed by a customer or by the next stage in a production process.
• JIT purchasing requires that material is delivered by the supplier just as it is needed in the
production process.
JIT systems are often referred to as pull systems, whereby demand from a customer pulls products
through the production process. This is in contrast to traditional manufacturing systems, which are
push systems because a delivery from a supplier pushes products through production into inventory.
'Push' systems 'Pull' systems
Supplier Production Customer Supplier Production Customer
Figure 3.8: Push and pull systems

4.3.1 Operational requirements for JIT
A number of operational requirements are vital to the success of a JIT system.
• High quality. Production must not be disrupted by quality failures.
• Speed. Throughput in the operation must be fast so that customer orders can be met by
production rather than out of inventory.
• Reliability. Supplies and production must be reliable, to avoid hold-ups.
• Flexibility. To respond immediately to customer orders, production must be flexible and in small
batch sizes.
• Efficient production planning. To ensure that goods are ready just when they are needed and that
overproduction does not occur.
• Reliable sales forecasting. More accurate sales forecasts ensure that sales and production are
better coordinated. This helps to avoid the build-up of inventories when forecasts are over-
optimistic, or delays when production is not ready in time to meet sales requirements which
exceed forecasts.
4.3.2 JIT and cost management

An efficient JIT system enables managers to control and reduce costs in a number of areas, including
the following.
• Warehousing costs. Reduced storage costs result from holding lower inventories.
• Improved capacity utilisation. Efficient production planning enables capacity to be used in the
most effective way with a faster throughput, thus reducing unit costs.
• Reduction in waste. The focus on high quality reduces the incidence of costs due to rejects.
• Reduction in write-offs due to obsolescence. Since goods are produced only as customers need
them there is a reduction in obsolescence costs due to unexpected changes in customer
requirements.

Summary
Determining unit costs
Costing Other
Traditional Activity
method approaches
absorption based
to cost
costing costing Depends on nature
management
of operations
Continuous
Overhead allocation operation Life cycle
costing costing
Identify cost drivers
Identical cost units Tracks costs and
that cause costs of
revenues over entire
the major activities
Overhead life cycle
apportionment Process
costing
Unit costs determined
by averaging Target
Overhead costing
Assign activity costs
absorption Determines target
according to number Specific
Usually using a time of cost drivers order costing cost by working
based method generated backwards from
Each costs unit
selling price
different
Use of estimates Job costing Batch Contract Just In Time

may lead to under/ Each unit of short costing costing
over absorption Goods and services
duration Separate batches of Each unit of long produced/received
identical units duration, often only when needed
constructional

indicated.
1. What are the three stages in determining the share of overhead to be attributed to a cost
unit? (Topic 1)
2. What is allocation? (Topic 1)
3. Can you select suitable bases of apportionment? (Topic 1)
4. Do you know how to calculate an overhead absorption rate? (Topic 1)
5. Can you explain the reasons for under/over absorbed overheads? (Topic 1)
6. What are the major concepts underlying ABC? (Topic 2)
7. When are process, job, contract and batch costing used? (Topic 3)
8. Can you explain the features of life cycle costing, target costing and just-in-time? (Topic 4)

questions in the Calculating unit costs (Part 2) chapter in the Management Information Question

Self-test questions

1 The direct materials involved in the manufacture of a Whoopie cost £2 per unit and the direct labour
cost is £2.50 per unit. There are also direct expenses of £0.50 per Whoopie.
Fixed costs allocated to one Whoopie amount to £3.15.
Requirement
Calculate the prime cost of a Whoopie.
The prime cost of a Whoopie is £ .
2 A company has two production departments and two service departments with production
overheads as shown in the following table.
Production Production Service Service

dept W dept X dept Y dept Z
Production overheads (£’000) 500 600 600 800
Service department Y divides its time between the other departments in the ratio 3:2:1 (for W, X and
Z respectively).
Department Z spends 40% of its time servicing department W and 60% of its time servicing
department X.
Requirement
Complete the following statement.
If all service department overheads are apportioned to production departments, the total fixed
overhead cost of department W is £ .
3 An overhead absorption rate is used to:

A share out common costs to benefiting cost centres
B find the total overheads for a cost centre
C charge overheads to products
D control overheads
4 A company produces two products, Bubble and Squeak, in two production cost centres. The initial
allocation and apportionment of budgeted production overheads has been completed. Extracts
from the budget are as follows.
Machining Finishing
cost centre cost centre
Production overheads £38,000 £10,350
Machine hours per unit:
product Bubble 6 2
product Squeak 4 1
Production overheads are absorbed on a machine hour basis. Budgeted production is 800 units of
Bubble and 700 units of Squeak.

Requirement
The budgeted production overhead cost per unit of Bubble is:
A £39.00
B £45.00
C £45.20
D £54.00
5 ABC Co has been using an overhead absorption rate of £6.25 per labour hour in its packing
department throughout the year.
During the year the overhead expenditure amounted to £257,500, and 44,848 labour hours were
used.
Requirement
Which of the following statements is correct?
A Overheads were under absorbed by £27,600.
B Overheads were under absorbed by £22,800.
C Overheads were over absorbed by £27,600.
D Overheads were over absorbed by £22,800.
6 Budgeted and actual data for the year ended 31 December 20X1 is shown in the following table.
Budget Actual
Production (units) 5,000 4,600
Fixed production overheads £10,000 £10,000
Sales (units) 4,500 4,000
Fixed production overheads are absorbed on a per unit basis, based on a normal capacity of 5,000
units per annum.
Requirement
Why did under-absorption of fixed production overheads occur during the year ended 31 December
20X1?
A The company sold fewer units than it produced.
B The company sold fewer units than budgeted.
C The company produced fewer units than budgeted.
D The company budgeted to sell fewer units than produced.
7 A management consultancy absorbs overheads on chargeable consulting hours. Budgeted
overheads were £615,000 and actual consulting hours were 32,150. Overheads were under-
absorbed by £35,000.
Requirement
If actual overheads were £694,075, what was the budgeted overhead absorption rate per hour?
A £19.13
B £20.50
C £21.59
D £22.68
8 Which two of the following statements about traditional absorption costing and ABC are correct?
A Traditional absorption costing tends to assign too small a proportion of overheads to high
volume products.

B ABC costing systems will provide accurate unit costs because cost drivers are used to trace
overhead costs to products and services.
C An ABC system does not use volume-related cost drivers.
D Cost pools in an ABC system are equivalent to cost centres used in traditional absorption
costing.
E A cost driver is the factor that influences the cost of an activity.
9 Which two of the following statements are correct?
A Process costing is the most appropriate costing method when a continuous flow of identical
units is produced.
B Job costing and contract costing can only be applied where work is undertaken on the
organisation’s own premises.
C In process costing the cost per unit is derived using an averaging calculation.
D Process costing cannot be applied in a service environment.
E For batch costing to be applied each unit in the batch must be separately identifiable.
10 Which two of the following statements are correct?
A Life cycle costing is the profiling of cost over a product’s production life.
B The aim of target costing is to reduce life cycle costs of new products in order to achieve a cost
that will produce the target profit.
C Once a product’s target cost has been determined, the desired profit mark up is added to derive
the product’s selling price.
D JIT systems are referred to as ‘push’ systems because they push products through the
production process as quickly as possible.
E JIT purchasing requires small, frequent deliveries from suppliers as near as possible to the time
the raw materials and parts are needed.
this chapter.

Production overheads Basis
Rent D
Heating costs A
Insurance of machinery B
Cleaning costs D
Canteen costs C
Overhead (a) Allocate or (b) Cost centre(s) (c) Basis of

apportion? charged? apportionment?
Factory light and heat Apportion The four factory cost Floor area or volume
centres occupied
Rent Allocate Office (this is the N/A

only cost centre
rented)
Factory rates Apportion The four factory cost Floor area

centres
Office stationery Allocate Offices N/A
Cleaning of workers’ overalls Apportion The four factory cost Number of workers
centres and the using overalls
warehouse
Roof repair to warehouse Allocate Warehouse N/A
Basis Forming Machining Assembly Maint’nce General

£ £ £ £ £
Rent, rates 1 1,600 3,200 2,400 400 400
Power 2 200 450 75 25 0
Light, heat 1 1,000 2,000 1,500 250 250
Repairs, maintenance 800 1,800 300 200 100
Departmental expenses 1,500 2,300 1,100 900 1,500
Dep’n of plant 3 2,500 6,000 750 750 0
Dep’n of F&F 4 50 25 100 50 25

Basis Forming Machining Assembly Maint’nce General
£ £ £ £ £
Insurance of plant 3 500 1,200 150 150 0
Insurance of buildings 1 100 200 150 25 25
Indirect labour 3,000 5,000 1,500 4,000 2,000
Basis of apportionment:
1 = Floor area
2 = Effective horsepower
3 = Plant value
4 = Fixtures and fittings value
Cost centre Production cost centre? Service cost centre?
Finished goods warehouse No Yes
Canteen No Yes
Machining department Yes No
Offices No Yes
Assembly department Yes No
Only the machining department and assembly department are directly involved in the manufacture
of units. The other cost centres support the production activity and are therefore service cost centres.

£ £ £ £
Total overhead 520,000 600,000 200,000 70,000
First reapportionment 80,000 100,000 (200,000) 20,000
Revised total overheads 600,000 700,000 0 90,000
Second reapportionment 50,000 40,000 0 (90,000)
Revised total overheads 650,000 740,000 0 0
WORKINGS
(1) First reapportionment
Maintenance is larger cost 4:5:1
(2) Second reapportionment
Number of employees 5:4

The forming department rate is £ 2.50 per direct labour hour.

The machining department rate is £ 5.50 per machine hour.
The assembly department rate is £ 2 per direct labour hour.
The relative proportions of labour hours and machine hours in each cost centre can be used to
identify whether the cost centre is labour intensive or machine intensive.
WORKINGS
(1) Forming department rate
£13,705/5,482 = 2.50
Labour intensive
(2) Machining department rate
£28,817/5,240 = 5.50
Machine intensive
(3) Assembly department rate
£9,978/4,989 = 2
Labour intensive
Description Step
Apportion fixed costs over cost centres 2
Establish the overhead absorption rate 4
Choose fair methods of apportionment 1
Apply the overhead absorption rate to products 5
Reapportion service cost centre costs 3

The overhead in the forming department is under absorbed by £ 475 .
The overhead in the machining department is over absorbed by £ 4,735 .
The overhead in the assembly department is over absorbed by £ 2,300 .
WORKINGS
(1) Forming
£
Overhead absorbed (£2.50 × 5,370) 13,425
Overhead incurred 13,900
Under absorbed overhead 475
(2) Machining
£
Overhead absorbed (£5.50 × 6,370) 35,035

£
Over absorbed overhead 4,735
(3) Assembly
£
Overhead absorbed (£2 × 5,400) 10,800
Process Job Contract Batch
Fitting kitchens Yes (Note 1)
Manufacturing components Yes (Note 2)
Manufacturing chemicals Yes (Note 3)
Building offices Yes (Note 4)
Notes
1 Each fitted kitchen would be a separately identifiable cost unit of relatively short duration, hence
job costing is most appropriate.
2 A number of identical components would be manufactured in each separately identifiable batch.
3 Chemical manufacture involves a continuous flow of processes.
4 Each office building would be a separately identifiable cost unit of relatively long duration.
Therefore, contract costing is most appropriate.

1 The prime cost of a Whoopie is £ 5 .
Whoopie prime cost £ per unit

Direct materials 2.00
Direct labour 2.50
Direct expenses 0.50
Prime cost 5.00
Remember that prime cost is the total of all direct costs. The fixed cost of £3.15 per unit is excluded
from the prime cost calculation.
2 If all service department overheads are apportioned to production departments, the total fixed
overhead cost of department W is £ 1,160,000 .
Production Production Service Service

dept W dept X dept Y dept Z
£’000 £’000 £’000 £’000
Production overheads 500 600 600 800
Apportion Y (3:2:1) 300 200 (600) 100
900
Apportion Z (40:60) 360 540 – (900)
1,160
C charge overheads to products
A is incorrect because this is overhead apportionment.
B is incorrect because total overheads are found for cost centres by analysing cost information.
D is incorrect because overheads are controlled using budgets and other management information.
A £39.00
Machining Finishing
Budgeted machine
hours:
Bubble (6 × 800) 4,800 (2 × 800) 1,600
Squeak (4 × 700) 2,800 (1 × 700) 700
7,600 2,300
Production overhead
absorption rate per
machine hour
(£38,000/7,600) £5.00 (£10,350/2,300) £4.50
Production overhead = (6 hours × £5.00) +

Machining Finishing
per unit of Bubble (2 hours × £4.50)
=£39.00
D Overheads were over absorbed by £22,800.
Actual overheads were £257,500. Absorbed

overheads: = £6.25 × 44,848 = £280,300
Actual overheads – Absorbed overheads = £257,500 – £280,300
= £22,800 over absorbed
C The company produced fewer units than budgeted.
Options A and B are incorrect because it is the levels of production that bring about under/over
absorption.
Option D is incorrect because the company was budgeting to produce the normal capacity on which
the absorption rate is based. This would have led to zero under or over absorption, whatever the
level of sales achieved.
B £20.50
£
Actual overheads 694,075
Under absorbed overheads 35,000
Overheads absorbed by 32,150 hours 659,075
Overheads absorbed = Consulting hours × Budgeted absorption rate

£659,075 = 32,150 × Budgeted absorption rate
Budgeted absorption rate = £659,075/32,150
= £20.50
D Cost pools in an ABC system are equivalent to cost centres used in traditional absorption
costing.
E A cost driver is the factor that influences the cost of an activity.
Statement A is incorrect because traditional absorption costing tends to assign too large a
proportion of overheads to high volume products, because it uses volume-related cost drivers.
Statement B is incorrect. ABC costing systems tend to provide more accurate unit costs than
traditional absorption costing systems. However, some arbitrary apportionments and absorptions will
still be necessary, therefore the unit costs are not accurate.
Statement C is incorrect. An ABC system uses volume-related cost drivers such as labour hours or
machine hours for costs that vary with production levels in the short term, such as machine power
costs.
Statement D is correct. Cost pools are used as collecting places to accumulate the costs associated
with each activity.
Statement E is correct. The cost of an activity increases in line with the number of cost drivers.

A Process costing is the most appropriate costing method when a continuous flow of identical
units is produced.
C In process costing the cost per unit is derived using an averaging calculation.
Statement A is correct. Process costing is a form of continuous operation costing.
Statement B is incorrect. Both job costing and contract costing can be applied where work is
undertaken on the customer’s premises, for example, a decorating job (job costing) and building an
extension on a school (contract costing).
Statement C is correct because process costs are divided by the number of units produced to derive
an average unit cost for the period.
Statement D is incorrect because process costing can be applied in a service environment where
there is a continuous flow of identical units.
Statement E is incorrect. Each batch must be separately identifiable but the units within each batch
will be identical.
B The aim of target costing is to reduce life cycle costs of new products in order to achieve a cost
that will produce the target profit.
E JIT purchasing requires small, frequent deliveries from suppliers as near as possible to the time
the raw materials and parts are needed.
Statement A is incorrect because life cycle costing includes development costs and other cost
incurred before production as well as any costs such as dismantling costs incurred after production
has ceased.
Statement B is correct. The target cost is calculated by deducting the target profit from a
predetermined selling price based on the market situation.
Statement C is incorrect. The target cost is derived by deducting the desired profit margin from a
competitive market price.
Statement D is incorrect. JIT systems are ‘pull’ systems because demand from a customer pulls
products through production.
Statement E is correct. JIT relies heavily on reliable, high quality suppliers.

Chapter 4
Marginal costing and

absorption costing
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Learning topics
1 Marginal cost and marginal costing
2 Marginal costing and absorption costing compared
Summary
Self-test questions
Introduction
Learning outcomes
using:
– Marginal costing
The specific syllabus reference for this chapter is: 1c.
4
Syllabus links
A knowledge of marginal costing and absorption costing will underpin your understanding of
inventory valuation for the Accounting syllabus.
4
Examination context
The calculation of the different profits reported under marginal costing and absorption costing is
likely to be a popular examination topic. You are also likely to be asked to reconcile the difference
between the profits reported under the two systems.
• calculate the profit reported under marginal costing and under absorption costing using the
same basic set of data
• reconcile the difference between the profits reported under the two systems
• derive the marginal costing profit from data provided that is prepared using absorption costing,
and vice versa
4

of this chapter.

questions
1 Marginal cost and Approach The calculation of IQ2: Marginal

marginal costing Skim through the different profits costing
We saw in Chapter 1 section 1 of Chapter reported under principles
that costs may be 4 but spend some marginal costing This question
classified as product time thinking about and absorption tests your
costs or period costs. the conclusions in costing is likely to understanding
Product costs are costs section 1.3 and be a popular of the profit
identified with goods ensure you have examination topic. calculation using
produced or understood the Narrative questions marginal
purchased for resale. points made. Learn as well as numerical costing.
Such costs are initially the quick questions are
identified as part of the calculation method important in this
value of inventory and described in this area of the syllabus.
only become expenses section (for MCQs
when the inventory is only).
sold.
In contrast, period Stop and think
costs are costs that are
deducted as expenses In which types of
during a particular situation might it be

questions
period without ever more useful for

being included in the managers to focus
value of inventory held. on the variable unit
In Chapter 3 we saw costs rather than on
that with absorption the full cost per unit
costing, fixed that includes
production overheads absorbed fixed
are treated as product production
costs and are absorbed overheads?
into the cost of units of
output that go into
inventory.
In contrast, marginal
costing treats all fixed
costs as period costs
and deducts them from
sales value as expenses
during a particular
period. Only variable
production costs are
treated as product
costs and included in
inventory valuations.
2 Marginal costing and Use the worked You could be asked IQ4: Marginal
absorption costing example in section to reconcile the and absorption
compared 2 to reinforce your difference between costing
Each costing system, learning from the profits reported You could see
because of the Chapter 3 and to under the two this type of
different inventory compare the two systems. scenario
valuations used, costing systems. question in the
produces a different You need to be able exam, so this is
profit figure. This to calculate good practice.
clearly has practical absorption costing
implications for and marginal
management decision costing profits side
making and control. by side. This is
Each method of shown in interactive
costing has its own question 4.
supporters and can be Work through all
useful in different the examples, learn
situations. the advantages of
each system.
Stop and think

How might
absorption costing
lead to profit
manipulation?
ICAEW 2023 4: Marginal costing and absorption costing 111

1 Marginal cost and marginal costing
Section overview
• In a marginal costing system only variable production costs are included in the valuation of units.
• All fixed costs are treated as period costs and are charged in full against the sales revenue for the
period.
• Contribution towards fixed costs and profit is calculated as sales revenue less variable cost of
sales.
• Marginal costing profit for the period = contribution less fixed costs.
1.1 Marginal costing
Definition
Marginal cost: The variable cost of one unit of product or service.
Marginal costing is an alternative costing system to absorption costing. With marginal costing, only
variable production costs are included in the valuation of units. All fixed costs are treated as period
costs and are charged in full against the sales revenue for the period.
The marginal production cost per unit usually consists of the following:
• Variable materials
• Variable labour
• Variable production overheads
1.2 Contribution
Definition
Contribution: The difference between the selling price and all the variable costs of a product.
Contribution is an important measure in marginal costing, and it is calculated as the difference

between sales value and marginal cost.
The term ‘contribution’ is really short for ‘contribution towards fixed overheads and profit’.
The contribution per unit can be calculated as follows.
£ per unit £ per unit

Selling price X
Variable materials X
Variable labour X
Variable production overheads X
Marginal production cost X
Variable selling, distribution and administrative cost X
Total marginal cost (X)
Contribution X

Interactive question 1: Contribution
A particular dining experience is sold for £1,009.99. The variable ingredients (materials) cost per
experience is £320, the variable labour cost per experience is £192 and the variable overhead cost
per experience is £132. Fixed overheads per annum are £100,000.
Requirement
The contribution per dining experience is £ .
Worked example: Marginal costing

Water Ltd makes a product, the Splash, which has a variable production cost of £6 per unit and a
sales price of £10 per unit. At the beginning of September 20X0, there was no opening inventory
and production during the month was 20,000 units. Fixed costs for the month were £45,000
(production, administration, sales and distribution). There were no variable marketing costs.
Requirement
Calculate the contribution and profit for September 20X0, using marginal costing principles, if sales
were as follows.
(1) 10,000 Splashes
(2) 15,000 Splashes
(3) 20,000 Splashes
Solution
The first stage in the profit calculation must be to identify the variable costs, and then the
contribution. Fixed costs are deducted from the total contribution to derive the profit. All closing
inventories are valued at marginal or variable production cost (£6 per unit).
10,000 Splashes 15,000 Splashes 20,000 Splashes

£ £ £ £ £ £
Sales (at £10) 100,000 150,000 200,000
Opening
inventory 0 0 0
Variable
productio
n cost 120,000 120,000 120,000
120,000 120,000 120,000

Less value of
closing
inventory
(at
marginal
cost) 60,000 30,000 –
Variable cost
of sales 60,000 90,000 120,000
Contribution 40,000 60,000 80,000

Less fixed
costs (45,000) (45,000) (45,000)

10,000 Splashes 15,000 Splashes 20,000 Splashes
£ £ £ £ £ £
Profit/(loss) (5,000) 15,000 35,000
Profit/(loss)
per unit £(0.50) £1 £1.75
Contribution
per unit £4 £4 £4
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Understand the situation
and requirements’. If a business refers to ‘contribution’ then it is using marginal costing.
1.3 Conclusions
The conclusions that may be drawn from this example are as follows.
(a) The profit per unit varies at differing levels of sales, because the average fixed overhead cost
per unit changes with the volume of sales.
(b) The contribution per unit is constant at all levels of output and sales. Total contribution, which is
the contribution per unit multiplied by the number of units sold, increases in direct proportion to
the volume of sales.
(c) Since the contribution per unit does not change, the most effective way of calculating the
expected profit at any level of output and sales would be as follows.
(1) First calculate the total contribution.
(2) Then deduct fixed costs as a period charge in order to find the profit.
This calculation method is much quicker and is therefore useful for certain types of multiple choice
questions in the exam. The contribution and profit figures would be calculated as follows, arriving at
the same answers as above.
10,000 15,000 20,000

Splashes Splashes Splashes
£ £ £
Total contribution at £4 per unit 40,000 60,000 80,000
Less fixed costs (45,000) (45,000) (45,000)
Profit/(loss) (5,000) 15,000 35,000
However, in the scenario-based questions you will be required to calculate the sales figures and cost
figures separately, so this method is not appropriate for the scenario-based questions.
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify and apply technical
knowledge and skills to analyse a specific problem’. You can use your knowledge of marginal costing
to calculate the profit in the next question.

Interactive question 2: Marginal costing principles
Plumber plc makes two products: the Loo and the Wash. Information relating to each of these
products for April 20X1 is as follows.
Loo Wash
Opening inventory Nil Nil
Production (units) 15,000 6,000
Sales (units) 10,000 5,000
£ £ £
Sales price per unit 20 30
Unit costs
Variable materials 8 14
Variable labour 4 2
Variable production overhead 2 1
Variable sales overhead 2 3
Fixed costs for the month
Production costs 40,000
Administration costs 15,000
Sales and distribution costs 25,000
Requirements
2.1 Using marginal costing principles and the approach in section 1.3, calculate the profit in April
20X1.
2.2 Then calculate the profit again using the format shown below.
Loo Wash Total

£ £ £ £ £
Sales
Variable production
costs
Opening inventory
Closing inventory
Production cost of
sales
Variable selling
overhead
Contribution
Fixed production
costs
Profit/(loss)

2 Marginal costing and absorption costing compared
Section overview
• In a marginal costing system inventories are valued at marginal or variable production cost; all
fixed overhead is charged against sales for the period in which it is incurred.
• In an absorption costing system an amount of absorbed fixed production overhead is included in
the inventory valuation.
• Reported profit figures using marginal and absorption costing will differ if there is any change in
the level of inventories during the period.
• If the fixed production overhead absorption rate per unit is the same each period, the difference
in reported profit is calculated as the change in inventory units × fixed production overhead
absorption rate per unit.
• If the fixed production overhead absorption rate is not the same each period, the difference in
reported profit is equal to the change in the fixed production overhead in the inventory.
• In the long run the total reported profit will be the same whether marginal costing or absorption
costing is used.
• Each of the costing systems has a number of advantages.
2.1 Summarising the differences between the two costing methods

The differences between the two costing systems can be summarised as follows:
• In marginal costing
– Closing inventories are valued at marginal or variable production cost.
– Fixed costs are charged in full against the profit of the period in which they are incurred.
– No fixed costs are included in the inventory valuation.
• In absorption costing (sometimes referred to as full costing)
– Inventories are valued at full production cost, and include a share of fixed production costs.
– This means that the cost of sales in a period will include some fixed overhead incurred in a
previous period (in opening inventory values) and will exclude some fixed overhead incurred in
the current period which is carried forward in the closing inventory value. This will be a charge
to a subsequent accounting period.
With these differences in mind, work through the following example.
Worked example: Marginal and absorption costing compared

TLF plc manufactures a single product, the Claud. The following figures relate to the Claud for a one-
year period.
Sales and production (units) 800
£
Sales 16,000
Production costs:
Variable 6,400
Fixed 1,600
Sales and distribution costs:
Variable 3,200
Fixed 2,400

The normal level of activity for the year is 800 units. Fixed costs are incurred evenly throughout the
year, and actual fixed costs are the same as budgeted. A predetermined overhead absorption rate is
used for the year.
There were no inventories of Claud at the beginning of the year.
In the first quarter, 220 units were produced and 160 units sold.
Requirements
1 For the first quarter, calculate the fixed production costs absorbed by Claud if absorption costing
is used.
2 For the first quarter, calculate inventory values per unit using both absorption costing and
marginal costing.
3 For the first quarter, calculate the under/over absorption of overheads.
4 For the first quarter, calculate the profit using absorption costing.
5 For the first quarter, calculate the profit using marginal costing.
6 For the first quarter, explain why there is a difference between the answers to Questions (4) and
(5).
Solution
1 The requirements provide useful steps for analysing the example.
Budgeted fixed production costs/Budgeted output (normal level of activity) = £1,600/800 units
Absorption rate = £2 per unit produced.
During the quarter, the fixed production overhead absorbed would be 220 units × £2 = £440.
2 Inventory values per unit
Absorption Marginal
costing costing
Variable production cost (£6,400/800) 8 8
Fixed production cost (£1,600/800) 2 –
Inventory value per unit 10 8
£
Actual fixed production overhead 400 (1/4 of £1,600)
Absorbed fixed production overhead 440
Over absorption of fixed production overhead 40
4 Profit for the quarter, absorption costing

In a scenario-based question the layout would be similar to the following:
£ £
Sales (160 × £20) 3,200
Production costs
Variable (220 × £8) 1,760
Fixed (absorbed overhead (220 × £2)) 440
Total (220 × £10) 2,200
Less closing inventories (60 × £10) 600
Production cost of sales 1,600

£ £
Adjustment for over absorbed overhead 40
Total production costs 1,560
Gross profit 1,640
Less sales and distribution costs
Variable (160 × £4) 640
Fixed (1/4 of £2,400) 600
1,240
Net profit 400
Using the ‘short-cut’ calculation method (suitable for multiple choice questions) this answer can
be derived as follows.
£ per unit £
Sales price 20
Less: Full absorption cost (10)
Variable sales and distribution cost (4)
6
× sales volume 160 units 960
Less fixed sales and distribution costs (600)
360
Adjust for over absorbed overhead 40
Net profit 400
5 Profit for the quarter, marginal costing

In a scenario-based question the layout would be similar to the following:
£ £
Sales 3,200
Variable production costs 1,760
Less closing inventories (60 × £8) 480
Variable production cost of sales 1,280
Variable sales and distribution costs 640
Total variable costs of sales 1,920
Total contribution 1,280
Less: Fixed production costs 400
Fixed sales and distribution costs 600
1,000
Net profit 280
Using the ‘short-cut’ calculation method (suitable for multiple choice questions) this answer can
be derived as follows.

£ per unit £
Sales price 20
Less: Variable production cost (8)
Variable sales and distribution cost (4)
Contribution per unit 8
× sales volume 160 units = contribution 1,280
Less: Fixed production costs (400)
Fixed sales and distribution costs (600)
Net profit 280
6 The difference in profit is due to the different valuations of closing inventory. In absorption
costing, the 60 units of closing inventory include absorbed fixed overheads of £120 (60 × £2),
which are therefore costs carried over to the next quarter and not charged against the profit of
the first quarter. In marginal costing, all fixed costs incurred in the period are charged against
profit.
£
Absorption costing profit 400
Fixed production costs carried forward in inventory values (60 units × £2)* 120
Marginal costing profit 280
* Change in inventory units × fixed production cost per unit
2.2 Conclusions
We can draw a number of conclusions from this example.
(a) Marginal costing and absorption costing are different techniques for assessing profit in a
period.
(b) If there are changes in inventories during a period, marginal costing and absorption costing
give different results for profit obtained.
Assuming that the variable cost per unit and the fixed cost per unit are constant:
(1) if inventory levels increase, absorption costing will report a higher profit because some of
the fixed production overhead incurred during the period will be carried forward in closing
inventory. This reduces cost of sales and carries forward cost to be set against sales revenue
in the following period.
(2) if inventory levels decrease, absorption costing will report a lower profit because as well as
the fixed overhead incurred, fixed production overhead which had been brought forward in
opening inventory is released and is included in cost of sales.
(c) If the opening and closing inventory levels are the same, marginal costing and absorption
costing will give the same profit figure if unit costs remain constant.
(d) In the long run, total profit for a company will be the same whether marginal costing or
absorption costing is used as all inventory is sold. Different accounting conventions merely affect
the profit of individual accounting periods.
information provided’. In the next question you need to identify the relevance of the production and
sales volume.

Interactive question 3: Reconciling the difference in reported profits
The overhead absorption rate for product X is £10 per machine hour. Each unit of product X requires
five machine hours.
Production of product X last period was 4,800 units and the sales volume achieved was 4,750 units.
Requirements
3.1 Select the correct answer to complete the sentence.
The absorption costing profit would be ▼ the marginal costing profit.

• Greater than
• Less than
• The same as
3.2 Fill in the blank.
The differences between the reported profits would be £ .
Worked example: Comparison of total profits

To illustrate the point in conclusion 2.2(d) above, let us suppose that a company makes and sells a
single product. At the beginning of period 1, there are no opening inventories of the product, for
which the variable production cost is £4 per unit and the sales price £6 per unit. Fixed costs are
£2,000 per period, of which £1,500 are fixed production costs.
Period 1 Period 2
Sales 1,200 units 1,800 units
Production 1,500 units 1,500 units
Requirements
What profit would be reported in each period and in total using the following costing systems?
Note: Assume normal output is 1,500 units per period.
2 Marginal costing
Solution
1 Absorption costing: The absorption rate for fixed production overhead is:
£1,500/1,500 units = £1 per unit
Period 1 Period 2 Total

£ £ £ £ £ £
Sales 7,200 10,800 18,000
Production costs
Variable 6,000 6,000 12,000
Fixed absorbed 1,500 1,500 3,000
7,500 7,500 15,000
Add opening inventory b/f – 1,500 –
7,500 9,000 15,000

£ £ £ £ £ £
Less closing inventory c/f 1,500 – –
Production cost of sales 6,000 9,000 15,000
(Under)/over absorbed
overhead – – –
Total production costs 6,000 9,000 15,000

Gross profit 1,200 1,800 3,000
Other costs 500 500 1,000
Net profit 700 1,300 2,000
Using the ‘short-cut’ method of calculation the profit figures can be calculated as follows.
Period 1 Period 2
£ per unit £ £
Sales price 6
Full absorption cost:
Variable production cost (4)
Absorbed fixed production cost (1)
1
× sales volume 1,200 1,800
Other costs 500 500
Net profit 700 1,300

£ £ £ £ £ £
Sales 7,200 10,800 18,000
Variable production cost 6,000 6,000 12,000
Add opening inventory b/f – 1,200 –
6,000 7,200 12,000
Less closing inventory c/f 1,200 – –
Variable production cost of
sales 4,800 7,200 12,000
Contribution 2,400 3,600 6,000

Fixed costs 2,000 2,000 4,000
Profit 400 1,600 2,000
Using the ‘short-cut’ method of calculation the profit figures can be calculated as follows.
Period 1 Period 2
£ per unit £ £
Sales price 6

Period 1 Period 2
£ per unit £ £
Less variable production costs (4)
Contribution per unit 2
× sales volume = total contribution 2,400 3,600
Less fixed costs 2,000 2,000
Profit 400 1,600
Points to note
The total profit over the two periods is the same for both costing systems, but the profit in each
period is different.
It is important to notice that although production and sales volumes in each period are different
(and therefore the profit for each period using absorption costing is different from the profit
reported by marginal costing), over the full period, total production equals sales volume, the total
cost of sales is the same, and therefore the total profit is the same using either system of
accounting.
Interactive question 4: Marginal and absorption costing

X plc started business on 1 March making one product only. Unit cost information for the product is
as follows.
£
Variable labour 5
Variable material 8
Variable production overhead 2
Fixed production overhead 5
Standard production cost 20
The fixed production overhead figure has been calculated on the basis of a budgeted normal output
of 36,000 units per annum.
You are to assume that all the budgeted fixed expenses are incurred evenly over the year. March and
April are to be taken as equal period months.
Selling, distribution and administration expenses are as follows.
Fixed £120,000 per annum

Variable 15% of the sales value
The selling price per unit is £35 and the number of units produced and sold was as follows.
March April
Units Units
Production 2,000 3,200
Sales 1,500 3,000
Requirements
4.1 Calculate the total value of the closing inventory for each month under marginal costing.
March £

April £
4.2 Calculate the total value of the closing inventory for each month under absorption costing.
March £
April £
4.3 Calculate the budgeted annual fixed production overhead.
4.4 Calculate the profit or loss for March using both absorption costing and marginal costing.
March
Absorption Marginal
£ £ £ £
Sales
Variable production
costs
Fixed production cost
absorbed
Opening inventory
Closing inventory
Production cost of
sales
Under/over
absorption
Variable selling,
distrib’n and admin
Fixed selling, distrib’n
and admin
Fixed production
costs
Profit/(loss)
4.5 Calculate the profit or loss for April using both absorption costing and marginal costing.
April
Absorption Marginal
£ £ £ £
Sales
Variable production
costs
absorbed
Opening inventory
Closing inventory

Absorption Marginal
£ £ £ £
Production cost of
sales
Under/over
absorption
Variable selling,
distrib’n and admin
and admin
Fixed production
costs
Profit/(loss)
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify assumptions or
faults in arguments’. The list of advantages of absorption costing should highlight some of the faults
in marginal costing and vice versa.
2.3 Marginal costing and absorption costing compared

(a) Advantages of absorption costing
(1) Fixed production costs are incurred in order to make output; it is therefore ‘fair’ to charge all
output with a share of these costs.
(2) Closing inventory values, by including a share of fixed production overhead, will be valued
on the principle required by accounting standards for the financial accounting valuation of
inventories for external reporting purposes.
(3) A problem with calculating the contribution of various products made by a company is that
it may not be clear whether the contribution earned by each product is enough to cover
fixed costs, whereas by charging fixed overhead to a product it is possible to ascertain
whether or not it is profitable.
(b) Advantages of marginal costing
(1) It is simple to operate.
(2) There are no apportionments of fixed costs, which are frequently done on an arbitrary basis.
Many costs, such as the managing director’s salary, are indivisible by nature.
(3) Fixed costs will be the same regardless of the volume of output, because they relate to a
period of time and are period costs. It makes sense, therefore, to charge them in full as a
cost to the period.
(4) The cost to produce an extra unit is the variable production cost. It is realistic to value
closing inventory items at this directly attributable cost.
(5) Under or over absorption of overheads is avoided.
(6) Marginal costing information can be more useful for decision making since it focuses on the
variable costs that are most likely to be altered as the result of a decision.

Summary
Alternative costing
systems
Marginal costing (mc) Absorption costing (ac)
Highlights contribution
= sales value less
variable costs
Fixed production
overhead absorbed
Fixed costs charged in into unit production
full against revenue for costs
period
Inventories valued at
full production cost, ie,
Inventories valued at including a share of
variable production cost fixed production costs
Different inventory valuation may
result in different profit results in
short term
Assuming that variable costs per

unit and fixed costs per unit are
constant
If inventories
If inventories increase: If inventories do not alter:
decrease:
mc profit < ac profit mc profit = ac profit
mc profit > ac profit
Difference in profit = change in

inventory units × fixed
production overhead per unit

indicated.
1. How are fixed costs treated in marginal costing systems? (Topic 1)
2. How is contribution calculated? (Topic 1)
3. What are the differences between marginal and absorption costing? (Topic 2)
4. If inventory levels increase during the period, will absorption costing report a higher or
lower profit than marginal costing? Why? (Topic 2)
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of marginal costing? (Topic 2)

questions in the Marginal costing and absorption costing chapter of the Management Information
Question Bank. Refer back to the learning in this chapter for any questions which you did not answer
correctly or where the suggested solution has not provided sufficient explanation to answer all your
queries. Once you have attempted these questions, you can move on to the next chapter.

Self-test questions

1 The following cost card relates to one unit of Product EZ.
£
Variable materials 20
Variable labour 40
Production overheads
Variable 10
Fixed 5
Sales and distribution overheads
Variable 5
Fixed 10
Total cost 90
Requirement
The marginal production cost of one unit of Product EZ is £ .
2 A new product has a variable material cost of £5.50 per unit, a variable labour cost of £2 per unit and
a fixed overhead absorption rate of £3.50 per unit.
Production during the first month was 23,000 units and sales were 21,000 units.
Requirement
Calculate to the nearest £ the inventory valuation under both marginal costing and absorption
costing.
Marginal costing: £ (to the nearest Absorption costing: £ (to the

£) nearest £)
3 A company manufactures Luxury and Standard items. The following information relates to period 1.
Luxury Standard
Variable materials £16 per unit £12 per unit
Variable labour £21 per unit £9 per unit
Variable production overhead £10 per unit £8 per unit
Budgeted production 3,500 units 3,300 units

Actual production 3,500 units 3,300 units
Closing inventory 290 units 570 units
Variable labour is paid £6 per hour.

Fixed costs totalled £120,400 and are recovered on the basis of variable labour hours.

Requirement
Calculate to the nearest £ the inventory valuation under both marginal and absorption costing.
Luxury Standard
Marginal costing: £ £
Absorption costing: £ £
4 A company has just completed its first year of trading. The budgeted production volume of 26,000
units was achieved and the sales volume was 24,500 units at £40 each.
The following actual cost information is available.
£
Variable cost per unit
Manufacturing 18.50
Selling and administration 9.20
Fixed costs (as budget):
Manufacturing 91,000
Selling and administration 49,000
Requirement
Calculate the net profit figures using both absorption and marginal costing.
Absorption net profit £ Marginal net profit £
5 When opening inventories were 8,500 litres and closing inventories 6,750 litres, a firm had a profit of
£62,100 using marginal costing.
Requirement
Assuming that the fixed overhead absorption rate was £3 per litre, what would be the profit using
absorption costing?
A 41,850
B 56,850
C 67,350
D 82,350
6 Which of the following are arguments in favour of marginal costing?
A Closing inventory is valued in accordance with financial reporting standards.
B It is simple to operate.
C There is no under or over absorption of overheads.
D Fixed costs are the same regardless of activity levels.
E The information from this costing system may be more useful for decision making.
7 Which two of the following statements are correct assuming that unit costs are constant?
A A product showing a positive contribution under marginal costing will always show a profit
under absorption costing.
B If inventory levels increase, marginal costing will report a lower profit than absorption costing.
C If inventory levels decrease, marginal costing will report a lower profit than absorption costing.

D If inventory levels increase, marginal costing will report a higher profit than absorption costing.
E If opening and closing inventory levels are the same, marginal costing and absorption costing
will report the same profit figure.
8 Last period a company reported absorption costing profits of £36,000. Actual fixed production
overheads were £42,000 and the actual production volume of 6,000 units resulted in over absorbed
fixed production overhead of £6,000.
A sales volume of 7,100 units was achieved during the period.
Requirement
Complete the following sentence.
The marginal costing profit for the period would have been £ .
9 Last period 17,500 units were produced at a total cost of £16 each. Three quarters of the costs were
variable and one quarter fixed. 15,000 units were sold at £25 each. There were no opening
inventories.
Requirement
By how much will the profit calculated using absorption costing principles differ from the profit if
marginal costing principles had been used?
A The absorption costing profit would be £10,000 less
B The absorption costing profit would be £10,000 greater
C The absorption costing profit would be £30,000 greater
D The absorption costing profit would be £40,000 greater
10 In a period, a company had opening inventory of 31,000 units and closing inventory of 34,000 units.
Profits based on marginal costing were £850,500 and on absorption costing were £955,500.
Requirement
If the budgeted total fixed costs for the company were £1,837,500 what was the budgeted level of
activity in units?
A 32,500
B 52,500
C 65,000
D 105,000
this chapter.


The contribution per dining experience is £ 365.99 .
WORKING
Contribution per experience
£ £
Selling price per experience 1,009.99
Marginal cost per experience
Variable material 320
Variable labour 192
Variable overhead 132
644.00
Contribution per experience 365.99
Absorbed fixed overheads are not included in the calculation of marginal cost per unit or
contribution per unit.

2.1
£
Contribution from Loos (unit contribution = £20 – £16 = £4 × 10,000 units) 40,000
Contribution from Washes (unit contribution = £30 – £20 = £10 × 5,000 units) 50,000
Total contribution 90,000
Fixed costs for the period 80,000
Profit 10,000
2.2
Loo Wash Total

£ £ £ £ £
Sales 200,000 150,000
Variable production
costs 210,000 102,000
Opening inventory 0 0
Closing inventory (70,000) (17,000)
Production cost of
sales (140,000) (85,000)
Variable selling
overhead (20,000) (15,000)

Loo Wash Total
£ £ £ £ £
Contribution 40,000 50,000 90,000
Fixed production
costs (80,000)
Profit/(loss) 10,000
3.1 The absorption costing profit would be greater than the marginal costing profit.
This is because production exceeded sales, therefore the inventory level increased. Some of the
fixed production overhead incurred during the period would be carried forward in the
inventory value with absorption costing, thus reducing the charge to cost of sales.
3.2 The differences between the reported profits would be £ 2,500 .
This is calculated as follows.

Difference in profit = Change in inventory levels × Fixed overhead absorption rate per unit
= 50 units × (£10 × 5 hours)
= £2,500
4.1 March £ 7,500
April £ 10,500
March = (500 units × £15)

April = (700 units × £15)
4.2 March £ 10,000
April £ 14,000
March = (500 units × £20)

April = (700 units × £20)
4.3 £ 180,000
Overhead absorption rate = Budgeted overheads/Budgeted output

 £5 = Budgeted overheads/36,000 units
 Budgeted overheads = £180,000
4.4 March
Absorption Marginal
£ £ £ £
Sales 52,500 52,500
Variable production
costs 30,000 30,000
absorbed 10,000 0
Opening inventory 0 0

Absorption Marginal
£ £ £ £
Production cost of
sales (30,000) (22,500)
Under/over
absorption (5,000) 0
Variable selling,
distrib’n and admin (7,875) (7,875)
and admin (10,000) (10,000)
Fixed production
costs 0 (15,000)
Profit/(loss) (375) (2,875)
WORKING
March
Sales revenue = 1,500 × £35 = £52,500
Variable production costs = 2,000 × (£5 + £8 + £2) = £30,000
Fixed production cost absorbed = 2,000 × £5 = £10,000
Closing inventory = see answer to 1 and 2.
Under absorption:
£
Overhead incurred (£5 × 36,000 × 1/12) 15,000
Under/(over) absorbed 5,000
Variable selling, distribution and admin = £52,500 × 15% = £7,875

Fixed selling, distribution and admin = £120,000/12 months = £10,000
Fixed production cost = (36,000 × £5)/12 = £15,000
4.5 April
Absorption Marginal
£ £ £ £
Sales 105,000 105,000
Variable production
costs 48,000 48,000
absorbed 16,000 0
Opening inventory 10,000 7,500
Production cost of
sales (60,000) (45,000)
Under/over 1,000 0

Absorption Marginal
£ £ £ £
absorption
Variable selling,
distrib’n and admin (15,750) (15,750)
and admin (10,000) (10,000)
Fixed production
costs 0 (15,000)
Profit/(loss) 20,250 19,250
WORKING
April
Sales revenue = 3,000 × £35 = £105,000
Variable production costs = 3,200 × (£5 + £8 + £2) = £48,000
Fixed production cost absorbed = 2,000 × £5 = £10,000
Opening inventory = March closing inventory – see answer to Questions 1 and 2.
Closing inventory – see answer to Questions 1 and 2.
Over absorption:
£
Overhead incurred (£5 × 36,000 × 1/12) 15,000
Under/(over) absorbed (1,000)
Variable selling, distribution and admin = £105,000 × 15% = £15,750

Fixed selling, distribution and admin = £120,000/12 months = £10,000
Fixed production cost = (36,000 × £5)/12 = £15,000

1 The marginal production cost of one unit of Product EZ is £ 70 .
Marginal production cost is the total of all variable production costs.
WORKING
Marginal production cost of product EZ
£ per unit
Variable materials 20
Variable labour 40
Variable production overheads 10
70
Marginal costing: £15,000 (to the nearest £) Absorption costing: £22,000 (to the nearest £)
WORKINGS
(1) Marginal cost of product
= Variable material cost + Variable labour cost
= £5.50 + £2
= £7.50 per unit
In marginal costing, closing inventories are valued at marginal production cost, which includes
the variable material cost of £5.50 and the variable labour cost of £2 for 2,000 units.
Therefore, inventory valuation = £7.50 × 2,000 = £15,000.
(2) Absorption cost of product
= Marginal cost + Fixed production overheads
= £7.50 = £3.50
= £11 per unit
In absorption costing, closing inventories are valued at £11 each (this includes a share of fixed
production overheads).
Therefore, inventory valuation = £11 × 2,000 = £22,000.
3
Luxury Standard
Marginal costing: £13,630 £16,530
Absorption costing: £20,735 £22,515
WORKINGS
(1) Marginal costing
In marginal costing, closing inventories are valued at marginal production cost (variable
materials, variable labour and variable production overhead).
Luxury = £16 + £21 + £10 = £47 per unit.
There are 290 of them, so closing inventory value = 290 × £47 = £13,630.

Standard = £12 + £9 + £8 = £29 per unit.
There are 570 of them, so closing inventory value = 570 × £29 = £16,530.
(2) Absorption costing basis
Absorption costing includes fixed production overheads in inventory values rather than charging
them against profit.
Based on the labour costs, the number of hours to produce each item is Luxury 3.5 (£21/£6),
Standard 1.5 (£9/£6).
Luxury = The overhead absorption rate is £120,400/((3,500 × 3.5) + (3,300 × 1.5)) = £7 per direct
labour hour.
Absorption costing inventory values of luxury items are therefore £7 × 3.5 hours × 290 units
greater than marginal costing inventory values, ie, £13,630 + £7,105 = £20,735.
Standard = The overhead absorption rate is £7 per direct labour hour. Absorption costing
inventory values are therefore £7 × 1.5 hours × 570 units greater than marginal costing inventory
values, ie, £16,530 + £5,985 = £22,515.
4
Absorption net profit £166,600 Marginal net profit £161,350
WORKING
Absorption net profit
Fixed manufacturing cost per unit = £91,000/26,000 = £3.50
Budgeted production = actual production, therefore no under or over absorption of overhead
occurred.
£ £
Sales revenue 24,500 × £40 980,000
Manufacturing cost of sales 24,500 × £(18.50 + 3.50) (539,000)
Gross profit 441,000
Less selling and administration costs:
Variable 24,500 × £9.20 225,400
Fixed 49,000
(274,400)
Absorption costing net profit 166,600
Using the ‘short-cut’ method:
£ per unit
Sales price 40.00
Less: Variable manufacturing cost per unit (18.50)
Variable selling and administration cost per unit (9.20)
Fixed manufacturing cost per unit (3.50)
8.80
£
× sales volume 24,500 units 215,600
Less fixed selling and administration costs 49,000

Inventories increased during the period, therefore the marginal costing net profit will be lower.
£
Difference in profits (change in inventory 1,500 units × £3.50) (5,250)
Marginal costing net profit 161,350
Check using the ‘short-cut’ method:
£
Marginal costing contribution = 24,500 × £(40 – 18.50 – 9.20) 301,350
Less fixed costs (£91,000 + £49,000) (140,000)
Marginal costing profit 161,350
B 56,850
Difference in profit = (8,500 – 6,750) × £3 = £5,250
Absorption costing profit = £62,100 – £5,250 = £56,850
Since inventory levels reduced, the absorption costing profit will be lower than the marginal costing
profit. You can therefore eliminate Options C and D.
B It is simple to operate.
C There is no under or over absorption of overheads.
D Fixed costs are the same regardless of activity levels.
E The information from this costing system may be more useful for decision making.
The first statement is incorrect. A marginal costing system does not value inventory in accordance
with financial reporting standards because it does not include absorbed fixed production overheads.
The information from an absorption costing system is therefore more useful for external reporting
purposes.
B If inventory levels increase, marginal costing will report a lower profit than absorption costing.
E If opening and closing inventory levels are the same, marginal costing and absorption costing
will report the same profit figure.
The first statement is incorrect because a positive contribution will not always show a profit under
either costing system. The level of reported profit will depend on the magnitude of fixed overheads.
The remaining statements can be assessed using the following rules:
• If inventory levels increase, absorption costing profit is higher than marginal costing profit
(because of the fixed overhead carried forward in inventory).
• If inventory levels decrease, absorption costing profit is lower than marginal costing profit
(because of the fixed overhead ‘released’ from inventory).
• If inventory levels remain the same then both costing systems will report the same profit figure.
8 The marginal costing profit for the period would have been £ 44,800 .
WORKING
Marginal costing profit

£
Actual fixed production overhead 42,000
Absorbed fixed production overhead 48,000
Therefore, absorption rate per unit = £48,000/6,000 = £8 per unit

Inventory decrease = 7,100 units – 6,000 units = 1,100 units
£
Absorption costing profit 36,000
Profit difference (1,100 units × £8) 8,800
Marginal costing profit 44,800
B The absorption costing profit would be £10,000 greater
Fixed costs per unit = £16/4 = £4
Units in closing inventory = 17,500 – 15,000 = 2,500 units
Profit difference = Inventory increase in units × Fixed overhead per unit
= 2,500 × £4 = £10,000
Inventories increased, therefore fixed overhead would have been carried forward in inventory using
absorption costing and the profit would be higher than with marginal costing.
B 52,500
Inventory levels increased by 3,000 units and absorption costing profit is £105,000 higher (£955,500
– £850,500).
Therefore, fixed production cost included in inventory increase = £105,000/3,000 = £35 per unit of
inventory.
Budgeted fixed costs/Fixed cost per unit = £1,837,500/35 = 52,500 units

Chapter 5
Pricing calculations
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Learning topics
1 Full cost-plus pricing
2 Marginal cost-plus pricing
3 Mark-ups and margins
4 Transfer pricing
Summary
Self-test questions
Introduction
Learning outcomes
• Calculate the sales price for a given product or service using cost-based pricing
• Calculate transfer prices for specified sales to internal customers which take account of
appropriate costs
The specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 1e and f.
5
Syllabus links
An understanding of the use of cost information as a basis for pricing decisions will underpin your
studies of strategic choice within the Business Strategy and Technology syllabus.
5
Examination context
Pricing decisions could feature as a narrative question or as a calculation question.
The content of this chapter is deceptively straightforward. A thorough knowledge of this, and earlier
topics such as fixed and variable costs, is required to answer questions in this area.
• calculate a selling price using full cost-plus pricing
• calculate a selling price using marginal cost-plus pricing
• demonstrate an understanding of the difference between mark-up and margin and of the
relationship between them
• derive the mark up percentage that will achieve a desired return on the investment in a product
• calculate a transfer price that will achieve profit maximisation and encourage an alignment of the
goals of groups or individuals with the goals of the organisation as a whole
5

of this chapter.

questions
1 Full cost-plus pricing Approach Pricing decisions IQ1: Adjusting

The price charged by Read quickly could feature as a the mark-up
an organisation for the through section 1 of narrative question percentage
sale of its product or the chapter on full or as a calculation This example
services to external cost-plus pricing question. You could tests the
customers will be one and learn the be asked to calculation of
of the major influences advantages and calculate a selling percentage
on the organisation’s disadvantages. price using full cost- mark up.
profits. If the price is plus pricing.
too low it might fail to
cover all of the Stop and think
organisation’s costs. If it Is cost the only
is too high, then it consideration when
might deter customers deciding on a
so that potentially price?
profitable sales are
forgone.

questions
Clearly the
determination of a
selling price is a very
important
management decision.
This section covers one
method of choosing a
price.
2 Marginal cost-plus Read quickly Pricing decisions N/A

pricing through section 2 of could feature as a
This section covers a the chapter on narrative question
second method of marginal cost-plus or as a calculation
choosing a price based pricing and learn question. You could
on the variable costs of the advantages and be asked to
producing one extra disadvantages. calculate a selling
unit. price using marginal
cost-plus pricing.
Stop and think
What type of
business might use
marginal cost-plus
pricing?
3 Mark-ups and margins Section 3 looks The need for an IQ2: Mark-ups
A selling price based deceptively understanding of and margins
on a 20% margin straightforward, but profit margins This question
means that profit is you should devote underpins a number provides useful
20% of selling price. A sufficient time to of other areas of the practice of the
selling price based on understanding the syllabus. Questions calculations that
a 20% mark-up means difference between including you could be
that profit is 20% of mark up and calculations of asked to
cost. margin. Many margins may, perform in the
students get the therefore, not be exam.
principle wrong in exclusive to pricing
the exam so ensure questions.
that you try You could be asked
interactive question to derive the mark
2. up percentage that
will achieve a
Stop and think desired return on
the investment in a
Businesses that use product.
job costing often
use margins and
mark ups to price
jobs.
4 Transfer pricing Learn the aims of a Questions could ask IQ3: Using
The transfer price is the transfer pricing you to calculate a market value as
amount charged by system and work transfer price that the transfer
one part of an through all the will achieve profit price
organisation for the material about the maximisation and Attempt this
provision of goods or behavioural impact encourage an question to
services to another part of transfer prices. alignment of the confirm your
of the same goals of groups or understanding
organisation. individuals with the of transfer
Stop and think goals of the
ICAEW 2023 5: Pricing calculations 141

questions
Inappropriate transfer In what ways would organisation as a pricing.

prices may lead to the price charged whole.
decisions that are not for transfers of
in the best interests of goods or services
the organisation as a between divisions
whole. affect the
willingness of the
supplying division
to make the transfer
and of the buying
division to accept
the transfer?

1 Full cost-plus pricing
Section overview
• In full cost-plus pricing the sales price is determined by calculating the full cost of the product or
service and then adding a percentage mark-up for profit.
• The full cost may be a fully absorbed production cost only, or it may include some absorbed
selling, distribution and administration overheads. In the former case the mark-up on costs must
be greater in order to recover the other costs.
• The most important criticism of full cost-plus pricing is that it fails to recognise that since sales
demand may be determined by the sales price, there will be a profit-maximising combination of
price and demand.
1.1 Cost-plus pricing
Definition
Cost-plus pricing: A method of determining the sales price by calculating the full (absorption) cost of
the product and adding a percentage mark-up for profit.
In practice cost is one of the most important influences on price. While in economic theory it is
possible to set a sales price that will maximise profit, in reality there is a lack of precise information
about cost behaviour patterns and the effect of price on sales demand.
This will lead some organisations to base their selling price decision on simple cost-plus rules,
whereby costs are estimated and then a percentage mark-up is added in order to set the price.
1.2 Setting full cost-plus prices

The full cost may be a fully absorbed production cost only, or it may include some absorbed selling,
distribution and administration overhead.
Therefore, there are two options for calculating a full cost-plus price.
Option 1
Manufacturing: Unit sales price = Total production cost per unit + Percentage mark-up
Service: Unit sales price = Service cost per unit + Percentage mark-up
Option 2
Manufacturing: Unit sales price = Total production cost per unit + Other costs* per unit + Percentage
mark-up
Service: Unit sales price = Service cost per unit + Other costs* per unit + Percentage mark-up
*Other costs include selling, distribution and administration costs
Clearly, to achieve the same sales price, the mark-up on cost must be greater under Option 1 than
under Option 2 in order to recover the other costs.
Worked example: Calculating a cost-plus selling price

XY Ltd has begun to supply service S, for which the following cost estimates have been prepared.
£ per unit
Variable materials 14.00
Variable labour at £12 per hour 54.00
Variable overheads at £3 per hour 13.50

£ per unit
Variable service cost per unit 81.50
Fixed production overheads are budgeted to be £69,000 each period. The overhead absorption rate
will be based on 17,250 budgeted direct labour hours each period.
Requirement
The company wishes to add 20% to the full service cost in order to determine the selling price per
unit for service S.
Solution
Step 1
Calculate the fixed overhead absorption rate.
Overhead absorption rate
= £69,000/17,250
= £4 per direct labour hour
Step 2
Calculate the full service cost per unit.
Direct labour hours per unit = £54/£12 = 4.5 hours
£ per unit
Variable production cost per unit 81.50
Fixed overhead absorbed (4.5 hours × £4) 18.00
Full service cost per unit 99.50
Step 3
Add the required mark-up to determine the selling price.
£ per unit
Full service cost per unit 99.50
Mark-up 20% 19.90
Full cost-plus selling price 119.40
Interactive question 1: Adjusting the mark-up percentage

The full cost of providing a service is £40 per hour and its selling price is currently determined as full
cost plus 60%.
Requirement
In each of the following separate situations, calculate the required profit mark-up percentage.
(1) A competitor launches a similar service for £60 per hour. In order to sell the service at the same
price as the competitor the percentage mark-up must be reduced to: %
(2) The full cost of providing the service increases to £50 per hour. The required mark-up
percentage to achieve the same absolute value of mark-up per hour of service provided is:
%

1.3 Determining the mark-up percentage
A business may have an idea of the percentage profit mark-up it would like to earn, and so may
decide on an average profit mark-up as a general guide for pricing decisions. This would be
particularly useful for businesses that carry out a large amount of contract or jobbing work, for which
individual job or contract prices must be quoted regularly to prospective customers.
However, the percentage profit mark-up does not have to be rigid and fixed. It can be varied to suit
the circumstances. In particular, the percentage mark-up can be varied to suit anticipated supply and
demand conditions in the market.
1.4 Determining the mark-up to achieve a required return on investment

A business might calculate the mark-up percentage for a product in order to achieve a required
return on the investment in the product.
Context example: Pricing to generate a return on investment

ZZ Ltd requires an annual return of 30% on the investment in all of its products. In the forthcoming
year, £800,000 will be invested in non-current assets and working capital to produce and sell 50,000
units of product Z. The full cost per unit of product Z is £100.
The annual return required on the investment in product Z = £800,000 × 30%
= £240,000
Total cost to be incurred on product Z = 50,000 units × £100 = £5m
Mark-up as a percentage of full cost = (£240,000/£5m) × 100% = 4.8%
The selling price can now be calculated as follows.
£ per unit
Full cost 100.00
Mark-up 4.8% 4.80
Selling price of product Z 104.80
1.5 Allowing for inflation when setting selling prices

We have seen that the mark-up added to total cost must be sufficient to earn the required profit, or in
the case of adding a mark-up to total production cost, the mark-up must be sufficient to recover all
non-production costs in addition to earning the required profit.
Therefore managers must estimate costs as accurately as possible and must decide whether to
include allowances for anticipated inflation. Even if some sort of allowance is added for inflation the
seller bears the risk of inflation when a selling price is determined before delivery of the goods or
services.
However, if the buyer agrees to prices based on actual cost incurred plus a profit mark-up then all of
the cost increases caused by inflation can be passed to the buyer. Thus all of the inflation risk is
borne by the buyer. The following points about this pricing policy should be noted.
(a) The buyer is likely to require some form of assurance that costs are adequately controlled.
Otherwise the supplier’s cost inefficiencies will be passed directly to the buyer and there is no
incentive for the supplier to control costs. The principle of ‘Open book accounting‘ can be
introduced, where the buyer is given open access to the cost information contained in the
accounts of the seller.
(b) Moreover, the supplier actually has an incentive to overspend, since all costs will be passed to
the buyer and a profit mark-up will also be earned on all expenditure by the supplier.
(c) If a credit period is offered to the buyer then the supplier will bear the inflation risk from the
date that the final price is agreed until payment is received from the customer. However, in low
inflation economies this extra inflation risk is likely to be acceptable to a supplier.

faults in arguments’. This could refer to the advantages and disadvantages of different pricing
methods.
1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of full cost-plus pricing

The advantages of full cost-plus pricing are as follows.
• The price is quick and easy to calculate.
• Pricing decisions can be delegated to more junior employees. This is particularly important with
jobbing work where many prices must be established and quoted each day.
• A price in excess of full cost should ensure that an organisation working at normal capacity will
cover all its costs.
• Price increases can be justified as costs rise.
However, full cost-plus pricing does have a number of disadvantages.
• It fails to recognise that since demand may be determining price, there will be a profit-
maximising combination of price and demand.
• It reduces incentives to control costs.
• It requires arbitrary absorption of overheads into product costs.
• If full cost-plus pricing is applied strictly the organisation may be caught in a vicious circle like the
one shown in Figure 5.1.
Price is set using total

cost per unit based on
budgeted sales volume
Resulting price may be

too high to achieve the
budgeted demand
Reduced output volume

increases the fixed
cost per unit
Higher selling price

results from full
cost-plus formula
Figure 5.1: Application of cost-plus pricing
2 Marginal cost-plus pricing

Section overview
• Marginal cost-plus pricing involves adding a profit mark-up to the marginal or variable cost of
production or sales.
• The chief advantage of marginal cost-plus pricing is that it avoids the arbitrary apportionment and
absorption of fixed costs.

2.1 Setting marginal cost-plus prices
Marginal cost-plus pricing is a method of determining sales prices whereby a profit mark-up is added
to either the marginal cost of production or the marginal cost of sales.
In practice, marginal cost-plus pricing is used in businesses where there is a readily identifiable basic
variable cost. The most obvious example is retail organisations, where the price of goods in shops is
often determined by adding a mark-up to the purchase price of the item.
Worked example: Calculating a marginal cost-plus price

Product Y incurs direct variable production costs of £7 per unit. Fixed production costs amount to
£17,900 each period.
Variable selling and distribution costs are £3.80 per unit and fixed selling, distribution and
administration costs amount to £24,800 each period.
Selling prices are determined on a marginal cost-plus basis, using a mark-up of 30% of the marginal
cost of sales.
Requirement
Calculate the selling price per unit of product Y and the profit that will result from sales of 26,800
units each period.
Solution
Step 1
Calculate the total marginal or variable cost of sales per unit.
£ per unit
Variable production cost 7.00
Variable selling and distribution cost 3.80
Total marginal cost 10.80
Step 2
Add the required mark-up to determine the selling price.
£ per unit
Total marginal cost 10.80
Mark-up 30% 3.24
Marginal cost-plus selling price 14.04
Step 3
Determine the total contribution and deduct the fixed costs to derive the period profit.
The mark-up per unit is the same as the contribution earned per unit. It contributes towards the fixed
costs and profit for the period.
£ £
Total mark-up/contribution (26,800 × £3.24) 86,832
Less fixed costs:
Production 17,900
Selling, distribution and administration 24,800
42,700
Profit 44,132

2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of marginal cost-plus pricing
The advantages of marginal cost-plus pricing are as follows.
• It is a simple method to use.
• It avoids the arbitrary apportionment and absorption of fixed costs that is necessary with
absorption costing.
• It is more useful than total cost-plus pricing for short-term management decision making. This is
because it draws management’s attention to contribution and the effect on profit of higher or
lower sales volumes. The level of contribution will vary in direct proportion to the sales volume.
The disadvantages of marginal cost-plus pricing are as follows.
• The full costs might not be recovered in the long term.
• Although the size of the mark-up can be varied in accordance with demand conditions, the
pricing method does not ensure that sufficient attention is paid to demand conditions,
competitors’ prices or profit maximisation.
3 Mark-ups and margins

Section overview
• The mark-up is the profit expressed as a percentage of the marginal cost, total production cost or
total cost.
• The margin is the profit expressed as a percentage of the sales price.
3.1 The difference between mark-up and margin

When sales prices are being determined on a cost-plus basis it is extremely important to be clear
about whether the profit to be added to unit costs is calculated as a percentage of costs or as a
percentage of selling price.
Cost-plus pricing
Mark-up percentage Margin percentage

Profit expressed as Profit expressed as a
a percentage of cost percentage of sales price
Figure 5.2: Mark-up percentage v margin percentage
Context example: The difference between mark-up and margin

Product Q incurs a total cost of £80 per unit and its selling price is set at £100 per unit.
The mark-up applied to product Q = (£20/£80) × 100%
= 25% of total cost
The margin earned by product Q = (£20/£100) × 100%
= 20% of sales price
Interactive question 2: Mark-ups and margins

Answer the questions in the table below.

Question Write your answer here
If the full cost is £14 per unit, calculate the price to

achieve a margin of 20% of the selling price.
The selling price is £27 per unit, determined on the basis

of full cost-plus. If the full cost is £18 per unit, calculate
the mark-up percentage.
A selling price of £165 per unit earns a mark-up of

106.25% of the full cost. What is the full cost per unit?
A product’s selling price is determined by adding 33.33%

to its full cost. What percentage margin on sales price
does this represent?
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams covers evaluating the relevance of
information provided. This could mean noting whether a business uses a mark-up or margin
percentage.
4 Transfer pricing
Section overview
• A transfer price is the amount charged by one part of an organisation for the provision of goods
or services to another part of the same organisation.
• A transfer pricing system has a number of aims, which may conflict with each other.
• Inappropriate transfer prices may lead to sub-optimal decisions and a lack of alignment of
corporate goals (called goal congruence).
• In a perfectly competitive market the optimum transfer price is the market price. This should be
reduced for savings in costs that are not incurred on internal transfers, such as distribution costs,
advertising and marketing costs, and bad debts.
• A problem with cost-plus pricing is that the receiving division will perceive the transfer price to be
a wholly variable cost, whereas it includes some costs which are fixed from the point of view of the
company as a whole. This could lead to sub-optimal decision making.
• With two part transfer prices, all transfers are charged at a predetermined standard variable cost.
A periodic charge for fixed costs would also be made by the supplying division to the receiving
division.
• In a dual pricing system the receiving division is charged with the standard variable cost of all
transfers. The supplying division is credited with the market value or a cost-plus price in order to
provide a profit incentive to make the transfer.
technical knowledge and skills to analyse a specific problem’. Establishing a transfer price is a
problem for many businesses.

4.1 What is a transfer price?
Definitions
Transfer price: The amount charged by one part of an organisation for the provision of goods or
services to another part of the same organisation.
Goal congruence: When individuals’ goals and company goals coincide.
Transfer pricing is used when divisions of an organisation need to charge other divisions of the same
organisation for goods or services that they provide to them. For example, subsidiary A might
manufacture a component that is used as part of a product made by subsidiary B of the same
company. The component can also be bought on or sold to the external market. Therefore, there will
be two sources of revenue for subsidiary A:
• external sales revenue from sales made to other organisations
• internal sales revenue from the transfer prices charged for components supplied to subsidiary B
4.2 Aims of a transfer pricing system

• To enable the realistic measurement of divisional profit.
• To provide the supplier with a realistic profit and the receiver with a realistic cost.
• To give autonomy to managers.
• To encourage goal congruence, whereby individual managers’ own goals are the same as the
goals of the company as a whole.
• To ensure profit maximisation for the company as a whole.
It may be difficult to reconcile all of these aims.
4.3 Practical methods of transfer pricing
Practical methods of transfer pricing
Market Cost-plus Two part Dual

price price transfer price pricing
Figure 5.3: Practical methods of transfer pricing
4.3.1 Market price

If a perfectly competitive market exists for a product, then the external market price is the optimum
transfer price if the supplying division is operating at full capacity.
The market price should be adjusted for savings in certain costs that may not be incurred on internal
transfers, such as:
• packaging costs
• advertising costs
• distribution costs
• bad debts
Care must be taken to ensure that the division’s product is the same as that offered by the external
market (for example in terms of quality, delivery terms etc).
Using market price can, however, lead to problems. The Interactive question ‘Using market value as
the transfer price’ illustrates this.

Interactive question 3: Using market value as the transfer price
Division A Division B
Variable cost 10 15
Transfer price at market value – 20
Fixed costs 5 10
Profit 5 25
Transfer price/selling price 20 70
Division A can sell externally at £20 per unit or transfer internally to division B at £20 per unit.
Division B receives an offer from a customer of £30 per unit for its final product.
Requirements
Would division B accept the offer of £30 per unit given the existing transfer price?
A Yes
B No
Is this the correct decision from the company’s point of view if division A has surplus capacity?
C Yes
D No
Is this the correct decision from the company’s point of view if division A is operating at full capacity?
E Yes
F No
4.3.2 A cost-plus approach to transfer pricing

This transfer pricing method works in the same way as cost-plus pricing, discussed earlier in this
chapter. The supplying division determines the transfer price by adding a profit mark-up to the cost
of the product or service. Some form of cost-based transfer pricing method will usually be necessary
where there is no external market for the product or service. A number of issues arise with this
transfer pricing method.
• A pre-determined standard cost should be used rather than actual cost. A standard cost is a
predetermined unit cost which is calculated by taking account of the expected price and usage of
resources to produce one unit of product or service. If standard costs are not used, then all
efficiencies and inefficiencies are transferred from one division to another and divisional profit
measurement is distorted.
• To ensure that overheads are recovered the supplying division will wish to base the transfer
price on total cost. However, the supplying division’s fixed costs will then be perceived as variable
costs from the point of view of the receiving division. This could lead to sub-optimal decisions.
Worked example: Sub-optimal decision making

A company has two divisions, S and R. Both divisions manufacture multiple products. Division S
transfers its output of component C to division R at full cost plus 10%. Division R then incurs further
costs to convert component C into finished product P for sale on the external market at £40 per unit.
Costs incurred are as follows.
Division S Division R
Variable cost 20 15

Division S Division R
Fixed cost absorbed 10
Full cost 30
Requirements
1 Would the transfers be recommended from the point of view of the company as a whole?
2 Would the transfers be recommended from the point of view of the manager of division R?
Solution
1 The transfers would be recommended from the point of view of the company as a whole.
The variable cost incurred by the company as a whole for each unit of product P is £35.
£ per unit
Variable cost:
Division S 20
Division R 15
35
The fixed costs are irrelevant to this analysis because they would be incurred even if the transfers
are not made.
Therefore, from the point of view of the company as a whole, the transfers are worthwhile
because product P earns a contribution of £5 per unit (£40 – £35).
2 The transfer would not be recommended from the point of view of the manager of division R.
Transfer price per unit of component C = £30 + 10% = £33
The manager of division R would view the transfer price of component C as a variable cost, since
it is an extra cost incurred by division R for every unit of product P manufactured.
Therefore, from the point of view of the manager of division R the variable cost of each unit of
product P is £48.
£ per unit
Variable cost:
Component C (perceived variable cost) 33
Extra cost incurred 15
48
Division R would not recommend the transfer of component C and the manufacture of product P,
since the division would record a negative contribution of £8 for each unit manufactured.
£ per unit of P
External market price 40
Division R perceived variable cost (48)
Contribution (8)
In this illustration, the use of a full cost-plus transfer price has led to sub-optimal decision making.
There is a lack of goal congruence because the manager of division R, in pursuing the division’s own
goals, was not at the same time automatically pursuing the goals of the company as a whole.

In the situation depicted in the Interactive question ‘Using market value as the transfer price’,
Question 3, there was also a lack of goal congruence. The divisional manager’s own goals were not
congruent with those of the company as a whole. The transfer pricing system was leading the
manager of division B to make a sub-optimal decision from the point of view of the company as a
whole when division A had spare capacity.
4.3.3 Two-part transfer price

To avoid the sub-optimal decisions that may occur when the fixed costs of one division are perceived
as variable costs by another division, a two-part transfer price might be used.
Transfers are charged at a predetermined standard variable cost. A periodic charge for fixed costs
would also be made by the supplying division to the receiving division.
This helps to ensure goal congruence, since the receiving division would be fully aware of the cost
behaviour patterns of the company as a whole.
4.3.4 Dual pricing

In dual pricing the supplying division is credited with a different price from that which is charged to
the receiving division.
This transfer pricing method charges the receiving division for all transfers at variable or marginal
cost. This may lead to improved decision making.
The supplying division is credited with the market value or with a cost-plus transfer price in order to
provide a profit incentive to make the transfer.
The dual pricing method can be effective in avoiding sub-optimal decisions, but it can be
administratively cumbersome.
Transfer pricing questions will require you to apply technical knowledge and skills to solve a specific
problem.

Summary
Pricing calculations
Full cost- Market cost- Transfer pricing

plus pricing plus pricing for internal sales
Based on total Market Cost- Two Dual

cost or on price plus part pricing
total production price price
cost
Optimal price
in perfectly Fixed and
competitive variable
market charges
separated
Mark-up Margin May lead to

percentage percentage sub-optimal
Profit expressed Profit expressed decisions
as a percentage as a percentage
cost of sales price
Different
Mark-up may price used
be derived to for receiving
earn a required and supplying
return on division
investment

indicated.
1. What is the main criticism of full cost-plus pricing? (Topic 1)
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using marginal cost-plus pricing? (Topic
2)
3. The margin is the profit expressed as a percentage of the ……..……..? (Topic 3)
4. Do you know the difference between mark-up and margin? (Topic 3)
5. Can you list the practical methods of transfer pricing? (Topic 4)

questions in the Pricing calculations chapter of the Management Information Question Bank. Refer
back to the learning in this chapter for any questions which you did not answer correctly or where the
suggested solution has not provided sufficient explanation to answer all your queries. Once you have
attempted these questions, you can move on to the next chapter.

Self-test questions

1 The following variable costs are incurred producing each unit of product F.
£ per unit
Variable material 8.00
Variable labour at £14 per hour 42.00
Variable production overheads are incurred at the rate of £4 per hour. Fixed production overheads of
£60,000 are absorbed on the basis of 25,000 budgeted direct labour hours. Other overheads are
recovered at 5% of total production cost.
Requirement
If selling prices are set to recover the full cost plus 50% the selling price per unit of product F is:
A £72.66
B £99.62
C £103.80
D £108.99
2 The marginal cost per unit of a product is 70% of its full cost. Selling prices are set on a full cost-plus
basis using a mark-up of 40% of full cost.
Requirement
Which percentage mark-up on marginal cost would produce the same selling price as the full cost-
plus basis described?
A 70%
B 90%
C 100%
D 200%
3 Jay operates a car valeting service and charges £16 per car. He incurs a total cost of £10 per car
valeted.
Requirement
Calculate the mark-up and margin earned per car valeted.
Mark-up %
Margin %
4 Which of the following statements is correct?

A A full cost-plus sales price will always be higher than a marginal cost-plus sales price.
B If the selling price is agreed at the point of sale, then the seller bears the inflation risk during any
credit period offered to the buyer.
C A selling price in excess of the full cost per unit will always result in an overall profit for the
organisation.
D A cost-plus selling price takes account of the effect of price on the quantity demanded.
5 A company requires a 20% annual return on the investment in product F.
The budgeted investment in non-current assets and working capital for product F for the next year is
£90,000. The full cost per unit of product F is £5.00 and budgeted production and sales for next year
is 36,000 units.

Requirement
The profit margin as a percentage of the sales price of product F is:
A 9.1%
B 10%
C 20%
D 50%
6 When goods are transferred from division A to division B a charge is made to division B at standard
variable cost. Each quarter division B is also charged with a lump-sum as a share of A’s fixed costs.
Requirement
This type of transfer pricing system is a:
A marginal cost-plus system
B dual pricing system
C two-part transfer pricing system
D standard cost transfer pricing system
7 Which two of the following are advantages of marginal cost-plus pricing?
A It is simple to use.
B The percentage mark-up can be varied.
C It pays attention to profit maximisation.
D It ignores fixed overheads in the pricing decision.
8 Division U makes components which it sells to external customers at a price of £24 per unit, earning
a mark-up of 20% of total cost. Variable costs account for 40% of Division U’s total cost.
Division U also transfers components at market value to Division V within the same company. Division
V incurs extra total costs of £8 per unit to convert and pack the component for international sales.
Variable costs account for 70% of Division V’s total cost.
Both divisions currently have surplus capacity.
Division V has an opportunity to sell a batch of components to a customer for £15 per unit.
Requirement
Which of the following statements is correct with regard to this potential order?
A The order is not acceptable from the company’s point of view and the manager of division V will
make a sub-optimal decision.
B The order is not acceptable from the company’s point of view and the manager of division V will
not make a sub-optimal decision.
C The order is acceptable from the company’s point of view and the manager of division V will
D The order is acceptable from the company’s point of view and the manager of division V will not
9 Division M manufactures product R incurring a total cost of £30 per unit. Fixed costs represent 40%
of the total unit cost.
Product R is sold to external customers in a perfectly competitive market at a price of £50 per unit.
Division M also transfers product R to division N. If transfers are made internally then division M does
not incur variable distribution costs, which amount to 10% of the variable costs incurred on external
sales.
The total demand for product R exceeds the capacity of division M.

Requirement
From the point of view of the company as a whole, enter the optimum price per unit at which division
M should transfer product R to division N.
Transfer price per unit = £
10 The following data relate to the Columba group, a company with several divisions. Division D
produces a single product, which it sells to Division R and also to organisations outside the Columba
group.
Division D sales to Division R Division D external sales

£ £
Sales revenue at £70 per unit 700,000
Sales revenue at £60 per unit 300,000
Variable costs at £36 per unit (180,000) (360,000)
Contribution 120,000 340,000
Fixed costs (100,000) (240,000)
Profit 20,000 100,000
The Columba group profit is £550,000.

A supplier offers to supply 3,000 units at £50 each to Division R.
Divisional managers of Columba are given freedom of choice for selling and buying decisions, and
their performance is judged solely according to divisional profitability.
Requirement
Calculate the profit for Division D and for Columba if Division D does not match the lower price
offered by the external supplier and cannot increase its external sales, and Division R chooses to
purchase from the external supplier.
this chapter.


(1) A competitor launches a similar service for £60 per hour. In order to sell the service at the same
price as the competitor the percentage mark-up must be reduced to: 50 %
(2) The full cost of providing the service increases to £50 per hour. The required mark-up
percentage to achieve the same absolute value of mark-up per hour of service provided is: 48
%
WORKINGS
(1) Situation 1
Absolute mark-up per hour of service sold = £(60 – 40) = £20
Mark-up percentage = (20/40) × 100% = 50%
(2) Situation 2
Current absolute value of mark-up per hour of service sold = 60% × £40 = £24
Mark-up percentage required = (£24/£50) × 100% = 48%
Question Write your answer here
If the full cost is £14 per unit, calculate the price to £17.50
achieve a margin of 20% of the selling price.
The selling price is £27 per unit, determined on the basis 50%
of full cost-plus. If the full cost is £18 per unit, calculate
the mark-up percentage.
A selling price of £165 per unit earns a mark-up of £80

106.25% of the full cost. What is the full cost per unit?
A product’s selling price is determined by adding 33.33% 25%

to its full cost. What percentage margin on sales price
does this represent?
WORKINGS
(1) Selling price
Cost and selling price structure:
%
Cost 80
Profit 20
Price 100
Therefore, price = 100/80 × £14 = £17.50 per unit

(2) Mark-up percentage
Profit per unit = £27 – £18 = £9

Mark-up percentage = £9/£18 = 50% of full cost
(3) Full cost per unit
%
Cost 100.00
Profit 106.25
Price 206.25
Therefore, full cost = (100.00/206.25) × £165 = £80 per unit

(4) Percentage margin on sales price
%
Cost 100.00
Profit 33.33
Price 133.33
Therefore, percentage margin on sales price = (33.33/133.33) × 100% = 25%

Correct answer(s):
B No
Division B would reject the offer as there is a negative contribution of –£5 (£30 – £20 transfer
price – £15 variable cost).
Correct answer(s):
D No
If division A has surplus capacity, then no full-price external sales would be forgone as a result of
transferring an extra unit to division B. Since the fixed costs are an arbitrary apportionment of
costs that would be incurred anyway, the only marginal cost to be incurred within division A to
provide another unit to B is £10 per unit.
From the point of view of the company as a whole, all the apportioned fixed costs can be
ignored because they will be incurred anyway. The sale of a unit from B to a customer for £30
would earn a contribution of £5 as follows.
£30 – £10 variable cost in A – £15 variable cost in B = £5
Therefore, division B’s decision to reject the offer of £30 per unit would not be the correct
decision from the company’s point of view if division A has surplus capacity.
Correct answer(s):
E Yes
If division A is operating at full capacity then the transfer of an extra unit to division B would
mean that a full price external sale at £20 per unit is displaced, thus forgoing contribution of:
£10 (£20 – £10 variable cost)
Therefore, from the point of view of the company as a whole, the sale of a unit from B to a
customer for £30 would generate a negative contribution of –£5 as follows.
£ per unit
Selling price 30

£ per unit
Variable cost in division A (10)
Forgone contribution in division A (10)
Variable cost in division B (15)
Contribution (5)
Therefore, division B’s decision to reject the offer of £30 per unit would be the correct decision
from the company’s point of view if division A is operating at full capacity. In this situation there
would be goal congruence and the manager of division B would not make a sub-optimal
decision.

D £108.99
Labour hours per unit = £42/£14 = 3 hours
Fixed production overhead absorption rate = £60,000/25,000
= £2.40 per hour
£ per unit
Variable material 8.00
Variable labour 42.00
Variable production overhead (3 hrs at £4) 12.00
Fixed production overhead (3 hrs at £2.40) 7.20
Total production cost 69.20
Other overhead at 5% 3.46
Full cost 72.66
Mark-up at 50% 36.33
Selling price 108.99
C 100%
%
Marginal cost 70
Absorbed fixed cost 30
Full cost 100
Mark-up 40
Selling price 140
(30 + 40)
Required mark up on marginal cost = × 100%
70
= 100%
3 Mark-up 60.0 %
Margin 37.5 %
WORKINGS
(1) Mark-up
£(16 − 10)
× 100%
£10
= 60.0%

(2) Margin
£(16 − 10)
× 100%
£16
= 37.5%
B If the selling price is agreed at the point of sale, then the seller bears the inflation risk during any
credit period offered to the buyer.
A is incorrect because both prices will depend on the mark-up percentage that is added to cost. If a
very large mark-up percentage is added to marginal cost, then a higher selling price may result than
with a full-cost plus sales price.
C is incorrect because the full cost includes fixed costs per unit which have been derived based on
estimated or budgeted sales volumes. If the budgeted volumes are not achieved, then the actual
fixed cost per unit will be higher than estimated and the selling price might be lower than the actual
cost per unit.
D is incorrect because one of the major criticisms of cost-plus pricing is that it fails to recognise that
sales demand may be determined by the sales price.
A 9.1%
Required annual return from product F = £90,000 × 20%

= £18,000
Total cost incurred = 36,000 × £5 = £180,000
Therefore, required percentage mark-up cost = (£18,000 /£180,000) × 100%
Product F selling price = £5 + 10%

= £5.50
Profit margin as a percentage of sales price = (£0.50/£5.50) × 100%

= 9.1%
C two-part transfer pricing system
A marginal cost-plus system would involve adding a percentage to marginal cost in order to provide
the selling division with a contribution towards its fixed costs and profit.
A dual pricing system operates by charging the buying division for transfers at marginal cost and
crediting the selling division with either the market value or with a cost-plus transfer price.
The description of a standard cost transfer pricing system is imprecise because it does not specify
whether marginal or full cost is used.
A It is simple to use.
B The percentage mark-up can be varied.
The method is simple to use and the mark-up can be adjusted to reflect demand conditions.

Option C is not an advantage. Although the size of the mark-up can be varied in accordance with
demand conditions, it is not a method of pricing which ensures that sufficient attention is paid to
demand conditions, competitors’ prices and profit maximisation.
Option D is not an advantage. Although there is no arbitrary apportionment and absorption of fixed
overheads, these costs are not ignored. They are taken into account in ensuring that the mark-up is
large enough to make a profit after covering fixed costs.
C The order is acceptable from the company’s point of view and the manager of division V will
Since both divisions have surplus capacity, no full-price sales will be forgone as a result of accepting
this order. The fixed costs will not alter, therefore provided the order covers the variable costs and
earns a contribution it will be acceptable.
Division U total cost = 100/120 × £24 = £20 per unit
Division U variable cost = 40% × £20 = £8
From the point of view of the company as a whole:

Sales price per component 15.00
Variable cost incurred:
Division U 8.00
Division V (£8 × 70%) 5.60
13.60
Contribution 1.40
The order earns a contribution therefore it is acceptable from the company’s point of view.
From the point of view of Division V:

Sales price per component 15.00
Variable cost incurred:
Transfer price 24.00
Own variable cost 5.60
(29.60)
Negative contribution (14.60)
The manager of Division V will perceive the transfer price to be a variable cost which is incurred for
each component sold. Therefore, this order will not be accepted. The decision will be sub-optimal
because the profit of the company as a whole will not be maximised.
9 Transfer price per unit = £ 48.20
The total demand for product R exceeds the capacity of division M therefore internal transfers will
displace external sales. The optimum transfer price can be calculated as follows.
Optimum transfer price = External market price – Cost savings with internal transfer
Cost savings with internal transfer = 10% × Variable costs
Fixed costs represent 40% of the total unit cost therefore variable costs are equal to 60% of the total
unit cost.
Cost savings with internal transfer = 10% × (£30 × 60%)

= £1.80
Therefore, optimum transfer price = £50 – £1.80
10 Profit for Division D = £48,000; profit for Columba Group = £508,000.

Profits of Division D
£’000
Contribution from external sales 340
Contribution from sales to Division R 48
388
Fixed costs 340
Profit 48
The group as a whole will be paying £(50 – 36) = £14 per unit extra for each unit that Division R
purchases externally, thus reducing Columba’s profits by 3,000 × £14 = £42,000.
Columba’s profit will therefore reduce to £550,000 – £42,000 = £508,000.

Chapter 6
Budgeting
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Learning topics
1 Why do organisations prepare budgets?
2 A framework for budgeting
3 Steps in the budget preparation
4 The master budget
5 Preparing forecasts
6 Alternative approaches to budgeting
7 Data bias and professional scepticism
Summary
Technical reference
Self-test questions
Introduction
Learning outcomes
• Recognise how forecasting techniques (including high/low, linear regression and time series
analysis) help management in budgeting and forecasting and perform calculations using these
techniques
• Identify how data analytics can be used in budgeting and forecasting
• Identify issues relating to the collection of data (data bias) and interpretation of data (correlation v
causation; professional scepticism) for budgeting and forecasting
• Prepare budgets or extracts therefrom
• Select the most appropriate of the following budgeting approaches and methods, taking into
account their advantages and disadvantages for planning, control and motivation:
– bottom-up and top-down approaches to generating and managing budgets
– activity-based, responsibility-based and product-based structures
– zero-based and incremental budgeting
The specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 2a, b, c, d and e.
6
Syllabus links
You will need an understanding of how the annual budgeting exercise acts as a step towards the
achievement of an organisation’s longer-term plans when you study the Business Strategy and
Technology syllabus.
6
Examination context
Numerical questions will be limited in scope (eg, individual budgets). Narrative questions need to be
read very carefully, particularly those that ask whether statements are true or false.
• demonstrate an understanding of the:
– objectives of a budgetary planning and control system
– difference between a budget and a forecast
– administrative process of budget preparation
• prepare functional budgets and the income statement and balance sheet elements of a master
budget from data supplied
• calculate the effect on budget outcomes of changes in specified variables
• demonstrate an understanding of a range of budgeting and forecasting approaches and
methods
• demonstrate an understanding of how data analytics can be used in forecasting
• demonstrate an understanding of data bias and how to apply professional scepticism
6

of this chapter.

questions
1&2 Why do organisations Approach You are likely to see N/A

prepare budgets? A Read sections 1 and narrative questions on
framework for 2 of Chapter 6 to these two sections.

questions
budgeting put budgeting into For example, objective

Individual managers context in your test questions may test
within a company have mind. the reasons for
responsibility for budgeting, the
providing a service or difference between
Stop and think budgets and forecasts,
product within the
company or to the Is the budgetary principles of beyond
company’s customers. planning and budgeting or
For example, the control process budgeting
manager of the concerned only with administration.
accounts receivable numbers?
(AR) department must
ensure that the staff
and other necessary
resources are in place
to administer the
expected number of
customer accounts and
to provide the required
credit control services
and so on.
The AR manager will
need to be able to
incur costs within the
department without
seeking separate
authorisation for each
item of expenditure.
For example, it may be
necessary to send a
member of the credit
control staff on a
training course. If the
manager has to contact
the accounts
department first to
check that the money is
available, then time will
be wasted by the
manager and by the
accounts department.
To avoid this situation
the AR manager may
be provided with a
budget, which is a plan
for the forthcoming
period and details the
authorised level of
expenditure that may
be incurred on each
type of cost during the
period.
Thus a budget acts as a
plan and as an
authorisation to allow a
manager, such as the
ICAEW 2023 6: Budgeting 169

questions
AR manager, to incur
expenditure.
Another main role of a
budget is as a control
tool. The actual
expenditure can be
compared with the
budgeted expenditure
for each period and
variances highlighted.
Monitoring these
variances means that
control action can be
taken if necessary to
correct such deviations
from the budget.
Budgets have other
roles in addition to
authorisation and
control, which we will
also investigate in this
chapter.
3 Steps in the Study the order of Questions could ask IQ2:

preparation of a budget preparation you to prepare Preparing
budget and work carefully budgets, or budget functional
Individual budgets, through the worked extracts from budgets
such as a sales budget, example in section information supplied. This question
production budget and 3.3. Spend some provides
so on, are prepared time thinking about useful
first. From these the link between practice of
budgets, a budgeted budgeting and the budget
income statement can standard costing calculations.
be produced. Once the because this is an
capital expenditure, important issue.
working capital and
cash budgets have Stop and think
been produced, a
budgeted balance Why is the sales
sheet can be budget usually
produced. prepared first?
4 The master budget In section 4 think Objective test N/A

The master budget about how all the questions about the
consists of the functional budgets master budget are
budgeted income provide the basic likely to be narrative
statement, the data for the master ones. You could be
budgeted balance budget asked to perform
sheet and the cash calculations in relation
budget. to what if? analysis.
Stop and think
How much of the
master budget
would be produced
using technology?

questions
5 Preparing forecasts The high-low Questions may require IQ3: High-

There is quite a lot in method in section 5 you to: low method
this section covering is a very important • apply forecasting It is vital that
the various different technique that you techniques to help you can
ways of forecasting. must practise management in apply the
The use of big data and several times. It performance high-low
machine learning is a could arise in the measurement and method.
relatively new method. context of various planning
types of question,
not just those on • identify how data
budgeting. Linear analytics can be
regression is a used in budgeting
slightly more and forecasting
accurate method for Questions requiring
forecasting than the the use of the high-low
high-low method. method are highly
Ensure that you likely.
understand all the
measures of
correlation and how
to interpret them.
Note that
correlation does not
necessarily mean
causation. Time
series analysis is
another forecasting
method. Note that
accurate forecasting
is extremely
important for
making good
business decisions
and therefore the
use of Big Data,
data science and
machine learning
are on the increase.
Ensure you know
the benefits and
problems of big
data.
Stop and think

How does the
business you work
for prepare
forecasts?
6 Alternative approaches Read section 6 Questions could

to budgeting carefully and require you to select
Incremental budgeting commit to memory the most appropriate
is the traditional the advantages and of the following
approach to budgeting disadvantages of budgeting approaches
but it has its the different and methods, taking
disadvantages. approaches to into account their

questions
budgeting. advantages and

disadvantages for
planning, control and
Stop and think motivation:
ZBB is often used in • bottom-up and top-
the public sector. down approaches
Why do you think to generating and
this is? managing budgets
• activity-based,
responsibility-based
and product-based
structures
• zero-based and
incremental
budgeting
7 Data bias and Professional Questions may require

professional scepticism scepticism was you to:
defined in Chapter • apply professional
1 and this section scepticism to data
explains how it can
be used to identify • identify different
data bias. Make a types of bias
note of the different
types of bias and
how infographics
can be
manipulated.
Stop and think

Are budgets prone
to data bias?

1 Why do organisations prepare budgets?
Section overview
• An organisation’s budgets fulfil many roles.

• A forecast is a prediction of what is likely to happen, whereas a budget is a plan of what the
organisation intends should happen.
• To be useful for planning and control purposes a budget must be quantified, but not necessarily
only in financial terms.
1.1 Reasons for preparing budgets
Definition
Budget: A quantitative statement, for a defined period of time, which may include planned revenues,
expenses, assets, liabilities and cash flows.
An organisation’s budget fulfils many roles. Here are some of the reasons why budgets are used.
Function Detail
Compel planning Budgeting forces management to look ahead, to set out detailed
plans for achieving the targets for each department, each
operation and (ideally) each manager and to anticipate problems.
Traditionally this may have been once a year but now businesses
need to look ahead more frequently.
Communicate ideas and A formal system is necessary to ensure that each person affected
plans by the plans is aware of what he or she is supposed to be doing.
Communication might be one-way, with managers giving orders
to subordinates, or there might be two-way communication.
Coordinate activities The activities of different departments need to be coordinated to

ensure everyone in an organisation is working towards the same
goals. This means, for example, that the purchasing department
should base its budget on production requirements and that the
production budget should in turn be based on sales expectations.
Budget coordination is becoming easier as technology
progresses. Modern financial platforms allow multiple user access
and collaboration across departments.
Means of allocating resources It can be used to decide how many resources are needed (cash,
labour and so on) and how many should be given to each area of
the organisation’s activities. Resource allocation is particularly
important when some resources are in short supply. Budgets
often set ceilings or limits on how much administrative
departments and other service departments are allowed to spend
in the period. Public expenditure budgets, for example, set
spending limits for each government department or other public
body.
Authorisation A formal budget delegates authority to budget holders to take

action and, within specified control limits, to incur expenditure on
the organisation’s behalf.
Provide a framework for Budgets require that managers are made responsible for the
responsibility accounting achievement of budget targets for the operations under their
personal control.

Function Detail
Establish a system of control Control over actual performance is provided by the comparison
of actual results against the budget plan. Departures from budget
can then be investigated and the reasons can be divided into
controllable and uncontrollable factors.
Provide a means of Budgets provide targets that can be compared with actual
performance evaluation outcomes in order to assess employee performance. They also
provide a means to establish a personal incentive and bonus
scheme.
Motivate employees to The interest and commitment of employees can be retained if

improve their performance there is a system that lets them know how well or badly they are
performing. The budget can act as a target for achievement, and
the identification of controllable reasons for departures from
budget with managers responsible provides an incentive for
improving future performance.
1.2 Problems with budgets

The weaknesses of traditional methods of preparing budgets have been in the spotlight for several
years. Hope and Fraser stated the following problems back in 2003:
(a) ‘Budgeting is cumbersome and too expensive’.
(b) ‘Budgeting is out of kilter with the competitive environment and no longer meets the needs of
either executives or operating managers’.
(c) ‘The extent of “gaming the numbers” has risen to unacceptable levels’ (Hope and Fraser, 2003).
Since then, the business environment has changed dramatically and continues to change with
increased globalisation, competition and the introduction of improved technological capabilities for
data capture, data processing and artificial intelligence such as machine learning models.
Budgets are traditionally produced annually, perhaps using spreadsheets, taking up time and
resources. However, because of the dynamic nature of the current business environment, these time-
consuming annual budgets are inflexible and quickly become out of date. Modern businesses now
require more frequent, reliable budgets and forecasts that inform their decision making.
To alleviate these issues, various approaches have been suggested such as Beyond Budgeting®
principles and rolling budgets (see section 6). Potentially more dramatic effects could be achieved
by using technological help (see section 5 and the Uber example in section 6).
1.3 Beyond budgeting
faults in arguments’. This could refer to the problems with traditional budgeting methods.
The Beyond Budgeting Round Table (BBRT), an independent research collaborative, was founded in
1998 by Jeremy Hope, Robin Fraser and Peter Bunce. (You may recognise the names Hope and
Fraser, as we mentioned some of the criticisms that Hope and Fraser identified with traditional
budgets in section 1.2.) The BBRT suggests that the traditional ways that businesses prepare budgets
should be abandoned. It suggests that budgets should be more adaptive and agile and that this can
be achieved using its 12 Beyond Budgeting principles.
The principles are split into two categories, leadership principles and management processes, and
the following table is from the brrt.org website:

Leadership principles Management processes
Purpose – Engage and inspire people around Rhythm – Organise management processes
bold and noble causes; not around short-term dynamically around rhythms and events; not
financial targets around the calendar year only
Values – Govern through shared values and Targets – Set directional, ambitious and relative
sound judgement; not through detailed rules goals; avoid fixed and cascaded targets
and regulations
Transparency – Make information open for self- Plans and forecasts – Make planning and
regulation, innovation, learning and control; forecasting lean and unbiased processes; not
don’t restrict it rigid and political exercises
Organisation – Cultivate a strong sense of Resource allocation – Foster a cost-conscious

belonging and organise around accountable mind-set and make resources available as
teams; avoid hierarchical control and needed; not through detailed annual budget
bureaucracy allocations
Autonomy – Trust people with freedom to act; Performance evaluation – Evaluate performance
don’t punish everyone if someone should holistically and with peer feedback for learning
abuse it and development; not based on measurement
only and not for rewards only
Customers – Connect everyone’s work with Rewards – Reward shared success against
customer needs; avoid conflicts of interest competition; not against fixed performance
contracts
(bbrt.org/the-beyond-budgeting-principles/)
These principles and processes may not be easy to implement without a major shift in a business’
culture. However, some of the principles could be applied by using rolling budgets or zero-based
budgets (see section 6). For example, rolling budgets may allow resources to be made available as
needed.
Another criticism of traditional budgeting is that most businesses link employee benefits to the
performance of the business against its budget and that this is unfair if the budgets are not very
accurate. The rewards management process above is a useful solution.
1.4 Budgets compared with forecasts

A forecast is a prediction of what is likely to happen in the future, given a certain set of circumstances.
This is different from a budget, which is a quantified plan of what the organisation intends should
happen in the future.
The budget is based on the forecast, therefore the two are connected, but they are not the same
thing. Measures might be taken to ensure that budgeted targets are achieved, thus a budget forces
management into decision making and taking action. For example, a gap between forecast sales
revenue and the sales budget could force sales promotions or an increase in advertising. This means
that businesses need frequent forecasts so that they can make informed decisions on appropriate
actions needed to ensure budget expectations are met. Forecasts are increasingly being made using
a data science approach, by analysing large quantities of corporate data for patterns and making
predictions. We will return to this subject later in the chapter.
1.5 Quantified budgets

To fulfil the range of purposes for which it is prepared, a budget must be quantified. For example,
the following two statements would not be particularly useful for planning and control purposes.
‘We plan to use fully all the available hours of semi-skilled labour next period.’
‘We plan to minimise expenditure on advertising next period.’
Without quantification these are merely general statements of purpose. The following quantified
budgets are more useful for planning and control.
‘We plan to use 24,800 hours of semi-skilled labour next period.’

‘We plan to spend £107,000 on advertising next period.’
These budgets provide definite plans, as well as yardsticks for control purposes. Notice that the
labour hours budget is not expressed in financial terms. It still fulfils the role of a budget because it is
quantified. Therefore, a budget does not necessarily need to be expressed in financial terms. Of
course, the semi-skilled labour hours budgeted can be converted into a budget expressed in
financial terms by applying a rate of pay per hour to the budgeted number of labour hours.
An important feature of any quantified budget is the fact that it is time bound. Just to say, ‘We plan to
spend £107,000 on advertising’ without specifying a period over which this amount is to be spent
would render the ‘budget’ useless.
2 A framework for budgeting

Section overview
• The budget committee is the coordinating body in the preparation and administration of
budgets.
• The budget period is the period covered by the budget, which is traditionally one year. The
budget is divided into a number of control periods, typically calendar months.
• The budget manual is a collection of instructions relating to the preparation and use of budgetary
data.
2.1 Budget committee

The budget committee is the coordinating body in the preparation and administration of budgets.
The budget committee is usually headed up by the managing director (as chairperson) who is
helped by a budget officer, who is usually the finance director or another accountant. Every part of
the organisation should be represented on the committee, so there should be a representative from
sales, production, marketing and so on.
Functions of the budget committee include the following.
• Coordination and allocation of responsibility for the preparation of budgets
• Issuing of the budget manual
• Timetabling
• Provision of information to help with the preparation of budgets
• Communication of final budgets to the appropriate managers
• Monitoring the budgeting process by comparing actual and budgeted results
Often the budget committee is the senior management team of an organisation or the board of
directors itself.
2.2 The budget period

The budget period is the period covered by the budget, which is usually one year. However, budgets
can also be prepared for shorter periods, for example, as already mentioned, in an environment
where technology or other factors are rapidly changing with the result that annual budgets quickly
become out of date. Budgets can also be prepared and used for longer periods, for example capital
expenditure budgets.
In the common situation where a budget is prepared for a year it will usually be divided into monthly
control periods so that regular comparisons can be made of the actual and budgeted results.
Some organisations divide the annual budget into 13 periods of 4 weeks. Others have 12 budget
periods but they are not calendar months, but periods of 4, 4 and 5 weeks for each quarter of the
year.

2.3 The budget manual
Definition
Budget manual: A collection of instructions governing the responsibilities of persons and the
procedures, forms and records relating to the preparation and use of budgetary data.
The budget manual may contain the following.

(a) An explanation of the objectives of the budgetary process
– The purpose of budgetary planning and control
– The objectives of the various stages of the budgetary process
– The importance of budgets in the long-term planning of the business
(b) Organisational structures
– An organisation chart
– A list of individuals holding budget responsibilities
(c) An outline of the principal budgets and the relationship between them
(d) Administrative details of budget preparation
– Membership and terms of reference of the budget committee
– The sequence in which budgets are to be prepared
– A timetable
(e) Procedural matters
– Specimen reports and instructions for their completion
– Account codes (or a chart of accounts)
– The name of the budget officer to whom enquiries must be sent
3 Steps in the budget preparation

Section overview
• The procedures for preparing a budget will differ from organisation to organisation depending on
its size, complexity and use of technology for deriving predicted values and automating budget
production.
• The principal budget factor is that factor which limits an organisation’s activities. The budget for
the principal budget factor must be established first.
• If sales volume is the limiting factor then the sales budget should be prepared first.
• The production budget will then follow by adjusting the sales budget for planned changes in
finished goods inventory.
• The next stage will be the preparation of budgets for production resources such as direct
materials usage and direct labour.
• The direct materials purchases budget is prepared by adjusting the direct materials usage budget
for planned changes in raw materials inventory.
• Overhead cost budgets will be prepared, taking account of the level of activity to be achieved
and the support needed to be given to the ‘direct’ operations. A budgeted income statement can
then be produced.
• A number of budgets such as the capital expenditure budget, the working capital budget and the
cash budget must be prepared in order to provide the necessary information for the budgeted
balance sheet.
• Standard costs provide the basic unit rates to be used in the preparation of a number of
functional budgets.

The preparation of individual budgets and the master budget (budgeted income statement,
budgeted balance sheet and budgeted cash flow) may take weeks or months. Functional budgets
(sales budgets, production budgets, direct labour budgets and so on), which are combined into the
master budget, may need to be amended many times because of discussions between departments,
changes in market conditions and so on during the course of budget preparation. As a result, some
argue that a rolling budget (a budget prepared more frequently) is preferable as it reduces the peaks
of intensity of resource usage (see later in the chapter).
Ideally, a master budget should be finished before the start of the period to which it relates.
3.1 Identifying the principal budget factor
information provided’. This may mean identifying the principal budget factor.
Definition
Principal budget factor: The budgeted factor which limits the activities of an organisation.
The budget for the principal budget factor must be prepared first. The principal budget factor is that
factor which limits an organisation’s activities. This factor is usually sales demand. A company is
usually restricted from making and selling more of its products or services because there would be
no sales demand for the increased output at a price that would be acceptable/profitable to the
company. The principal budget factor may alternatively be machine capacity, distribution and selling
resources, the availability of key raw materials or the availability of cash. Once this factor is defined
then the remainder of the budgets can be prepared. For example, if sales are the principal budget
factor then the production manager can only prepare the production budget after the sales budget
is complete.
3.2 The order of budget preparation

Assuming that sales has been identified as the principal budget factor, the stages involved in the
preparation of a budget for a manufacturing business can be summarised as follows.
(a) The sales budget is prepared in terms of units of product or service, unit selling price and total
sales value. The finished goods inventory budget can be prepared at the same time. This
budget decides the planned increase or decrease in finished goods inventory levels.
(b) With the information from the sales and inventory budgets, the production budget can be
prepared. This is, in effect, the sales budget in units plus (or minus) the increase (or decrease) in
finished goods inventory. The production budget will be stated in terms of units.
(c) This leads on logically to budgeting the resources for production. This involves preparing a
materials usage budget, machine usage budget and a labour budget.
(d) In addition to the materials usage budget, a materials inventory budget will be prepared, to
decide the planned increase or decrease in the level of inventory held. Once the raw materials
usage requirements and the raw materials inventory budget are known, the purchasing
department can prepare a raw materials purchases budget in quantities and value for each type
of material purchased. Similarly warehousing and distribution budgets can be prepared.
(e) During the preparation of the sales and production budgets, the managers of the cost centres of
the organisation will prepare draft budgets for their department overhead costs. Such
overheads will include maintenance, stores, administration, selling and research and
development.
(f) From the above information a budgeted income statement can be produced.
(g) In addition, several other budgets must be prepared in order to arrive at the budgeted balance
sheet. These are the capital expenditure budget (for non-current assets), the working capital
budgets (for budgeted increases or decreases in the level of receivables and accounts payable
as well as inventories), and a cash budget.

The following diagram shows the major budgets and their inter-relationships.
Sales budget
Inventory budget Other cost budgets: Receivables

(finished goods) Sales and distribution costs budget
Administration costs
R&D
Production
budget
Raw materials Direct labour Machine usage

usage budget budget Budget
Inventory budget
(raw materials)
Recruitment or Production
redundancy budgets overhead budget
Raw materials
purchase budget
Payables budget Cash budget

Capital
expenditure
budget
Budget income
statement and
balance sheet
Figure 6.1: Inter-relationships between major budgets
A similar flow chart could be prepared for a service-based business.
Interactive question 1: The order of budget preparation

For the following pairs of budgets, identify, under normal circumstances, whether the first budget
should be produced before or after the second or whether it does not matter. Assume that sales
demand is the principal budget factor.
For each row, fill in the answer column with one of the following:
• Before
• After
• Doesn’t matter
Answer
Sales revenue; sales quantities
Finished goods inventories; production volume
Materials usage; labour hours

Answer
Materials usage; materials purchases
3.3 Preparing functional budgets
Definition
Functional budgets: The budgets for the various functions of the business eg, production, marketing,
sales, purchasing budgets.
Functional/departmental budgets include budgets for sales, production, purchases, labour and
administration. Having seen the theory of budget preparation, let us look at functional (or
departmental) budget preparation, which is best explained by an example.
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify any information
gaps’. The illustration below highlights how much information is needed to prepare a materials
purchases budget.
Worked example: Preparing a materials purchases budget

ECO Co manufactures two products, S and T, which use the same raw materials, D and E. One unit of
S uses 3 litres of D and 4 kilograms of E. One unit of T uses 5 litres of D and 2 kilograms of E. A litre of
D is expected to cost £3 and a kilogram of E £7.
Budgeted sales for 20X2 are 8,000 units of S and 6,000 units of T; finished goods in inventory at 1
January 20X2 are 1,500 units of S and 300 units of T, and the company plans to hold inventories of
600 units of each product at 31 December 20X2.
Inventories of raw material are 6,000 litres of D and 2,800 kilograms of E at 1 January and the
company plans to hold 5,000 litres and 3,500 kilograms respectively at 31 December 20X2.
The warehouse and stores managers have suggested that a provision should be made for damages
and deterioration of items held in store, as follows.
Product S: loss of 50 units
Product T: loss of 100 units
Material D: loss of 500 litres
Material E: loss of 200 kilograms
Requirement
Prepare a material purchases budget for the year 20X2.
Solution
To calculate material purchases requirements it is first necessary to calculate the material usage
requirements. That in turn depends on calculating the budgeted production volumes.

Product S Product T
Units Units
Production required
To meet sales demand 8,000 6,000
To provide for inventory loss 50 100
For closing inventory 600 600
8,650 6,700
Less inventory already in hand (1,500) (300)
Budgeted production volume 7,150 6,400
Material purchases budget Material D Material E

Litres kg
Usage requirements
To produce 7,150 units of S 21,450 28,600
To produce 6,400 units of T 32,000 12,800
To provide for inventory loss 500 200
For closing inventory 5,000 3,500
58,950 45,100
Less inventory already in hand (6,000) (2,800)
Budgeted material purchases 52,950 42,300
Unit cost £3 £7
Cost of material purchases £158,850 £296,100
Total cost of material purchases £454,950
The basic principles for the preparation of each functional budget are similar to those above. Work
carefully through the following question, which covers the preparation of a number of different types
of functional budget.
Interactive question 2: Preparing functional budgets

XYZ company produces three products, X, Y and Z. For the coming accounting period budgets are to
be prepared based on the following information.
Budgeted sales
Product X2,000 at £100 each
Product Y4,000 at £130 each
Product Z3,000 at £150 each
Budgeted usage of raw material
RM11 RM22 RM33

Product X 5 2 –
Product Y 3 2 2
Product Z 2 1 3
Cost per unit of material £5 £3 £4

Finished inventory budget
Product X Product Y Product Z

Opening 500 800 700
Closing 600 1,000 800
Raw materials inventory budget
RM11 RM22 RM33

Opening 21,000 10,000 16,000
Closing 18,000 9,000 12,000

Expected hours per unit 4 6 8
Expected hourly rate (labour) £9 £9 £9
Requirements
Fill in the blanks.
2.1 Sales budget
Product X Product Y Product Z Total
Sales quantity
Sales value £ £ £ £
2.2 Production budget
Units Units Units
Budgeted
production
2.3 Material usage budget
RM11 RM22 RM33
Units Units Units
Budgeted material
usage
2.4 Material purchases budget
RM11 RM22 RM33
Budgeted material purchases £ £ £
2.5 Labour budget
Budgeted total wages = £

3.4 The link between budgeting and standard costing
In the practical exercises in section 3.3 involving the preparation of budgets you used data about the
expected price and usage of the resources required to manufacture one unit of product in the
budget. For example, to prepare the labour cost budget you were provided with information about
the expected labour hours for each unit of product to be manufactured, as well as the expected rate
to be paid for each hour of labour.
This information about the expected price and usage of resources is provided by a standard costing
system. A standard cost is a predetermined unit cost that details the price and quantity of resources
(material, labour and so on) required for each unit of product or service. This unit cost is multiplied by
the budgeted activity level to determine the budgeted total cost for each of the relevant cost
elements. For the purposes of an exam question you would be given the standard costing
information (and it would be fairly basic) but you will appreciate that this information is something
that a business needs to establish first and it may not be easy to be accurate. For a large business the
standard costs may be different for different parts of the business. For example, staff may be paid
higher wages in different areas of the country. Similarly, the cost of inputs (materials) may fluctuate
based on various factors such as the economic climate. In the modern world, artificial intelligence (AI)
is emerging with machine learning (ML) being a subset of this. ML is inspired by how living creatures
learn and allows machines to look at large volumes of data and make predictions from it. This can
help to produce more accurate forecasts of standard cost information (see section 5).
Thus, standard costs provide the basic unit rates to be used in the preparation of a number of
functional budgets. The detailed standard cost also enables control to be exercised over actual
performance. The departures from budgets, or variances, can be analysed in detail using the
standard cost information about the price and quantity of resources that should have been used for
each unit of production or service.
In Chapter 8 you will study the use of budgets for control purposes, and in Chapter 9 the analysis of
standard costing variances will be explored in detail.
4 The master budget

Section overview
• The master budget consists of the budgeted income statement, the budgeted balance sheet and
the cash budget.
• The master budget provides a consolidation of all the subsidiary budgets and is likely to be of
most interest to senior managers and directors.
• A sensitivity analysis might be carried out on the master budget to show the effect on the
budgeted outcome of changes in the budgeted assumptions.
4.1 The content of the master budget

The master budget provides a consolidation of all the subsidiary budgets and normally consists of a
budgeted income statement, a budgeted balance sheet and a cash budget.
Cash budgeting will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7. In this chapter we will focus on the
budgeted income statement and budgeted balance sheet.
Worked example: Preparing a budgeted income statement and balance sheet

A new business is to be started and details of budgeted transactions are as follows.
• Non-current assets will be purchased for £12,000. Depreciation will be charged on a straight-line
basis, assuming that the assets will have a useful life of five years after which they will have no
residual value.
• Month-end inventories will be maintained at a level sufficient to meet the forecast sales for the
following month.
• Forecast monthly sales are £4,000 for January to March, £5,000 for April to June and £6,000 per
month for July onwards.

• The gross profit margin is budgeted to be 20% of sales value.
• Two months’ credit will be allowed to customers and one month’s credit will be received from
suppliers of inventory.
• Operating expenses (excluding depreciation) are budgeted to be £350 each month.
• The budgeted closing cash balance as at 30 June is £16,700.
Requirement
Use the information above to prepare a budgeted income statement for the six months ended 30
June and a budgeted balance sheet at that date.
Solution
Budgeted income statement for six months ended 30 June
£ £
Revenue ((£4,000 × 3) + (£5,000 × 3)) 27,000
Cost of sales (£27,000 × 80/100) 21,600
Gross profit 5,400
Operating expenses (£350 × 6) 2,100
Depreciation ((£12,000/5) × 6/12) 1,200
3,300
Budgeted profit 2,100
Budgeted balance sheet as at 30 June
£ £
Non-current assets (£12,000 – £1,200 depreciation) 10,800
Current assets
Inventories (July cost of sales = £6,000 × 80/100) 4,800
Receivables (May and June sales) 10,000
Cash 16,700
31,500
Current liabilities
Trade payables (June purchases = July cost of sales) 4,800
Net current assets 26,700
37,500
Owner’s capital 37,500
4.2 Performing a sensitivity analysis
Definition
Sensitivity analysis: Assesses how sensitive a budget is to changes in the budget assumptions.
Since the master budget provides a summary of all the subsidiary budgets it is likely to be of most
interest to senior managers and directors who may not need to be concerned with the detail of
budgets outside their own areas of responsibility.

Of particular interest to senior managers will be the sensitivity of the budget outcomes to changes
in the budget assumptions. For example, they might like to know the answers to questions such as
the following.
• What will be the budgeted profit if sales revenue is 5% higher or lower than the budget?
• What will be the total budgeted costs if direct material costs are 10% higher or lower than the
budget?
A sensitivity analysis (sometimes called a ‘what if?‘ analysis) might be performed to show the effect
of changes such as these, and to assess the impact on critical areas such as cash resources. ML can
also be incorporated into ‘What if?’ scenario modelling. For example, universities can predict how
different levels of marketing can affect the likelihood of a student applying to their university.
Context example: ‘What if?’ analysis
R Ltd manufactures and sells a single product. The budgeted income statement contained in the
master budget for the forthcoming year is as follows.
£ £
Sales revenue (20,000 units) 640,000
Variable materials cost 190,000
Variable labour cost 172,000
Variable overhead 13,000
Fixed overhead 155,000
530,000
Budgeted net profit 110,000
The directors wish to know what the budgeted profit will be if a higher quality material is used. This
will increase material costs per unit by 10% but sales volume will be increased by 5%. There will be
no change in the unit selling price.
Assumptions
The budgeted sales volume will increase to 21,000 units and, in the absence of information to the
contrary, we will assume there will be no changes in the total fixed overhead cost incurred and no
changes in the variable labour and overhead costs per unit.
The revised budgeted income statement will look like this.
£ £
Sales revenue (£640,000/20,000) × 21,000 672,000
Variable materials cost (£190,000/20,000) × 1.1 × 21,000 219,450
Variable labour cost (£172,000/20,000) × 21,000 180,600
Variable overhead (£13,000/20,000) × 21,000 13,650
Fixed overhead 155,000
568,700
Budgeted net profit 103,300
The proposed changes are not worthwhile since the contribution from the increase in sales volume is
not sufficient to compensate for the increase in material costs.

5 Preparing forecasts
Section overview
• Techniques that use past data to forecast future events assume that the past will provide a good
indication of what will happen in the future.
• The high-low method is a technique for analysing the fixed and variable elements of a semi-
variable cost and thus predicting the cost to be incurred at any activity level within the relevant
range.
• A major disadvantage of the high-low method is that it takes account of only two sets of data.
• Linear regression analysis establishes a straight-line equation to represent cost or revenue and
activity data. It takes account of all sets of data that are available.
• Correlation is the degree to which one variable is related to another.
• The coefficient of correlation, r, can take any value between –1 (perfect negative correlation) and
+1 (perfect positive correlation). If r = 0 then the variables are uncorrelated.
• The coefficient of determination, r², is a measure of the proportion of the change in one variable
that can be explained by variations in the value of the other variable.
• Correlation does not necessarily mean causation.
• A time series is a historical sequence of observations. Any pattern found in the data is then
assumed to continue into the future and a forecast is produced.
• Big data refers to the vast array of data available to businesses that can be used to identify trends
and create value.
5.1 Forecasting using historical data

Numerous techniques have been developed for using past costs as the basis for forecasting future
values. These techniques range from simple arithmetic to advanced computer-based statistical
systems. With all these techniques the important presumption is made that the past will provide
guidance to the future.
Some of the forecasting methods that we will review in this section of the chapter (ie, the high-low
method and regression analysis) are based on the assumption that a linear relationship links levels of
cost and levels of activity. This is a very simplified version of reality, but the methods give you a basic
understanding of how forecasting might be approached. The forecast results may not be very
accurate, but the methods lend themselves well to exam questions.
5.2 Linear relationships

A linear relationship can be expressed in the form of an equation that has the general form y = a +
bx, where:
• y is the dependent variable, depending for its value on the value of x
• x is the independent variable, whose value helps to determine the corresponding value of y
• a is a constant, a fixed amount
• b is a constant, being the coefficient of x (that is, the number by which the value of x should be
multiplied to derive the value of y)
For example, if there is a linear relationship between total costs and the level of activity, y = total
costs, x = level of activity, a = fixed cost and b = variable cost per unit.
5.3 The high-low method

The high-low method is a technique for analysing the fixed and variable cost elements of a semi-
variable cost and thus predicting the cost to be incurred at any activity level within the relevant
range.
The steps taken to prepare a forecast using the high-low method are as follows.

Step 1
Records of costs in previous periods are reviewed and the costs of the following two periods are
selected.
• The period with the highest volume of activity
• The period with the lowest volume of activity
• (ie, the high/low values of the independent variable)
The difference between the total cost of these two periods will be the total variable cost of the
difference in activity levels (since the same fixed cost is included in each total cost).
Step 2
The variable cost per unit may be calculated from this as (Difference in total costs/Difference in
activity levels).
Step 3
The fixed cost may then be determined by substitution.
Step 4
The linear equation y = a + bx can be used to predict the cost for a given activity level.
Worked example: The high-low method

The costs of operating the maintenance department of a computer manufacturer, Bread and Butter
Ltd, for the last four months have been as follows.
Month Cost Production volume

£ Units
1 110,000 7,000
2 115,000 8,000
3 111,000 7,700
4 97,000 6,000
Requirement
Calculate the costs that should be expected in Month 5 when output is expected to be 7,500 units.
Ignore inflation.
Solution
Step 1
Units £
High output 8,000 Total cost 115,000
Low output 6,000 Total cost 97,000
Total variable cost 2,000 18,000
Step 2
Variable cost per unit £18,000/2,000 = £9
Step 3
Substituting in either the high or low volume cost:
High Low
£ £
Total cost 115,000 97,000

High Low
£ £
Variable costs (8,000 × £9) 72,000 (6,000 × £9) 54,000
Fixed costs 43,000 43,000
Step 4
Estimated maintenance costs when output is 7,500 units:
£
Fixed costs 43,000
Variable costs (7,500 × £9) 67,500
Total costs 110,500
Interactive question 3: High-low method

The Valuation Department of a large firm of surveyors wishes to develop a method of predicting its
total costs in a period. The following past costs have been recorded at two activity levels.
Number of valuations Total cost

(V) (TC)
Period 1 420 £82,200
Period 2 515 £90,275
Requirement
Write the appropriate figures in the boxes below to derive an equation that can be used to represent
the total cost model for a period.
TC = £ +£ V
A major disadvantage of the high-low method is that it takes account of only two sets of data, which
may not be representative of all the data available. In particular, one of them could be a rogue set of
data.
For example, the pattern of data might be as follows.
Cost
£
Level of activity

Figure 6.2: Example data set
The straight-line equation derived using the high-low method, as shown in the diagram above using
points H and L, would be inaccurate. It does not take into account all of the recorded combinations
and fails to allow for the fact that the majority of points lie below the line joining the highest and
lowest activity.
5.4 Linear regression analysis
Definition
Linear regression analysis: A technique for estimating the equation of a line of best fit.
Linear regression analysis is a statistical technique for establishing a straight-line equation to

represent a set of data. Linear regression analysis is superior to the high-low method because it
takes account of all sets of recorded data, rather than only the highest and lowest activity.
However, even though the linear regression technique is more accurate than the high-low method, it
is important to remember that its use in forecasting is still based on the presumption that past events
are a good guide to what will happen in the future.
A further issue with the use of both the high-low method and linear regression analysis is that the
quality or reliability of the linear equation derived will depend upon the correlation between the
variables.
5.5 Correlation
Correlation is the degree to which one variable is related to another, ie, the degree of
interdependence between the variables.
Y Y
X X
(a) (b)
Figure 6.3: Correlation
In the scatter diagrams above, you should agree that the straight-line equation is more likely to
reflect the ‘real’ relationship between X and Y in (b) than in (a). In (b), the pairs of data are all close to
the line of best fit, whereas in (a), there is much more scatter around the line.
In the situation represented in diagram (b), forecasting the value of Y from a given value for X would
be more likely to be accurate than in the situation represented in (a). This is because there would be
greater correlation between X and Y in (b) than in (a).
5.5.1 Degrees of correlation

Two variables might be perfectly correlated, partly correlated, uncorrelated or subject to non-linear
correlation.

Perfect correlation
Y Y
X X
Figure 6.4: Perfect correlation
All the pairs of values lie on a straight line. An exact linear relationship exists between the two
variables.
Partial correlation
Y Y
X X
Figure 6.5: Partial correlation
In the left-hand diagram, although there is no exact relationship, low values of X tend to be
associated with low values of Y, and high values of X with high values of Y.
In the right-hand diagram, there is no exact relationship, but low values of X tend to be associated
with high values of Y and vice versa.
No correlation
Y
Figure 6.6: No correlation
The values of these two variables are not correlated with each other.

Non-linear correlation or curvilinear correlation
Y
Figure 6.7: Non-linear or curvilinear correlation
There is a relationship between X and Y since the points are on an obvious curve, but it is not a linear
relationship.
5.5.2 Positive and negative correlation

Correlation, whether perfect or partial, can be positive or negative.
• Positive correlation is the type of correlation where low values of one variable are associated with
low values of the other, and high values of one variable are associated with high values of the
other.
• Negative correlation is the type of correlation where low values of one variable are associated
with high values of the other, and high values of one variable with low values of the other.
5.6 Measures of correlation
Correlation information can be used to support forecasting conclusions.
5.6.1 The coefficient of correlation, r

The degree of correlation between two variables can be measured using the coefficient of
correlation, r.
r has a value between –1 (perfect negative correlation) and +1 (perfect positive correlation). If r = 0
then the variables are uncorrelated.
5.6.2 The coefficient of determination, r2

The coefficient of determination, r2, is a measure of the proportion of the change in one variable that
can be explained by variations in the value of the other variable.
Context example: The coefficient of determination

The coefficient of correlation, r, between vehicle maintenance costs and vehicle running hours has
been calculated to be 0.96.
This indicates that there is a fairly high degree of positive correlation between x (vehicle running
hours) and y (vehicle maintenance cost) because r is quite close to +1. The coefficient of
determination, r2, is equal to (0.96)2 = 0.9216. This means that 92% of variations in the value of y
(cost) can be explained by a linear relationship with x (running hours). This leaves only 8% of
variations in y to be predicted from other factors.
Therefore, it is likely that vehicle running hours could be used with a high degree of confidence to
predict vehicle running costs during a period.

Interactive question 4: The coefficient of determination
Using the table below, indicate whether the following statements about the coefficient of
determination are true or false.
True or false?
(a) It is the square of the coefficient of correlation
(b) It can never quite equal 1
(c) If it is high, this proves that variations in one variable cause

variations in the other
5.7 Correlation vs causation
Definition
Cause and effect relationship: A cause and effect relationship (also known as a causal relationship)
exists between two variables when a change in one causes the change in the other.
For example, if staff are paid hourly, as hours worked increase, wage costs increase. The increase in
hours worked has caused the increase in wage costs. There is a cause and effect relationship and a
correlation exists between the number of hours worked and wage costs.
Correlation does not necessarily mean that a cause and effect relationship exists. However, if there is
a cause and effect relationship, there must be correlation.
The reasons that a correlation between A and B may occur without A causing B are as follows:
(a) A and B are correlated but they’re both actually caused by C.
(b) Rather than A causing B, B actually causes A.
(c) A does cause B, but only if X occurs.
(d) Instead of A simply causing B, A causes Y and this leads Y to cause B.
(a) Correlation may occur by pure chance, and this is more likely to happen with a small set of data.
Alternatively, there may be a reason for the correlation that is not causal. A and B are correlated
but they’re both actually caused by C. For example, when the sales of sun cream increase, the
sales of ice cream also increase. The increase in sun cream sales is not causing the increase in ice
cream sales. There is a third variable, namely the weather, influencing both types of sales. This
variable is known as a confounding variable.
(b) Rather than A causing B, B actually causes A. For example, a supermarket launching a new loyalty
card may conclude that having a loyalty card makes shoppers spend more money. Whereas it
could be that shoppers spending more money is what causes them to apply for a loyalty card.
(c) A does cause B but only if X occurs. For example, having a loyalty card may cause shoppers to
spend more money, but only if the loyalty card rewards are above a certain level.
(d) Instead of A simply causing B, A causes Y and this leads Y to cause B. For example, if a food
product is out of stock, this may lead customers to buy an alternative product elsewhere, which
they then prefer over the original because of the taste. Future sales of the original product may
then fall, as customers have switched to a product which they prefer. The product being out of
stock has caused customers to try an alternative, and this has caused a longer-term decline in
sales.
These examples highlight the need to exercise professional scepticism when analysing data and
drawing conclusions. (We described professional scepticism in Chapter 1 as assessing information,
estimates and explanations critically, with a questioning mind, and being alert to possible
misstatements due to error or fraud.)

Questions to consider might include:
• Does the relationship seem plausible?
• Could the relationship be because of chance or could a third variable be involved?
In reality, it can be fairly difficult to establish whether a cause and effect relationship exists.
Context example: Real life example

Would you expect to see a correlation between budgeted advertising expenditure and budgeted
sales revenue? There is some debate about whether advertising actually works, but car
manufacturers seem to believe that it does.
In April 2020, during the global pandemic, television channel ITV’s advertising revenue was down by
42%. Businesses stopped advertising on ITV ‘because there are many products that are just not
selling at the moment’. Yet cars continued to be advertised to ensure that customers didn’t forget
about the brand.
(www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-52806115, accessed 5th March 2021)
This example is interesting for two reasons. First, it highlights a cause and effect relationship; the fall
in sales revenue caused the fall in advertising expenditure. Second, despite the fact that there were
very few car sales, car manufacturers continued to advertise. Perhaps they believe that a correlation
exists between advertising expenditure and brand image?
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘interpret information
provided in various formats’. This could include the interpretation of relationships between two
variables and whether correlation and causation exists.
5.8 Time series analysis
Definitions
Time series: A time series is a series of observations recorded over time. Any pattern found in the
data is assumed to continue into the future and a forecast is produced. There are four components of
a time series: trend, seasonal variations, cyclical variations and random variations.
Trend: The trend is the long-term underlying movement in the data.
Seasonal variation: Seasonal variations are short-term patterns that occur during different periods,
such as rush hour during the day, weekdays during the week, or warmer months of the year.
Cyclical variations: Cyclical variations are medium- to long-term patterns such as economic booms
and recessions. In practice, they are difficult to predict and model.
Random variations: Random variations are the product of randomness and so cannot be predicted.
The following graph shows the number of passengers at Heathrow airport from January 2015 to
December 2019. (Figures from www.heathrow.com/company/investor-centre/reports/traffic-statistics,
accessed 4 May 2021.)

Heathrow airport passenger numbers
Number of
passengers
9,000,000
8,000,000
7,000,000
6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59
Time (months from Jan 2015 to Dec 2019)
Figure 6.8: Heathrow airport passenger numbers (Jan 2015 to Dec 2019)
This graph shows some of the important characteristics of a time series including the trend and the
seasonal variation. The dotted line (the trend) rises steadily over the years 2015 to 2019. Every year
there are peaks and troughs of demand, with summer months showing greater demand and a dip in
demand in the winter months (seasonal variations).
If the airport wanted to predict future demand based on this time series, it would need to calculate
the trend and then make adjustments for seasonal variations.
5.8.1 Finding the trend by moving averages

One way of finding the trend is to use moving averages.
Definition
Moving average: A moving average is an average of the data of a fixed number of periods. The aim
of calculating moving averages is to remove the effect of seasonal variations, for use in forecasting
long-term trends.
Imagine you had not seen the graph above and were just given the following data:
Date Passenger numbers
2015 Quarter 1 16,394,462
2015 Quarter 2 19,163,496
2015 Quarter 3 21,392,462
2015 Quarter 4 18,045,729
2016 Quarter 1 16,788,546
2016 Quarter 2 18,947,274
2016 Quarter 3 21,575,771
2016 Quarter 4 18,365,287
2017 Quarter 1 17,161,768
2017 Quarter 2 19,965,694
2017 Quarter 3 21,941,507
2017 Quarter 4 18,919,920

Date Passenger numbers
2018 Quarter 1 17,689,278
2018 Quarter 2 20,383,066
2018 Quarter 3 22,466,406
2018 Quarter 4 19,563,267
2019 Quarter 1 17,937,320
2019 Quarter 2 20,813,712
2019 Quarter 3 22,211,581
2019 Quarter 4 19,994,659
Do you think you would have deduced that there was an upward trend in passenger numbers over
the four years? It’s quite hard to see the trend because of the seasonal variations.
If we take averages of the passenger numbers, we can remove the effect of the seasonal variation.
Moving averages can be taken over an odd number of periods or an even number of periods. The
period over which a moving average should be taken depends on the nature of the time series, but
the most appropriate moving average would be one that covers a full cycle.
Worked example: Three-month moving average

A business has recorded the following sales volumes over the last six months.
Month Sales volume (units)
July 520
August 430
September 730
October 940
November 1,240
December 1,030
Requirement
Calculate the three-month moving average for the period July to December.
Solution
Month Sales volume Moving total Moving average

(units) 3 months (÷ 3)
July 520
August 430 520 + 430 + 730 560

= 1,680
September 730 430 + 730 + 940 700

= 2,100
October 940 730 + 940 + 1,240 970

= 2,910

Month Sales volume Moving total Moving average
(units) 3 months (÷ 3)
November 1,240 940 + 1,240 + 1,030 1,070

= 3,210
December 1,030
Calculating moving averages has smoothed out the data, showing that there is an upward trend in
sales volume.
5.8.2 Finding the seasonal variations

Forecasts can be made by calculating a trend line (using moving averages or linear regression) and
adjusting for seasonal variations.
Seasonal variations can be estimated using:
• the additive model TS = T + SV; or
• the multiplicative model TS = T × SV.
Where TS = actual time series, T = trend, SV = seasonal variation.
Note that cyclical variations are difficult to predict and random variations are impossible to predict.
They are therefore excluded from the models.
If the trend is increasing or decreasing over time, the multiplicative model produces more accurate
forecasts than the additive model. This is because, if the trend is increasing or decreasing, seasonal
variations are likely to be increasing or decreasing too. The additive model simply adds an
unchanging figure to the trend figures.
Interactive question 5: Additive model

A time series for weeks 1 to 12 has been analysed to give the trend and the seasonal variations using
the additive model. The trend value is 42 + 0.6w where w is the week number. The actual value for
week 7 is 48.8.
Requirement
What is the seasonal variation for week 7 (to one decimal place)?
5.8.3 Random variations and outliers
Definition
Data outliers: Data outliers are observations that are abnormal and can therefore significantly distort
the results. Sometimes outliers are removed from the data set before applying forecasting
techniques.
The following graph shows the number of passengers at Heathrow airport from January 2015 to
January 2021. (Figures from www.heathrow.com/company/investor-centre/reports/traffic-statistics,
accessed 4 May 2021.)

Heathrow airport passenger numbers
Number of
passengers
9,000,000
8,000,000
7,000,000
6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73
Time (months from Jan 2015 to Jan 2021)
Figure 6.9: Heathrow airport passenger numbers (Jan 2015 to Jan 2021)
Compare this to the graph shown earlier for Heathrow passenger numbers. The trend line is the
dotted line and the Covid-19 lockdown began at the end of March 2020 (month 63). You can see that
the severe drop in passenger numbers from March 2020 has caused a dramatic change in the
direction of the trend. The drop in passenger numbers is not something that could have been
forecast in the 2020 budget. Forecasting passenger numbers for the future will require consideration
about whether the trend seen before March 2020 will resume.
Sometimes outliers are deleted from the data set. However, it is important to have a clear and valid
reason for excluding data outliers, otherwise there is the danger that excluding them will result in
data being manipulated ie, introducing bias.
Worked example: Outliers

A new restaurant opens Wednesday to Sunday and records its first four weeks’ of revenue data. In
week 3, there is a problem with the electricity supply and the restaurant has to close for two days. The
restaurant has been assured by the electricity supplier that this problem will not happen again.
Restaurant revenue
Revenue £
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Day
Requirement
Is the trend useful in this situation for forecasting revenue?
Solution
The restaurant closure in week 3 resulted in two days with no revenue and the data for these days are
outliers because they are atypical and are unlikely to occur again. These outliers should be deleted
and the trend should be recalculated to produce a more accurate result. However, as the restaurant is
new and there are only four weeks’ worth of data, the trend may not be a good indication of the

future trend of the business. Although revenue seems to be rising, this could be because the
restaurant is new and customers are trying it out.
This is the graph showing revenue with the outliers removed.
Restaurant revenue
Revenue £
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Day
5.8.4 Assumptions of time series analysis

• It assumes that what has happened in the past will continue to happen in the future.
• It assumes a linear trend relationship exists.
• Seasonal variations are assumed to be constant or proportional to the trend line.
5.9 The importance of accurate forecasting

As we mentioned above, the forecast results based on the high-low method or regression analysis
may not be very accurate. Relying on incorrect forecasts can lead to poor decision making. Forecasts
need to be insightful, accurate and timely. For better results, businesses should use data from a
variety of sources (including real time actual data) and apply ML algorithms to provide insights and
therefore more accurate predictions. The changes in the business and technology environment mean
that much more data is now available to help predict how businesses will perform.
Data
+ Insights/deeper Good business
Technology understanding decisions
(Data science/ML/analysis)
Figure 6.10: Making good business decisions
5.10 Big data, data analytics and data mining
Definitions
Big data: The term that describes those ‘datasets whose size is beyond the ability of typical database
software to capture, store, manage and analyse.’ (McKinsey Global Institute, Big data: The next
frontier for innovation, competition and productivity)
An alternative definition is provided by Gartner.
Big data: It concerns ‘high-volume, high-velocity and high-variety information assets that demand
cost-effective, innovative forms of information processes for enhanced insight and decision making.’
(Gartner, www.gartner.com/it-glossary/big-data/)
Data analytics: The process of collecting, organising and analysing large sets of data to discover
patterns and other information which an organisation can use for its future business decisions.
Closely linked to the term data analytics is data mining.
Data mining: The process of sorting through data to identify patterns and relationships between
different items. Data mining software, using statistical algorithms to discover correlations and

patterns, is frequently used on large databases. In essence, it is the process of turning raw data into
useful information. Predictive analytics is a type of data mining that aims to predict future events.
Structured data: Data that is contained within a field in a data record or file (eg, databases and
spreadsheets).
Unstructured data: Data that is not easily contained within structured data fields, such as pictures,
videos, webpages, PDF files, emails or blogs.
5.10.1 Big data – what is it?

In a commercial setting ‘big data’ is used to identify trends that may exist in vast quantities of data in
the pursuit of value creation. Historically, organisations have been restricted as to the amount of data
that they can use due to the storage and processing limitations of existing computer systems.
The main characteristics of big data are volume, velocity, variety and veracity.
(a) Volume. The scale of information which can now be created and stored is staggering. Advancing
technology has allowed embedded sensors to be placed in everyday items such as cars, video
games and refrigerators. Mobile devices have led to an increasingly networked world where
people’s consumer preferences, spending habits, and even their movements can be recorded.
Advances in data storage technology as well as a fall in price of this storage has allowed for the
captured data to be stored for further analysis.
(b) Velocity. Timeliness is a key factor in the usefulness of financial information to decision makers,
and it is no different for the users of big data. One source of high-velocity data is Twitter.
(c) Variety. Big data consists of both structured and unstructured data. While the sources of data
have grown, the software tools for interpreting the data have not kept pace with this change. The
challenge is bringing together both structured and unstructured information to reveal new
insights.
(d) Veracity. Another challenge to users of big data is keeping the information ‘clean’ and free from
so-called noise, or bias. Due in part to the other three factors, it is not possible to ‘cleanse’ the
data. While even unstructured data such as tweets can give an accurate view as to how an event
or product is perceived, it may not be useful in predicting sales of a product. The age profile and
location of the average Twitter user may act as a bias, therefore distorting the data collected.
Big data management is a term relating to the storage and administration of large volumes of data in
all forms. Once stored, big data analytics are used to analyse the data to identify relationships,
patterns and other correlations in order to improve profitability. Big data analytics are often
developed using Hadoop – an open-source programming tool which is designed to process vast
amounts of data held on multiple servers.
There is potential to analyse big data for patterns and trends to provide improved forecasting.
However, this isn’t always easy to do. Big data has potential benefits but also some problems.
5.10.2 Big data benefits

Businesses can use data analytics programs for many purposes including marketing measurement,
pricing, fraud detection and so on, but the most popular use of analytics tools appears to be for
budgeting and forecasting. Data analytics allow managers to make informed decisions based on the
latest information.
(a) Forecasting demand. Big data from sources such as website traffic, online trends, customer
feedback, promotions and microeconomic factors specific to the business’s industry can be
processed and an accurate model of future demand can be generated. Such analysing uses
data correlations alongside other known demand trends to predict customer demand responses
to new products and marketing campaigns and this information can be fed into the sales
forecast. The information will also be passed on to the operations so that the supply side of the
business can be balanced with the demand.

(b) Identifying customer preferences. A key benefit of big data is the ability to understand the
preferences and desires of each customer. Consumers are increasingly happy to share
information about themselves with a business, but only if they trust the organisation first. Once
this trust is built, data will come from the customer because they see the benefit of a more
personal experience that is created. This saves the customer time in finding what they want
(because the website knows the products they are interested in) and more relevant promotions
can be created.
Sources of information on customer preferences include past transactions, website data cookies,
responses to emails and online promotions and adverts, and data contained about them on social
networks. This data about a specific person can also be combined with more general demographic
data and trends to generate predictions about the products the customer might be interested in, but
no preference has yet been determined through the available data.
5.10.3 Big data problems

(a) Lack of forecasting tools. The sheer volume, complexity and speed of big data means that
traditional forecasting tools cannot cope.
(b) Privacy. While big data can be a valuable ‘asset’ to a company, there are certain risks associated
with big data. In addition to being beneficial for companies and customers, big data has the
potential to harm individuals. The link between online and offline identity and who should
control our data is a key question. Big data is borderless, but cultural attitudes towards privacy
are very different across the world. Concerns about whether or not governments are also
gathering big data about individuals, including their own citizens, raises questions about the
balance between the benefits and the infringement of rights.
(c) Security. Companies using big data should ensure that they are not infringing the security of
other organisations and their customers.
This also relates to people who are unaware of the security risks posed by their own actions,
such as people who post their location on social media, revealing that they are on holiday, and
are then targeted by robbers.
(d) Incorrect data. If the data is incorrect then it is worthless and potentially harmful if incorrect
conclusions are reached as a result.
(e) Lack of skilled data analysts. Big data requires data analysts and therefore a business needs to
be able to recruit suitable employees to make full use of the data.
5.10.4 Big data examples

Retail
Many retailers now issue customers with loyalty cards which they swipe with each purchase. This
provides the retailer with details of each customer’s buying habits and allows them to send
marketing information and discounts which are specific to the customer.

The Tesco supermarket’s Clubcard loyalty card provides a good example of how big data can be
useful in some circumstances but does not necessarily provide a solution for all difficulties faced.
Tesco’s Clubcard loyalty card was launched in 1995 and it very quickly gave Tesco an insight into how
its customers behaved. After only three months, the chief executive claimed that the Clubcard
database knew more about Tesco’s customers than he did after 30 years. This new understanding
initially allowed Tesco to become the market leader in the UK as it was able to predict customer
needs and desires.
More recently however, customers appear to be favouring more basic discount supermarkets such as
Aldi and Lidl. This is perhaps because they feel they can buy what they want rather than what Tesco
suggests they should be buying via promotions and vouchers. Big data was initially very useful to
Tesco but more recently it has been unable to solve Tesco’s problems.
Source: www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/10577685/Clubcard-built-
the-Tesco-of-today-but-it-could-be-time-to-ditch-it.html

Context example: Predictive analytics
Predictive analytics may be used by hotels to try to predict the number of customers for particular
nights, in order to set prices.
Context example: Student.com

Student.com is a company which helps students find residential accommodation in 400 cities
worldwide. It uses data analytics to spot trends and monitor performance.
5.11 Machine learning
Definitions
Artificial intelligence (AI): Artificial intelligence (AI) is the use of computers to do tasks which are
thought to require human intelligence. It typically refers to tasks such as learning, knowing, sensing,
reasoning, creating things, and generating and understanding language.
Machine learning (ML): Machine learning is a field within AI whereby computers learn to do things
rather than follow pre-programmed rules. Through machine learning techniques, computers find
patterns in data and use statistical models to classify or make predictions about other pieces of data.
There are different types of learning (eg, supervised, unsupervised or reinforced) but all draw on
large sets of training data that enable the computer to learn.
ML has been around for a long time. However, because big data is relatively new, the ability to apply
ML to big data is relatively new. ML, rather than being programmed by people, relies on lots of
examples. It learns what to do from those examples and when it gets good at drawing conclusions, it
can apply its knowledge to new sets of data. ML means that predictions get better and better as
more data is analysed and the forecasting formula is refined.
Enter what you

want to know.
Eg Forecast sales of X
Use results to make Analyse the data and

prediction (formula/ produce a prediction
algorithm) better (formula/algorithm)
Test the prediction

against real results
Figure 6.11: Machine learning
Context example: JDSC

Japan Data Science Consortium Co (JDSC) has suggested that AI can be used to solve the problem
of a shortage of delivery drivers in the parcel delivery industry. In Japan, parcels are never left
outside a home, meaning that if there is no one home at the time of delivery, the parcel has to be re-
delivered at another time. As most homes are equipped with a smart meter for electricity, JDSC has
suggested that its own AI patent can be used to analyse household electricity usage and predict

when there will be someone at home. The AI can plan the optimum delivery route for drivers to
ensure maximum chance of first-time delivery.
(www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/02/26/business/tech/ai-solves-problems/#.XpmSqmhKiUm)
6 Alternative approaches to budgeting

Section overview
• Incremental budgeting involves basing the next year’s budget on the current year’s results, with
adjustments for known changes and inflation.
• An organisation’s budgeting style can be participative (bottom-up) or imposed (top-down).
• Participative budgeting tends to have the most favourable motivational impact but it does have its
disadvantages.
• Budget slack is the intentional overstating of costs or understating of revenues in a budget, in
order to set an ‘easy’ budget target.
• Zero-based budgeting requires all budgets to be prepared from the very beginning or zero.
• Rolling budgets, also known as continuous budgets, are continuously updated by adding a
further month or quarter to the end of the budget as each month or quarter comes to a close.
• The structure of budgets may be designed around one of a number of frameworks, including
product-based budgets, responsibility-based budgets and activity-based budgets.
6.1 Incremental budgeting
Definition
Incremental budgeting: Basing this year’s budget on last year’s budget with adjustments for changes
and inflation.
The traditional approach to budgeting is to base the forthcoming year’s budget on the current year’s
results modified for changes in activity levels, for example, by adding an extra amount for estimated
growth or inflation next year. This approach is known as incremental budgeting since it is concerned
mainly with the increments in costs and revenues which will occur in the coming period.
Incremental budgeting is a reasonable approach if the current operations are as effective, efficient
and economic as they can be.
In general, however, it is an inefficient form of budgeting. It encourages slack, which is unnecessary
expenditure built into the budgets. Past inefficiencies are perpetuated because cost levels are rarely
subjected to close scrutiny.
6.2 Participation in the budgeting process

It has been argued that participation in the budgeting process will improve motivation and so will
improve the quality of budget decisions and the efforts of individuals to achieve their budget targets.
There are basically two ways in which a budget can be set: from the top down (imposed budget) or
from the bottom up (participatory budget).
6.2.1 Imposed or top-down style of budgeting
Definition
Imposed budget: A budget set without allowing the budget holder to participate in the budgeting
process.

In this approach to budgeting, top management prepare a budget with little or no input from
operating personnel, which is then imposed upon the employees who have to work to the budgeted
figures.
The times when imposed budgets are effective are:
• in newly-formed organisations
• in very small businesses
• during periods of economic hardship
• when operational managers lack budgeting skills
• when the organisation’s different units require precise coordination
There are, of course, advantages and disadvantages to this style of setting budgets.
(a) Advantages
– Strategic plans are likely to be incorporated into planned activities.
– They enhance the coordination between the plans and objectives of divisions.
– They use senior management’s awareness of total resource availability.
– They decrease the input from inexperienced or uninformed lower-level employees.
– They decrease the period of time taken to draw up the budgets.
(b) Disadvantages
– Dissatisfaction, defensiveness and low morale amongst employees. It is hard for people to be
motivated to achieve targets set by somebody else, particularly if managers consider the
budget targets to be unrealistic.
– The feeling of team spirit may disappear.
– The acceptance of organisational goals and objectives could be limited.
– The budget may be viewed as a punitive device.
– Managers who are performing operations on a day to day basis are likely to have a better
understanding of what is achievable.
– Unachievable budgets could result if consideration is not given to local operating and political
environments. This applies particularly to overseas divisions.
– Lower-level management initiative may be stifled.
6.2.2 Participative or bottom-up style of budgeting
Definition
Participative budgeting: Budgeting style which allows all budget holders to participate in setting
their own budget.
In this approach to budgeting, budgets are developed by lower-level managers who then submit
the budgets to their superiors. The budgets are based on the lower-level managers’ perceptions of
what is achievable and the associated necessary resources.
Advantages of participative budgets
• They are based on information from the employees most familiar with the department.
• Knowledge spread among several levels of management is pulled together (ie, information
asymmetry is reduced).
• Morale and motivation are improved.
• They increase operational managers’ commitment to organisational objectives.
• In general, they are more realistic.
• Coordination between units is improved.
• Specific resource requirements are included.
• Senior managers’ overview is mixed with operational level details.
• Individual managers’ aspiration levels are more likely to be taken into account.

Disadvantages of participative budgets
• They consume more time.
• Changes implemented by senior management may cause dissatisfaction.
• Budgets may be unachievable or much too soft if managers are not qualified to participate.
• They may cause managers to introduce budget slack (overstating costs or understating revenues)
and budget bias.
• They can support ‘empire building’ by subordinates.
• An earlier start to the budgeting process could be required.
Definition
Budget slack: Deliberately underestimating revenues or overestimating costs in order to ensure that
achieving the budget is easy.
6.3 Zero-based budgeting
Definition
Zero-based budgeting: Involves preparing a budget for each cost centre from a zero base. Every
item of expenditure has to be justified in its entirety in order to be included in the next year’s budget.
Zero-based budgeting (ZBB) is an approach to budgeting that attempts to ensure that inefficiencies
are not concealed.
The principle behind ZBB is that, instead of using the current year’s results as a starting point, each
budget should be prepared from the very beginning or zero. Every item of expenditure must be
justified separately to be included in the budget for the forthcoming period.
Increments of expenditure are compared with the expected benefits received, to ensure that
resources are allocated as efficiently as possible.
ZBB can be particularly useful when applied to discretionary costs such as marketing and training
costs. This type of cost is not vital to the continued existence of an organisation in the way that, say,
raw materials are to a manufacturing business.
A major disadvantage of ZBB is that it is a time-consuming task that involves a great deal of work.
6.4 Rolling budgets
Definition
Rolling budget: A budget continually updated to add a new budget period as the most recent one
has finished.
Rolling budgets are sometimes called continuous budgets. They are particularly useful when an
organisation is facing a period of uncertainty so that it is difficult to prepare accurate plans and
budgets. They are therefore very important for modern businesses and provide an alternative to
traditional annual budgets.
Rolling budgets are an attempt to prepare targets and plans that are more realistic and certain,
particularly with a regard to price levels, by shortening the period between preparing budgets.
Instead of preparing a periodic budget annually for the full budget period, budgets would be
prepared, say, every one, two or three months (4, 6, or even 12 budgets each year). Each of these
budgets would plan for the next 12 months so that the current budget is extended by an extra
period as the current period ends: hence the name rolling budgets. Cash budgets, which are the
subject of the next chapter, are usually prepared on a rolling basis.
Suppose, for example, that a rolling budget is prepared every three months. The first three months of
the budget period would be planned in great detail, and the remaining nine months in lesser detail,
because of the greater uncertainty about the longer-term future.

(a) The first continuous budget would show January to March Year 1 in detail, and April to
December Year 1 in less detail.
(b) At the end of March, the first three months of the budget would be removed and a further three
months would be added at the end for January to March Year 2.
(c) The remaining nine months for April to December Year 1 would be updated in the light of
current conditions, adding more detail to the earliest three months, April to June Year 1.
The detail in the first three months would be principally important for the following.
• Planning working capital and short-term resources (cash, materials, labour and so on).
• Control: the budget for each control period should provide a more reliable yardstick for
comparison with actual results.
The advantages of rolling budgets are as follows.
(a) They reduce the element of uncertainty in budgeting. If a high rate of inflation or major changes
in market conditions or any other change that cannot be quantified with accuracy is likely, rolling
budgets concentrate detailed planning and control on short-term prospects where the degree
of uncertainty is much smaller.
(b) They force managers to reassess the budget regularly, and to produce budgets that are up to
date in the light of current events and expectations.
(c) Planning and control will be based on a recent plan instead of an annual budget that might
have been prepared many months ago and is no longer realistic.
(d) There is always a budget that extends for several months ahead. For example, if rolling budgets
are prepared quarterly there will always be a budget extending for the next 9 to 12 months. If
rolling budgets are prepared monthly there will always be a budget for the next 11 to 12
months. This is not the case when annual budgets are used.
The disadvantages of rolling budgets can be a deterrent to using them.
(a) A system of rolling budgets calls for the routine preparation of a new budget at regular intervals
during the course of the one financial year. This involves more time, effort and money in budget
preparation.
(b) Frequent budgeting might have an off putting effect on managers who doubt the value of
preparing one budget after another at regular intervals, even when there are major differences
between the figures in one budget and the next.
6.5 Alternative budget structures

The structure of budgets may be designed around one of a number of frameworks, including the
following.
6.5.1 Product-based budgets

Product-based budgets are drawn up by preparing separate budgets for each product. For example,
a separate production budget would be established for product A, for product B and for product C
as well as a separate marketing cost budget, a separate distribution cost budget, a separate sales
revenue budget and so on.
This structure is appropriate when the cost and revenue responsibilities differ for each product, or
when a single manager is responsible for all aspects of one product.
The individual product budgets might also be aggregated across products, for example where a
distribution manager has overall responsibility for all product distribution costs.
The separate product budgets and the possibility for aggregation across products enables senior
managers to look both down and across the whole organisation in terms of budgets.
6.5.2 Responsibility-based budgets

Responsibility-based budget systems segregate budgeted revenues and costs into areas of
organisation.
Budgetary control is based around a system of budget centres. Each budget centre will have its own
budget, and an individual manager (a budget holder) will be responsible for managing the budget
centre and ensuring that the budget is met.

Responsibility-based budgets can have a positive motivational impact, as long as the budget holder
is not held responsible for costs and revenues over which they have no control.
6.5.3 Activity-based budgets
Definition
Activity-based budgeting: An approach to budgeting which uses cost drivers as a basis for
preparing budgets.
Activity-based budgets are based on a framework of activities, and cost drivers are used as a basis
for preparing budgets.
The budget for each activity is derived from the quantity of the activity’s cost driver × the appropriate
cost driver rate.
Context example: Activity-based budget

An organisation expects to place 500 orders with suppliers during the forthcoming budget period.
The rate per cost driver has been established as £100. The budgeted cost of the ordering activity is
therefore 500 × £100 = £50,000.
Activity-based budgeting (ABB) involves defining the activities that underlie the financial figures in
each function. The level of activity in terms of cost drivers is used to decide how much resource
should be allocated and how well the activity is being managed, and to explain differences between
the budget and actual results.
Implementing ABB leads to the realisation that the business as a whole needs to be managed with
more reference to the behaviour of activities and cost drivers identified.
(a) Traditional budgeting may make managers ‘responsible’ for activities that are driven by factors
beyond their control: the cost of setting up new personnel records and of induction training
would traditionally be the responsibility of the personnel manager even though such costs are
driven by the number of new employees required by managers other than the personnel
manager.
(b) The budgets for costs not directly related to production are often traditionally set using an
incremental approach because of the difficulty of linking the activity driving the cost to
production level. However, this assumes that all of the cost is unaffected by any form of activity
level, which is often not the case in reality. Some of the costs of the purchasing department, for
example, will be fixed (such as premises costs) but some will relate to the number of orders
placed or the volume of production, say. In an ABB framework the budget for the purchasing
department can take account of the expected number of orders.
Context example: Uber

Transportation company Uber found that traditional budgeting methods were time consuming,
labour-intensive (manually exchanging spreadsheets by email) and prone to error. Traditional
methods also led to out-of-date annual budgets because of the ever-changing business
environment. Uber rectified this using some of the methods we have mentioned above including
using big data, machine learning and designing a bespoke finance platform.
The Uber finance platform is made up of three layers with the top layer being the user interface (UI).
The UI allows multiple users to access it at the same time and makes for better collaboration between
the various teams.
The middle layer contains the scenario planning section that can be used to test changes in variables
in order to achieve desired results. The machine learning platform also supports the scenario
planning and this is where data scientists employed at Uber test their prediction models. New data
(big data) is added monthly so that models can be re-trained.
At the start of the budgeting process, Uber uses machine intelligence and mathematical optimisation
for the worldwide business as a whole. It enters objectives and constraints such as ‘minimise
spending’ or ‘maximise number of drivers’. These are then used to produce a base scenario for each
budget area and this is known as the ‘seeding process’. The base scenario is used by local teams

who, based on their local knowledge and their desired results, use the scenario planning function to
achieve the most accurate budget. Sometimes variables need to be overridden because of one-off
events that the algorithms weren’t aware of.
The lower level of the platform contains the data warehouse and metrics store.
Uber uses different metrics to measure its business depending on the specific market. For example,
in a new market, the measure may be on growth in Uber user numbers and for a more mature market
it may be profit.
(eng.uber.com/transforming-financial-forecasting-machine-learning, accessed 08/04/21)
7 Data bias and professional scepticism

Section overview
• Various types of data bias can appear in budgets and forecasts.

• Professional scepticism must be applied to identify data bias.
Businesses use data to produce budgets and forecasts to aid decision making in the face of
uncertainty. The amount of data available is greater than ever, but there is still often a need to make
generalisations about a wider group (eg, the population) based on samples of data available. This
can lead to errors, incorrect conclusions and flawed decision making.
Users of information produced by data analytics should therefore take steps to ensure the analysis is
reliable, and apply some professional scepticism. Scepticism does not mean that the users assume
that the data or its conclusions must be wrong; rather it means being aware that data analysis is not
always accurate for several reasons:
• There may be bias inherent in the data that is analysed. This may be intentional or unintentional.
• The data may have been intentionally manipulated during the analysis process.
• The data may have been analysed accurately, but the presentation of the data, or the conclusions
drawn from it may be flawed or may have been designed to mislead the users.
7.1 What is data bias?
Definition
Data bias: Data is biased when it is not representative of the population. Data may be biased before
its analysed just because the method of collecting the data means that some members of the
population have a lower (or zero) chance of being included in the sample. People who analyse data
and reach conclusions can also introduce bias.
For example, public opinion is often collected in the form of big data from social media sites, such as
Facebook and Twitter. This can lead to data bias because different population groups are
represented on different platforms and some are barely represented at all. Blank and Lutz (2017)
found that age and socioeconomic status affected the choice of social media platform and whether
people were on social media at all. They concluded that no single social media platform is
representative of the general population.
There are several different types of bias and the following may impact on budgeting and business
performance.
Bias Meaning and example
Selection bias This occurs when the data is not selected randomly and leads to a sample that
is not representative of the population. In order to be representative, all items
in the population should have an equal chance of being selected for the
sample.

Example – ease of selection

Selection bias sometimes occurs because it is more convenient to select a
certain group, for example, people in a particular geographic area.
Self-selection This occurs when individuals select themselves.

Example – new product survey
When customers choose whether to respond to a survey, those who choose
to respond may have a certain characteristic or interest that leads them to
respond. This creates a sample that is not representative of the whole
population.
Observer bias This occurs when observing and recording results, and relates to
interpretation. The researcher allows their assumptions (which may be
unconscious) to influence their observations.
Example – unconscious bias
Managers may be observing labour processes and draw conclusions based
on their unconscious bias towards particular staff members.
Omitted variable This links back to the section on cause and effect, earlier in the chapter.
Omitted variable bias is when a variable is excluded from the data model and
therefore the cause of a change in one variable is incorrectly attributed to
another variable in the model.
Example – sales budgeting
Sales of a product may depend on many variables such as advertising, price
competition, fashion and cost of living. It would be easy to attribute an
increase or decrease in sales volume to the wrong variable.
Cognitive This relates to human perception and includes bias depending on how data is
presented (eg, infographics or the order of presentation, known as the
‘framing effect’) and ‘anchoring’ (eg, being influenced by the first piece of
information offered or ‘stuck’ on last year’s numbers).
Example – budgeting
Budgeting based on last year’s figures is very common but may lead to poor
decision making and underachievement. Opportunities may be missed. This
can be overcome by using zero-based budgeting or by considering what the
budget might be if last year’s figures were unknown, ie, considering market
size, growth, competition etc.
Confirmation This occurs when people see data that confirms their beliefs and they ignore
(consciously or sub-consciously) data that disagrees with their beliefs.
Example – new product/market research
Managers may have an idea for a new product and then ask for market
research to confirm the viability of the idea. If market research is being
performed to assess the popularity of a new product that the company has
spent a lot of time and money developing, there may be pressure on the
market research department to conclude that the product is not likely to fail.
This could affect business performance if the organisation develops a new
product believing there is sufficient customer demand to make the product
viable, when in fact that demand does not exist.
Survivorship This is the tendency towards studying successful outcomes while excluding
unsuccessful outcomes. Only items that survived some previous event are
included in the sample. An accounting firm might decide to do a survey to
find out how good its programme for trainee accountants is, by surveying a
sample of trainees who have worked for the firm for one year. Such a survey
would exclude trainees who left the firm before the end of the first year, who

were presumably not very happy with the programme.

Example – performance management
An example of this is the exclusion of failed companies in business
performance studies because they no longer exist.
7.2 Interpretation of data presented graphically

Another area that requires professional scepticism is interpretation based on the way in which the
data is presented. Bias can appear in charts and infographics, either deliberately or through
misunderstanding.
Bias can occur by:
• manipulating axes on a graph or bar chart
• omitting some data
7.2.1 Graphical examples of data bias

Here is an example of manipulation of an axis. On first sight, you may think that the sales of the
competition are far smaller than ‘our sales’. However, the sales begin at £475,000.
Our sales vs competition's sales
Competition
Our business
475,000 480,000 485,000 490,000 495,000 500,000 505,000 Sales £
Figure 6.12: Graph of sales 1
If the chart is redrawn using a scale that starts with zero, it looks like this:
Our sales vs competition's sales
Competition
Our business
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 Sales £
Figure 6.13: Graph of sales 2
Now it’s clear that there isn’t a great deal of difference between the two business’s sales. ‘Our sales’
are roughly 5% more.

The following graph shows bank rates in the UK:
UK bank rates
Rate of interest %
0.4
0.38
0.36
0.34
0.32
0.3
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
Aug-16 Oct-16 Dec-16 Feb-17 Apr-17 Date
Figure 6.14: Graph of UK bank rates 1
At first glance, you may think that rates are soaring, but look carefully at the scale and the dates. Only
part of the data has been included and the increase is only about 0.15 percentage points. It would
be useful to include comparative data. For example, here is the graph of UK bank rates over 11
years:
UK bank rates
6
0
Apr-08
Oct-08
Apr-09
Oct-09
Apr-10
Oct-10
Apr-11
Oct-11
Apr-12
Oct-12
Apr-13
Oct-13
Apr-14
Oct-14
Apr-15
Oct-15
Apr-16
Oct-16
Apr-17
Oct-17
Apr-18
Oct-18
Apr-19
Oct-19
Figure 6.15: Graph of UK bank rates 2
One of the skills tested in the ACA exams is your ability to apply judgement by identifying omissions,
inconsistencies or bias in data. You should therefore apply professional scepticism to data sources
and data capture when interpreting quantitative and qualitative information.
7.3 Data bias in AI

AI is now often used for staff recruitment, insurance, criminal justice and healthcare. It was even used
to allocate exam grades to students during the Covid-19 pandemic; though there was a great deal of
controversy about the results. Could data bias be to blame?

Bias can creep into algorithms in several ways:
• The algorithm can be trained on biased data (ie, data that is not sufficiently diverse).
• Humans create rules with implicit biases.
It can be useful to test the performance of AI systems using real data, although there is a danger that
real data contains historical or social inequities.

Amazon realised in 2015 that the algorithm it was testing for recruiting employees was biased
against women. This was because the data used to form the algorithm contained CVs submitted to
Amazon over the previous ten years and most of the applicants had been men. The algorithm taught
itself that men were preferable. (www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-45809919, accessed 4 May 2021)

Summary
Budgets
Fulfil many
objectives/roles
Must be quantified but

not necessarily in
financial terms
Organisational Budgets are Alternative

Alternative
procedures based on approaches
structures
forecast
Forecasts based Bottom up

Budget period Product or
on historical
based Top down
data
Establishing
Budget Responsibility Incremental
linear
committee based budget
relationships
Linear
High-low Activity Zero based
Budget manual regression
method based budget
analysis
Functional
Correlation Rolling budgets
budgets
Master Coefficient of Beyond

budget determination budgeting
Sensitivity
Data and
analysis may
technology
be performed

indicated.
1. Can you summarise the reasons for preparing budgets and the principles of beyond
budgeting? (Topic 1)
2. What is the first step in the preparation of a budget? (Topic 3)
3. Can you list the functional budgets? (Topic 3)
4. What is the master budget? (Topic 4)
5. Linear regression is based on what assumption? (Topic 5)
6. Do you know the main characteristics of big data? (Topic 5)
7. Can you describe incremental budgeting, participative budgeting, imposed budgeting,

ZBB and rolling budgets? (Topic 6)
8. Do you understand what is meant by data bias? (Topic 7)

questions in the Budgeting chapter of the Management Information Question Bank. Refer back to
the learning in this chapter for any questions which you did not answer correctly or where the

Technical reference
Blank, G. and Lutz, C. (2017) Representativeness of social media in Great Britain: Investigating
Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, Pinterest, Google, and Instagram. American Behavioral Scientist, 61, 741–
756. Available from: doi.org/10.1177/0002764217717559 [Accessed 15 April 2021].

Self-test questions

1 Which of the following is the budget committee not responsible for?
A Preparing functional budgets
B Timetabling the budgeting operation
C Allocating responsibility for the budget preparation
D Monitoring the budgeting process
2 Budgeted sales revenues for R Ltd, a wholesaler, are as follows.
July August September October
£ £ £ £
180,000 150,000 165,000 210,000
One month’s credit is allowed to credit customers, who account for 50% of all sales. Other customers
pay cash in the same month the sale occurs.
One month’s credit is received from suppliers.
Month-end inventories are maintained at a level sufficient to meet 50% of the forecast sales for the
next month.
R Ltd adds a profit mark-up of 20% to the cost of purchases in order to derive the selling price.
Requirements
The budgeted balance sheet as at the end of September will show a receivables balance of:
A £75,000
B £82,500
C £150,000
D £165,000
The budgeted balance sheet as at the end of September will show a payables balance of:
E £118,750
F £137,500
G £150,000
H £156,250
3 Which of the following is unlikely to be contained in a budget manual?
A Organisational structures
B Objectives of the budgetary process
C Selling overhead budget
D Administrative details of budget preparation
4 Cassius Ltd manufactures two products, P and Q, from the same material, S.
A finished unit of product P contains three litres of material S and a finished unit of product Q
contains five litres. However, there is a high wastage rate of materials and 25% of the input materials
are lost in production.
The budgeted production volumes for next year are 6,000 units of P and 8,100 units of Q. At the
beginning of the year the company expects to have 20,000 litres of material S in inventory but
intends to reduce inventory levels to 5,000 litres by the end of the year.
The purchase cost of material S is £1.60 per litre.

Requirement
The purchases budget for material S is:
A £63,000
B £93,000
C £100,800
D £148,800
5 A retailing company is preparing its annual budget. It plans to make a profit of 25% on the cost of
sales. Inventories will be maintained at the end of each month at 30% of the following month’s sales
requirements.
Details of budgeted sales are as follows.
Credit sales – gross Cash sales

£ £
December 1,900,000 400,000
January 1,500,000 250,000
February 1,700,000 350,000
March 1,600,000 300,000
Requirement
Budgeted inventory levels at the end of December are £ .
Budgeted inventory purchases for January are £ .
6 The coefficient of correlation between advertising expenditure and the number of theatre tickets
sold is 0.97.
Requirement
Which two of the following statements are correct?
A 97% of the variation in ticket sales can be explained by variations in advertising expenditure.
B 94% of the variation in ticket sales can be explained by variations in advertising expenditure.
C A 97% increase in advertising expenditure will result in a 97% increase in ticket sales.
D There is a fairly high degree of positive correlation between advertising expenditure and ticket
sales.
7 A transport company has recorded the following maintenance costs for the last two periods.
Period 7 Period 8
Miles travelled 30,000 50,000
Maintenance cost per mile £1.90 £1.30
Requirement
The forecast maintenance cost for period 9, when 38,000 miles will be travelled, is £
.
8 Big data analytics typically involves the analysis of unstructured data. Which of the following is an
example of unstructured data?
A Data tables showing monthly sales figures
B Spreadsheet analysis of fixed asset purchases
C Email communications between a customer and the sales department
D A table of supplier names and addresses

9 In what circumstances might participative or bottom-up budgets not be effective?
A In centralised organisations
B In well-established organisations
C In very large businesses
D During periods of economic affluence
10 Assessing the budget figures with a questioning mind and being alert to possible misstatements
(deliberate or otherwise) is known as which of the following?
A Professional ethics
B Professional behaviour
C Professional scepticism
D Professional competence
this chapter.


The sales revenue budget is derived by multiplying the budgeted sales quantities by the standard
selling price. Therefore, the sales revenue budget must be prepared after the budget for sales
quantities.
The production volume budget is derived by adjusting the budgeted sales quantities for budgeted
changes in finished goods inventories. Therefore, the budget for finished goods inventories must be
prepared before the production volume budget.
The materials usage budget and the labour hours budget are derived from the production volume
budget, independently of each other.
The materials purchases budget is derived by adjusting the materials usage budget for budgeted
changes in materials inventories. Therefore, the material usage budget must be prepared before the
materials purchases budget.
Answer
Sales revenue; sales quantities After
Finished goods inventories; production volume Before
Materials usage; labour hours Doesn’t matter
Materials usage; materials purchases Before

2.1
Product X Product Y Product Z Total
Sales quantity 2,000 4,000 3,000
Sales value £200,000 £520,000 £450,000 £1,170,000
Sales quantity × sales price = sales value

Product X = 2,000 × 100 = 200,000
Product Y = 4,000 × 130 = 520,000
Product Z = 3,000 × 150 = 450,000
Total = 200,000 + 520,000 + 450,000 = 1,170,000
2.2
Units Units Units
Budgeted 2,100 4,200 3,100

production
WORKING
Budgeted production

Sales quantity 2,000 4,000 3,000

Closing inventories 600 1,000 800
2,600 5,000 3,800
Less opening inventories (500) (800) (700)
Budgeted production 2,100 4,200 3,100
2.3
RM11 RM22 RM33
Units Units Units
Budgeted material 29,300 15,700 17,700

usage
WORKING
Budgeted material usage
Production RM11 RM22 RM33

Units Units Units Units
Product X 2,100 10,500 4,200 –
Product Y 4,200 12,600 8,400 8,400
Product Z 3,100 6,200 3,100 9,300
Budgeted material usage 29,300 15,700 17,700
2.4
RM11 RM22 RM33
Budgeted material purchases £131,500 £44,100 £54,800
WORKING
Budgeted material purchases
RM11 RM22 RM33

Units Units Units
Budgeted material
usage 29,300 15,700 17,700
Closing inventories 18,000 9,000 12,000
47,300 24,700 29,700
Less opening
inventories (21,000) (10,000) (16,000)
Budgeted material
purchases 26,300 14,700 13,700
Cost per unit of

material £5 £3 £4
Budgeted material
purchases £131,500 £44,100 £54,800
2.5 Budgeted total wages = £ 525,600

Hours
required per Labour
Product Production unit budget Rate per hour Cost
Units Total hours £ £
X 2,100 4 8,400 9 75,600
Y 4,200 6 25,200 9 226,800
Z 3,100 8 24,800 9 223,200
Budgeted
total
wages 525,600

TC = £ 46,500 + £ 85 V
Although we only have two activity levels in this question, we can still apply the high-low method.
WORKING
High-low method
Number of
valuations Total cost
£
Period 2 515 90,275
Period 1 420 82,200
Change due to variable cost 95 8,075
 Variable cost per valuation = £8,075/95 = £85.

Period 2: fixed cost = £90,275 – (515 × £85)
= £46,500

Statement (a) is true: the coefficient of determination is r2.
Statement (b) is false: r can reach 1 or –1, therefore r2 can reach 1.
Statement (c) is false: a high coefficient of determination means it is very likely that variations in one
variable cause variations in the other. The high degree of correlation may, however, be due to chance
(ie, spurious correlation).
True or false?
(a) It is the square of the coefficient of correlation True
(b) It can never quite equal 1 False
(c) If it is high, this proves that variations in one variable cause False
variations in the other

2.6
For week 7 the trend, T is 42 + (0.6 × 7) = 46.2

TS = T × SV  SV = TS – T
Therefore SV = 48.8 – 46.2 = 2.6

A Preparing functional budgets
The budget committee is not responsible for preparing functional budgets. The manager
responsible for implementing the budget must prepare it, not the budget committee.
Since the committee is a coordinating body it is definitely responsible for timetabling and allocating
responsibility for budget preparation. It is also responsible for monitoring the whole budgetary
planning and control process.
B £82,500
The budgeted receivables balance at the end of September is £82,500.
Since one month’s credit is given to credit customers, the outstanding receivables balance at the end
of each month is equal to the credit sales for that month.
Credit sales for September = 50% × £165,000 = £82,500
If you answered £165,000 you did not allow for the fact that only 50% of sales are made on credit.
If you answered £75,000 or £150,000 you based your answer on the sales revenue for August, all of
which will have been received from customers by the end of September.
Correct answer(s):
H £156,250
The budgeted payables balance at the end of September is £156,250.
Since one month’s credit is received from suppliers the payables balance at the end of each month is
equal to the credit purchases for that month.
The budgeted cost of goods sold in each month is derived by multiplying each sales figure by
(100/120) to remove the profit mark-up.
September
£
Budgeted cost of goods sold (£165,000 × 100/120) 137,500
Budgeted closing inventory (£210,000 × 100/120 × 50%) 87,500
225,000
Less budgeted opening inventory (£165,000 × 100/120 × 50%) (68,750)
Budgeted purchases = budgeted payables 156,250
If you answered £118,750 you reversed the budgeted opening and closing inventory.
The option of £137,500 is incorrect because the purchases are not equal to the cost of goods sold
since there are budgeted changes in inventory.
If you answered £150,000 you treated the 20% profit as a margin on the sales price rather than as a
mark-up on the cost of purchases.
C Selling overhead budget
The selling overhead budget is unlikely to be contained in a budget manual. All of the other items
are concerned with the organisation and coordination of the budgetary process, therefore they
would be included in the budget manual.

C £100,800
Material S
litres
Material S required for production:
Product P: 6,000 units × 3 × 100/75 24,000
Product Q: 8,100 units × 5 × 100/75 54,000
Total material S required for production 78,000
Plus budgeted closing inventory 5,000
83,000
Less budgeted opening inventory (20,000)
Budgeted material purchases in litres 63,000
× purchase cost per litre × £1.60
Budgeted material purchases in £ £100,800
If you answered £63,000 you selected the figure for purchases in litres rather than the value of the
budgeted purchases.
If you answered £93,000 you did not deal correctly with the losses. The 25% loss is based on the
input materials. You calculated a 25% loss based on the output.
If you answered £148,800 you reversed the opening and closing inventory.
5 Budgeted inventory levels at the end of December are £ 420,000 .
Budgeted inventory purchases for January are £ 1,472,000 .
WORKINGS
(1) December
= £1,500,000 + £250,000
Sales in January = £1,750,000
Cost of sales (× 100/125) = £1,400,000
= 30% × £1,400,000
End of December inventory = £420,000
(2) January
= £1,700,000 + £350,000
Sales in February = £2,050,000
Cost of sales (× 100/125) = £1,640,000
= 30% × £1,640,000
End of January inventory = £492,000

January
£
Cost of goods sold 1,400,000
Budgeted closing inventory 492,000
1,892,000
Less budgeted opening inventory (420,000)
Budgeted purchases 1,472,000
B 94% of the variation in ticket sales can be explained by variations in advertising expenditure.
D There is a fairly high degree of positive correlation between advertising expenditure and ticket
sales.
A is incorrect and B is correct. The coefficient of determination (r2) = (0.97)2 = 0.9409, therefore 94%
of the variation in the value of y (ticket sales) can be explained by a linear relationship with x
(advertising expenditure).
C is incorrect because it misinterprets the meaning of the coefficient of correlation.
D is correct. There is a fairly high degree of positive correlation because r, the coefficient of
correlation, is close to 1.
7 The forecast maintenance cost for period 9, when 38,000 miles will be travelled, is £ 60,200 .
WORKING
Forecast maintenance cost
To use the high-low method, we need to know the total cost incurred at each activity level.
Miles Total cost

travelled incurred
£
Period 8 50,000 (× £1.30) 65,000
Period 7 30,000 (× £1.90) 57,000
Variable cost 20,000 8,000
Variable cost per mile = £8,000/20,000 = £0.40

Fixed cost = £65,000 – (50,000 miles × £0.40) = £45,000
Forecast maintenance cost for 38,000 miles: £

Variable cost (38,000 × £0.40) 15,200
Fixed cost 45,000
60,200
C Email communications between a customer and the sales department
Structured data refers to any data that is contained within a field in a data record or file. This includes
data contained in databases and spreadsheets. Therefore, A, B and D are examples of structured
data. Unstructured data is data that is not easily contained within structured data fields: pictures,
videos, webpages, PDF files, emails, blogs etc. C is therefore an example of unstructured data.

A In centralised organisations
Participative (bottom-up) budgets might not be effective in centralised organisations. An imposed or
top-down budgeting system is likely to be most effective in this situation.
C Professional scepticism
There may be deliberate or accidental mistakes within information, and professional scepticism
means being aware of this and accepting that verification may be necessary.

Chapter 7
Working capital
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Learning topics
1 What is ‘working capital’?
2 Balancing liquidity and profitability
3 Assessing the liquidity position via ratios
4 The cash operating cycle
5 Managing inventory
6 Managing trade payables
7 Managing trade receivables
8 Treasury management
9 Cash budgets
Summary
Self-test questions
Introduction
Learning outcomes
• Prepare a cash budget which highlights the quantity and timing of cash surpluses and deficits
• Calculate the cash (operating) cycle for a business and understand its significance
• Identify the constituent elements of working capital and treasury and specify the methods by
which each element can be managed to optimise working capital and cash flows
• Recognise how to manage the surpluses and deficits predicted in cash budgets
The specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 2f, g, h, i.
7
Syllabus links
As with Chapter 6, this chapter will underpin your study of planning within the Business Strategy and
Technology syllabus. You will study working capital again in the Strategic Business Management
syllabus at Advanced level.
7
Examination context
You could be asked to prepare a full cash budget in the exam in a scenario-based question.
Alternatively, you could be asked to prepare an extract from information provided in a shorter
question. For example, you may be asked to calculate the budgeted receipts from customers or the
budgeted payments made to suppliers, taking account of the budgeted activity and planned credit
periods.
• use data supplied to prepare cash budgets or extracts from cash budgets
• select appropriate actions to be taken in the light of information provided by a cash budget
• calculate and interpret the cash cycle for a business
• assess the liquidity of a business using current and quick ratios
Questions on working capital and treasury management could easily appear in the exam. They are
likely to be set in an application context. Knowledge-type questions are also likely, set on particular
principles or definitions.
7

of this chapter.

questions
1&2 What is working Approach Questions on these N/A

capital? Balancing First, read through two sections may
liquidity and sections 1 and 2 at require you to
profitability least twice, making understand the
It is in the context of sure you meaning of liquidity
working capital understand the as well as the
management, and issues that affect components of
especially cash how a business working capital.
management, that the balances the need
finance function has to make a profit
the most direct impact against the
on the success of the imperative that it
business. Cash is king; should never run

questions
no business can afford out of cash.

to run out of cash, and
nor can it afford not to
achieve a reasonable Stop and think
return on cash. Why do businesses
become insolvent?
3 Assessing the liquidity Read section 3 on Objective test IQ2: Calculating

position via ratios using ratios to help numerical questions ratios to assess
Liquidity is vital to the manage working could ask you to the liquidity
survival of any capital very calculate ratios and position
business. Even a highly carefully, working narrative questions This question
profitable business through the could test your tests the liquidity
might face liquidity examples and understanding of ratios – the
problems from time to completing the their meaning. current ratio and
time. An effective interactive the quick ratio.
manager must be questions.
equipped with the
tools to monitor the Stop and think
liquidity position – for
example, ratios. Think about
whether each ratio
should be as high as
possible or as low
as possible.
4 The cash operating Read through A question could IQ3: Calculating

cycle section 4 and ask you to calculate the cash
The length of the cash complete the or interpret the cash operating cycle
operating cycle is interactive question. cycle for a business. This question
made up of provides useful
component parts. You Stop and think practice of the
will see how high levels calculation.
of receivables and How can the length Remember to
inventory, for example, of the operating deduct credit
can create a long cash cycle be reduced? taken from
operating cycle and suppliers.
cause liquidity
problems.
In a working capital
context this should
help you to appreciate
the cash flow effect of a
delay in collecting
payment from a client
because of slow
invoicing procedures
or poor credit control
operations, or the cash
flow effect of excessive
inventories of
stationery and other
items.
5-8 Managing inventory, Work slowly and Objective test IQ4: Collection
managing trade methodically questions are likely procedures
payables, managing through each of to be set in an
ICAEW 2023 7: Working capital 229

questions
trade receivables, sections 5 to 8. application context. This question

treasury management Make sure that you EOQ calculations tests your
Working capital learn as many of the lend themselves understanding
requires the individual practical well to objective of how to
components to be management test questions. You improve a cash
managed carefully. techniques could be tested with operating cycle.
available for narrative questions
working capital on good practice
management as when managing
possible. Work payables and
through each receivables.
example very
carefully.
Stop and think

What should our
objectives be in
managing cash,
inventory,
receivables and
payables?
9 Cash budgets Section 9 is Be prepared for IQ5: Cash

The cash budget is one important because longer scenario budget
of the most important you need to be able questions such as This is a quick
planning tools to prepare a cash the preparation of a question that
available to an budget. Make sure cash budget which tests your
organisation. It shows you work through highlights the understanding
the cash effect of all the interactive quantity and timing of what needs to
decisions taken in the questions in the of cash surpluses be included in a
budgetary planning section before and deficits. cash budget.
process. trying the self-test
questions at the end IQ6: Cash
of the chapter. budget
This is good
practice of a
Stop and think longer scenario
For what reasons style question.
might an
organisation’s
budgeted income
statement reveal a
substantial increase
in profit compared
to the latest year
while at the same
time the cash
budget forewarns of
a significant
budgeted cash
outflow during the
year?

1 What is ‘working capital’?
Section overview
• The components of working capital are inventory, receivables, cash and payables.
Definition
Working capital: The total of the current assets of a business less its current liabilities.
Net working capital is made up of current assets less current liabilities:

Receivables + Inventory + Cash – Payables
Investment in working capital is needed to ‘oil the wheels’ of business.
It is essential to consider working capital as a whole and how the components all fit together. The
management of working capital is concerned with the liquidity position of the company, so the main
aim is to turn the cash round as quickly as possible while ensuring that profitability is not thereby
undermined: it is a trade-off.
2 Balancing liquidity and profitability

Section overview
• All businesses face a trade-off between being profitable (providing a return) and being liquid
(staying in business).
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify risks within a
scenario’. A business needs to manage the risk of not being able to pay debts in a timely manner
versus the risk of missing out on profit.
Alternative policies in working capital management need to be reviewed in terms of their relative risk
and return. An important aspect of the risk associated with various options is the effect it has on the
company’s liquidity position. Liquidity is obviously of crucial importance to the financial stability of a
business; mismanagement of a firm’s liquidity position may result in it being unable to pay its debts
which, in turn, may result in corporate insolvency. A business’s liquidity determines its ability to
survive. This can be illustrated by looking at each component of working capital in turn.
• Cash. A business requires a particular level of cash (or overdraft facility) in order to pay debts
when they fall due, and particularly to take advantage of any generous discounts offered for
prompt payment. However, a better return could be earned by investing any cash surplus in a
high-yielding investment. By ensuring that it has sufficient liquid assets (cash), therefore, a
business is reducing its chance of owning more profitable assets.
• Receivables. A business could decide that it does not want to offer credit to customers, because
the delay in payment jeopardises its liquidity position. If it tried to adopt this policy however,
customers would be driven away, revenue would fall and profits would fall.

• Inventory. In order to satisfy customer demand, manufacturing and retailing firms need to
maintain finished goods inventory; to keep production runs moving without disruption, raw
materials inventories also need to be maintained. This means that a business will have money tied
up in inventories that, again, it might feel it could use more profitably elsewhere. However, if
inventories were not available when required, a potential sale might be lost; the cost of a broken
production facility may be higher than the cost of holding inventory.
• Payables. To improve its cash position a business might decide not to pay suppliers until after two
or three months, rather than after the normal one month. Apart from the obvious cost of lost
discount opportunities, the business runs the risk of alienating its suppliers and even losing
sources of supply.
In each of the above instances the business must weigh up profitability versus liquidity. Since
ultimately a business aims to maximise profits, it must establish the financial costs and benefits of
different liquidity positions. Inevitably all working capital decisions reduce to decisions over cash
levels, since current assets should eventually be turned into cash.
Remember that profit and cash flows are not the same. It is possible to make accounting profits
while suffering a dramatic decline in the cash balance (and vice versa). There are many cases of
companies becoming insolvent while reporting accounting profits. Since the consequences of
compulsory liquidations are invariably catastrophic for all concerned, it is crucial for a business to
maintain a sound liquidity position. Cash budgeting and performance measurement are key
techniques in monitoring and controlling that position.
3 Assessing the liquidity position via ratios

Section overview
• Ratios can be used to assess a business’s liquidity position.

• Liquidity can be assessed using the current and quick ratios.
It is important for a business to monitor its liquidity position on a regular basis.

A secure liquidity position is desirable. The business’s liquidity position can be assessed in two ways:
by ratios, and via the cash operating cycle.
Ratios
Inventory Receivables Payables Liquidity

turnover collection period payment period ratios
Inventory Receivables Payables Current assets

× 365 × 365 × 365
Cost of sales Revenue Purchases Current liabilities
(Inventory (current ratio)
turnover period)
Cost of sales Current assets – inventory
Inventory Current liabilities
(Inventory (quick ratio or
turnover ratio) liquidity ratio)
Figure 7.1: Ratios
These can be compared with:

• the same company in previous periods
• other companies in the same industry
to see whether they are getting better or worse, and how they look against industry averages.

For an individual business, we can gain a better understanding of the effects of funding and
operational decisions on its liquidity position by manipulating its ratios.
For the following ratios averages should be used where they are available, but the year-end figure
should be used if not.
3.1 Inventory turnover period

This measure shows the average length of time that inventory is held for.
Inventory turnover period = (Inventory/Cost of sales) × 365
If the inventory is held for a shorter period, the costs of holding the stock will decrease. A similar
insight is obtained by calculating the inventory turnover ratio – see below.
3.2 Rate of inventory turnover

The rate of inventory turnover monitors how many times inventory turns over during the trading
period.
Rate of inventory turnover = Cost of sales/Average inventory
In general, the rate of turnover should be as high as possible since this means that the inventory is
lower, thus reducing costs such as space costs, insurance, obsolescence write-offs and the cost of
capital being tied up. However, potential sales might be forgone if inventory is so low that customers’
needs cannot be met.
3.3 Receivables collection period

This monitors how long on average it takes to collect debts.
Receivables collection period (in days) = (Average receivables/Annual sales revenue) × 365
The collection period can also be measured in months, in which case the ratio calculation would be
multiplied by 12 instead of by 365.
The lower this period, the lower the capital cost of the money invested in receivables balances and
the lower the risk of bad debts. However, customers may go elsewhere if the credit period offered is
too low.
3.4 Payables payment period

This monitors how long on average the company waits before paying its suppliers.
Payables payment period = (Average payables/Annual purchases) × 365
In general, this period should be as high as possible. However, supplier goodwill may be lost if the
period of credit taken is too long. Continuity of supply could also be disrupted if suppliers place
overdue accounts on stop.
The payment period can also be measured in months, in which case the ratio calculation would be
multiplied by 12 instead of by 365.
The purchases figure should be used where this is available. If not then cost of sales should be used
as an alternative.
Worked example: Working capital ratios

Division S is a retail operation. Its year-end working capital consists of inventory valued at cost, trade
receivables of £90,000, cash and trade payables. Its financial performance ratios include the
following.
Gross profit margin (gross profit/turnover) 25%

Current ratio 2.3:1
Receivables collection period 30 days
Payables payment period 40 days
Rate of inventory turnover 18 times
The opening inventory, receivables and payables balances are the same as the closing balances.

Requirement
Calculate the division’s year-end cash balance.
Solution
Step 1
Calculate the annual sales revenue
Receivables collection period (in days) = (Average receivables/Sales revenue) × 365

Sales revenue = (£90,000/30) × 365
= £1,095,000
Step 2
Calculate the cost of sales/purchases
Since the opening and closing inventories are equal, the cost of sales is equal to the purchases.
Cost of sales = £1,095,000 × 0.75

= £821,250
Step 3
Calculate the inventory balance

Inventory = £821,250/18
= £45,625
Step 4
Calculate the trade payables balance
Payables payment period = (Average payables/Purchases) × 365

Trade payables = (40 × £821,250)/365
= £90,000
Step 5
Calculate the current assets balance
Current ratio = Current assets/Current liabilities

Current assets = 2.3 × £90,000
= £207,000
Step 6
Calculate the cash balance
£ £
Total current assets 207,000
Less: Inventory 45,625
Receivables 90,000
135,625
Cash balance 71,375

3.5 Current ratio
Definition
Current ratio: Current assets ÷ current liabilities
This ratio measures the ability to meet short-term liabilities from easily or quickly realisable current
assets. It is calculated as follows.
Current ratio = Current assets/Current liabilities
A higher value for the ratio indicates that the business is more liquid and is able more easily to meet
its current liabilities from its available current assets.
In general, a higher ratio is preferable to a lower one. However, if a business has a very high ratio this
may indicate that funds are tied up in current assets, such as inventory and cash that may be used
more productively elsewhere in the business.
The most appropriate level for the current ratio will depend on the type of business. For example, a
supermarket will have a relatively low current ratio because it does not hold inventories of raw
materials and work in progress and a large proportion of its sales to customers are made for cash,
with consequently a low investment in receivables.
On the other hand, a manufacturer will have a relatively high current ratio because of the need to
invest in inventories of raw materials and work-in-progress and to provide credit to customers.
3.6 Quick (liquidity) ratio
Definition
Quick ratio: Current assets less inventories ÷ current liabilities
The nature of the inventory in some types of business means that it cannot be easily or quickly
converted into cash. This inventory cannot be relied upon as a liquid asset when it is necessary to
meet short-term liabilities.
The quick ratio therefore excludes inventory from the current assets as follows.
Quick (liquidity) ratio = Current assets less inventories/Current liabilities
Worked example: Manipulating working capital ratios 1

Right Ltd currently has inventory and payables of £15,000 and receivables of £30,000. It pays its
suppliers one month after receiving goods from them but allows its customers two months’ credit.
Right Ltd does not expect any change to its level of business, but it now proposes to reduce its
receivables credit period to one month to bring it in line with its payables payment period. It also
proposes an increase in its inventory levels, such that its inventory turnover period will increase from
30 days to 60 days.
Requirement
What will be the effect of these decisions on Right Ltd’s ratios?
Solution
Proposed policy
Current policy days days
£ £
Inventory turnover/Inventory 30 15,000 60 30,000
Payables period/Payables (30) (15,000) (30) (15,000)
Receivables period/Receivables 60 30,000 30 15,000

Proposed policy
Current policy days days
£ £
Cash operating cycle/Net
current assets 60 30,000 60 30,000
Current ratio 3:1 3:1

Quick ratio 2:1 1:1
Interactive question 1: Risk in working capital decisions

Is Right Ltd’s proposal more or less risky than its current operation?
Interactive question 2: Calculating ratios to assess the liquidity position

The following balances were recorded for a business at the end of last week.
£’000
Inventories 982
Receivables 648
Cash 78
Payables 653
Requirement
Complete the table below to compare the current ratio and quick (liquidity) ratio with the average for
businesses in the industry. Comment on the results.
Ratio for this business Industry average
Current ratio 2.5:1
Quick (liquidity) ratio 1.4:1
4 The cash operating cycle

Section overview
• The cash operating cycle is the length of time between paying out cash for raw materials and
other input costs and receiving the cash for goods or services supplied.
• The length of each element of working capital (receivables, payables and so on) can be calculated
in days and then summed to determine the length of the cash operating cycle.
• Liquidity problems can be caused if the cash cycle becomes too long. The forecasting and control
of working capital requirements is critical to the management of the cash operating cycle.

4.1 What is the cash operating cycle?
Definition
Cash operating cycle: The period of time which elapses between the point at which cash begins to
be spent on the production of a product and the collection of cash from the customer who
purchases it.
It is important to note that movements in working capital will have an impact on an organisation’s
cash balance. The efficient control of working capital is therefore vital in the management of an
organisation’s cash.
The measurement of the cash operating cycle focuses on the length of time between an organisation
paying out cash for its raw materials and other input costs and receiving the cash for goods or
services supplied.
The cash operating cycle is normally measured in days and it may be referred to as the working
capital cycle. It can be depicted in Figure 7.2 below.
Cash payment
Cash Payables
Cash
collection Purchases
Raw materials
Receivables
inventory
Sales Production
Finished goods Work-in-progress

inventory inventory
Production
Figure 7.2: The cash operating cycle
4.2 Calculating the length of the cash operating cycle

The length of the cash cycle and its component parts can be calculated as follows:
Days
Raw materials holding
period Annual inventory of raw materials/Annual usage × 365 = X
Average payables
payment period Average trade payables/Annual purchases × 365 = (X)
Average production Average inventory of work in progress/Annual cost
period of sales × 365 = X
Average inventory- Average inventory of finished goods/Annual cost of
holding period sales × 365 = X
Average receivables
collection period Average receivables/Annual sales revenue × 365 = X
Length of cycle X
Where averages cannot be calculated or are not available then period-end balances should be used.

Interactive question 3: Calculating the cash operating cycle
Marlboro Ltd has the following estimated figures for the coming year:
Sales £3,600,000
Average receivables £306,000
Gross profit margin 25% on sales
Average inventories
Finished goods £200,000
Work in progress £350,000
Raw materials £150,000
Average payables £130,000
Inventory levels are constant.

Raw materials represent 60% of total production cost.
Requirement
Complete the table to calculate the company’s cash operating cycle. Use the space provided in the
table for your workings.
Cost of sales = =
Days
Raw materials in inventory =
Credit taken from suppliers = ( )
WIP in inventory =
Finished goods in inventory =
Credit given to customers =
Number of days between payment and receipt
Context example: Manipulating working capital ratios 2

A profitable business’s inventory turnover ratio of 20 rises by 20%. Its number of receivables days
rises by 10% from 70 days, but its cost of goods sold and payables days remain the same. The effect
on its cash operating cycle is as follows:
Period 1 Period 2
Days Days
Inventory turnover
period Cost of sales/Inventory 365/20 18 365/(20 × 1.2) 15
Receivables days Receivables/Revenue 70 70 × 1.1 77
88 92
The cash operating cycle will therefore lengthen.

4.3 Investment in working capital
The level of investment in working capital increases considerably over the period of the cycle, as
seen in Figure 7.3, which highlights the situation where raw materials are bought, processed into
work in progress, then finally into finished goods. Cash paid out for labour and overheads during this
time increases the investment.
Investment
£
Finished Receivables
WIP goods
Raw materials (work in progress)
Payables
Purchase Manufacture Sell
Figure 7.3: Investment in working capital
Business A with inventory days of 50 and receivables days of 60 might appear to have the same
working capital investment (110 days) as Business B with 90 days’ inventory and 20 days’ receivables.
In practice, the level of investment in Business B is lower, as less capital is tied up in inventories
(particularly raw materials) than in receivables.
The total investment is also influenced by:
• growth (see overtrading below)
• inflation. As the price of raw material inputs rises, together with labour and overhead costs in
production, a firm is likely to put up its selling prices. Thus, the monetary investment in inventory +
receivables – payables increases
4.4 Variations between businesses

Different types of business have different working capital requirements.
A large national supermarket A civil engineering firm with Manufacturer of school

chain many large projects, eg, uniforms
constructing buildings for
2012 Olympics
• High investment in • Relatively low investment in • Customers usually buy

inventory (for example non- raw material inventory as school uniforms at the start
food items such as clothing each job is unique and of a school year and so
and electrical goods) in supplies may be bought working capital
shops and warehouses. when needed. requirements will fluctuate
significantly during the year.
• Low investment in • Long WIP and receivables • Receivables will increase as

receivables (as most sales days. Progress payments customers (retailers) stock
are in cash). are used to offset outflows up for the new school year
but there may be money but will be much lower later
held back by the customer in the year.
until the job is deemed
satisfactory.
• Ability to take long credit • The manufacturer is likely to

terms from suppliers by spread its production
applying various sorts of process over the year to

A large national supermarket A civil engineering firm with Manufacturer of school
chain many large projects, eg, uniforms
constructing buildings for
2012 Olympics
pressure. Cash smooth production, with

operating cycle may be inventory building in the
negative ie, cash comes run-up to the peak
in before it is paid out to period.
suppliers.
• Cash operating cycle • Cash flow is likely to be

relatively stable as there is disjointed – outflows while
not that much seasonal inventory is built up with the
activity. Non-food may have majority of inflows
a longer cycle where items concentrated at the start of
spend longer in inventory the school year. Cash
(turnover is less frequent) operating cycle therefore
ie, overall cycle may be likely to vary significantly
made up of distinct depending on the time of
elements. year.
4.5 Limitations of working capital performance measures

The measures must be used with care, because:
• the balance sheet values at a particular point in time may not be typical
• balances used for a seasonal business will not represent average levels, eg, summer holiday travel
business
• such measures concern the past not the future
Therefore, measures should not be considered in isolation. Trends and industry averages are
important.
4.6 Overtrading
The amount of cash required to fund the cash operating cycle will increase as:
• the cycle gets longer
• sales (and hence purchases of inventory required) increase
This can often happen at the start of a new business, since:
• there is no trading record, so suppliers are likely to insist on a very short credit period
• there is no reputation to draw in customers, so a long credit period is likely to be extended to
customers in order to break into the market
• if the business has found a ‘niche market’, rapid sales expansion may occur
This can lead to the cycle being ‘out of balance’, so short-term financing may be necessary to get
over the initial period. If this finance is unavailable, it may be necessary to sell non-current assets to
pay debts or, at the extreme, to go into insolvent liquidation. The forecasting of working capital so as
to avoid overtrading is thus of particular importance for new businesses.
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify creative and
pragmatic solutions in a business environment’. For example, you could be asked to identify solutions
to short-term liquidity problems.

4.7 Solutions to short-term liquidity problems
The aim must be to reduce the length of the cash operating cycle by:
• reducing the inventory-holding period
• reducing the production period – not easy to do but it might be worth investigating different
machinery or different working methods
• reducing customers’ credit period and tightening up on cash collection
• extending the period of credit taken from suppliers – again, not easy to do as the business has to
comply with their terms, but it is worth considering the advantages and disadvantages of taking
early settlement discounts
5 Managing inventory
Section overview
• There are many, usually non-financial, reasons for a business to hold inventory, but it does so at
considerable cost.
• As a result, businesses try to keep inventory levels down as far as possible, using a variety of
inventory control systems: re-order level, periodic review, ABC, economic order quantity (EOQ),
just-in-time (JIT) and perpetual inventory.
5.1 Why hold inventory?

Reasons for holding inventory include:
• to meet demand by acting as a buffer in times of unusually high consumption, to reduce the risk
of stockouts or where supplier delivery times (lead times) are uncertain
• to ensure continuity of production
• to take advantage of quantity discounts or special promotions by ordering more at a time
• to buy in ahead of a shortage or ahead of a price rise
• for technical reasons, such as maturing whisky or keeping oil in pipelines
• to reduce ordering costs by ordering more items on fewer occasions
• because suppliers insist on minimum order quantities
Definition
Opportunity cost: The value of the benefit sacrificed when one course of action is chosen in
preference to an alternative.
5.2 Costs associated with holding inventory

• Purchase price, ie, the cost of the inventory itself
• Holding costs:
– Opportunity cost of capital tied up
– Cost of insurance
– Risk of deterioration, obsolescence and pilferage
– Cost of the warehousing function
– Cost of stores administration
• Re-order costs:
– Transport costs
– Clerical and administrative expenses
– Batch set-up costs for goods produced internally

These costs vary with the number of orders which will increase as inventory levels are reduced.
• Shortage costs:
– Production stoppages caused by lack of raw materials
– Stockout costs for finished goods – anything from a delayed sale to a lost customer
– Emergency re-order costs
The benefits of holding inventory must outweigh the costs.
faults in arguments’. For example, the benefits of holding inventory must outweigh the costs.
5.3 Inventory control systems

For both finance and operational reasons, it is therefore very important to control inventory levels
effectively. There is a wide range of inventory control systems available.
• Re-order level system. A fixed quantity (the optimum order quantity – see economic order
quantity below) will be ordered whenever inventory falls to a pre-determined level (the reorder
level).
• Periodic review system. Inventory levels are reviewed at fixed time intervals to fit in with
production schedules, and variable quantities are ordered as appropriate. This is a very simple
method of inventory control.
• ABC system. The aim here is to reduce the work involved in inventory control in a business which
may have several thousand types of inventory item. Inventory is categorised into classes A, B or C
according to the annual cost of the usage of that inventory item, or the difficulty of replacements,
or the importance to the production process. Class A will then take most of the inventory control
effort, Class B less and Class C less still.
• Economic order quantity system (EOQ). The EOQ model for inventory control addresses the
problem of when to order inventory and how much to order. The formula is:
2cd
EOQ =
h
Where:
c = cost of placing one order
d = estimated usage of the inventory item over a particular period
h = cost of holding one unit of inventory for that period
Definition
Economic order quantity (EOQ): The order quantity which minimises inventory costs. The EOQ can
be calculated using a table, graph or formula.
Context example: Economic order quantity (EOQ)

Material X costs £100 per kg. 2,000 kg are to be used per year, and holding costs per kg per year are
£5. Each order placed costs £200 in administration time.
2 × 200 × 2,000
EOQ for material: = 400 kg
5
Annual usage is 2,000 kg, so 2,000/400 = 5 orders per year will be placed.

While EOQ appears to be a satisfactorily precise model, it has some serious limitations:
• It is cumbersome to apply.
• Some simplifying assumptions are made about usage and a constant purchase price that may be
unjustified.
• It ignores the potential benefit of taking advantage of bulk discounts because it does not
consider whether the best price is being obtained.
• It can be very difficult in practice to estimate holding costs and the cost of placing each order.
• Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing systems. Production and purchasing are linked closely to sales
demand on a week-to-week basis. This means that negligible inventories of raw materials and
finished goods need to be held. Features of JIT systems include:
– the need for flexibility of both suppliers and the workforce to expand and contract output at
short notice
– guaranteed quality of raw materials. There are no inventories in reserve should one batch of
raw materials prove to be faulty, so production would stop until a further delivery can be made
– close working relationship between suppliers and users including geographical proximity in
order to be able to make immediate deliveries
– willingness of the workforce to increase or decrease working hours from one period to another;
This could be done by having a core workforce with a group of part-time or freelance workers
– rationalised factory layout systems to minimise movements between stages
• Perpetual inventory methods. This is a system whereby the inventory records are updated for
each receipt and issue of inventory as it occurs. One advantage of such a system is the data it
provides to management to determine which product lines are moving rapidly. Marketing
managers may also use the data to make tactical decisions on special prices and promotions to
sell slow-moving items.
• Other ways to manage inventory include:
– sub-contracting (outsource) non-core processes, passing on the inventory holding problem to
another business
– obtaining progress payments from customers, thus reducing the net capital required to finance
inventory
– reducing the number of product lines, eg, drop products near the end of their product life
cycle
6 Managing trade payables

Section overview
• Trade credit is generally a cheap source of finance.

• However, prompt payment is considered essential for a prosperous economy and for long-term
sustainability.
Credit periods for the buyer are a source of short-term finance. For example, if a buyer decides not to
pay its trade debts for a further month, it has obtained a further month’s use of its cash.
Trade payables are not, however, without cost.
• Credit status may be lost so the supplier gives low priority to the buyer’s future orders, with
consequent disruption of activities.
• The supplier may raise prices in order to compensate for the finance which they are involuntarily
supplying.
• The buyer will lose any cash discount for prompt payment; the cost of the lost discount should be
compared with other short-term sources of finance, eg, overdrafts.
The advantages of trade credit are that:

• it is convenient and informal (ie, it is unusual to tell your suppliers that you do not intend to pay
them on time, though after a while they will realise anyway)
• it can be used by businesses which do not qualify for credit from a financial institution
• it does not prevent advantage being taken of settlement discounts (which can result in a very
cheap source of financing) because a period of time is still allowed before payment has to be
made
• trade credit can represent a virtual subsidy or sales promotion device offered by the seller – for
example, favourable terms may be offered when a new company is set up
• it can be used on a very short-term basis to overcome unexpected cash flow crises
Because of these advantages, a business should:
• consider switching suppliers if better credit terms are available or if better terms exist for sole
supplier relationships
• negotiate better terms for buying large quantities
• reconcile statements (make sure that what the supplier says a company owes agrees with what
the company thinks it owes)
• pay only on completion of correct delivery
6.1 Good, fair payment practices

As highlighted in Section 2, liquidity is of crucial importance to the financial stability of a business.
Late payments to suppliers, particularly to small businesses, can have a severe impact on their cash
flow, their ability to invest and grow and in some cases, their ability to survive. Prompt payment is
therefore considered essential for a prosperous economy and long-term sustainability. Prompt
payment relates to the ‘social’ and ‘governance’ aspects of ESG that we mentioned in Chapter 1.
In some countries, there is a legal obligation for businesses to report their payment practices and
policies. For example, in the UK, the Small Business, Enterprise and Employment Act 2015 requires
UK’s largest companies and LLPs to report their payment practices on a half-yearly basis. There is also
a voluntary code, called the Prompt Payment Code, that large businesses can sign up to, to pledge to
follow good payment practices.
Small businesses often feel compelled to accept unfair payment terms from large businesses. Many
small businesses avoid charging interest on overdue invoices, in order to maintain the relationship
with the larger business.
Context example: Worked example

JustHunger is an online food-order delivery service that uses a single cardboard packaging supplier
for its food delivery packaging. It has always had a close working relationship with the supplier in
terms of product development (for packaging hot food or frozen food) and sustainability. It has a 30-
day credit term with the supplier, but it appears to be taking, on average, 60 days to settle its
invoices. Is this ethical?
The payables figures relating to the cardboard-packaging supplier indicates that JustHunger may be
abusing its power as a supplier. The company is the sole supplier of cardboard packaging and it is
therefore vital to have a good relationship with the supplier. Taking 60 days’ credit from it when its
credit terms are 30 days indicates that JustHunger could be using the long-standing relationship to
take extended credit. This may have been intentional or unintentional but, either way, it is
unacceptable from an ethical point of view.
Context example: Prompt payment

‘The government says payment problems are “rife”, with an estimated £23.4bn worth of outstanding
late invoices. According to the Federation of Small Businesses (FSB), about 50,000 businesses close
every year due to late payments, damaging Britain’s prosperity and threatening jobs.’
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-55714224 accessed 5 April 2022
Good, fair payment practices include the following principles:
• Deliberate late payment is ethically unacceptable.

• Businesses have the right to receive correct full payment as and when due.
• Payment processes should be clear so that suppliers know when and how much they will be paid.
• Payment periods should not exceed 30 days.
7 Managing trade receivables

Section overview
• The cost of granting credit to customers has to be balanced against the benefits of doing so.
• Proper management of trade receivables should ensure an adequate level of collections.
• Trade receivables may be financed by invoice discounting or factoring.
7.1 What is the ideal level of trade receivables?

The management of trade receivables involves the business trading-off:
• the costs of extending credit to customers – these include finance costs, irrecoverable debts and
administrative costs of the credit control department
• the benefits of granting credit – in their simplest form these are larger profits due to the increased
sales generated because of the credit terms offered
Managing the level of trade receivables involves some very practical issues, usually undertaken by
the receivables ledger and credit control sections of the business’s finance function.
7.2 Credit control and collection policies

Credit control and collection policies should be set at board level. Implementation of the policies
may fall outside the remit of the finance function itself, but the treasury management section could
certainly be involved in credit control.
7.2.1 Credit terms and settlement discounts

Credit terms will be influenced largely by trade custom which may, for example, be payment within
60 days.
Settlement discounts are again influenced largely by custom and practice within the industry. The
business must ensure the cost does not outweigh the benefit, and should compare it with the cost of
other sources of short-term finance, eg, overdraft. Offering discounts can be expensive. For example,
if it costs a company 2% discount per month to get receipts early from customers, the annual cost is
1.0212 – 1 = 26.8%.
Worked example: Settlement discount

Left Ltd has monthly sales of £20,000. 25% of receivables are paid within one month of a sale, and
70% are paid within two months, but 5% of receivables are never paid. Left Ltd proposes offering a
3% discount to receivables settling invoices within one month of the invoice date. As a result,
monthly sales are predicted to rise to £25,000, and 50% of trade receivables will pay within one
month. 44% will pay within 2 months but irrecoverable debts will rise to 6%. All sales are invoiced at
the end of each month. The discount will be offered for all invoices issued from Month 1.
Requirement
By how much will total cash inflows from trade receivables in Months 1 and 2 change as a result, and
what will be the effect on profit?

Solution
Cash received
Irrecoverable Discount
Sales Month 1 Month 2 debts allowed
£ £ £ £ £
Current policy 25% 70% 5%
Sales M1 20,000 5,000 14,000 1,000 0
Sales M2 20,000 0 5,000 0 0
Total cash 5,000 19,000 1,000 0
Proposed policy 50% × 97% 44% 6% 50% × 3%

Sales M1 25,000 12,125 11,000 1,500 375
Sales M2 25,000 0 12,125 0 0
12,125 23,125 1,500 375
There is a large cash flow benefit of £7,125 in Month 1, and a benefit of £4,125 per month once the
normal pattern is established. The reduction in monthly profits caused by increased irrecoverable
debts is £500, while profits are further reduced by £375 with respect to the discount allowed.
The company must communicate its terms to customers clearly on:

• orders
• invoices
• statements
The settlement discount policy must be enforced, otherwise most customers will continue to take the
settlement discount as a matter of course, whether or not they pay on time.
7.2.2 Credit rating

The risk that a customer will not pay its debts can be indicated by giving each customer a credit
rating. Some customers may be refused credit altogether, so supplies are only made against cash.
Credit ratings should be based on:
• an assessment of the ability of the customer to meet the liabilities
• an assessment of financial statements, particularly for major customers
• the use of credit-rating agencies (eg, Dun and Bradstreet) who rate the customer according to a
number of factors related to its ability to pay
• an analysis of ongoing trading experience with each customer
• the practice in some industries whereby credit managers liaise regularly to exchange information
with other businesses; this is very useful, since members will alert each other as soon as problems
are identified
• credit limits on how much can be outstanding on a customer’s account at any time; these should
be reviewed frequently and reported immediately if exceeded so that necessary action can be
taken
• trade and bank references, although these may be so bland as to be of limited value; these
references may provide valuable corroboration of other sources of information, however credit
ratings should be reviewed regularly.
Interactive question 4: Collection procedures

You are employed in the receivables ledger section of Kott plc. Your manager has asked you to help
in a project to improve the cash operating cycle of Kott plc.

Requirement
Identify three ways in which collection of amounts owed by customers could be speeded up.
7.3 Financing trade receivables

Receivables are an asset, and so can be ‘sold’ like any other asset by invoice discounting or factoring.
7.3.1 Invoice discounting
Definition
Invoice discounting: The purchase (by the provider of the discounting service) of a company’s trade
debts, at a discount. Invoice discounting enables a company to raise finance based on their expected
invoice receipts. The invoice discounter does not take over the administration of the client’s sales
ledger, so the client remains in control of debt collection.
This involves selling the invoices to a discounting company for a cash sum, then repaying the
discounter when the debtor pays the invoice. Note that the business retains full responsibility for
sales ledger, credit control and collection functions. However, the discounting company may perform
certain credit checks and ratings before entering the agreement. This form of discounting is
effectively a form of overdraft facility as the discounter makes a charge for lending the money.
7.3.2 Receivables factoring
Definition
Factoring organisation: Takes over the management of the trade debts owed to its client (a business
customer) on the client’s behalf. The factor company collects the debts and provides an immediate
cash advance of a proportion of the money it is due to collect.
This contains three closely integrated elements:

• Accounting and collection – the business is paid by the factor as customers settle their invoices or
after an agreed settlement period. The factor maintains the sales ledger accounting function.
• Credit control – the factor is responsible for chasing the customers and speeding up the
collection of debts. Recourse factoring means that any bad debts are passed back to the client
company. Non-recourse factoring provides 100% bad debt insurance, that is the client does not
suffer from the cost of bad debts.
• Finance against sales – the factor advances, say, 80% of the value of sales immediately on
invoicing.
The major disadvantage is the loss of immediate contact with the customer, who may see factoring as
a sign of financial problems.
7.4 Good practice in receivables management

Good practice can be summarised as: look after key accounts and manage time scales.
7.4.1 Look after key accounts

It frequently happens that 20% of customers represent 80% of the debts. These customers, and their
debts, must receive special attention.
7.4.2 Manage time scales

Attempt to reduce all time scales between placement of an order and receipt of cash from the
customer, and eliminate any causes of disputes or non-payments. This should serve to tighten up the
cash operating cycle in general.

Context example: Total receivables ageing
November December
20X1 20X1
outstanding % of total outstanding % of total
£ £
0–30 days 10,000 86.2 12,000 80.5
31–60 days 1,000 8.6 2,000 13.4
61–90 days 500 4.3 750 5.0
90+ days 100 0.9 150 1.1
11,600 100.0 14,900 100.0
The changes from November to December show customers taking longer to pay. It might be a
normal seasonal pattern. If not, the customers who are responsible need to be identified.
Context example: Customer ageing, December 20
Customer 0–30 days 31–60 days 61–90 days 90+ days

£ £ £ £
Sid plc 200 – – –
Snow plc 150 20 – –
Gizzard Ltd 120 80 60 40
: : : : :
: : : : :
: : : : :
12,000 2,000 750 150
Gizzard Ltd appears to be one of the problem customers; perhaps it is time to start more aggressive
collection procedures?
7.5 Trade credit insurance

Trade credit insurance insures a business against the possible default and insolvency of its credit
customers and, where exports are involved, political risk. It is therefore a useful tool in credit
management, helping to minimise possible problems from late payment and bad debts.
Credit insurance means a business can:
• insure all or part of its receivables ledger against default by a customer
• include a ‘first loss’ (or excess) on its accounts to be insured
• be insured only up to a ceiling (‘credit limit’)
The premium paid will vary in accordance with the above factors.
The insurer invariably sets a credit limit on the maximum amount that can be insured. Policies cost
between 0.20% and 0.50% of annual revenue on accounts to be insured. However, premiums are
also influenced by factors such as effectiveness of credit control systems, length of credit given and
previous experience of irrecoverable debts. The policyholder will have to accept part of any loss;
credit insurers will typically accept 75% to 95% of any loss, the balance being taken by the
policyholder. Insurance brokers or insurance intermediaries usually arrange policies.

8 Treasury management
Section overview
• The risks of running out of cash have to be balanced against the costs of holding cash, just like
with inventory.
• Short term surpluses of cash should be invested; short term shortages of cash need to be funded.
8.1 The basic trade-off: cost of holding v cost of running out of cash
To manage its cash position successfully the business must trade off the cost of holding cash against
the cost of running out of cash.
The cost of holding cash, either as a cash float or in a current account, is the opportunity cost of what
else could be done with the money. Cash is an idle asset and earns little or no return. If the funds
were put to work elsewhere (ie, invested) they could generate profits.
The costs of running out of cash vary, depending upon the circumstances of the business. Cash
shortages result in the business not being able to pay its payables on time, and this could have many
implications. Examples include:
• loss of settlement discounts from trade suppliers
• loss of supplier goodwill, eg, refusal of further credit, higher prices, poor delivery
• poor industrial relations if wage payments are delayed
• creditors petitioning for winding up the business
Although the above costs may be difficult to quantify the business must at all times ensure that it has
sufficient liquidity, in the form of cash balances or overdraft/loan facilities, to maintain its solvency.
8.2 Aim of good cash management

The primary aim of good cash management is to have the right amount of cash available at the right
time. This involves:
• accurate cash budgeting/forecasting, so that shortfalls and surpluses can be anticipated
• planning short-term finance when necessary
• planning investment of surpluses when necessary
• cost-efficient cash transmission
8.3 Short-term finance

• Receivable factoring and invoice discounting;
• Bank overdrafts:
– may be used to fund fluctuating working capital
– are technically repayable on demand, so carry some risk
– normally carry a flat charge for the facility and variable interest on the balance, eg, 1–5% above
base rate
– are flexible in that the business borrows only when it needs to (unlike a fixed term loan)
• Short-term bank loans:
– should ideally match the term of the loan with the duration of the project
– can have fixed or variable rates of interest
• Operating leases allow the business to have use of long-term assets such as plant or vehicles
without paying the full amount of their cost. Instead, a regular amount is paid out each month to
give use of the asset, while the risks of ownership remain with the lessor.
8.4 Investing surplus funds

Surplus funds can be invested in various financial products:

• Treasury bills issued by the Bank of England on behalf of the government, which have a minimum
investment of £50,000+, run for three months and are highly secure and liquid, but offer low
returns.
• Deposits, which offer investment periods ranging from overnight to five years. They are available
from banks, local authorities and building societies with yields exceeding that of Treasury bills.
• Gilts (longer-term government debt), which offer a large range of maturities and rates based on
money market rates; they can have capital gains tax advantages.
• Bonds, which are debentures and loans of companies quoted on the stock market; rates fluctuate
with general interest rates and there is good liquidity.
• Equities dealt on the Stock Exchange offer good marketability and liquidity but relatively high
risk.
When choosing investments from the list above the following factors should be considered:
• The amount of funds available
• The length of time for which the funds are available (invest short-term funds in the short-term and
longer-term funds in longer-term projects)
• The likelihood of needing early withdrawal (consider liquidity)
• The notice period for withdrawal, and penalties
• The risk and the return of the investment
9 Cash budgets
Section overview
• A cash budget shows the cash effect of all the decisions taken in the budgetary planning exercise.
• It is a statement tabulating future cash receipts and payments to show the forecast cash balance
of a business at defined intervals.
• The appropriate management action to be taken in response to forecast cash deficits or surpluses
will depend on whether the situation is expected to be short term or longer term.
• Certain non-cash items such as depreciation are not included in a cash budget.
Definition
Cash budget: A cash budget is a statement in which estimated future cash receipts and payments are
tabulated in such a way as to show the forecast cash balance of a business at defined intervals.
9.1 Preparing cash budgets

For example, in December 20X2 an accounts department might wish to estimate the cash position of
the business during the three following months, January to March 20X3. A cash budget might be
drawn up in the following format.
Jan Feb Mar

£ £ £
Estimated cash receipts
From accounts payable 14,000 16,500 17,000
From cash sales 3,000 4,000 4,500
Proceeds on disposal of non-current assets 2,200
Total cash receipts 17,000 22,700 21,500

Jan Feb Mar
£ £ £
Estimated cash payments
To suppliers of goods 8,000 7,800 10,500
To employees (wages) 3,000 3,500 3,500
Purchase of non-current assets 16,000
Rent and rates 1,000
Other overheads 1,200 1,200 1,200
Repayment of loan 2,500
14,700 28,500 16,200
Net surplus/(deficit) for month 2,300 (5,800) 5,300

Opening cash balance 1,200 3,500 (2,300)
Closing cash balance 3,500 (2,300) 3,000
In this example the accounts department has calculated that the cash balance at the beginning of the
budget period, 1 January, will be £1,200. Estimates have been made of the cash that is likely to be
received by the business (from cash and credit sales, and from a planned disposal of non-current
assets in February). Similar estimates have been made of cash due to be paid out by the business
(payments to suppliers and employees, payments for rent, rates and other overheads, payment for a
planned purchase of non-current assets in February and a loan repayment due in January).
From these estimates it is a simple step to calculate the net cash movement in each month. In some
months the budgeted cash payments may exceed cash receipts and there will be a deficit for the
month; this occurs during February in the above example because of the large investment in non-
current assets in that month.
The last part of this cash budget shows how the business’s estimated cash balance can then be rolled
along from month to month. Starting with the opening balance of £1,200 at 1 January a cash surplus
of £2,300 is generated in January. This leads to a closing January balance of £3,500, which becomes
the opening balance for February. The deficit of £5,800 in February throws the business’s cash
position into overdraft and the overdrawn balance of £2,300 becomes the opening balance for
March. Finally, the cash surplus of £5,300 in March leaves the business with a favourable cash
position of £3,000 at the end of the budget period.
9.2 The usefulness of cash budgets

Cash budgets enable management to make any forward planning decisions that may be needed,
such as advising their bank of estimated overdraft requirements or strengthening their credit control
procedures to ensure that customers pay more quickly.
The cash budget can also give management an indication of potential problems that could arise and
allows them the opportunity to take action to avoid such problems. A cash budget can show
potential cash positions as explored in section 9.3 below. Management will need to take appropriate
action depending on the potential position.
Preparing a cash budget helps management with forward planning decisions, as explained above.
Interactive question 5: Cash budget

Which of the following should be included or not included in a cash budget?

Include/Do not include
Funds from the receipt of a bank loan
Revaluation of a non-current asset
Receipt of dividends from outside the business
Depreciation of distribution vehicles
Bad debts written off
Share dividend paid
Worked example: Preparing a cash budget

Penny operates a retail business. Purchases are sold at cost plus 33 1/3%.
Budgeted sales in month Labour cost in month Expenses incurred in month

£ £ £
January 40,000 3,000 4,000
February 60,000 3,000 6,000
March 160,000 5,000 7,000
April 120,000 4,000 7,000
(1) It is management policy to have sufficient inventory in hand at the end of each month to meet
half of next month’s sales demand.
(2) Suppliers for materials and expenses are paid in the month after the purchases are
made/expenses incurred. Labour is paid in full by the end of each month.
(3) Expenses include a monthly depreciation charge of £2,000.
(4) (1) 75% of sales are for cash
(2) 25% of sales are on one month’s credit.
(5) The company will buy equipment costing £18,000 for cash in February and will pay a dividend of
£20,000 in March. The opening cash balance at 1 February is £1,000.
Requirement
Prepare a cash budget for February and March.
You should make an entry in every box in the cash budget. Enter a zero or a dash where applicable.
Do not leave any boxes blank.
Solution
Cash budget
February March
£ £
Receipts
Receipts from cash sales 45,000 (W1) 120,000 (W2)
Receipts from credit sales 10,000 (W1) 15,000 (W2)

February March
£ £
Payments
Payments to suppliers 37,500 (W3) 82,500 (W3)
Expenses 2,000 (W4) 4,000 (W4)
Labour 3,000 5,000
Equipment purchase 18,000 0
Dividend 0 20,000
Total payments 60,500 111,500
Receipts less payments (5,500) 23,500
Opening cash balance b/f 1,000 (4,500)
Closing cash balance c/f (4,500) 19,000
WORKINGS
(1) Receipts in February
£
Cash 75% of Feb sales (75% × £60,000) 45,000
Credit 25% of Jan sales (25% × £40,000) 10,000
(2) Receipts in March
£
Cash 75% of Mar sales (75% × £160,000) 120,000
Credit 25% of Feb sales (25% × £60,000) 15,000
(3) Purchases
January February
£ £
For Jan sales (50% of £30,000) 15,000
For Feb sales (50% of £45,000) 22,500 (50% of £45,000) 22,500
For Mar sales – (50% of £120,000) 60,000
37,500 82,500
These purchases are paid for in February and March.

(4) Expenses
Cash expenses in January (£4,000 – £2,000) and February (£6,000 – £2,000) are paid in February
and March respectively. Depreciation is not a cash item.
Interactive question 6: Cash budget

You are presented with the budgeted data shown in Annex A for the period November 20X1 to June
20X2 by your firm. It has been extracted from the other functional budgets that have been prepared.

You are also told the following.
(1) Sales are 40% cash, 60% credit. Credit sales are paid two months after the month of sale.
(2) Purchases are paid in the month following purchase.
(3) 75% of wages are paid in the current month and 25% the following month.
(4) Overheads are paid the month after they are incurred. The overhead figures include monthly
depreciation of £2,000.
(5) Dividends are paid three months after they are declared.
(6) Capital expenditure is paid two months after it is incurred.
(7) The opening cash balance is £15,000.
Annex A
Nov X1 Dec X1 Jan X2 Feb X2 Mar X2 Apr X2 May X2 June X2
£ £ £ £ £ £ £ £
Sales 80,000 100,000 110,000 130,000 140,000 150,000 160,000 180,000
Purchases 40,000 60,000 80,000 90,000 110,000 130,000 140,000 150,000
Wages 10,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 24,000 28,000 32,000 36,000
Overheads 12,000 12,000 17,000 17,000 17,000 22,000 22,000 22,000
Dividends
declared 20,000 40,000
Capital
expend. 30,000 40,000
Requirement
Use the following framework to prepare the cash budget.
You should make an entry in every box in the cash budget. Enter a zero or a dash where applicable.
Do not leave any boxes blank.
Note: The boxes in this question indicate where an answer is required and where marks are available
in the CBE. You can use the ‘add comment’ function to record your workings and answers.
January February March April May June

£’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000
Receipts
Cash sales
Credit sales
Payments
Purchases
Wages:
75%
25%
Overheads
Dividends
Capital
expend.
Net surplus/

£’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000
(deficit)
Opening
balance
Closing
balance
9.3 Potential cash positions

9.3.1 Short-term surplus
• Pay suppliers early in return for settlement discount
• Increase receivables and inventories
• Invest short term (see section 8.4)
9.3.2 Short-term deficit

• Increase payables by delaying payments to suppliers
• Reduce receivables and inventories
• Arrange overdraft
9.3.3 Long-term surplus

• Invest long term
• Expand
• Diversify
• Replace non-current assets
• Increase dividends
• Buy back shares
9.3.4 Long-term deficit

• Raise long-term finance
• Consider divestment
• Consider selling non-current assets
• Plan a controlled shutdown

Summary
Need to weigh up profitability vs liquidity
WC = Receivables + Inventory + Cash – Payables
Working capital and

cash planning
Cash budget Cash operating cycle
Length of time between

paying for inputs and
receipt of cash from
Forecast surpluses Forecast deficits customers
Can be calculated for

Short-term Short-term deficit each element
surplus • Increase payables (receivables, payables,
• Pay suppliers by delaying etc) in days
early in return for payments to
settlement suppliers
discount • Reduce Liquidity problems
• Increase receivables and caused if cycle too long
receivables and inventories
inventories • Arrange overdraft
• Invest short term Important to assess
liquidity
• Current ratio
• Quick (liquidity) ratio
Long-term Long-term
surplus deficit
• Invest long term • Raise long-term
• Expand finance
• Diversify • Consider
• Replace non- divestment
current assets • Consider selling
• Increase non-current
dividends assets
• Buy back shares • Plan a controlled
shutdown

indicated.
1. What is the formula for net working capital? (Topic 1)
2. How is it possible for a business to be profitable and become insolvent? (Topic 2)
3. Do you know the formulae for the inventory, receivables, payables and liquidity ratios?
(Topic 3)
4. Do you know how to calculate the length of the cash operating cycle? (Topic 4)
5. Do you know the formula for the economic order quantity? (Topic 5)
6. Why do businesses use trade credit? (Topic 6)
7. What is receivables factoring? (Topic 7)
8. Name some sources of short-term finance? (Topic 8)
9. Why is depreciation excluded from a cash budget? (Topic 9)

questions in the Working capital chapter of the Management Information Question Bank. Refer back
to the learning in this chapter for any questions which you did not answer correctly or where the

Self-test questions

1 X will begin trading on 1 January 20X3. The following sales revenue is budgeted for January to
March 20X3.
• January – £13,000
• February – £17,000
• March – £10,000
5% of sales will be for cash. The remainder will be credit sales. A discount of 5% will be offered on all
cash sales. The payment pattern for credit sales is expected to be as follows.
Invoices paid in the month after sale – 75%
Invoices paid in the second month after sale – 23%
Bad debts – 2%
Invoices are issued on the last day of each month.
Requirement
The amount budgeted to be received from customers in March 20X3 is:
A £15,428
B £15,453
C £15,618
D £16,215
2 The amount of working capital is most likely to increase when:
A work-in-progress falls
B selling prices increase
C the credit period allowed to customers is reduced
D the credit period taken from suppliers is increased
3 A retailing company earns a gross profit margin of 37.5% on its monthly sales of £20,000. In order to
generate extra cash, the following changes are proposed:
Present Proposed
Inventory holding period 1.5 months 1.0 month
Trade payable payment period 1.0 month 1.3 months
Requirement
How much extra cash will be generated at the end of the month in which these changes take place?
A £2,500
B £3,750
C £6,250
D £10,000
4 Selected figures from a firm’s budget for next month are as follows:
Sales £450,000
Gross profit on sales 30%
Decrease in trade payables over the month £10,000
Increase in cost of inventory held over the month £18,000

Requirement
What is the budgeted payment to trade payables?
A £343,000
B £323,000
C £307,000
D £287,000
5 A company’s cash budget for next year shows a cash deficit for the months of April and May. For the
remaining months there will be a cash surplus.
Requirement
Which two of the following management actions would be most appropriate in response to the
expected cash position in April and May?
A Increase inventories of raw materials
B Arrange a bank overdraft
C Delay the payment of suppliers as much as possible
D Issue extra share capital
E Offer extra credit to customers
6 The following are items from APC Ltd’s opening and closing balance sheet and income statements
for the year 20X8.
1 January 31 December
£’000 £’000
Receivables 800 900
Inventory 600 700
Payables 200 250
Credit sales £10m

Cost of goods sold £6m
Requirement
What is the approximate length of the cash operating cycle?
A 54 days
B 57 days
C 61 days
D 84 days
7 Gemstrong Ltd is a retail company that has average sales of £14.6 million per annum and earns a
mark-up of 25%. Inventory averages £2 million, receivables average £0.9 million and trade payables
£0.6 million.
Requirement
If all sales and purchases are on credit, how long is the company’s cash operating cycle (to the
nearest day)?
A 58 days
B 66 days
C 69 days
D 104 days

8 A company sells inventory at a profit to a customer on credit. How will this transaction affect each of
the following ratios immediately after the transaction?
Increase/Decrease/Stay the same
Current ratio
Quick (liquidity) ratio
9 A subsidiary which sells goods wholesale has a year-end trade payables balance of £192,000. The
remainder of the working capital items consist of trade receivables, inventories and cash.
The inventory, receivables and payables balances were the same at the year end as at the beginning
of the year.
Relevant financial ratios for the year are as follows:
Quick (liquidity) ratio 1.7:1

Rate of inventory turnover 6 times p.a.
Payables payment period 1.5 months
Requirement
The current ratio to the nearest whole number at the year end is .
10 A retailing company’s working capital consists of inventory, trade receivables, cash and trade
payables. All working capital balances were the same at the beginning and the end of the year. The
sales revenue for the year was £900,000.
The financial ratios for the year include the following.
Current ratio 3.4:1

Rate of inventory turnover 15 times p.a.
Receivables collection period 73.0 days
Payables payment period 36.5 days
Gross profit margin 20.0%
Requirement
The closing cash balance was £ .
this chapter.


While liquidity as seen in the current ratio is unaffected by the decisions, when we look at the quick
ratio, which treats inventory as non-current in the short term, we can clearly see that Right Ltd’s short-
term liquidity will decrease as a result of the proposed changes, so it is a riskier policy.
Ratio for this business Industry average

Current ratio 1,708/653 = 2.6:1 2.5:1
Quick (liquidity) ratio (1,708 – 982)/653 = 1.1:1 1.4:1
Comments on the results:

The current ratio is close to the industry average, which appears to suggest an adequate level of
liquidity. However, when inventory is deducted from the current assets the quick ratio is below the
industry average. This business is more reliant than average on liquidating its inventory in order to
meet its current liabilities. The importance of this will depend upon how quickly the inventory can be
turned into cash, ie, the length of the cash operating cycle. Moreover, the business has relatively little
cash and its liquidity as measured by the quick ratio relies on the quality of its receivables, ie, how
likely customers are to pay their debts and how quickly they will pay.
Cost of sales = 75% × £3,600,000 = £2,700,000
Days
Raw materials in inventory = (150,000/(2,700,000 × 60%)) × 365 34
Credit taken from suppliers = (130,000/(2,700,000* × 60%)) × 365 (29)
WIP in inventory = (350,000/2,700,000) × 365 47
Finished goods in inventory = (200,000/2,700,000) × 365 27
Credit given to customers = (306,000/3,600,000) × 365 31
Number of days between payment and receipt 110
* Since inventory levels are constant, annual purchases = annual usage.

You may have thought of three of the following:
• Set clearly defined procedures to be followed. Establish timings for issuing letters of demand and
the point when further deliveries should stop.
• Ensure the receivables ledger section liaises with marketing management to see if the latter can
help.
• Consider creating a stop list ie, suspending supplies, etc.
• Decide whether outside assistance, such as solicitors, trade associations and debt collection
agencies are needed earlier in the cycle to collect overdue debts.

• Assess whether it may be cheaper to collect debts through the court system than through outside
help.
Include/Do not include
Funds from the receipt of a bank loan Include
Revaluation of a non-current asset Do not include
Receipt of dividends from outside the business Include
Depreciation of distribution vehicles Do not include
Bad debts written off Do not include
Share dividend paid Include
Any item that is a cash flow will be included. Non-cash items are excluded from a cash budget.

£’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000
Receipts
Cash sales 44 52 56 60 64 72
Credit sales 48 60 66 78 84 90
Payments
Purchases 60 80 90 110 130 140
Wages:
75% 12 15 18 21 24 27
25% 3 4 5 6 7 8
Overheads 10 15 15 15 20 20
Dividends 0 0 20 0 0 0
Capital
expend. 0 0 30 0 0 40
Net surplus/
(deficit) 7 (2) (56) (14) (33) (73)
Opening
balance 15 22 20 (36) (50) (83)
Closing
balance 22 20 (36) (50) (83) (156)

A £15,428
Received in March
£
Cash sales (5% × £10,000) × 95% 475.00
February sales (£17,000 × 95%) × 75% 12,112.50
January sales (£13,000 × 95%) × 23% 2,840.50
15,428.00
If you answered B you forgot to allow for 5% discount on cash sales.

If you selected C as the correct answer you have included the bad debts for March as a cash receipt.
If you answered D you forgot that credit sales amounted to only 95% of each month’s budgeted sales
revenue.
B selling prices increase
A, C and D will cause a fall. B may increase receivables.
D £10,000
Monthly cost of sales = £20,000 × 62.5%

= £12,500
£ £
Existing inventory level 1.5 × £12,500 18,750
New inventory level 1 × £12,500 (12,500)
Change in inventory level 6,250
Existing payables 1 × £12,500 12,500
New payables 1.3 × £12,500 16,250
Change in payables 3,750
Total change in working capital 10,000
If you answered A you treated the change in payables as a cause of a reduction in cash. However, if
payables increase this will increase their cash inflow. The other two incorrect options considered
each of the changes separately, but their effects must be combined to derive the correct answer.
A £343,000
£’000
Cost of sales for month = £450,000 × 70% 315
Decrease in trade payables 10

£’000
Increase in inventory 18
Budgeted payment to trade payables 343
If you selected an incorrect option you did not treat the change in trade payables and inventory
balances correctly.
An increase in inventory indicates that budgeted purchases are greater than the budgeted cost of
goods to be sold in the month, which would increase the amount payable to suppliers. Since the
balance owed to suppliers is budgeted to decrease, this further increases the amount budgeted to
be paid to suppliers.
B Arrange a bank overdraft
C Delay the payment of suppliers as much as possible
The budget forewarns of a short-term deficit and these are the two most appropriate responses to
this situation.
Action taken to increase inventories or to offer extra credit to customers will result in cash outflows.
These are not appropriate actions in the light of a short-term deficit.
Although the issue of extra share capital would help to reduce or eliminate a cash deficit, this would
be a more appropriate action to take if the predicted deficit were expected to continue in the longer
term.
B 57 days
Average inventory = £650,000

Inventory period = (650 × 365)/6,000 = 39.54 days
Average receivables = £850,000
Receivables period = (850 × 365)/10,000 = 31.03 days
Average payables = £225,000
Purchases = cost of goods sold plus increase in
inventory
= £6m + £100,000
= £6.1m
Payables period = (225 × 365)/6,100 = (13.46) days
Cash operating cycle 57 days
If you selected 84 days you added together the days for each element of working capital. However,
the payable period, during which the company takes credit from suppliers, reduces the length of the
cycle and hence should be deducted.
B 66 days
Days
Receivable days (0.9/14.6) × 365 22.5
Payable days (0.6/(14.6 ÷ 1.25)) × 365 (18.8)
Inventory days (2.0/(14.6 ÷ 1.25)) × 365 62.5
66.2

If you selected 58 days you based your calculations of payables days and inventory days on the sales
revenue rather than on the cost of sales.
If you arrived at an answer of 69 days you performed your calculations using a margin of 25% of
sales, rather than a mark up of 25% of cost.
If you selected 104 days you added together the days for each element of working capital. The
payables days should be subtracted, since credit from suppliers reduces the cash operating cycle.
8
Increase/Decrease/Stay the same
Current ratio Increase
Quick (liquidity) ratio Increase
Both ratios will increase. The current liability figure used as the denominator will stay the same in
both cases. The total of the current assets will increase because of the profit element in receivables,
therefore the current ratio will increase. The total of the liquid assets will also increase therefore the
quick (liquidity) ratio will increase.
9 The current ratio to the nearest whole number at the year end is 3:1 .
WORKING
Current ratio
Payables payment period (in months) = (Average payables/Purchases) × 12
1.5 = (£192,000/Purchases) × 12
Purchases = £1,536,000
Inventory = unchanged  cost of sales = Purchases
6 = £1,536,000/Inventory
Inventory = £256,000
From the quick ratio, receivables and cash = 1.7 × £192,000
= £326,400
 Current ratio = (£256,000 + £326,400)/£192,000
= 3:1
10 The closing cash balance was £ 16,800 .
WORKING
Closing cash balance
Since gross profit margin = 20%
Cost of sales = 80% × £900,000
= £720,000
Inventory = unchanged  cost of sales = purchases
Payables payment period (in days) = (Average trade payables/Purchases) × 365
36.5 = (Trade payables/£720,000) × 365
Trade payables = £72,000
Since current ratio = Current assets/Current liabilities = 3.4:1
Current assets = 3.4 × £72,000
= £244,800
15 = £720,000/Inventory

Inventory = £48,000
Receivables collection period (in days) = (Average trade receivables/Sales revenue) × 365
73 = (Trade receivables/£900,000) × 365
Trade receivables = £180,000
Current assets = Inventory + Receivables + Cash
£244,800 = £48,000 + £180,000 + Cash
Cash = £16,800

Chapter 8
Performance management
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Learning topics
1 Performance evaluation
2 Responsibility centres
3 Performance measures
4 The balanced scorecard
5 Budgetary control
6 Data bias and professional scepticism in performance
management
7 Sustainability and ESG reporting
Summary
Self-test questions
Introduction
Learning outcomes
• Identify the reasons for and key features of effective performance management systems
• Select and calculate appropriate financial and non-financial performance measures which
effectively encourage the business as a whole to meet its objectives
• Identify issues relating to the collection of data (data bias) and interpretation of data (professional
scepticism) for performance management
• Identify the features of cloud accounting and its associated risks and benefits
• Identify the features of shared service centres and their relative merits for the provision of
management information
The specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 3a, b, d, e and f.
8
Syllabus links
Decentralisation and an understanding of responsibility centres also feature in the Business,
Technology and Finance syllabus, in the context of appreciating how these structures help to achieve
business objectives. You will also study internal controls in more depth in the context of your
Assurance syllabus and some of the performance measures covered in this chapter will be met again
when you are studying the interpretation of financial information for the Financial Accounting and
Reporting syllabus.
8
Examination context
It is important to appreciate that both numerical and written questions will be set on performance
measures and a thorough understanding of flexed budgets is required as a basis for variance
analysis in the next chapter.
• identify the most appropriate performance measure in a given situation
• demonstrate an understanding of the effect of management actions on specific performance
measures
• demonstrate an understanding of the purpose and operation of a responsibility accounting
system
• interpret the information provided by specific performance measures
• calculate the flexed cost budget for a given level of activity
• interpret the information provided by a flexed budget comparison
• identify the features, risks and benefits of cloud accounting
• identify the features and benefits of shared service centres
• Identify issues relating to data bias that may impact performance management
8

of this chapter.

questions
1 Performance Approach Objective test N/A

evaluation Read carefully questions may
Throughout your through section 1 require you to pick
career your of Chapter 8, out correct

questions
performance will be paying particular statements from a

assessed by your attention to the number of statements
superiors and you will behavioural supplied in a
at times be responsible impact of question. For
for assessing the performance example, you could
performance of your measurement. be asked about the
staff and of businesses feedback loop in the
as a whole. A sound control cycle.
understanding of the Stop and think
features of effective Why must the
performance behavioural
management systems impact of
will be an invaluable performance
tool in this respect. management be
Particularly if you work considered?
in audit, you may also
be called upon to
assess the adequacy of
an organisation’s
internal control system
and to understand how
the performance
measures selected by
the organisation’s
management support
and supplement the
general systems of
control in the business.
2 Responsibility centres In section 2, learn Objective test IQ1:

Managers should only the advantages questions may Controllable
be assessed on matters and require you to pick investment in
that were within their disadvantages of out correct definitions division
control. decentralisation or statements from a This is a quick
and the features of number of statements question testing
Cost centre managers the four types of supplied in a
have control of costs your
responsibility question. For understanding
only. Revenue centre centre. Focus example, you could
managers have control of controllability.
particularly on the be asked to:
over revenues only. controllability
Different responsibility • identify the
principle. Shared features of cloud
centres will have service centres
different performance accounting and its
can lead to an associated risks
measures. improvement in and benefits
the quality of the
service provided • identify the
and standard features of shared
approaches can service centres
lead to consistent and their relative
management of merits for the
business data and provision of
improved management
management information.
information. Make
sure you know the
risks and benefits
of cloud
ICAEW 2023 8: Performance management 269

questions
accounting.
Stop and think

Does the business
you work for use
the cloud?
3 Performance measures Learn the formula You need to know IQ2: ROI and RI
There are different for ROI in section how to perform the Questions on
performance measures 3 and work ROI and RI ROI or RI
for different carefully through calculations, as well calculations
responsibility centres the interactive as understanding could appear in
but they may not questions and their advantages and the exam.
always lead to goal worked examples. disadvantages. You
congruence. also need to be
aware of suitable
Stop and think performance
Can you think of measures for each
situations where a type of responsibility
performance centre.
measure might
motivate a
manager to act in
a dysfunctional
way, which is not
in the best
interests of the
organisation?
4 The balanced Read quickly Objective test IQ3: Balanced

scorecard through section 4 questions could ask scorecard
The balanced and then use you to select suitable evaluation
scorecard is an interactive measures for a Although you
approach to question 3 to particular wouldn’t be
performance ensure you have perspective. asked a question
measurement that understood the like this in the
looks at both financial main principles. exam (because
and non-financial Stop and think this requires you
elements. Could some to ‘write’) you
measures conflict could see an
with one another? objective test
question
covering
suitable
performance
measures for a
particular
perspective. It is
good practice to
think of some for
yourself.
5 Budgetary control Section 5 contains Objective test IQ4: Analysing

This section looks at some very questions may semi-variable
performance by important require you to pick costs
comparing the information. Read out correct definitions

questions
budgeted figures with it carefully and or statements from a This is a good

the actual figures. practise all the number of statements reminder of how
However, if the level of examples. You will supplied in a to apply the
activity is different from need a thorough question. For high-low
the original budget understanding of example, you could method.
(11,000 units have flexible budgets be asked about the IQ5: Budget
been produced, say, when you move difference between cost allowances
instead of the on to Chapter 9. flexible and fixed
budgeted 10,000 units) budgets. Numerical This question
then the budget will questions could ask provides good
need to be ‘flexed’ to Stop and think you to calculate practice on
take this additional Are fixed budgets flexed budget figures flexing budgets.
activity into account. useful in any and you may need to
This will give a fairer context? use the high-low
assessment of method.
performance.
6 Data bias and Section 6 is fairly Objective test N/A

professional scepticism short as it builds questions may
in performance on the data bias require you to pick
management and professional out correct
We looked at data bias scepticism section statements about
in Chapter 6 in Chapter 6. data bias from a
‘Budgeting’ in the number of statements
context of budgeting supplied in a
Stop and think question.
and forecasting. This
section explains how Do manager
bias can affect bonus systems
performance introduce bias?
management as well.
7 Sustainability and ESG Section 7 explains Objective test N/A

reporting the importance of questions may
Businesses are measuring require you to pick
becoming increasingly sustainability out appropriate key
aware that economic performance. performance
sustainability requires indicators.
consideration and Stop and think
monitoring of the
wider impact of Should businesses
business on society think beyond
and the environment. profits?

1 Performance evaluation
Section overview
• The term ‘feedback’ is used to describe both the process of reporting back control information to
management and the control information itself.
• Effective feedback information should have the following features.
– Clear and comprehensive
– Use an exception reporting format
– Identify separately the controllable costs and revenues
– Prepared on a regular basis
– Timely
– Sufficiently accurate for the purpose intended (not containing irrelevant detail)
– Communicated to the manager who has authority and responsibility to act on the information
• Inappropriate performance measures can lead to a lack of goal congruence and may introduce
budget bias.
• Hopwood identified three styles of evaluation: budget constrained; profit conscious; non-
accounting. (An Accounting System and Managerial Behaviour, 1973)
1.1 Feedback control

The term ‘feedback’ is used to describe both the process of reporting back control information to
management and the control information itself. In a business organisation, it is information produced
from within the organisation (management control reports) with the purpose of helping management
and other employees with control decisions.
The feedback loop can be depicted as follows.
Input
resources
Plan, target
or budget Operations
Compare Control
actual results action
with plan
Outputs
Feedback of Measure
(eg, actual output
information outputs
revenues, costs)
Figure 8.1: Feedback loop in the control cycle
The elements in the control cycle, illustrated in Figure 8.1, are as follows.
Step 1 Plans and targets are set for the future. These could be long, medium- or short-term plans.
Examples include budgets, profit targets and standard costs (which we will learn more about
in the next chapter).
Step 2 Plans are put into operation. Then, resources are consumed and costs are incurred.
Step 3 Actual results are recorded and analysed.
Step 4 Information about actual results is fed back to the management concerned, often in the
form of accounting reports. This reported information is feedback.
Step 5 The feedback is used by management to compare actual results with the plan or targets
(what should be or should have been achieved).

Step 6 By comparing actual and planned results, management can then do one of three things,
depending on how they see the situation.
(a) They can take control action. By identifying what has gone wrong, and then finding out
why, corrective measures can be taken.
(b) They can decide to do nothing. This could be the decision when actual results are
going better than planned, or when poor results were caused by something which is
unlikely to happen again in the future.
(c) They can alter the plan or target if actual results are different from the plan or target,
and there is nothing that management can do (or nothing, perhaps, that they want to
do) to correct the situation.
It may be helpful at this stage to relate the control system to a practical example, such as monthly
sales.
Step 1 A sales budget or plan is prepared for the year.
Step 2 Management organises the business’s resources to achieve the budget targets.
Step 3 At the end of each month, actual results are reported back to management.
Step 4 Managers compare actual results against the plan.
Step 5 Where necessary, they take corrective action to adjust the workings of the system, probably
by amending the inputs to the system.
• Sales people might be asked to work longer hours
• More money might be spent on advertising
• Some new price discounts might be decided
• Delivery periods to customers might be reduced by increasing output
Where appropriate the sales plan may be revised, up or down.
1.2 Features of effective feedback

(a) Reports should be clear and comprehensive.
(b) The ‘exception principle‘ should be applied so that significant differences between the target
and the actual results are highlighted for investigation. Areas that are conforming to plan should
be given less prominence in the management control reports.
(c) The controllable costs and revenues should be separately identified. These are the items that
can be directly influenced by the manager who receives the report. It can be demotivating if
managers feel that they are being held responsible for items which are outside their control and
which they are unable to influence. Uncontrollable items might be included for information
(rather than action).
(d) Reports should be produced on a regular basis to ensure that continual control is exercised.
(e) Reports should be made available to managers in a timely fashion. This means they must be
produced in good time to allow the manager to take control action before any adverse results
get much worse.
(f) Information should be sufficiently accurate for the purpose intended.
(g) Irrelevant detail should be excluded from the report.
(h) Reports should be communicated to the manager who has responsibility and authority to act
on the information.
1.3 The behavioural impact of performance measurement

Research evidence suggests that all too often performance measures lead to a lack of goal
congruence. Managers seek to improve their performance on the basis of the indicator used, even if
this is not in the best interests of the organisation as a whole.
For example, a production manager may be encouraged to achieve and maintain high production
levels and to reduce costs, particularly if his or her bonus is linked to these factors. Such a manager is
likely to be highly motivated. However, the need to maintain high production levels could lead to

high levels of slow-moving inventory, resulting in an adverse effect on the company’s cash flow. Thus
the manager’s behaviour has been distorted by the control system.
The impact of an accounting system on managerial performance depends ultimately on how the
information is used. Research by Hopwood has shown that there are three distinct ways of using
budgetary information to evaluate managerial performance.
Style of evaluation Comment
Budget constrained ‘The manager’s performance is primarily evaluated upon the basis of his
ability to continually meet the budget on a short-term basis. This criterion
of performance is stressed at the expense of other valued and important
criteria and the manager will receive unfavourable feedback from his
superior if, for instance, his actual costs exceed the budgeted costs,
regardless of other considerations.’
Profit conscious ‘The manager’s performance is evaluated on the basis of his ability to
increase the general effectiveness of his unit’s operations in relation to the
long-term purposes of the organisation. For instance, at the cost centre
level one important aspect of this ability concerns the attention which he
devotes to reducing long run costs. For this purpose, however, the
budgetary information has to be used with great care in a rather flexible
manner.’
Non accounting ‘The budgetary information plays a relatively unimportant part in the
superior’s evaluation of the manager’s performance.’
A summary of the effects of the three styles of evaluation is as follows.
Style of evaluation
Budget constrained Profit conscious Non accounting
Involvement with costs High High Low
Job related tension High Medium Medium
Manipulation of the
accounting reports (bias) Extensive Little Little
Relations with the
supervisor Poor Good Good
Relations with colleagues Poor Good Good
Research has shown no clear preference for one style over another.
1.4 Budget bias
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify and anticipate
problems that may result from a decision’. One problem that may occur in budgeting is ‘budget
slack’.
In the table above we have indicated that bias or manipulation of accounting reports is more likely
to occur if the manager is under pressure to achieve short-term budget targets.
In the process of preparing budgets, managers might introduce budget slack into their estimates.
This is when a manager deliberately overestimates costs and/or underestimates revenues, so that
they will not be blamed in the future for overspending and/or poor results.
In controlling actual operations, managers might ensure that their spending rises to meet their
inflated budget, otherwise they will be ‘blamed’ for careless budgeting.

A typical situation is for a manager to pad the budget and waste money on non-essential expenses
so that all budget allowances are used. The reason behind the manager’s action is the fear that
unless the allowance is fully spent it will be reduced in future periods, thus making the manager’s job
more difficult as the future reduced budgets will not be so easy to attain. Because inefficiency and
slack are allowed for in budgets, achieving a budget target means only that costs have remained
within the accepted levels of inefficient spending.
Budget bias can work in the other direction too. It has been noted that, after a run of mediocre
results, some managers deliberately overstate revenues and understate cost estimates, no doubt
feeling the need to make an immediate favourable impact by promising better performance in the
future. They may merely delay problems, however, as the managers may well be censured when they
fail to hit these optimistic targets.
This is another example of management’s reaction to control systems distorting the processes that
the control systems are meant to serve.
2 Responsibility centres
Section overview
• Divisionalisation involves splitting the organisation into separate divisions, for example according
to location or the product or service provided.
• In a decentralised organisation the authority for certain decisions is delegated to less senior
managers. The most appropriate degree of decentralisation depends on a range of factors.
• There are a number of advantages and disadvantages of decentralisation.
• Responsibility accounting is the term used to describe decentralisation of authority, with the
performance of the decentralised units measured in terms of accounting results.
• With a system of responsibility accounting there are four types of responsibility centre: cost
centre, revenue centre, profit centre, investment centre.
• An investment centre manager has responsibility for capital investment in the centre.
• The performance of the responsibility centre manager should be monitored and based only on
those items over which the manager can exercise control:
– Controllable costs and revenues should be separated from non-controllable costs and
revenues.
– Controllable elements of divisional investment should be separated from non-controllable
elements.
• A shared service centre (SSC) is a centre responsible for operational tasks such as accounting, for
multiple parts of the same organisation.
• Cloud computing uses a network of remote servers rather than a local server. Cloud accounting is
an application of cloud computing where accountancy software is provided in the cloud by a
service provider.
2.1 Divisionalisation
As companies grow, and possibly also spread geographically, it is likely that they will consider some
form of divisionalisation. This involves splitting the company into divisions, for example according to
location or according to the product or service provided. Divisional managers are then given the
authority to make decisions concerning the activities of their divisions.
2.2 Decentralisation
In general, a divisional structure will lead to decentralisation of the decision-making process.
Divisional managers may have the freedom to set selling prices, choose suppliers, make output
decisions and so on. Later in this section we will see that the degree of decentralisation depends on
how much freedom managers are given to make decisions.

2.2.1 Factors affecting the degree of decentralisation
• Management style. An authoritarian style is likely to mean that decision making is centralised.
• The size of the organisation. Decentralisation tends to increase as an organisation grows.
• The extent of activity diversification. A greater diversification of activities will lead to more
decentralisation.
• Effectiveness of communications. Decentralisation can only operate if information is
communicated effectively both up and down the organisation.
• The ability of management. The more able the management team, the more decentralisation is
likely to result.
• The speed of technological advancement. Managers lower down the organisation are more likely
to be familiar with changing technology, therefore decentralisation would be more appropriate.
• The geography of locations and the extent of local knowledge needed. If an organisation is
spread over a wide range of locations then decentralisation is likely to be most effective. Local
managers would make more effective decisions based on their knowledge of local markets.
2.2.2 The advantages of decentralisation

• Senior managers are freed from detailed involvement in day to day operations and can devote
more time to strategic issues.
• The quality of decisions is likely to improve because local managers may be able to make more
informed judgements based on local knowledge.
• The increased responsibility should motivate managers in decentralised organisations.
• Decisions should be taken more quickly in response to changing conditions.
• Decentralised operations provide valuable training grounds for future senior managers by giving
them experience of managerial skills in what may be a less complex environment than that faced
by more senior managers.
2.2.3 The disadvantages of decentralisation

• It can be difficult to coordinate the activities of the organisation since several people are making
decisions rather than just a few.
• The organisation might effectively divide into a number of self-interested segments, leading to a
lack of goal congruence in decision making.
• Senior managers lose control over day to day activities.
• Evaluating the performance of managers and their area of responsibility becomes difficult.
• There may be a duplication of some roles, for example administration, with consequent increased
costs.
2.3 Responsibility accounting

We have already discussed responsibility accounting in outline in the context of cost classification in
the first chapter of this Workbook.
Responsibility accounting is the term used to describe decentralisation of authority, with the
performance of the decentralised units or responsibility centres measured in terms of accounting
results.
Within a system of responsibility accounting there are four main types of responsibility centre: cost
centre, revenue centre, profit centre and investment centre.
Decentralisation is a matter of degree, depending on how much freedom and authority is given to
managers. In the weakest form of decentralisation a system of cost centres or revenue centres might
be used. As decentralisation becomes stronger the responsibility accounting framework will be
based around profit centres. Decentralisation in its strongest form means that investment centres are
used.
Type of responsibility Manager has control over Principal performance

centre measures
Cost centre Controllable costs Variance analysis

Type of responsibility Manager has control over Principal performance
centre measures
Efficiency measures
Revenue centre Revenues only Revenues
Profit centre Controllable costs Profit

Sales prices (including transfer prices) Profit margins
Investment centre Controllable costs Return on investment

Sales prices (including transfer prices) Residual income
Output volumes Other financial ratios
Investment in non-current assets and
working capital
2.4 Cost centres
Definition
Cost centre: Any part of an organisation that incurs costs.
A cost centre manager is responsible for, and has control over, the costs incurred in the cost centre.
The manager has no responsibility for earning revenues or for controlling the assets and liabilities
of the centre.
Functional departments such as production and personnel might be treated as cost centres and
made responsible for their costs.
It is important that control reports for a cost centre show a clear distinction between controllable
costs, over which the cost centre manager can exercise some control, and uncontrollable costs,
which cannot be controlled by the cost centre manager.
2.5 Revenue centres
Definition
Revenue centre: A section of an organisation which creates revenue but has no responsibility for
production. A sales department is an example.
The manager of a revenue centre is responsible only for raising revenue but has no responsibility for
forecasting or controlling costs. An example of a revenue centre is a sales centre where a sales
manager might be responsible for achieving a budgeted level of sales revenue.
2.6 Profit centres
Definition
Profit centre: Any section of an organisation, for example, a division of a company, which earns
revenue and incurs costs. The profitability of the section can therefore be measured.
A profit centre is a part of a business accountable for both costs and revenues.
For a profit centre organisation structure to be established it is necessary to identify units of the
organisation to which both revenues and costs can be separately attributed. Revenues might come
from sales of goods and services to external customers, or from goods and services provided to
other responsibility centres within the organisation. These internal ‘sales’ are charged at a transfer
price, which you learned about in Chapter 5.

A profit centre’s performance report, in the same way as that for a cost centre, would identify
separately the controllable and non-controllable costs as well as the controllable and non-
controllable revenues. A profit centre performance report might look like the example below.
Profit Centre Y
Income statement for the period
Budget Actual Variance

£’000 £’000 £’000
Sales revenue X X
Variable cost of sales (X) (X)
Contribution X X
Directly attributable/controllable fixed costs
Salaries (X) (X)
Stationery costs (X) (X)
etc etc
Gross profit (directly attributable/controllable) X X
Share of uncontrollable costs (eg, head office costs) (X) (X)
Net profit X X
The budget for the sales revenue and variable cost of sales will be flexed according to the activity
level achieved. You will learn how to do this later in this chapter.
The variances (differences between budgeted and actual results) could be analysed in further detail
for the profit centre manager.
Notice that three different ‘profit levels’ are highlighted in the report.
(a) Contribution, which is within the control of the profit centre manager
(b) Directly attributable gross profit, which is also within the manager’s control
(c) Net profit, which is after charging certain uncontrollable costs and which is therefore not
controllable by the profit centre manager
2.7 Investment centres
Definition
Investment centre: A section of an organisation whose manager has some say in investment policy in
their area of operations as well as being responsible for costs and revenues.
Where a manager of a division is allowed some discretion about the amount of investment
undertaken by the division, assessment of results by profit alone (as for a profit centre) is clearly
inadequate. The profit earned must be related to the amount of capital invested. Such divisions are
sometimes called investment centres for this reason.
Performance can be measured by return on capital employed (ROCE), often referred to as return on
investment (ROI) and other subsidiary ratios, or by residual income (RI).
The amount of capital employed attributed to an investment centre should consist only of directly
attributable non-current assets and working capital (net current assets).
(a) Subsidiary companies that are treated as investment centres are often required to remit spare
cash to the central treasury department at group head office. In this situation the directly
attributable working capital would normally consist of inventories and receivables less payables,
but minimal amounts of cash.
(b) If an investment centre is apportioned a share of head office non-current assets, the amount of
capital employed in these assets should be recorded separately because it is not directly
attributable to the investment centre or controllable by the manager of the investment centre.

Interactive question 1: Controllable investment in division
The manager of division D has complete autonomy regarding the purchase and use of non-current
assets and inventory but the payment of all suppliers is undertaken by head office which maintains a
central bank account. The manager also has authority to establish the division’s own credit policy
with regard to its customers. The division operates a credit control department but all cash received
from customers is remitted immediately to head office.
Requirement
Classify the following assets and liabilities to indicate whether or not they are a part of the divisional
investment that is within the control of the manager of division D.
Item Part/Not part of controllable divisional investment
Non-current assets
Trade receivables
Trade payables
Inventory
2.8 Shared service centres (SSC)
Definition
Shared service centre: A centre responsible for operational tasks such as accounting, for multiple
parts of the same organisation.
Basic processing tasks are now often carried out in shared service centres. Shared service centres
consolidate the transaction-processing activities of many operations within a company. Functions
such as human resources, payroll, accounting and IT may be carried out in a shared service centre.
The aim of a shared service centre is to achieve significant cost reductions while improving service
levels through the use of standardised technology and processes and service level agreements. For
example, a multinational business may use shared servicing in its head office to process all
transactions incurred by its overseas operations.
A fair transfer pricing policy (covered in Chapter 5) is vital to ensure that client divisions value the
SSC and that the SSC provides efficient services.
Advantages to using a shared service centre include:
(a) reduced headcount due to economies of scale resulting from the single location centre
(b) associated reduction in premises and other overhead costs
(c) knowledge sharing should lead to an improvement in quality of the service provided
(d) allows standard approaches to be adopted across the organisation leading to more consistent
management of business data
Disadvantages might include:
(a) loss of business specific knowledge. For example, creating a consolidated finance function
which broadly handles financial matters for the entire organisation may lack an understanding of
specific finance issues affecting individual departments or business units.
(b) removed from decision making. Building on from the point above, an SSC finance function is
unlikely to be able to provide meaningful financial information for decision making if finance
personnel are removed from the day to day realities facing a particular department or business
unit.

(c) weakened relationships. Geographical distance between the site of the SSC and the respective
business areas it serves may weaken the relationships between the two.
(d) cost inefficiencies. Cost inefficiencies within the SSC could potentially be passed on to the client
division and this is likely to lead to friction between the two parties.
Another difficulty for shared service centres is performance measurement. In the 1990s the focus was
on lowering costs by increasing processing speed, reducing labour costs and having economies of
scale. More recently the focus has shifted towards quality of service and qualitative measures such as
error rates and efficiency rates have become important. However, qualitative measures are often
difficult to implement and subjective and some organisations abandon these measures.
Context example: Nestle and Burberry

In 2011 Nestle opened a shared service centre in L’viv, Ukraine, offering services to divisions in over
20 countries in Europe.
Fashion retailer Burberry opened a shared service centre in Leeds, UK in late 2017, covering the UK,
Europe, Middle East, India and Africa with shared service teams from finance, HR, IT and customer
services.
2.9 Cloud accounting
Definitions
Cloud computing: “Is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a
shared pool of configurable computing resources (eg, networks, servers, storage, applications, and
services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service
provider interaction”. (US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology)
Cloud accounting: An application of cloud computing where accountancy software is provided in the
cloud by a service provider.
Cloud accounting applications can be hosted applications or software as a service (SaaS). Hosted
applications involve using your own desktop or server accounting application and accessing the
accounting software using the internet. Using SaaS involves using a cloud accounting supplier’s
server where the accounting software and data are stored.
2.9.1 Benefits of cloud accounting

• Accounting information can be accessed from anywhere, at any time, from a browser or mobile
device, as long as internet access is available. Information can therefore be accessed quickly by
management and employees can be deployed anywhere.
• The security systems in place will often be better than a small business can provide.
• The software updates are managed by the cloud accounting supplier.
• Back ups are made automatically by the cloud accounting supplier.
• Applications are usually rented rather than purchased meaning that there are no upfront costs.
• Overhead costs, such as in-house technical experts costs, can be reduced.
• There is no need to worry about whether PCs are powerful enough as the software is running in
the cloud, not on the PC.
• Collaboration between users is easier as files can shared via invitations rather than physically
exchanging files.
• If the business grows then more cloud accounting licences can be purchased. There is no need to
upgrade servers and so on.
2.9.2 Risks of cloud accounting

• The supplier could fail and so a contingency plan is required.
• There is a permanent need for internet access. Operations could be hampered if there is a
problem with internet access.
• There is a risk of security breaches, including data loss or theft and privacy issues.

• There are legislation risks if the cloud supplier operates from a jurisdiction where the laws are
different from the country in which the data is being used (particularly privacy laws).
• Unannounced changes or upgrades to software could be disruptive.
Context example: Cloud accounting

Examples of businesses that provide cloud accounting software include Sage, Xero and Intuit.
3 Performance measures
Section overview
• Effective performance measures should promote goal congruence, incorporate only controllable
factors and encourage the pursuit of longer term as well as short-term objectives.
• Inappropriate performance measures may lead to sub-optimal behaviour.
• Two performance measures for investment centres that relate the profit earned to the capital
invested are Return on Investment (ROI) and Residual Income (RI).
• In certain circumstances the use of ROI as a performance measure might not lead to goal
congruent decisions.
• ROI tends to focus attention on short-term performance.
• RI is a measure of an investment centre’s profits after deducting a notional or imputed interest
cost of the capital invested in the centre.
• RI is less useful as a comparative measure because it is absolute.
• RI will encourage marginally profitable investments because it will increase if a proposed project
earns a return which is higher than the cost of capital.
3.1 General requirements for effective performance measures

One or more performance measures, or key performance indicators (KPIs), might be used to monitor
the performance of each responsibility centre. Before going on to consider some of the individual
measures in detail it will be useful to summarise the features of effective performance measures.
• They should promote goal congruence by providing an incentive to promote the responsibility
centre’s performance in line with overall company objectives.
• The measures should incorporate only those factors over which the responsibility centre
manager has control.
• They should encourage the pursuit of longer-term objectives as well as short-term, budget-
constrained objectives.
3.2 Potential problems with inappropriate performance measures

Problems that may arise through the use of inappropriate measures include the following.
• Managers may manipulate information in order to ensure achievement of the KPIs.
• The measures might cause demotivation and stress-related conflict between a manager and the
manager’s subordinates, superiors or fellow managers.
• The measures might promote excessive concern for the control of short-term costs, possibly at
the expense of longer-term profitability.
• They may lead to the assessment of a responsibility centre as an isolated unit, rather than as an
integral part of the whole organisation.

One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams in the ability to ‘Evaluate the relevance of
information provided’. For example, a question may state the type of responsibility centre and this
will determine which performance measures are appropriate.
3.3 Performance measures for a cost centre

Since the manager of a cost centre has responsibility for the costs incurred within the centre,
appropriate performance measures could be as follows.
• Cost variances, which are the differences between the budgeted or standard costs and the actual
costs
• Cost per unit
• Cost per employee
• Other non-financial measures such as the rate of labour turnover or staff absenteeism
3.4 Performance measures for a revenue centre

Appropriate performance measures would be related to the revenue earned.
• Revenue variances, which are the differences between the budgeted or standard revenue and the
actual revenue achieved
• Revenue earned per employee
• Percentage market share achieved
• Growth in revenue
3.5 Performance measures for a profit centre

Since the manager of a profit centre has responsibility for the revenue earned and the costs incurred
within the centre all of the above performance measures would be suitable. Extra measures might
include the following.
• Gross profit margin, which is the difference between the selling price and the direct costs
incurred, often expressed as a percentage of the selling price
• Operating profit margin, which is the gross profit less indirect costs incurred such as
administrative salaries, often expressed as a percentage of the selling price
3.6 Performance measures for an investment centre

All of the measures appropriate for a cost, revenue and profit centre would be suitable for
monitoring the performance of an investment centre. In addition, certain measures related to the
management of the investment in the division would also be useful. Such measures might include a
number of working capital ratios.
• Liquidity measures such as the current ratio and the quick (liquidity) ratio
• Rate of inventory turnover
• Receivables and payables periods
Two other measures monitor the return achieved in the division. These concern the level of
investment.
• Return on investment (ROI)
• Residual income (RI)
We studied the working capital ratios in detail in Chapter 7. Now we will go on to look at ROI and RI.

3.7 Return on investment (ROI)
Definition
Return on investment (ROI): Also called return on capital employed (ROCE). It is calculated as
(profit/capital employed) × 100% and it shows how much profit has been made in relation to the
amount of resources invested.
ROI is often used as a measure to monitor the performance of an investment centre. It shows how
much profit has been earned in relation to the amount of capital invested in the centre.
ROI = (Controllable divisional profit/Divisional capital employed) × 100%
The main reason for the widespread use of ROI is that it ties in directly with the accounting system
and is identifiable from the income statement and balance sheet.
Use of the ROI facilitates comparisons but ranking is difficult as the measure is a relative percentage.
For example, is a 5% return on £1 (20p) really better than a 1% return on £1 million (£10,000)?
Context example: Ranking using ROI

Suppose that a company has two investment centres, A and B, which show results for the year as
follows.
A B
£ £
Profit 60,000 30,000
Capital employed 400,000 120,000
ROI 15% 25%
Investment centre A has generated double the profits of investment centre B, and in terms of profits
alone has therefore been more ‘successful’. However, B has achieved its profits with a much lower
capital investment, and so has earned a much higher ROI. This suggests that B has been a more
successful investment than A.
3.7.1 Capital employed

A decision needs to be taken on which assets to include in capital employed. Leased assets, shared
assets, idle assets and goodwill need to be given careful consideration. Centrally-controlled assets
are excluded because the investment centre manager cannot exercise control over their use.
Usually, opening capital employed or an average of opening and closing capital is used, on the
grounds that this has been generating the year’s profits.
The use of historical cost/carrying amount may lead to problems as shown below.
Worked example: The effect of changing the capital employed base

An asset costs £100,000, has a life of four years, and its scrap value is nil. The asset generates annual
cash flows of £34,000 and straight-line depreciation is used.
Requirement
Complete the following:
(1) Calculate annual ROI using opening carrying amount (ie, depreciation is deducted from the
asset value).
(2) Calculate annual ROI using historical cost (ie, no depreciation is deducted from the asset value).
(3) Comment on any problems identified by these calculations.
Solution
ROI using opening carrying amount

Year 1: (34 – 25) ÷ 100 = 9%
Year 2: (34 – 25) ÷ 75 = 12%
Year 3: (34 – 25) ÷ 50 = 18%
Year 4: (34 – 25) ÷ 25 = 36%
ROI improves despite constant annual profits. Consequently, divisional managers may hold assets for
too long.
ROI using historical cost
Years 1–4: (34 – 25) ÷ 100 = 9%
ROI using historical cost overcomes the increasing return problem of using the carrying amount.
However, it is not perfect.
Using the historical cost/carrying amounts may be misleading, particularly when comparing
divisions, if:
• assets have been bought at different points in time and prices have changed due to inflation
• assets of one division are older than those of another and have been written down to a lower
value
• different depreciation policies are applied by different divisions
To resolve this, one solution would be to use a replacement cost valuation.
3.7.2 Profit
Usually, the profit figure taken as the numerator in the ROI calculation is after depreciation, but this
may lead to distortion, as discussed above.
It is common for divisions and managers to be assessed on pre-tax profit, since the company’s
ultimate tax charge is likely to be significantly affected by central decisions and is therefore not
controllable by divisional managers.
However, it is important that managers are made aware of the tax implications of their operational
decisions.
3.7.3 ROI and goal congruence

In certain circumstances the use of ROI as a performance measure might not lead to goal congruent
decisions.
Worked example: ROI and goal congruence

Data for an investment centre are as follows.
Target ROI (= cost of capital) 20%

Divisional profit £300,000
Capital employed £1m
Requirement
Would the division manager accept a project requiring capital of £100,000 and generating profits of
£25,000, if the manager were paid a bonus based on ROI?
Solution
Divisional ROI without the project = (£300,000/£1m) × 100%

= 30.0%
Divisional ROI with the project = (£325,000/£1.1m) × 100%

= 29.5%

ROI of the project = 25.0%
Although the project ROI is acceptable to the company (25%), the manager would not be motivated
to accept a project which lowers divisional ROI.
A limitation of ROI is that it tends to focus attention on short-term performance, whereas investment
decisions should be evaluated over their full life.
3.8 Residual income (RI)
Definition
Residual income: Profit less a notional interest charge for invested capital.
An alternative way of measuring the performance of an investment centre is residual income (RI). RI is
a measure of the centre’s profits after deducting a notional or imputed interest cost of the capital
invested in the centre.
RI can avoid some of the behavioural problems of dysfunctionality that arise with the use of ROI.
Worked example: Residual income and goal congruence

Returning to the data in the previous example, would the division manager accept the proposed
project if the manager’s bonus was based on RI?
Solution
£’000
Divisional RI without the project:
Divisional profit 300
Imputed interest charge (20% × £1m) 200
100
Divisional RI with the project:

Divisional profit 325
Imputed interest charge (20% × £1,100,000) 220
105
RI of the project
Profit 25
Imputed interest charge (20% × £100,000) 20
5
The RI would increase therefore the manager would accept the project. In this particular
circumstance, RI would lead to the correct decision since the project ROI of 25% is acceptable to the
company.
Note that the ROI and the RI are both based on the same figures for profits and capital employed.
The difference is that ROI is a relative measure whereas RI is an absolute measure.
3.8.1 RI and comparisons

RI is less useful as a comparative measure because it is absolute.

Worked example: Using ROI and RI to measure comparative performance
A company has a target ROI and an imputed interest charge of 20% for each of its investment
centres.
Division 1 Division 2
Capital employed £1,000,000 £100,000
Controllable profits:
Year 1 £200,000 £20,000
Year 2 £220,000 £40,000
Requirements
Which of the two divisions is performing better, using the following performance measures?
(a) Residual income
(b) Return on investment
Solution
(a)
£’000 £’000
Year 1
Divisional profit 200 20
Imputed interest charge
(£1,000,000 × 20%) 200
(£100,000 × 20%) 20
RI – –
Year 2
Divisional profit 220 40
Imputed interest charge 200 20
20 20
Using RI the relative performance of the two divisions appears to be the same. Both divisions
have increased the annual RI by £20,000.
(b)
Year 1 £200,000/£1,000,000 20%
£20,000/£100,000 20%
Year 2 £220,000/£1,000,000 22%

£40,000/£100,000 40%
Return on investment shows that division 2 is out-performing division 1. Despite earning the
same absolute increase in RI, it is much easier for the larger division to generate a further
£20,000 of RI. Hence using RI to compare divisions of different sizes is misleading.

Interactive question 2: ROI and RI
An investment centre with capital employed of £570,000 is budgeted to earn a profit of £119,700
next year. A proposed non-current asset investment of £50,000, not included in the budget at
present, will earn a profit next year of £8,500 after depreciation. The company’s cost of capital is 15%.
Requirement
Complete the table to show the budgeted ROI and RI for next year, both with and without the
investment.
ROI RI
Without investment
% £
With investment
% £
3.8.2 The advantages and disadvantages of RI compared with ROI

The advantages of using RI
(a) Residual income will increase when investments earning above the cost of capital are
undertaken and investments earning below the cost of capital are eliminated.
(b) Residual income is more flexible since a different cost of capital can be applied to investments
with different risk characteristics.
The disadvantages of RI are that it does not facilitate comparisons between investment centres nor
does it relate the size of a centre’s income to the size of the investment.
3.8.3 RI versus ROI: marginally profitable investments

Residual income will increase if a new investment is undertaken which earns a profit in excess of the
imputed interest charge on the value of the asset acquired. Residual income will go up even if the
profit from the investment only just exceeds the imputed interest charge, and this means that
‘marginally profitable’ investments are likely to be undertaken by the investment centre manager.
In contrast, when a manager is judged by ROI, a marginally profitable investment would be less likely
to be undertaken because it would reduce the average ROI earned by the centre as a whole.
provided in various formats’. This could include the calculation of ROI or RI to assess performance.
4 The balanced scorecard

Section overview
• The balanced scorecard approach to the provision of information focuses on four different
perspectives: customer, innovation and learning, financial and internal business.
• The information provided in the balanced scorecard includes both financial and nonfinancial
elements.
• As with all techniques, problems can arise when the balanced scorecard approach is applied.

4.1 Introduction
Definition
Balanced scorecard approach: An approach to the provision of information to management to help
strategic policy formulation and achievement. It emphasises the need to provide the user with a set
of information which addresses all relevant areas of performance in an objective and unbiased
fashion. The information provided may include both financial and non-financial elements, and cover
areas such as profitability, customer satisfaction, internal efficiency and learning and growth.
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify gaps in evidence’.
The balanced scorecard is a performance measure designed to measure more than just profit.
The balanced scorecard was developed to help companies manage the multiple objectives they
have to satisfy to compete in today’s markets. Traditional accounting measures have a number of
weaknesses that make them less relevant today.
• They tend to concentrate on a single factor, eg, profit, revenue, ROI or RI
• They are primarily historical, eg, how have we done compared with last year
• They are capable of distortion
• There is often confusion between measures and objectives
• Traditional accounting performance measures are of little use as a guide to action
4.2 The balanced scorecard approach

The balanced scorecard involves the following steps:
• Identify the critical success factors for the business from four perspectives:
– Financial perspective – how do we create value for our shareholders?
– Customer perspective – what do new and existing customers value from us?
– Innovation and learning perspective – can we continue to improve and create value?
– Internal business perspective – at what must we excel?
• Identify the core competences and resources required to achieve them
• Develop the key performance indicators (financial and non-financial – see below) to best measure
progress towards achieving the necessary competences and resources
• Set targets
• Monitor performance
4.3 Non-financial performance measures

It is important to realise that financial measures will only tell part of the story. To minimise the risk of
suboptimal decisions, a company should use as broad a range of measures as possible, both
quantitative and qualitative.
Other measures to consider could include:
• the number of new products developed
• the rate of employee turnover
• customer praise/complaints
• the number of outstanding orders
• the number of warranty claims
• health and safety incident statistics

4.4 Potential measures
A selection of potential measures is detailed below. These would obviously need adapting for the
circumstances of the individual company concerned.
Financial perspective
Possible financial measures include:
• survival, eg, cash flows
• growth, eg, sales revenue
• cost reduction, eg, unit costs
• asset utilisation, eg, working capital ratios
• risk, eg, order books
Customer perspective
Possible customer perspective measures include:
• time, eg, product delivery lead times
• quality, eg, defect rates
• price, eg, compared with the prices of competitors
• satisfaction, eg, repeat purchases
Innovation and learning perspective
Possible measures include:
• employees, eg, the rate of staff turnover
• learning, eg, the number of days spent on staff training
• products and services, eg, the percentage of revenue generated by new products and services
Internal business perspective
Possible measures include:
• the number or percentage of quality control rejects
• the average set-up time
• the speed of producing management information
The scorecard is ‘balanced’ in the sense that managers are required to think in terms of all four
perspectives, to prevent improvements being made in one area at the expense of another.
Note that the balanced scorecard approach can also be used to measure performance in shared
service centres. The focus on performance measurement of a shared service centre is not just cost
reduction but also quality such as responses to queries, error rates and so on.
Interactive question 3: Balanced scorecard evaluation

Radlan & Dunne are a firm of High Street solicitors. They have traditionally measured their success in
terms of ROI. They have decided to modernise their approach and plan to use the Balanced
Scorecard to measure performance.
Requirement
Suggest three measures they could use under each of the four balanced scorecard perspectives:
(1) Financial perspective
(2) Customer perspective
(3) Innovation and learning
(4) Internal business perspective
4.5 Problems
As with all techniques, problems can arise when the balanced scorecard is applied.

Problem Explanation
Conflicting measures Some measures in the scorecard such as research funding and cost
reduction may naturally conflict. It is often difficult to determine the
balance which will achieve the best results.
Selecting measures Not only do appropriate measures have to be devised but the number of
measures used must be agreed. Care must be taken that the impact of the
results is not lost in a sea of information.
Expertise Measurement is only useful if it initiates appropriate action. Non-financial

managers may have difficulty with the usual profit measures. With more
measures to consider this problem will be compounded.
Interpretation Even a financially-trained manager may have difficulty in putting the

figures into an overall perspective.
Too many measures The ultimate objective for commercial organisations is to maximise profits
or shareholder wealth. Other targets should offer a guide to achieving this
objective and not become an end in themselves.
5 Budgetary control
Section overview
• A fixed budget is a budget which is set for a single activity level.

• A flexible budget recognises different cost behaviour patterns and is designed to change as the
volume of activity changes.
• Effective budgetary control involves comparing a flexible budget (based on the actual activity
level) with the actual results. The differences between the flexible budget figures and the actual
results are called budget variances.
5.1 Effective budgetary control

We have seen that the performance of all types of responsibility centres may be monitored by the
comparison of actual costs and revenues with the budget for the period.
However, if activity levels fluctuate then the comparison of the actual results with a budget prepared
for a different activity level might not be valid for control purposes.
To be more meaningful, the actual results should be compared with a realistic budget for the actual
activity level achieved.
5.2 Fixed budgets
Definition
Fixed budget: A budget which is set for a single activity level.
The master budget prepared before the beginning of the budget period is known as the fixed
budget. By the term ‘fixed’, we do not mean that the budget is kept unchanged. Revisions to a fixed
master budget will be made if the situation so demands. The term ‘fixed’ means the following.
(a) The budget is prepared on the basis of an estimated volume of production or output and an
estimated volume of sales, but no plans are made for the event that actual volumes of
production and sales may differ from budgeted volumes.
(b) When actual volumes of production and sales during a control period (month or four weeks or
quarter) are achieved, a fixed budget is not adjusted (in retrospect) to represent a new target for
the new levels of activity.

The major purpose of a fixed budget lies in its use at the planning stage, when it seeks to define the
broad objectives of the organisation.
Fixed budgets (in terms of a pre-set expenditure limit) are also useful for controlling any fixed cost,
and particularly non-production fixed costs such as advertising, because such costs should be
unaffected by changes in activity level (within a certain range).
5.3 Flexible budgets
Definition
Flexible budget: A budget which, by recognising different cost behaviour patterns, is designed to
change as volume of activity changes.
A flexible budget has two advantages.

(a) At the planning stage, it may be helpful to know what the effects would be if the actual outcome
differs from the prediction. For example, a company may budget to sell 10,000 units of its
product, but may prepare flexible budgets based on sales of, say, 8,000 and 12,000 units. This
would enable contingency plans to be drawn up if necessary, and is an example of sensitivity
analysis which we discussed in Chapter 6.
(b) At the end of each month or year, actual results may be compared with the relevant activity level
in the flexible budget as a control procedure.
5.4 Preparation of flexible budgets

Step 1 The first step in the preparation of a flexible budget is the determination of cost behaviour
patterns, which means deciding whether costs are fixed, variable or semi-variable.
• Fixed costs are easy to spot. They remain constant as activity levels change.
• For non-fixed costs, divide each cost figure by the related activity level. If the cost is a
variable cost, the cost per unit will remain constant. If the cost is a semi-variable cost, the
unit rate will reduce as activity levels increase.
Step 2 The second step in the preparation of a flexible budget is to calculate the budget cost
allowance for each cost item.
Budget cost allowance = Budgeted fixed cost + (Number of units × Variable cost per unit)
Semi-variable costs therefore need splitting into their fixed and variable components so that
the budget cost allowance can be calculated.
Interactive question 4: Analysing semi-variable costs

One method for splitting semi-variable costs is the high-low method, which we covered in Chapter 6.
Attempt the following question to make sure you remember how to do this.
The cost of factory power has behaved as follows in past years.
Units of output
produced Cost of factory power
£
20X1 7,900 38,700
20X2 7,700 38,100
20X3 9,800 44,400
20X4 9,100 42,300
Budgeted production for 20X5 is 10,200 units.

Requirement
Ignoring inflation, the cost of factory power which will be incurred is estimated to be:

£
Worked example: Preparing a flexible budget

1 Prepare a budget for 20X6 for the variable direct labour costs and overhead expenses of a
production department flexed at the activity levels of 80%, 90% and 100%, using the information
listed below.
• The variable direct labour hourly rate is expected to be £7.50
• 100% activity represents 60,000 direct labour hours
• Variable costs
– Indirect labour – £0.75 per direct labour hour
– Consumable supplies – £0.375 per direct labour hour
– Canteen and other welfare services – 6% of direct and indirect labour costs
• Semi variable costs are expected to relate to the direct labour hours in the same manner as for
the last five years.
Year Direct labour hours Semi-variable costs

£
20X1 64,000 20,800
20X2 59,000 19,800
20X3 53,000 18,600
20X4 49,000 17,800
20X5 40,000 (estimate) 16,000 (estimate)
• Fixed costs
£
Depreciation 18,000
Maintenance 10,000
Insurance 4,000
Rates 15,000
Management salaries 25,000
• Inflation is to be ignored.
2 Calculate the budget cost allowance (ie, expected expenditure) for 20X6 assuming that 57,000
direct labour hours are worked.
Solution
1
80% level 90% level 100% level

48,000 hrs 54,000 hrs 60,000 hrs
£’000 £’000 £’000
Variable direct labour 360.00 405.00 450.00
Other variable costs
Indirect labour 36.00 40.50 45.0

80% level 90% level 100% level
48,000 hrs 54,000 hrs 60,000 hrs
£’000 £’000 £’000
Consumable supplies 18.00 20.25 22.5
Canteen etc 23.76 26.73 29.7
Total variable costs
(£9.12 per hour) 437.76 492.48 547.2
Semi‑variable costs
(W) 17.60 18.80 20.0
Fixed costs
Depreciation 18.00 18.00 18.00
Maintenance 10.00 10.00 10.00
Insurance 4.00 4.00 4.0
Rates 15.00 15.00 15.0
Management salaries 25.00 25.00 25.0
Budgeted costs 527.36 583.28 639.2
WORKING
Semi-variable costs
Using the high-low method:
£
Total cost of 64,000 hours 20,800
Variable cost of 24,000 hours 4,800
Variable cost per hour (£4,800/24,000) 0.20
£
Variable cost of 64,000 hours (× £0.20) 12,800
Fixed costs 8,000
Semi variable costs are calculated as follows.
£
60,000 hours (60,000 × £0.20) + £8,000 = 20,000
54,000 hours (54,000 × £0.20) + £8,000 = 18,800
48,000 hours (48,000 × £0.20) + £8,000 = 17,600
2 The budget cost allowance for 57,000 direct labour hours of work would be as follows.
£
Variable costs (57,000 × £9.12) 519,840
Semi-variable costs (£8,000 + (57,000 × £0.20)) 19,400

£
Fixed costs 72,000
611,240
5.5 Flexible budgets and control

Suppose W Co manufactures a single product, the CL. Budgeted results and actual results for June
20X2 are shown below.
Actual
Budget results Variance*
Production and sales of the CL (units) 2,000 3,000
£ £ £
Sales revenue (a) 20,000 30,000 10,000 (F)
Direct materials 6,000 8,500 2,500 (A)
Direct labour 4,000 4,500 500 (A)
Maintenance 1,000 1,400 400 (A)
Depreciation 2,000 2,200 200 (A)
Rent and rates 1,500 1,600 100 (A)
Other costs 3,600 5,000 1,400 (A)
Total costs (b) 18,100 23,200 5,100 (A)
Profit (a) – (b) 1,900 6,800 4,900 (F)
* The variance is the difference between the budget and the actual results. A favourable variance (F)
indicates that the difference would result in a higher profit (higher sales revenue or lower cost). An
adverse variance (A) indicates that the difference would result in a lower profit (lower sales revenue
or higher cost).
(a) In this example, the variances are meaningless for purposes of control. Costs were higher than
budget because the volume of output was also higher; variable costs would be expected to
increase above the budgeted costs in the fixed budget. There is no information to show whether
control action is needed for any aspect of costs or revenue.
(b) For control purposes, it is necessary to know the answers to questions such as the following.
– Were actual costs higher than they should have been to produce and sell 3,000 CLs?
– Was actual revenue satisfactory from the sale of 3,000 CLs?
5.5.1 The correct approach to control

The correct approach to control is as follows.
• Identify fixed and variable costs.
• Produce a flexible budget based on the actual activity level.
In the previous example of W Co, let us suppose that we have the following estimates of cost
behaviour.
(a) Direct materials, direct labour and maintenance costs are variable.
(b) Rent and rates and depreciation are fixed costs.
(c) Other costs consist of fixed costs of £1,600 plus a variable cost of £1 per unit made and sold.
The control analysis should therefore be based on a flexible budget as follows.

Fixed budget Flexible Actual results Budget
(a) budget (b) (c) variance (c)–(b)
£ £ £ £
Production & sales
(units) 2,000 3,000 3,000
Sales revenue 20,000 30,000 30,000 0
Variable costs
Direct materials 6,000 9,000 8,500 500 (F)
Direct labour 4,000 6,000 4,500 1,500 (F)
Maintenance 1,000 1,500 1,400 100 (F)
Semi-variable
costs
Other costs 3,600 4,600 5,000 400 (A)
Fixed costs
Depreciation 2,000 2,000 2,200 200 (A)
Rent and rates 1,500 1,500 1,600 100 (A)
Total costs 18,100 24,600 23,300 1,400 (F)
Profit 1,900 5,400 6,800 1,400
Notes
1 Column (b) – Column (a) = £5,400 – £1,900 = £3,500 (F) Volume variance
2 Column (c) – Column (b) = £6,800 – £5,400 = £1,400 (F) Expenditure variance
3 £3,500 (F) Volume variance + £1,400 (F) Expenditure variance = £4,900 (F) Total variance
Notice that the total variance has not altered. It is still £4,900 (F) as before. The flexible budget
comparison merely analyses the total variance into two separate components.
5.5.2 Interpretation of the control statement

We can analyse the above as follows.
(a) In selling 3,000 units the expected profit is shown by the flexible budget. This is not the fixed
budget profit of £1,900, but the flexible budget profit of £5,400. Instead, actual profit was
£6,800, ie, £1,400 more than we should have expected. This is the £1,400 favourable
expenditure variance. The reason for this £1,400 improvement is that, given output and sales of
3,000 units, overall costs were lower than expected (and sales revenue was exactly as expected).
For example, the direct material cost was £500 lower than expected.
(b) Another reason for the improvement in profit above the fixed budget profit is the sales volume.
W Co sold 3,000 units of CL instead of 2,000, with the following result.
£ £
Budgeted sales revenue increased by 10,000
Budgeted variable costs increased by:
Direct materials 3,000
Direct labour 2,000
Maintenance 500
Variable element of other costs 1,000
6,500

£ £
Budgeted fixed costs are unchanged –
Budgeted profit increased by 3,500
Budgeted profit was therefore increased by £3,500 because sales volume increased. This is the
£3,500 favourable volume variance.
(c) A full variance analysis statement would be as follows.
£ £ £
Fixed budget profit 1,900
Variances
Sales volume 3,500 (F)
Direct materials cost 500 (F)
Direct labour cost 1,500 (F)
Maintenance cost 100 (F)
Other costs 400 (A)
Depreciation 200 (A)
Rent and rates 100 (A)
Total expenditure variance 700 (A) 2,100 (F) 1,400 (F)
Actual profit 6,800
If management believes that any of these variances are large enough to justify it, they will investigate
the reasons for them to see whether any corrective action is necessary.
Interactive question 5: Budget cost allowances

WL Co manufactures and sells a single product, R. Since the R is highly perishable, no inventories are
held at any time. WL Co’s management uses a flexible budgeting system to control costs. Extracts
from the flexible budget are as follows.
Budget cost allowances £ £

Output and sales (units) 4,000 5,500
Direct material 16,000 22,000
Direct labour 20,000 24,500
Variable production overhead 8,000 11,000
Fixed production overhead 11,000 11,000
Selling and distribution overhead 8,000 9,500
Administration overhead 7,000 7,000
Total expenditure 70,000 85,000
Production and sales of product R amounted to 5,100 units during period 5.

Requirement
The total budget cost allowances in the flexible budget for period 5 will be:
(1) Direct material £
(2) Direct labour £

(3) Variable production overhead £
(4) Fixed production overhead £
(5) Selling and distribution overhead £
(6) Administration overhead £
(7) Production and sales of product R in period 6 amounted to 5,500 units. Budgeted output for the
period was 4,000 units. Actual total expenditure was £82,400.
(a) The total expenditure variance for period 6 was £
(b) The volume variance for period 6 was £
6 Data bias and professional scepticism in performance

management
Section overview
• Various types of data bias can appear in performance management.

We mentioned in Section 1.4 that bias or manipulation of accounting results is more likely to occur
when a manager is under pressure to achieve short-term budget targets. The fact that companies
report their results on a yearly basis, and may be under pressure from shareholders and market
analysts to deliver results, means they may be forced into measures that boost profits in the short
term, but which may create problems in the longer term and, as a result, could potentially threaten
the sustainability of the business. The focus on the short term can occur when ROI is used for
performance measurement (Section 3.7.3). Using the balanced scorecard (Section 4) can help to
reduce the problem.
Other types of bias, such as those mentioned in Chapter 6 ‘Budgeting’, can also affect performance
management and therefore professional scepticism is required.
Omitted variable bias/cause and For example, attributing performance (good or bad) to the
effect wrong variable.
Cognitive bias For example, presenting performance results in a biased

way, especially infographics (see Chapter 6).
Confirmation bias For example, looking at just the performance measures

that confirm existing beliefs and ignoring performance
measures that contradict existing beliefs.
Survivorship bias For example, drawing conclusions from studying the

departments that have performed well while excluding the
departments that have underperformed.

7 Sustainability and ESG reporting
Section overview
• A sustainable development strategy needs to be implemented and regularly monitored.

• Monitoring involves measuring progress in terms of both processes and outcomes.
• ESG reporting involves disclosing operational data on areas of ESG (environmental, social and
governance).
7.1 Monitoring sustainability

As mentioned in Chapter 1, businesses are becoming increasingly aware that economic sustainability
requires consideration not just of short-term financial performance, but of the wider impact on
society and the environment. It is not enough for an organisation just to develop a sustainability plan
and then do nothing more. Delivery of the plan needs to be implemented and regularly monitored.
This is why many organisations now record and publish sustainability reports that aim to show their
impact on society. Monitoring sustainability involves:
• Identifying the key sustainability issues for the business and the factors that drive them
• Setting targets and standards for sustainability objectives
• Monitoring progress towards sustainability objectives in terms of both processes and outcomes.
– Process – is the organisation doing the things that it said that it would, to implement
sustainability initiatives?
– Outcome – having implemented initiatives, is the organisation achieving the outcomes towards
which it is striving?
• Reporting progress and evaluating the implications for future decision making and performance
(feedback).
A sustainability report should include:
• Environmental factors – materials, energy, water usage, emissions, effluents and waste, as well as
environmental complaint mechanisms.
• Social factors – health and safety, product responsibility, employment practices, labour rights and
supplier assessments.
• Governance factors – relating to the procedures in place to manage economic, environmental and
social performance.
• Climate-related disclosures – relating to current regulations and potential future regulations.
• Policies, practice and performance – in relation to the ESG factors identified, providing descriptive
and quantitative information on each of the factors for the reporting period. Actual performance
should be described against targets.
• Targets – should be set out for the forthcoming year in relation to each ESG factor.
An organisation will need to develop its management information and data analytics systems to meet
the requirements of sustainable development monitoring, reporting and evaluation. This may involve
making better use of existing financial and non-financial information and data.
Performance indicators that could be used to measure sustainability include:
Area ESG metric
Environment
Greenhouse gas emissions • Absolute emissions (such as CO2 g)

• Emission intensity (meaning the emission rate relative to
the activity intensity, such as CO2 g released per
megajoule of energy produced)
Energy consumption • Energy consumption intensity

Area ESG metric
Water consumption • Total water consumption

• Water consumption intensity (rate of water used in a
given area)
Waste generation • Total waste generated

• Significant spillages
Social
Gender diversity • Current employee numbers by gender

• New staff numbers and turnover by gender
Age-based diversity • Current employee numbers by age

• New staff numbers and turnover by age
Employment • Total staff turnover

• Total number of employees
• Child labour
Development & training • Average training hours per employee

• Average training hours per employee per gender
Health & safety • Number of fatalities

• Number of high-consequence injuries
• Recordable injuries/work-related ill health cases
Governance
Board composition • Board independence

• Number of women on the board
Management diversity • Number of women in the management team
Ethical behaviour • Anti-corruption disclosures

• Anti-corruption training for employees
Certifications • List all sustainability or ESG-related certification
Assurance • Disclose whether sustainability report has undertaken:

(a) external independent assurance,
(b) internal assurance or
(c) no assurance.
• Provide scope of assurance if organisation has
undertaken external or internal assurance
7.2 Difficulties in measuring ESG performance

A business may measure its performance using key performance indicators (KPIs). However, in
practice, it can often be difficult or impossible to quantify ESG performance for the following
reasons:
• The choice of KPIs often involves a certain degree of subjectivity.
• Qualitative effects can be difficult to measure (eg employee satisfaction).
• KPIs that are not sufficiently specific may be hard to measure (eg reducing environmental
damage).
• It can be difficult to compare the ESG metrics of different businesses because different industries
may lead to different impacts.

Context example: Worked example
RedKite Ltd is a holiday park that wishes to establish KPIs to monitor its social and environmental
performance.
What KPIs could it use and what evidence should be available to support the KPIs?
Social Evidence
KPI
Number of customer complaints Number of refunds issued

Number of complaints recorded
Number of accidents at the holiday park Record of holiday park accidents
Percentage of female employees Human resources files
Environmental Evidence
KPI
Percentage change in utilities usage since prior Supplier bills for gas, water and electricity to
year compare the cost and volume supplied versus
the previous year
Percentage of waste recycled Amount invested in recycling facilities at

holiday park
Percentage of sustainable or recycled materials Invoices from suppliers detailing sustainable or

used when undertaking refurbishment recycled materials

Summary
Performance management systems
Effective feedback information
• Clear and comprehensive

• Exception principle
• Highlight controllable items Hopwood’s three
• Regular and timely
• Sufficiently accurate styles of evaluation
• Exclude irrelevant detail
• Communicated to correct manager • Budget constrained
• Profit conscious
• Non-accounting
Decentralisation
• The authority for

certain decisions is
delegated to less
senior managers
Responsibility centres
Cost centre Revenue centre Profit centre Investment centre

Responsible for
Responsible for Responsible for Responsible for • Costs incurred
• Costs incurred • Revenues earned • Costs incurred
• Revenues earned
• Revenues earned
• Capital invested
Performance
Balanced scorecard measures related to
capital employed
Perspectives:
• Financial
• Customer
• Internal business Return on Residual
• Innovation and learning investment (ROI) income (RI)
Budgetary control
• Dysfunctional focus • Reduces
on short-term dysfunctional
performance behaviour
Fixed budget Flexible budget • Most useful as a • Encourages
comparative marginal
For a single Realistic budget measure investments
activity level cost allowance for
actual activity level

indicated.
1. Do you know Hopwood’s styles of evaluation? (Topic 1)
2. What is budget bias? (Topic 1)
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of decentralisation? (Topic 2)
4. Can you describe cloud accounting and its features? (Topic 2)
5. Do you know the performance measures suitable for each type of responsibility centre?
(Topic 3)
6. Can you explain the balanced scorecard? (Topic 4)
7. Do you know the difference between fixed and flexible budgets? (Topic 5)
8. Can you explain how data bias can occur in performance management? (Topic 6)
9. Can you list performance indicators relating to ESG? (Topic 7)

questions in the Performance management chapter of the Management Information Question Bank.
Refer back to the learning in this chapter for any questions which you did not answer correctly or
where the suggested solution has not provided sufficient explanation to answer all your queries.

Self-test questions

1 Which of the following items would be excluded in the calculation of controllable divisional profit?
A Sales to external customers
B Head office costs
C Variable divisional expenses
D Controllable divisional fixed costs
2 Slack Ltd is based in Beeland, and it has recently decided to adopt cloud accounting in its finance
function. It is looking at a range of suppliers and is considering using a well-established and
reputable international provider of cloud accounting services, Distant Inc, based in Ceeland.
Requirement
Which of the following is a significant consideration for Slack Ltd when deciding whether to use
Distant Inc’s cloud accounting services?
A Slack Ltd will need to make some of its accounts staff redundant
B Applicable accounting standards in Ceeland will be different
C The monthly fee charged by Distant Inc will be in Ceeland’s local currency
D Data protection legislation in Ceeland may be less strict than in Beeland
3 Division Y is considering a project which will increase annual profit by £45,000 but will require
average inventory levels to increase by £180,000. The current return on investment for the division is
28% and the imputed interest cost of capital is 20%.
Requirement
Would the performance measures of ROI and RI motivate the manager of division Y to act in the
interest of the company as a whole?
A ROI – No; RI – No
B ROI – No; RI – Yes
C ROI – Yes; RI – No
D ROI – Yes; RI – Yes
4 Which of the following is not a perspective which is monitored using the balanced scorecard
approach to performance measurement?
A Financial
B Innovation and learning
C Internal business
D Sales
5 A division has a residual income of £750,000 and a net profit before imputed interest of £1,850,000.
Requirement
If it uses a rate of 11% for computing imputed interest on its invested capital, what is its return on
investment?
A 7.5%
B 11%
C 18.5%
D 26%
6 A division currently has an investment base of £2,400,000 and annual profits of £480,000. The
following extra investments are being considered.

Annual
Outlay profit
£’000 £’000
Investment Q 1,400 350
Investment R 600 200
Investment S 400 88
Requirement
Which combination of investments will maximise the division’s return on investment?
A Investment Q only
B Investment R only
C Investments Q and R
D Investments Q, R and S
7 On the last day of the financial year an investment centre has net assets with a total carrying amount
of £1.2 million, with a return on investment (ROI) of 15%.
The manager of this division is considering selling one of its non-current assets immediately before
the year end. The non-current asset has a carrying amount of £105,000 and a net realisable value of
£80,000.
Requirement
What would be the division’s ROI immediately after the sale of the asset at the end of the year?
A 13.2%
B 14.2%
C 15.3%
D 16.4%
8 A divisionalised company uses return on investment (ROI) and residual income (RI) to assess the
performance of its divisions. Straight-line depreciation is used and assets are valued at net book
value. If the cash flows from a new investment in a depreciable non-current asset are likely to be
constant over the life of the investment, what will be the effect of the investment on the ROI and RI
over the life of the asset?
A ROI – Increase; RI – Increase
B ROI – Increase; RI – No change
C ROI – No change; RI – No change
D ROI – Decrease; RI – Decrease
9 What is a budget cost allowance?
A A budget of expenditure applicable to a particular function
B A budget allowance which is set without permitting the ultimate budget manager the
opportunity to participate in setting the budget
C The budgeted cost expected for the actual level of activity achieved during the period
D A fixed budget allowance for expenditure which is expected every period, regardless of the level
of activity
10 BF Limited manufactures and sells a single product. An extract from the flexed budget for production
costs is as follows.

Activity level
80% 90%
£ £
Direct material 3,200 3,600
Direct labour 2,800 2,900
Production overhead 5,400 5,800
Total production cost 11,400 12,300
Requirement
The total production cost in a budget that is flexed at the 88% level of activity will be:
11 Lxt Ltd has used a chart to highlight the difference in performance of two of its divisions, Division A
and Division B. The chart has been presented so that Division A will be perceived as having
performed significantly better than Division B.
Requirement
What type of bias has Lxt Ltd introduced?
A Confirmation bias
B Survivorship bias
C Omitted variable bias
D Cognitive bias
this chapter.

Item Part/Not part of controllable divisional investment

Non-current assets Part of controllable divisional investment
Trade receivables Part of controllable divisional investment
Trade payables Not part of controllable divisional investment
Inventory Part of controllable divisional investment
ROI RI
Without investment 21.0% £34,200
With investment 20.7% £35,200
WORKING
ROI & RI
Without investment With investment

ROI
£119,700/£570,000 21.0%
£128,200/£620,000 20.7%
RI
£ £
Profit 119,700 128,200
Imputed interest charge:
£570,000 × 15% 85,500
£620,000 × 15% 93,000
34,200 35,200

Many answers are possible. They could include:
Financial perspective
All the standard measures plus:
• proportion of income from legal aid
• regularity of income paid in prolonged cases
• net fee income from ‘No Win, No Fee’ litigation

Customer perspective
• Number of cases won
• Number of new clients won through recommendations
• Cost of key services (eg, conveyancing) compared to other local firms
Innovation and learning
• Continuing Professional Development (CPD) courses attended
• New services offered
• New methods of service delivery introduced (eg, online Wills)
Internal business perspective
• Time taken to process key services (eg, to draft and type Wills)
• Administration cost (eg, courier services, website maintenance)
• Speed of accessing archives
• Ease of access to legislative and case law databases

Ignoring inflation, the cost of factory power which will be incurred is estimated to be:
£ 45,600
WORKING
Budgeted cost of factory power
Units £
20X3 (highest output) 9,800 44,400
20X2 (lowest output) 7,700 38,100
2,100 6,300
The variable cost per unit is therefore £6,300/2,100 = £3.

The level of fixed cost can be calculated by looking at any output level.
£
Total of factory power in 20X3 44,400
Less variable cost of factory power (9,800 × £3) 29,400
Fixed cost of factory power 15,000
An estimate of costs in 20X5 is as follows.
£
Fixed cost 15,000
Variable cost of budgeted production (10,200 × £3) 30,600
Total budgeted cost of factory power 45,600

(1) Direct material £ 20,400
(2) Direct labour £ 23,100
(3) Variable production overhead £ 10,200

(4) Fixed production overhead £ 11,000
(5) Selling and distribution overhead £ 9,100
(6) Administration overhead £ 7,000
(7) Production and sales of product R in period 6 amounted to 5,500 units. Budgeted output for the
period was 4,000 units. Actual total expenditure was £82,400.
(a) The total expenditure variance for period 6 was £ 2,600 favourable
(b) The volume variance for period 6 was £ 15,000 adverse
WORKINGS
(1) Direct material
Direct material is a variable cost of £16,000/4,000 = £4 per unit.
Budget cost allowance for 5,100 units = 5,100 × £4 = £20,400.
(2) Direct labour
Direct labour is a semi-variable cost which can be analysed using the high-low method.
Output
units £
High 5,500 24,500
Low 4,000 20,000
Change 1,500 4,500
Variable cost per unit = £4,500/1,500 = £3

Substituting in high output, fixed cost = £24,500 – (5,500 × £3)
= £8,000
Budget cost allowance for 5,100 units:
£
Variable cost = 5,100 × £3 15,300
Fixed cost 8,000
23,300
(3) Variable production overhead

Variable production overhead per unit = £8,000/4,000 = £2 per unit.
Budget cost allowance for 5,100 units = 5,100 × £2 = £10,200.
(4) Fixed production overhead
Fixed production overhead cost allowance is fixed at £11,000.
(5) Selling and distribution overhead
Selling and distribution is a semi-variable cost which can be analysed using the high-low
method.
Output
units £
High 5,500 9,500
Low 4,000 8,000

Output
units £
Change 1,500 1,500
Variable cost per unit = £1,500/1,500 = £1

Substituting in high output, fixed cost = £9,500 – (5,500 × £1)
= £4,000
Budget cost allowance for 5,100 units:
£
Variable cost = 5,100 × £1 5,100
Fixed cost 4,000
9,100
(6) Administration overhead

Administration overhead cost allowance is fixed at £7,000.
(7) Expenditure and volume variances
The budgeted and actual output volumes correspond to the two activity levels provided in the
question data. The total budget cost allowance for each activity level can be used as the basis for
the variance calculations.
Expenditure variance = Budget cost allowance for 5,500 units – actual expenditure for 5,500
units
= £85,000 – £82,400
= £2,600 favourable
Volume variance = budget cost allowance for original budget of 4,000 units – budget cost
allowance for actual volume of 5,500 units
= £70,000 – £85,000 = £15,000 adverse

B Head office costs
Head office costs are not controllable by the divisional manager and should be excluded from the
calculation of controllable divisional profit.
D Data protection legislation in Ceeland may be less strict than in Beeland
The use of cloud accounting applications is not aimed at reducing staff costs; accounts staff will still
be required so option A is not correct. As a well-established and reputable international supplier, it is
to be expected that Distant Inc can support the requirements of overseas customers so any
questions over accounting standards is unlikely to be a significant consideration (option B). We do
not know in which currency Distant will charge its subscription fee, but again this would not represent
a major consideration in the decision as to which supplier to use (option C) as Slack Ltd could choose
to manage any exposure to foreign currency risk. The major consideration for Slack Ltd is the fact that
data protection legislation may vary between Beeland and Ceeland (option D); if Ceeland is less
strict then Slack Ltd needs to make sure that its company and customer data is properly protected.
B ROI – No; RI – Yes
ROI on marginal investment = £45,000/£180,000
= 25%
This is higher than the cost of capital therefore it would be acceptable to the company as a whole.
However, the manager would reject the project based on ROI because it is lower than the current
divisional ROI.
Incremental RI = £45,000 – (£180,000 × 20%)
= £9,000
Therefore, the manager would accept the project if performance was assessed on the basis of
residual income. This would be acting in the interest of the company as a whole.
D Sales
The sales perspective is not one of the four perspectives of the balanced scorecard approach. The
four perspectives are financial, innovation and learning, internal business and customer.
C 18.5%
Imputed interest is £1,850,000 – £750,000 = £1,100,000. With interest at 11%, capital must be £10m.
ROI = £1,850,000/£10,000,000 = 18.5%.
C Investments Q and R
Investment Q only = (£480,000 + £350,000)/(£2,400,000 + £1,400,000) = 21.8%
Investment R only = (£480,000 + £200,000)/(£2,400,000 + £600,000) = 22.7%
Investments Q and R = (£480,000 + £350,000 + £200,000)/(£2,400,000 + £1,400,000 + £600,000) =
23.4%
Investments Q, R and S = (£480,000 + £350,000 + £200,000 + £88,000)/(£2,400,000 + £1,400,00 +
£600,000 + £400,000) = 23.3%

A 13.2%
£
Original profits = 15% × £1.2m 180,000
Loss on sale of asset = £105,000 – £80,000 25,000
Revised profits 155,000
Revised investment base = £(1,200,000 – 105,000 + 80,000)

= £1,175,000
Revised ROI = £155,000/£1,175,000
= 13.2%
A ROI – Increase; RI – Increase
If returns are constant and the value of the asset base is falling, both ROI and RI will increase.
C The budgeted cost expected for the actual level of activity achieved during the period
A budget cost allowance is the expected expenditure in a budget which has been flexed to the
actual level of activity. It includes a basic, unchanged allowance for fixed costs and an amount for
variable costs according to the level of activity.
Option A describes a functional budget and option B is an imposed or top-down budget. A budget
cost allowance includes an amount for variable overhead therefore option D is not correct.
10 The total production cost in a budget that is flexed at the 88% level of activity will be:
£ 12,120
Direct material cost per 1% activity = £40

Direct labour cost per 1% activity is not a constant amount at both activity levels, so this must be a
semi-variable cost. Since production overhead is also a semi-variable cost, the two costs can be
analysed together to save time (since the question asks only for a total cost in the answer).
WORKING
£
Direct labour and production overhead
At 80% activity 8,200
At 90% activity 8,700
Change 10% 500
Variable cost per 1% change in activity = £500/10% = £50

Substituting in 80% activity:
£
Variable cost = 80 × £50 4,000
Total cost 8,200
 Fixed cost 4,200
Flexed budget cost at 88% level of activity is as follows.

£
Direct material (88 × £40) 3,520
Direct labour and production overhead: Variable (88 × £50) 4,400
Fixed 4,200
12,120
D Cognitive bias
Cognitive bias relates to human perception and includes bias introduced depending on how data is
presented (the framing effect).

Chapter 9
Standard costing and

variance analysis
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Learning topics
1 Standard costing and standard costs
2 Cost variances
3 Sales variances and operating statements
4 Interpreting variances and deriving actual data from variance
detail
5 Data bias in variance analysis
Summary
Self-test questions
Introduction
Learning outcomes
• Calculate differences between actual performance and standards or budgets in terms of price
and volume effects and identify possible reasons for those differences
• Identify issues relating to the collection of data (data bias) and interpretation of data (professional
scepticism) for performance management
The specific syllabus reference for this chapter is: 3c, d.
9
Syllabus links
An understanding of variance analysis as a part of the work of the finance function will be necessary
for your Business, Technology and Finance syllabus and as a part of performance measurement
within that syllabus.
9
Examination context
The calculation and analysis of variances lends itself well to numerical exam questions. However, you
are also likely to be presented with narrative questions, perhaps testing your understanding of the
meaning of calculated variances.
The examiner is also likely to ask you to ‘work backwards’ from variance information to derive extracts
from the actual results or the original standards. This requires a thorough understanding of the
methods of variance calculation and of the meaning of the results of the calculations.
• calculate and interpret variances for variable costs
• calculate and interpret contribution-based variances for sales
• derive actual cost and standard cost data from calculated variances
• demonstrate an understanding of the meaning and use of standard cost operating statements
• recognise data bias and know how to apply professional scepticism
Traditionally students find variances a difficult area. They can be approached in a tabular manner or
using formulae – find the one that suits you best. Understanding the meaning can help with
understanding and remembering the calculations.
9

of this chapter.

questions
1 Standard costing and Approach Questions on this N/A

variance analysis Read quickly section of the chapter
Previously we used through section 1 of are likely to be
flexible budgets to Chapter 9 to place narrative questions.
enable managers to standard costing in For example, objective
exercise control over context. test questions on this
revenue and section may test the
expenditure through meaning of
the comparison of the Stop and think management by
actual results with a How might standard exception, the
realistic budget cost costing be applied advantages of standard
allowance for the actual in a fast food costing or the use of

questions
level of activity restaurant? standard costing for

achieved. service businesses.
However, the absolute
variances this
generates do not help
the manager to identify
the reasons for each
variance. For example,
if the actual cost of
direct materials is
greater than the
budget cost allowance,
this could be caused by
using a greater quantity
or paying a higher unit
price.
In a standard costing
system, standard costs
and usage levels are
determined for each
cost unit in terms of the
price and quantity of
each resource to be
consumed. For
example, the standard
material cost per unit is
established in terms of
the price of material
and the quantity of
material to be used to
produce each unit. This
enables the total
variance for material
cost, obtained from the
flexible budget
comparison, to be
further analysed for
improved cost control.
Standard costing
systems are also useful
in service
organisations. For
example, the expected
number of hours to
carry out an audit for a
client, together with the
expected labour rate
per hour, can be
determined in advance.
This will represent a
standard cost which
can then be compared
with the actual cost of
the audit. The detail in
the predetermined
standard cost means
ICAEW 2023 9: Standard costing and variance analysis 315

questions
that any difference or

variance between the
standard cost and the
actual cost of the audit
can be analysed. This
would enable
managers to establish
how much of the
variance is caused by a
difference in the labour
rate per hour and how
much is caused by a
difference in the
number of hours
worked.
2 Cost variances Section 2 is very Objective test N/A

Traditionally, students practical and questions may require
find variances a difficult contains a lot of you to calculate
area. They can be important material, labour,
approached in a information. You variable overhead or
tabular manner or need to be able to fixed overhead
using formulae – find calculate all the variances.
the one that suits you variances quickly You are also likely to be
best. Understanding and accurately, so presented with
the meaning can help do not be tempted narrative questions,
with understanding to skim the perhaps testing your
and remembering the workings. Try understanding of the
calculations. calculating each meaning of calculated
variance before variances.
working through the
solution provided.
Stop and think

Are favourable
variances always a
good thing?
3 Sales variances and Learn the Objective test IQ1:

operating statements calculation of the questions may require Operating
Sometimes the selling sales variances in you to calculate sales statement
price per unit is section 3 and try variances. A scenario- It is vital that
different from the Interactive question based question may you can
budgeted selling price. 1. This will enable ask you to calculate calculate all
Sometimes the sales you to check that variances for an the variances
volume is different you can calculate all operating statement. and this
from budget. These the variances and question
differences lead to give you practice at brings them
sales variances. preparing an all together
operating in an
statement. Go operating
carefully through statement.
the worked You may see
example, a scenario
reconciling question like
budgeted profit to this in the
actual profit.

questions
exam.
Stop and think
Why might a selling
price be different
from the budgeted
amount?
4 Interpreting variances Study the table in You may be asked to N/A

and deriving actual section 4 to get an ‘work backwards’ from
data from variance idea of the range of variance information to
detail possible causes of a derive extracts from the
Understanding the variance. Work actual results or the
reasons why variances carefully through original standards. This
occur allows the example in requires a thorough
management to help section 4.3 because understanding of the
prevent controllable questions that work methods of variance
adverse variances from backwards from calculation and of the
arising. It can also help variance meaning of the results
to ensure that information to of the calculations.
managers are not derive the actual Objective test
unfairly blamed for results are a questions may require
variances that were not common way of you to pick out correct
within their control (eg testing variance statements from a
worldwide material analysis in an exam. number of statements
price increases). supplied in a question,
Stop and think for example, possible
reasons for a particular
Why should looking variance.
at single variances
in isolation be
avoided?
5 Data bias in variance Section 5 is fairly Objective test N/A

analysis short as it builds on questions may require
We looked at data bias the data bias and you to pick out correct
in Chapters 6 and 8 in professional statements about data
the context of scepticism sections bias from a number of
budgeting, forecasting in Chapters 6 and 7. statements supplied in
and performance a question.
management. This Stop and think
section explains how
bias can affect Does the business
variances. you work for have
more favourable
variances than
adverse variances?

1 Standard costing and standard costs
Section overview
• Standard costing is the preparation of standard costs to use in variance analysis, a key
management control tool.
• Standards for each cost element are made up of a monetary component and a resources
requirement component.
• Standard costing enables the principle of management by exception to be practised.
• If they are to continue to be useful for control purposes, standard costs must be revised whenever
there are changes in required resource inputs or in the price of resources.
1.1 Standard costing
Definition
Standard costing: Defined by the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants as a ‘control
technique that reports variances by comparing actual costs to pre-set standards so facilitating action
through management by exception’. (CIMA Official Terminology, 2005)
Standard costing (for control) therefore involves the following.

• The establishment of predetermined estimates of the costs of products or services.
• The collection of actual costs.
• The comparison of the actual costs with the predetermined estimates.
1.2 Standard costs

A standard cost per unit is the expected, or normal, cost per unit, based on expectations (standards)
for:
• the usage of resources; and
• the price per unit of resource.
A simple standard cost card, taking account of only variable costs, is shown below.
Standard cost: Widget
Price per unit of

resource
Units of resource £ £
Material 6 kg 5 30
Labour 2.5 hours 8 20
Variable production overhead 2.5 hours 2 5
Standard variable production cost 55
Standards provide an expected cost for one unit of output. A budget is a financial plan for a period
of time. However, standard costs can be used in the preparation of budgets.
When standard costs are used, budgetary control variance analysis is based on a comparison
between actual results and a flexed budget that uses standard costs. The particular advantage of
standard costs is that the cost information consists of a quantity of resources (units of raw material,
hours of direct labour and variable overheads) and a price per unit of resource (cost per kilogram of
material or cost per hour for labour, etc).
As a result of this extra information, the analysis of the cost variances can be more detailed, and so
can provide more control information to management.

1.3 Standard costing and management by exception
Standard costs, when established, are average expected unit costs. Because they are only averages
and not a rigid specification, actual results will vary to some extent above or below the average.
Standard costs can therefore be viewed as benchmarks for comparison purposes, and variances
should only be reported and investigated if there is a significant difference between actual and
standard. The problem is in deciding whether a variation from standard should be considered
significant and worthy of investigation. Tolerance limits can be set and only variances that exceed
such limits would require investigation.
Standard costing therefore enables the principle of management by exception to be practised.
Definition
Management by exception: Defined by CIMA as the ‘practice of concentrating on activities that
require attention and ignoring those which appear to be conforming to expectations. Typically
standard cost variances or variances from budget are used to identify those activities that require
attention.’ (CIMA Official Terminology)
1.4 Setting standard costs

Standards for units of production or service should be based on careful investigation and research,
and standards should be continually monitored to ensure that they are reasonable and reliable. If
there is an inaccuracy in the standard cost, a comparison of actual results against the standard will
provide meaningless and unhelpful variance information.
A possible reason for a variance may be that the standard is unreliable or inaccurate, rather than that
actual results were worse or better than they should have been. Companies that use standard costs
therefore try to make their standard costs as reliable as possible, and will revise the standard
whenever there are changes in resource inputs required or in the price per unit of resource.
1.5 The advantages of standard costing

• Carefully planned standards are an aid to more accurate budgeting.
• Standard costs provide a yardstick against which actual costs can be measured.
• The setting of standards involves determining the most appropriate materials and methods
which may lead to economies.
• A target of efficiency is set for employees to reach and cost consciousness is stimulated.
• Variances can be calculated which enable the principle of ‘management by exception’ to be
operated. Only the variances which exceed acceptable tolerance limits need to be investigated
by management with a view to control action.
• Standard costs simplify the process of bookkeeping in cost accounting, because they are easier
to use than LIFO, FIFO and weighted average costs.
• Standard times simplify the process of production scheduling.
• Standard performance levels might provide an incentive for individuals to achieve targets for
themselves at work.
1.6 Difficulties in applying standard costing in service environments

Standard costing was originally used in manufacturing environments and a criticism levelled at
standard costing was its apparent lack of applicability in service industries.
The application of standard costing in service industries does have its problems.
• It can be difficult to establish a measurable cost unit for some services.
• In some service organisations every cost unit will be different (heterogeneous). For example,
each haircut provided in a salon will be different.
• Since the human influence is so great in many services it can be difficult to predict and control the
quality of the output and the resources used in its production.
To overcome these problems and enable the application of standard costing for planning and
control in service industries it is therefore necessary to do the following.

• Establish a measurable cost unit. This is relatively easy in some service organisations. For
example, cost units for transport companies, such as a passenger-mile or a tonne-mile, or for
hotels, such as a guest-night. (You might recall that these are referred to as composite cost units.)
• Attempt to reduce the heterogeneity of services. If every service provided to the customer is the
same as the last, then it will be possible to set a standard cost for the service and use this to
maximise efficiency and reduce waste.
• Reduce the element of human influence. This can be achieved by swapping machines for humans
wherever possible.
2 Cost variances
Section overview
• Variances measure the difference between actual results and expected results. The process by
which the total difference between standard and actual results is analysed is known as variance
analysis.
• The material total variance can be divided into the material price variance and the material usage
variance.
• Since material inventories are usually valued at standard cost in a standard costing system,
material price variances are usually extracted at the time of purchase of the materials, rather than
at the time of usage.
• The labour total variance can be divided into the labour rate variance and the labour efficiency
variance.
• The variable overhead total variance can be divided into the variable overhead expenditure
variance and the variable overhead efficiency variance.
• If the variable overhead rate is stated in terms of a rate per labour hour, then the variable
overhead efficiency variance, in hours, is exactly the same as the labour efficiency variance in
hours, and it occurs for the same reasons.
• The fixed overhead expenditure variance is the difference between the budgeted and actual fixed
overhead expenditure in the period.
2.1 Variances
Definitions
Variance: Defined by CIMA as ‘the difference between a planned, budgeted, or standard cost and
the actual cost incurred. The same comparisons may be made for revenues.’ (CIMA Official
Terminology, 2005)
Variance analysis: Defined as the ‘evaluation of performance by means of variances, whose timely
reporting should maximise the opportunity for managerial action’. (CIMA Official Terminology, 2005)
As we saw in Chapter 8, when actual results are better than expected results, we have a favourable
variance (F). If, on the other hand, actual results are worse than expected results, we have an adverse
variance (A).
information provided’. Technical knowledge of variance analysis can be used to evaluate
performance.

2.2 Material variances
Definitions
Material total variance: ‘Measures the difference between the standard material cost of the output
produced and the actual material cost incurred.’ (CIMA Official Terminology, 2005)
Material price variance: The difference between the standard cost and the actual cost for the actual
quantity of material used or purchased.
Material usage variance: The difference between the standard quantity of materials that should have
been used for the number of units actually produced, and the actual quantity of materials used,
valued at the standard cost per unit of material.
The material total variance can be divided into the material price variance and the material usage
variance.
(a) The material price variance
This is the difference between the standard cost and the actual cost for the actual quantity of
material used or purchased. In other words, it is the difference between what the material did
cost and what it should have cost.
(b) The material usage variance
This is the difference between the standard quantity of materials that should have been used for
the number of units actually produced, and the actual quantity of materials used, valued at the
standard price per unit of material. In other words, it is the difference between how much
material should have been used and how much material was used, valued at standard price.
Worked example: Material variances

Product X has a standard material cost as follows.
10 kg of material Y at £10 per kilogram = £100 per unit of X.
During Period 4, 1,000 units of X were manufactured, using 11,700 kg of material Y which cost
£98,631.
Requirements
Calculate the following variances.
1 The material total variance
2 The material price variance
3 The material usage variance
Solution
Summary
£
Price variance 18,369 (F)
Usage variance 17,000 (A)
Total variance 1,369 (F)
1 The material total variance

This is the difference between what 1,000 units should have cost and what they did cost.
£
1,000 units should have cost (× £100) 100,000
but did cost 98,631
Material total variance 1,369 (F)

The variance is favourable because the units cost less than they should have cost.
Now we can break down the material total variance into its two constituent parts: the material
price variance and the material usage variance.
2 The material price variance
This is the difference between what 11,700 kg should have cost and what 11,700 kg did cost.
£
11,700 kg of Y should have cost (× £10) 117,000
but did cost 98,631
Material Y price variance 18,369 (F)
The variance is favourable because the material cost less than it should have.
3 The material usage variance
This is the difference between how many kilograms of Y should have been used to produce 1,000
units of X and how many kilograms were used, valued at the standard cost per kilogram.
1,000 units should have used (× 10 kg) 10,000 kg

but did use 11,700 kg
Usage variance in kg 1,700 kg (A)
× Standard price per kilogram × £10
Usage variance in £ £17,000 (A)
The variance is adverse because more material was used than should have been used.
2.2.1 Using formulae to calculate materials variances

You may prefer to use formulae to calculate standard cost variances. The formulae for the material
cost variances are as follows.
Material price variance = (Standard price per unit of materials – Actual price per unit of materials) ×
Actual quantity of materials
= (SP – AP) × AQ
Material usage variance = (Standard quantity of materials for actual output – Actual quantity used) ×
Standard price per unit of material
= (SQ – AQ) × SP
The total material cost variance in formula terms is:
(Standard price per unit of materials × Standard quantity of materials)
less
(Actual price per unit of materials × Actual quantity of materials)
ie, (SP × SQ) – (AP × AQ)
Algebraically, material price variance + material usage variance
= (SP – AP) × AQ + (SQ – AQ) × SP
= (SP × AQ) – (AP × AQ) + (SQ × SP) – (AQ × SP)
= (SP × SQ) – (AP × AQ)
(as above)
Context example: Using formulae to calculate material variances

Using the data in the last example the formulae would be applied as follows.
Materials price variance = (SP – AP) × AQ
= [£10 – (£98,631/11,700)] × 11,700

= £18,369 (F)
Materials usage variance = (SQ – AQ) × SP
= [(1,000 × 10 kg) – 11,700 kg] × £10
= £17,000 (A)
2.2.2 Materials variances and opening and closing inventory

Suppose that a company uses raw material P in production, and that this raw material has a standard
price of £3 per metre. During one month, 6,000 metres are bought for £18,600, and 5,000 metres
are used in production. At the end of the month, inventory will have been increased by 1,000 metres.
In variance analysis, the problem is to decide the material price variance. Should it be calculated on
the basis of materials purchased (6,000 metres) or on the basis of materials used (5,000 metres)? The
answer to this problem depends on how closing inventories of the raw materials will be valued.
(a) If closing inventories of raw materials are valued at standard cost, (1,000 units at £3 per unit)
then the price variance is calculated on material purchases in the period.
(b) If closing inventories of raw materials are valued at actual cost (FIFO) (1,000 units at £3.10 per
unit) then the price variance is calculated on materials used in production in the period.
2.2.3 When to calculate the material price variance

A full standard costing system is usually in operation and therefore the price variance is usually
calculated on purchases in the period. The variance on the full 6,000 metres will be written off to the
costing income statement, even though only 5,000 metres are included in the cost of production.
There are two main advantages in extracting the material price variance at the time of purchase.
(a) If variances are extracted at the time of purchase they will be brought to the attention of
managers earlier than if they are extracted as the material is used. If it is necessary to correct any
variances then management action can be more timely, such as negotiating the price down with
the supplier.
(b) Since variances are extracted at the time of purchase, all inventories will be valued at standard
price. This is administratively easier and it means that all issues from inventories can be made at
standard price. If inventories are held at actual cost it is necessary to calculate a separate price
variance on each batch as it is issued. Since issues are usually made in a number of small batches
this can be a time-consuming task, especially with a manual system.
The price variance would be calculated as follows.
£
6,000 metres of material P purchased should cost (× £3) 18,000
but did cost 18,600
Price variance 600
2.3 Labour variances

The calculation of labour variances is very similar to the calculation of material variances.
Definitions
Labour total variance: Measures the difference between the standard labour cost of the output
produced and the actual labour cost incurred.
Labour rate variance: The difference between the standard cost and the actual cost for the actual
number of labour hours paid.
Labour efficiency variance: The difference between the hours that should have been worked for the
number of units actually produced, and the actual number of hours worked, valued at the standard
labour rate per hour.
The labour total variance can be divided into the labour rate variance and the labour efficiency
variance.

(a) The labour rate variance
This is similar to the material price variance. It is the difference between the standard cost and
the actual cost for the actual number of hours paid for.
In other words, it is the difference between what the actual labour used did cost and what it
should have cost.
(b) The labour efficiency variance
This is similar to the material usage variance. It is the difference between the hours that should
have been worked for the number of units actually produced, and the actual number of hours
worked, valued at the standard rate per hour.
Worked example: Labour variances

The standard labour cost of product X is as follows.
2 hours of grade Z labour at £10 per hour = £20 per unit of product X.
During period 4, 1,000 units of product X were made, and the labour cost of grade Z labour was
£17,825 for 2,300 hours of work.
Requirements
1 The labour total variance
2 The labour rate variance
3 The labour efficiency variance
Solution
Summary
£
Rate variance 5,175 (F)
Efficiency variance 3,000 (A)
Total variance 2,175 (F)
1 The labour total variance

This is the difference between what 1,000 units should have cost and what they did cost.
£
1,000 units should have cost (× £20) 20,000
but did cost 17,825
Labour total variance 2,175 (F)
The variance is favourable because the units cost less than they should have done.
Again, we can analyse this total variance into its two constituent parts.
2 The labour rate variance
This is the difference between what 2,300 hours should have cost and what 2,300 hours did cost.
£
2,300 hours of work should have cost (× £10) 23,000
but did cost 17,825
Labour rate variance 5,175 (F)
The variance is favourable because the labour cost less than it should have cost.
3 The labour efficiency variance

1,000 units of X should have taken (× 2 hours) 2,000 hrs
but did take 2,300 hrs
Efficiency variance in hours 300 hrs (A)
× Standard rate per hour × £10
Efficiency variance in £ £3,000 (A)
The variance is adverse because more hours were worked than should have been worked.
2.3.1 Using formulae to calculate labour variances

The formulae that you may wish to use to calculate the labour cost variances are as follows.
Labour rate = (Standard rate of pay per hour – Actual rate of pay per hour) × Actual
variance labour hours
= (SR – AR) × AH
Labour efficiency = (Standard labour hours for actual output – Actual labour hours) ×
variance Standard rate of pay per hour
= (SH – AH) × SR
As with the materials variances, the total labour cost variance can be shown algebraically to be (SR ×
SH) – (AR × AH).
Context example: Using formulae to calculate labour variances

Labour rate variance = (SR – AR) × AH

= [£10 – £17,825/2,300)] × 2,300
= £5,175 (F)
Labour efficiency variance = (SH – AH) × SR

= [(1,000 × 2 hours) – 2,300] × £10
= £3,000 (A)
2.4 Variable production overhead variances
Definitions
Variable production overhead total variance: Measures the difference between the variable
production overhead that should be used for actual output and the variable production overhead
actually used.
Variable production overhead expenditure variance: Measures the actual cost of any change from
the standard variable overhead rate per hour.
Variable production overhead efficiency variance: The standard variable production overhead cost
of any change from the standard level of efficiency.
The variable overhead total variance can be subdivided into the variable overhead expenditure
variance and the variable overhead efficiency variance.

Worked example: Variable overhead variances
Suppose that the variable overhead cost of product X is as follows.
2 hours at £1.50 = £3 per unit
During the latest period, 400 units of product X were made. The labour force worked 760 hours. The
variable overhead cost was £1,672.
Requirements
1 The variable overhead total variance
2 The variable overhead expenditure variance
3 The variable overhead efficiency variance
Solution
Summary
£
Variable overhead expenditure variance 532 (A)
Variable overhead efficiency variance 60 (F)
Variable overhead total variance 472 (A)
1 The variable overhead total variance

This is similar to the labour total variance. It is the difference between the standard variable
overhead cost of 400 units and the actual variable overhead cost incurred.
£
400 units of product X should cost (× £3) 1,200
but did cost 1,672
Variable overhead total variance 472 (A)
2 The variable overhead expenditure variance

This is the difference between the amount of variable overhead that should have been incurred in
the actual hours worked, and the actual amount of variable overhead incurred.
£
760 hours of variable overhead should cost (× £1.50) 1,140
but did cost 1,672
3 The variable overhead efficiency variance
400 units of product X should take (× 2 hrs) 800 hrs

but did take 760 hrs
Variable overhead efficiency variance in hours 40 hrs (F)
× Standard rate per hour × £1.50
Variable overhead efficiency variance in £ £60 (F)
If the variable overhead rate is stated in terms of a rate per labour hour, the variable overhead
efficiency variance is exactly the same, in hours, as the labour efficiency variance, and occurs for
the same reasons.

However, the variable overhead rate is sometimes stated in terms of a rate per machine hour, in
which case the difference must be calculated between the actual machine hours and the standard
machine hours for the output achieved.
The difference in hours, whether expressed in terms of labour hours or in terms of machine hours,
is evaluated at the standard variable overhead rate per hour.
2.4.1 Using formulae to calculate variable overhead variances

The formulae that you may wish to use to calculate the variable overhead cost variances are as
follows.
Variable overhead expenditure = (Standard variable overhead rate per hour – Actual
variance variable overhead rate per hour) × Actual hours
= (SR – AR) × AH
Variable overhead efficiency variance = (Standard hours for actual output – Actual hours) ×
Standard variable overhead rate per hour
= (SH – AH) × SR
The standard rate per hour, and the actual and standard hours, can be expressed in terms of labour
or in terms of machine hours.
The same algebraic breakdown of variable overhead variances can be derived as for materials and
labour variances.
Context example: Using formulae to calculate variable overhead variances

Using the data from the last example the formulae would be applied as follows.
Variable overhead expenditure variance = (SR – AR) × AH

= [£1.50 – (£1,672/760)] × 760
= £532 (A)
Variable overhead efficiency variance = (SH – AH) × SR

= [(400 × 2) – 760] × £1.50
= £60 (F)
2.5 Fixed overhead expenditure variance
Definition
Fixed overhead expenditure variance: The difference between the budgeted fixed overhead
expenditure and actual fixed overhead expenditure.
The fixed overhead expenditure variance is (Budgeted fixed overhead cost – Actual fixed overhead
cost)
The fixed overhead expenditure variance is simply the difference between the budgeted and actual
fixed overhead expenditure in the period. By definition, fixed overheads should remain the same,
regardless of the volume of production and sales. Any difference between budget and actual
spending must be due to higher-than-expected or lower-than-expected spending, and can have
nothing to do with differences in volume of activity.

3 Sales variances and operating statements
Section overview
• The sales price variance is a measure of the effect on expected contribution of charging a
different selling price from the standard selling price.
• The sales volume variance measures the increase or decrease in standard contribution as a result
of the actual sales volume being higher or lower than budgeted.
• Operating statements used in a standard marginal costing system show how the combination of
variances reconcile the budgeted contribution and the actual contribution for a period.
3.1 Sales variances

Just as it is possible to set predetermined standards for cost, so it is also possible to set
predetermined standards for sales: the unit sales price and the sales volume. This enables variances
to be calculated to monitor and control the actual sales price and the actual sales volume achieved.
3.1.1 Sales price variance
Definition
Sales price variance: A measure of the effect on expected profit of a different selling price to
standard selling price. It is calculated as the difference between what the sales revenue should have
been for the actual quantity sold, and the actual sales revenue.
The sales price variance is a measure of the effect on expected contribution of charging a different
selling price from the standard selling price.
3.1.2 Sales volume variance
Definition
Sales volume variance: The difference between the actual units sold and the budgeted (planned)
quantity, valued at the standard contribution per unit.
The sales volume variance is the difference between the actual units sold and the budgeted quantity,
valued at the standard contribution per unit. In other words, it measures the increase or decrease in
standard contribution as a result of the sales volume being higher or lower than budgeted.
Context example: Calculating sales variances

A company budgets to sell 8,000 units of product J for £12 per unit. The standard variable cost per
unit is £7. Actual sales were 7,700 units, at a price of £12.50 per unit.
The sales price variance is calculated as follows.
£
Sales revenue from 7,700 units should have been (× £12) 92,400
but was (7,700 × £12.50) 96,250
Sales price variance 3,850 (F)
The variance is favourable because the actual price was higher than standard.
The sales volume variance is calculated as follows.
Budgeted sales volume 8,000 units

Actual sales volume 7,700 units

Sales volume variance in units 300 units (A)
× Standard contribution £(12 – 7) × £5
Sales volume variance 1,500 (A)
The variance is adverse because actual sales volume was less than budgeted.
3.1.3 Using formulae to calculate sales variances

The formulae that you may wish to use to calculate the sales variances are as follows.
Sales price variance = (Actual selling price per unit – Standard selling price per unit) ×
Actual sales quantity
= (AP – SP) × AQ
Sales volume variance = (Actual sales quantity – Budgeted sales quantity) × Standard
contribution per unit
= (AQ – BQ) × SC
Context example: Using formulae to calculate sales variances

Sales price variance = (AP – SP) × AQ

= (£12.50 – £12.00) × 7,700
= £3,850 (F)
Sales volume variance = (AQ – BQ) × SC

= (7,700 – 8,000) × £(12 – 7)
= £1,500 (A)
3.2 Operating statements
Definition
Operating statement: A regular report for management of actual costs and revenues, usually
showing variances from budget.
So far, we have considered how variances are calculated in a standard marginal costing system
without considering how they combine to reconcile the difference between budgeted contribution
and actual contribution during a period. This reconciliation is usually presented as a report to senior
management at the end of each control period. The report is called an operating statement or
statement of variances.
An operating statement might look like this.
Operating statement for Period 8
£
Budgeted contribution 928,000
Sales volume variance 17,320 (A)
Actual sales less

standard variable 922,510

£
cost of sales
Variable cost variances Favourable Adverse
£ £
Material price 7,120
Material usage 6,190
Labour rate 5,340
Labour efficiency 4,140
Variable overhead
expenditure 4,920
Variable overhead
efficiency 2,870
Total variable cost

variances 12,040 18,540 6,500 (A)
Actual contribution 916,010

£
Budgeted fixed
overhead 400,470
Fixed overhead
expenditure
variance 15,010 (A)
Actual fixed overhead 415,480

Note that favourable variances are added to the budgeted contribution and adverse variances are
subtracted, in reaching the actual profit figure.
However, in the case of the adverse fixed overhead expenditure variance, this is added to the
budgeted expenditure because the actual expenditure was higher than budgeted.
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Work effectively within time
constraints’. This is a skill required for questions on operating statements, such as the following one,
where you have lots of calculations to perform.
Interactive question 1: Operating statement

NN Co manufactures a single product, the SK. The standard variable cost for this item is as follows.
£ £
Materials:
P (8 kg at £0.40 per kg) 3.20
Q (4 kg at £0.70 per kg) 2.80
6.00
Labour (3 hours at £7.50) 22.50
Variable overhead (3 labour hours at £0.50) 1.50

£ £
30.00
Budgeted fixed overhead expenditure is £8,600.

The standard sales price per unit is £40. The budgeted production and sales for Period 7 were 3,000
units.
Actual results for Period 7 were as follows.
Sales and production 2,800 units

Sales revenue £113,120
Materials purchased and used:
P 19,000 kg Cost £7,410

Q 14,000 kg Cost £10,220
Labour 8,300 hours Cost £64,740
Variable overhead £4,067

Fixed overhead £8,250
Requirement
Complete the operating statement for Period 7 shown below. For the cost variances, make one entry
(adverse or favourable) for each variance and enter a zero or a dash in the other column. For the
sales variances, indicate in the box whether they are adverse (A) or favourable (F).
£
(1) Sales volume variance
(2) Sales price variance
Actual sales less standard variable cost of sales

Favourable Adverse
Variable cost variances £ £
(3) Material price
(4) Material usage
(5) Labour rate
(6) Labour efficiency
(7) Variable overhead expenditure
(8) Variable overhead efficiency
Total variable cost variances


£
£
Budgeted fixed overhead 8,600
(9) Fixed overhead expenditure variance
Actual fixed overhead

There are several ways in which an operating statement may be presented. A common format is one
which reconciles budgeted profit to actual profit.
Worked example: Reconciling budgeted profit to actual profit

Sydney manufactures one product, and the entire product is sold as soon as it is produced. There are
no opening or closing inventories and work in progress is negligible. The standard cost card for the
product, a boomerang, is as follows. Standard cost card – boomerang is as follows.
Standard cost card – boomerang
£
Direct materials 0.5 kg at £4 per kg 2.00
Direct wages 2 hours at £2.00 per hour 4.00
Variable overheads 2 hours at £0.30 per hour 0.60
Fixed overhead 2 hours at £3.70 per hour 7.40
Standard cost 14.00
Standard selling price 20.00
Budgeted output for the month of June Year 7 was 5,100 units. Actual results for June Year 7 were as
follows.
Production of 4,850 units was sold for £95,600.
Materials consumed in production amounted to 2,300 kg at a total cost of £9,800.
Labour hours paid for amounted to 8,500 hours at a cost of £16,800.
Variable overheads amounted to £2,600.
Fixed overheads amounted to £42,300.
Requirement
Complete the table to generate a marginal costing operating statement for the month ended 30
June Year 7.
Make one entry (adverse or favourable) for each variance and enter a zero or a dash in the other
column. Enter the net total of adverse and favourable variances as either a positive number
(favourable total) or negative number (adverse total) in the fourth column.
Solution
Operating statement for June
Favourable Adverse
£ £ £
Budgeted profit 30,600
Sales volume variance 0 3,350

Favourable Adverse
£ £ £
Sales price variance 0 1,400
Cost variances
Materials price 0 600
Materials usage 500 0
Labour rate 200 0
Labour efficiency 2,400 0
Variable overhead rate 0 50
Variable overhead efficiency 360 0
Fixed overhead expenditure 0 4,560
Total variances 3,460 9,960 (6,500)
WORKINGS
(1) Selling price variance
£
Revenue from 4,850 boomerangs should be (× £20) 97,000
but was 95,600
Selling price variance 1,400 (A)
(2) Sales volume variance

× standard contribution per unit × £13.40
Sales volume contribution variance in £ £3,350 (A)
(3) Material price variance
£
2,300 kg of material should cost (× £4) 9,200
but did cost 9,800
Material price variance 600 (A)
(4) Material usage variance
4,850 boomerangs should use (× 0.5 kg) 2,425 kg

Material usage variance in kg 125 kg (F)

× standard cost per kg × £4
Material usage variance in £ £500 (F)
(5) Labour rate variance
£
8,500 hours of labour should cost (× £2) 17,000
but did cost 16,800
Labour rate variance 200 (F)
(6) Labour efficiency variance
4,850 boomerangs should take (× 2 hrs) 9,700 hrs

Labour efficiency variance in hours 1,200 hrs (F)
× standard cost per hour × £2
Labour efficiency variance in £ £2,400 (F)
(7) Variable overhead expenditure variance
£
8,500 hours incurring variable o/hd
expenditure should cost (× £0.30) 2,550
but did cost 2,600
(8) Variable overhead efficiency variance

Variable overhead efficiency variance in hours is the same as the labour efficiency variance.
1,200 hours (F) × £0.30 per hour £360 (F)
(9) Fixed overhead expenditure variance
£
Budgeted fixed overhead (5,100 units × 2 hrs × £3.70) 37,740
Fixed overhead expenditure variance 4,560 (A)
Important note
If you use the formula approach to calculate variances in a scenario-based question, make sure
that you do not round your calculations. Leave the figures unrounded in your calculator. For
example, using the formula approach, the variable overhead expenditure variance above would
be calculated like this:

Variable overhead expenditure variance = (SR – AR) × AH
= [£0.30 – (£2,600/8,500)] × 8,500
= £50 (A)
If you rounded £2,600/8,500 to say, three decimal places, you would get 0.306 and you would
end up with a variance of £51 instead of £50. As these questions are computer marked, it is
important to leave the figures in your calculator.
4 Interpreting variances and deriving actual data from

variance detail
Section overview
• There is a wide range of possible reasons for the occurrence of sales and cost variances.
• Individual variances should not be looked at in isolation. It is possible that one variance is inter-
related with one or more other variances.
• Variances can be manipulated to derive actual data from standard cost details.
4.1 The reasons for variances
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Structure and analyse
financial and non-financial data to enhance understanding of business issues and their underlying
causes.’ For example, you could be asked about the reasons for certain variances in a particular
scenario.
There is a wide range of reasons for the occurrence of adverse or favourable sales and cost
variances.
The following list is not exhaustive, but it should give you an idea of the type of circumstance that
could give rise to each of the variances.
Variance Favourable Adverse
Material price • Unforeseen discounts received • Price increase in the market

• More care taken in purchasing • Careless purchasing
• Material standard price set too • Material standard price set too
high low
Material usage • Material used of higher quality • Defective material

than standard • Excessive waste
• More effective use made of • Theft
material
• Stricter quality control
• Errors in allocating material to jobs
• Errors in allocating material to
jobs
Labour rate • Use of apprentices or other • Wage rate increase

workers at a rate of pay lower than • Use of higher-grade labour
standard
Labour efficiency

Variance Favourable Adverse
• Output produced more quickly • Lost time in excess of standard

than expected because of work allowed
motivation, better quality of • Output lower than standard set
equipment or materials, or better because of deliberate restriction,
methods lack of training, or substandard
• Errors in allocating time to jobs material used
• Errors in allocating time to jobs
Variable overhead • Change in types of overhead or • Change in types of overhead or

expenditure their cost their cost
Variable overhead • As for labour efficiency (if based • As for labour efficiency (if based
efficiency on labour hours) on labour hours)
Fixed overhead • Fixed overheads include a wide range of different items of expense. Any
expenditure of these might be higher or lower than budgeted. For example, rent, rates
or insurance for the period might be higher or lower than budgeted
Sales price • Supply shortages meant customers • Supply surplus meant customers
prepared to pay higher prices wished to pay lower price
• Quantity discounts given to • Quantity discounts given to
customers were lower than customers were higher than
expected expected
• Original standard selling price set • Original standard selling price
too low set too high
Sales volume • Efficient sales force • Demotivated sales force

• Successful advertising campaign • Competitor increased advertising
• Potential market was larger than effort
expected • Original budgeted sales were
• Original budgeted sales were very too optimistic
conservative
4.2 Inter-relationships between variances
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Assess interaction of
information from different sources’. For example, the interaction of information from different sources
may highlight inter-relationships between variances.
Quite possibly, individual variances should not be looked at in isolation. One variance might be
inter-related with another, and much of it might have occurred only because the other, inter-related,
variance occurred too.
Here are some examples of inter-related variances.
(a) Materials price and usage
It may be decided to purchase cheaper, lower quality materials for a job in order to obtain a
favourable price variance, possibly with the consequence that materials wastage is higher and
an adverse usage variance occurs. If the cheaper materials are more difficult to handle, there
might also be an adverse labour efficiency variance and an adverse variable overhead efficiency
variance.
If a decision is made to purchase more expensive materials, which perhaps have a longer service
life, the price variance will be adverse but the usage variance might be favourable.
(b) Labour rate and efficiency

If employees are paid higher rates for experience and skill, using a highly skilled team to do
some work would incur an adverse rate variance, but should also obtain a favourable efficiency
variance. In contrast, a favourable rate variance might indicate a larger than expected proportion
of inexperienced workers in the workforce, which could result in an adverse labour efficiency
variance, and perhaps poor materials handling and high rates of wastage or product rejections
(adverse material usage variance).
(c) Sales price and sales volume
The inter-relationship between sales price and sales volume variances should (hopefully) be
obvious to you. A reduction in the sales price might stimulate bigger sales demand, so that an
adverse sales price variance might be offset by a favourable sales volume variance. Similarly, a
price rise would give a favourable price variance, but possibly at the cost of a fall in demand and
an adverse sales volume variance.
(d) Cost and sales variances
(1) If there are favourable cost variances (perhaps cheaper labour or material have been used,
say, so that there are favourable labour rate or material price variances), the possible drop in
quality of the product could lead to an adverse sales volume variance because customers
don’t wish to buy the lower quality product.
(2) If product quality is improved this might result in an adverse cost variance.
◦ If more expensive material is used (adverse material price variance)
◦ If labour are more careful in production of the product and hence take longer than standard
(adverse labour efficiency variance)
◦ If more skilled labour is used (adverse labour rate variance)
(3) If costs have risen (resulting in adverse labour rate, material price and variable overhead
expenditure variances), the sales price might have to be increased to cover the extra costs.
This would result in a favourable sales price variance, but could lead to an adverse sales
volume variance.
4.3 Deriving actual data from standard cost details and variances
Variances can be manipulated to derive actual data from standard cost details.
Worked example: Deriving actual data

The standard marginal cost card for the TR, one of the products made by P Co, is as follows.
£
Material 16 kg × £6 per kg 96
Labour 6 hours × £12 per hour 72
168
P Co reported the following variances in control period 13 for the TR.

Material price: £18,840 favourable
Material usage: £480 adverse
Labour rate: £10,598 adverse
Labour efficiency: £8,478 favourable
Actual wages cost £171,320. P Co paid £5.50 for each kg of material. There were no opening or
closing inventories of the material.
Requirements
Calculate the following.
1 Actual output
2 Actual hours worked
3 Average actual wage rate per hour
4 Actual number of kilograms purchased and used

Solution
1
£
Total wages cost 171,320
Adjust for variances:
Labour rate (10,598)
Labour efficiency 8,478
Standard wages cost 169,200
× Actual output = Total standard cost/unit standard cost

= £169,200 × £72
= 2,350 units
2
£
Total wages cost 171,320.0
Less rate variance (10,598.0)
Standard rate for actual hours 160,722.0
× Standard rate per hour ÷ £12.0
Actual hours worked 13,393.5 hrs
3 Average actual wage rate per hour = Actual wages/actual hours = £171,320/13,393.5 = £12.79
per hour.
4 Number of kg purchased and used = x
£
x kg should have cost (× £6) 6.0x
but did cost (× £5.50) 5.5x
Material price variance 0.5x
Therefore, £0.5x = £18,840

Therefore, x = 37,680 kg
Alternatively, the formula for the material price variance could be used as follows.
Price variance = (SP – AP) × AQ
£18,840 = £(6 – 5.50) × AQ
AQ = £18,840/£0.50
= 37,680 kg
5 Data bias in variance analysis

Section overview
• Various types of data bias can appear in variance analysis.


We discussed data bias in Chapter 6 in relation to budgeting and in Chapter 8 in relation to
performance management, and the different types of bias apply to variance analysis as well.
In addition to those described in Chapters 6 and 8, bias may creep into variance analysis information
in ways such as the following:
(a) A variance report may highlight a manager’s failure to achieve a budget target without
recognising that, say, the adverse variance against the budget is only half as large this month as
it was last month. Comparative information should be presented as well, if the information is to
be interpreted fairly.
(b) A manager in a large company will compare information about the price of supplies on the open
market with the price that will be charged to her for the supplies if she buys them from another
division or subsidiary of her company. If she finds that the goods produced by the competitor
company are cheaper, she will buy them from outside; but for a variety of reasons this may not
be in the best interests of the company as a whole. The internal price needs to be ‘neutral’ so
that it leads the manager to take the decision that is in the best interests of both her own
division and of the company as a whole.
Budgets are based on a best guess of what will happen in the future. Therefore, in theory, there
should be an equal chance of a business recording favourable variances as recording adverse
variances. Yet very often, favourable variances exceed adverse variances. What does this mean? It
may suggest that the budget, rather than being a genuine forecast, was deliberately misstated. The
results of this could include poor decision making, projects being delayed, higher borrowing costs
and vital expenditure not being made.

Summary

indicated.
1. Do you understand what a standard cost is and how management by exception works?
(Topic 1)
2. Can you calculate all types of cost variance? (Topic 2)
3. Can you calculate sales variances? (Topic 3)
4. Do you know what an operating statement is? (Topic 3)
5. Do you know the possible reasons for variances? (Topic 4)
6. Do you understand how some variances can be interrelated? (Topic 4)
7. Do you understand the need for comparative information when variances are being
reported? (Topic 5)

questions in the Standard costing and variance analysis chapter of the Management Information
Question Bank. Refer back to the learning in this chapter for any questions which you did not answer
correctly or where the suggested solution has not provided sufficient explanation to answer all your
queries. Once you have attempted these questions, you can move on to the next chapter.

Self-test questions

1 Gough Ltd manufactures a product with a standard material cost of £11. This is made up as follows.
£
Material X 2 kg at £1.00 2
Material Y 6 kg at £1.50 9
11
Actual production of 1,010 units required the following material purchases.
Material X 2,200 kg £2,530

Material Y 6,080 kg £8,512
There were no opening and closing inventories, and materials X and Y are not substitutable.
Requirements
Identify the correct total material price variance, including whether it is adverse or favourable.
A £150 Adverse
B £150 Favourable
C £162 Adverse
D £162 Favourable
E £210 Adverse
F £210 Favourable
G £278 Adverse
H £278 Favourable
Identify the total materials usage variance, including whether it is adverse or favourable.
I £150 Adverse
J £150 Favourable
K £162 Adverse
L £162 Favourable
M £210 Adverse
N £210 Favourable
O £278 Adverse
P £278 Favourable
2 S Limited has extracted the following details from the standard cost card of one of its products.
Labour standard = 4.5 hours @ £6.40 per hour
During March, S Limited produced 2,300 units of the product and incurred wages costs of £64,150.
The actual hours worked were 11,700.
Requirement
The labour rate and efficiency variances were:
A Rate = £10,730 (F); Efficiency = £8,640 (F)
B Rate = £10,730 (F); Efficiency = £8,640 (A)
C Rate = £10,730 (A); Efficiency = £8,640 (A)
D Rate = £10,730 (F); Efficiency = £7,402 (A)

3 The following diagram represents the standard and actual material costs incurred in manufacturing a
product.
R
Actual Z V
Standard Y U
T
Material
prices
0 Material W X
quantities Standard Actual
Requirements
Identify the area corresponding to the conventional price variance.
A WXRV
B WXTU
C YZVU
D YZRT
Identify the area corresponding to the conventional usage variance.
E WXRV
F WXTU
G YZVU
H YZRT
4 A firm incurred a total adverse labour variance of £750. The standard pay rate was £7.50 per hour,
while the actual pay rate was £8 per hour. The labour rate variance was £2,250.
Requirement
What are the flexed budgeted hours for labour?
A 4,300 hours
B 4,500 hours
C 4,600 hours
D 4,700 hours
5 Identify the most likely labour variance to arise under each of the circumstances described. Select
one option for each circumstance.
Requirements
Labour more skilled than expected
A Adverse rate
B Adverse efficiency
C Favourable rate
D Favourable efficiency
More machine breakdowns than expected
E Adverse rate
F Adverse efficiency

G Favourable rate
H Favourable efficiency
Pay increase less than expected
I Adverse rate
J Adverse efficiency
K Favourable rate
L Favourable efficiency
6 Using the table, identify the most likely impact of the following on the fixed overhead expenditure
variance. For each item, choose one of the following:
• Adverse
• Favourable
• No impact
Impact
Volume of activity up marginally
Supervisors’ salaries increase less than

expected
Higher energy consumption
7 The budgeted sales revenue of Thorold Ltd for August was £210,000 with an estimated selling price
of £84 and estimated variable cost per unit of £70. Actual sales in August were 2,650 units,
amounting to £219,950 revenue with a total resultant profit of £35,775.
Requirement
Indicate the monetary value of the sales volume variance, including whether it is adverse or
favourable.
A £2,025 Adverse
B £2,025 Favourable
C £2,100 Adverse
D £2,100 Favourable
E £12,450 Adverse
F £12,450 Favourable
G £12,600 Adverse
H £12,600 Favourable
8 A company had budgeted contribution of £26,700 for the latest period. The variances reported to
managers at the end of the period were as follows.
£
Material price 3,020 (A)
Labour efficiency 310 (A)
Variable overhead efficiency 217 (A)
Variable overhead total 149 (F)
Sales volume 2,700 (F)
Requirement
The actual contribution for the period was £ .
9 The following sales data are available for product P for the last period.

Budget Actual
Sales revenue £69,000 £79,530
Sales volume (units) 4,600 4,820
Requirement
The sales price variance for the period was:
A £3,300 (F)
B £6,900 (F)
C £7,230 (F)
D £10,530 (F)
10 Which two of the following will help to prevent bias in variance analysis?
A Neutral transfer prices
B Large management bonuses
C Variance trend information
D Focus on short-term results
this chapter.


Important point. In an exam, read the requirement carefully to make sure that you are entering your
answers in the correct format. For example, this type of question may require you to enter zeros in
boxes that you don’t use. (The reason for this is so that the computer programme can tell whether
you have completed the question or not.)
£
(1) Sales volume variance 2,000 (A)
(2) Sales price variance 1,120 (F)
Actual sales less standard variable cost of sales 29,120

Favourable Adverse
Variable cost variances £ £
(3) Material price 0 230
(4) Material usage 0 600
(5) Labour rate 0 2,490
(6) Labour efficiency 750 0
(7) Variable overhead expenditure 83 0
(8) Variable overhead efficiency 50 0
Total variable cost variances 2,437 (A)
£
Budgeted fixed overhead 8,600
(9) Fixed overhead expenditure variance 350 (F)
WORKINGS
(1) Sales volume

× Standard contribution per unit (£(40 – 30)) × £10
Sales volume variance in £ £2,000 (A)

(2) Sales price
£
Revenue from 2,800 units should have been (× £40) 112,000
but was 113,120
(3) Material price
£ £
19,000 kg of P should cost (× £0.40) 7,600
but did cost 7,410
Material P price variance 190 (F)
14,000 kg of Q should cost (× £0.70) 9,800
but did cost 10,220
Material Q price variance 420 (A)
Total material price variance 230 (A)
(4) Material usage
Material P
2,800 units of SK should use
(× 8 kg) 22,400 kg
Material P usage variance in
kg 3,400 kg (F)
× Standard price per kg × £0.40
Material P usage variance in £ £1,360 (F)
Material Q
2,800 units of SK should use
(× 4 kg) 11,200 kg
Material Q usage variance in
kg 2,800 kg (A)
× Standard price per kg × £0.70
Material Q usage variance in £ £1,960 (A)
Total material usage variance
(£1,960 – £1,360) £600 (A)
(5) Labour rate
£
8,300 hours of labour should cost (× £7.50) 62,250

£
but did cost 64,740
Labour rate variance 2,490 (A)
(6) Labour efficiency
To make 2,800 units of SK should take (× 3 hrs) 8,400 hrs

Labour variance in hrs 100 hrs (F)
Labour efficiency variance in £ £750 (F)
(7) Variable overhead expenditure
£
8,300 worked hours should cost (× £0.50) 4,150
but did cost 4,067
Variable overhead expenditure variance 83 (F)
(8) Variable overhead efficiency (same as labour hours)
£
100 hrs (F) × Standard rate (£0.50) 50 (F)
(9) Fixed overhead expenditure
£
Budgeted expenditure 8,600
Actual expenditure 8,250
Fixed overhead expenditure variance 350 (F)

H £278 Favourable
£ £
Material X
2,200 kg should cost (× £1.00) 2,200
but did cost 2,530
Materials price variance 330 (A)
Material Y
6,080 kg should cost (× £1.50) 9,120
but did cost 8,512
Materials price variance 608 (F)
Total materials price variance 278 (F)
Correct answer(s):
M £210 Adverse
kg £
Material X
1,010 units produced should
use (× 2 kg) 2,020
but did use 2,200
Variance in kg 180 (A)
× Standard price per kg (×
£1.00) 180 (A)
Material Y
1,010 units produced should
use (× 6 kg) 6,060
but did use 6,080
Variance in kg 20 (A)
× Standard price per kg (×
£1.50) 30 (A)
Total materials usage variance 210 (A)
B Rate = £10,730 (F); Efficiency = £8,640 (A)
£
11,700 hours should cost (× £6.40) 74,880

£
but did cost 64,150
Labour rate variance 10,730 (F)
2,300 units should take (× 4.5 hrs) 10,350 hrs

Variance in hours 1,350 hrs (A)
Labour efficiency variance £8,640 (A)
If you selected Options A or C, you calculated the correct monetary values of the variances but
misinterpreted their direction.
If you selected Option D, you valued the efficiency variance in hours at the actual rate per hour
instead of the standard rate per hour.
C YZVU
The material price variance is based on the actual quantity purchased.
Correct answer(s):
F WXTU
The usage variance is evaluated at the standard price.
D 4,700 hours
The flexed budgeted hours for labour are the standard hours allowed for the actual production.
Labour rate variance = Actual hours worked × difference in labour rate
2,250 = Actual hours worked × (£8.00 – £7.50)
Actual hours worked = 4,500
Since total labour variance = Efficiency variance + rate variance
Therefore, £750 (A) = Efficiency variance + £2,250 (A)
Therefore, efficiency variance = £1,500 (F)
1,500 (F) = Saving in labour hours compared with standard × standard rate per hour
Saving in labour hours = £1,500/£7.50
= 200 hours
Therefore, standard hours for actual production = 4,500 hours worked + 200 hours saved
= 4,700 hours
D Favourable efficiency
More skilled workers would work at a faster rate.
Correct answer(s):
F Adverse efficiency
Labour hours would still be recorded but there would be no output.
Correct answer(s):
K Favourable rate

The hourly rate of pay would be lower than that used in the standard cost calculation.
6
Impact
Volume of activity up marginally No impact
Supervisors’ salaries increase less than Favourable

expected
Higher energy consumption No impact
Fixed overhead expenditure would not be affected by a marginal increase in the volume of activity.
Energy costs related to consumption are variable overheads.
D £2,100 Favourable
Budgeted sales volume (£210,000/£84) 2,500 units

Sales volume variance in units 150 units (F)
× Standard contribution per unit (£84 – £70) × £14
Sales volume variance £2,100 (F)
8 The actual contribution for the period was £ 26,219 .
£
Variances
Material price (3,020)
Labour efficiency (310)
Variable overhead total 149
(Excluding variable overhead efficiency because included within the total
variance) –
Sales volume variance 2,700
C £7,230 (F)
Standard sales price per unit = £69,000/4,600
= £15
£
4,820 units should sell for (× £15) 72,300
but did sell for 79,530

A Neutral transfer prices
C Variance trend information
Neutral transfer prices will ensure managers make decisions in the best interests of the company as a
whole.
Comparative information (such as variance trend information) will help to ensure that information is
presented and interpreted fairly.

Chapter 10
Breakeven analysis and

limiting factor analysis
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Learning topics
1 Breakeven analysis and contribution
2 Breakeven charts
3 Limiting factor analysis
Summary
Self-test questions
Introduction
10
Learning outcomes
• Calculate the breakeven point, contribution and margin of safety for a given product or service
• Allocate scarce resource to those products and services with the highest contribution per limiting
factor
The specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 4a and b.
10
Syllabus links
You will study the identification and management of limiting factors in more depth in the context of
the Business Strategy and Technology syllabus.
10
Examination context
Examination questions about breakeven analysis and limiting factor analysis can be quite
complicated but there are strict decision rules which can be applied in every question of this type.
For example, unless otherwise stated, the absolute amount of expenditure on fixed costs and the
variable cost per unit remain the same for every level of activity.
Questions on this area of the syllabus will usually involve some calculations.
• calculate the breakeven point, margin of safety and contribution ratio for a product or service
• calculate the volume of sales or level of activity required to achieve a target profit for the period
• calculate the effect on profit, breakeven point, etc, of changes in the major decision variables
• identify the optimum production plan or similar when a resource is in limited supply, and when:
– there is a maximum and/or minimum limit on the demand for individual products or services;
and/or
– it is possible to alleviate the resource restriction by subcontracting work to parties outside the
business.
This area involves students following a logical series of steps (or rules) which must be learned. The
most difficult type of question in this area normally involves consideration of the possibility of sub
contracting or outsourcing work.
10

of this chapter.

questions
1 Breakeven analysis and Approach Examination IQ1:

contribution Chapter 10 is questions about Contribution
We have seen how an another practical breakeven analysis ratio
understanding of cost chapter which and limiting factor This question
behaviour patterns requires active analysis can be quite provides
enables managers to participation from complicated but practice of
control costs more you. In section 1 there are strict using the
effectively through the learn the formulae decision rules which contribution
use of a flexible for calculating the can be applied in ratio to
budgeting system. breakeven point, every question of this calculate the
the contribution type. For example, number of
ratio and the margin unless otherwise units that must

questions
This valuable of safety. Work stated, the absolute be sold.

understanding of cost through all the amount of IQ2: Target
behaviour patterns also examples carefully, expenditure on fixed profits
assists managers in trying to produce costs and the variable
their decision-making your own answer cost per unit remain You must be
activities. Equipped before looking at the same for every able to
with an understanding the solution. level of activity. calculate the
of which costs will required
change as a result of selling price or
their decisions (usually Stop and think required sales
the variable costs), Can a business volume, given
managers can survive if it only ever a target profit.
manipulate data to breaks even?
calculate important
measures such as the
level of activity
required to achieve a
target profit or to break
even, earning neither a
profit nor a loss. This is
called the ‘breakeven
point’.
2 Breakeven charts Study the labels on Objective test IQ3:

Breakeven charts can the breakeven questions may Breakeven
be used to display charts in section 2 require you to chart
breakeven information. and make sure that interpret a breakeven This question
you know how to chart. tests your
read information understanding
from the chart. You of the
should also learn breakeven
the limitations of chart.
CVP analysis.
Stop and think

Why might
businesses choose
to prepare
breakeven charts
despite their
limitations?
3 Limiting factor analysis In section 3 learn This area requires you IQ4: Limiting
An understanding of the series of steps to follow a logical factors
the contribution required to series of steps (or The first step in
earned by different maximise rules) which must be limiting factor
products and services contribution in a learned. The most decisions is to
will also help managers limiting factor difficult type of establish which
to determine how best situation. Section question in this area resources are
to allocate a restricted 3.4 is particularly normally involves limiting factors.
resource in order to important because consideration of the
maximise contribution. a make or buy possibility of
If you are managing a decision with scarce subcontracting or IQ5: Limiting
team of auditors you resources often outsourcing work. factor analysis
might at times have causes difficulty for This question
more work available students. A definite provides good
decision rule is
ICAEW 2023 10: Breakeven analysis and limiting factor analysis 355
questions
than your staff can deal stated before the practice of

with. In this situation worked example. producing an
you will need to know Memorise the optimum
how to allocate the decision rule and production
restricted staff time in then apply it to the plan.
order to earn the data in the example
maximum profit. before you look at
Furthermore, you will the solution. IQ6: Make or
need to know how to buy and
decide whether or not limiting factors
to outsource work, Stop and think This question is
which tasks should be Within the relevant a good chance
outsourced and which range of activity, to check you
should be kept in- why will the understand
house. maximisation of which products
contribution should be
automatically lead made in-house
to the maximisation and which
of profits? should be
purchased
when there is a
limiting factor
situation.

1 Breakeven analysis and contribution
Section overview
• Breakeven analysis or cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis is the study of the interrelationships

between costs, volume and profit at various levels of activity.
• Contribution = selling price less variable costs; profit = contribution less fixed costs.
• The breakeven point occurs when there is neither a profit nor a loss and so fixed costs equal
contribution.
• Breakeven point in units = total fixed costs ÷ contribution per unit.
• The contribution ratio is a measure of how much contribution is earned per £1 of sales revenue. It
is usually expressed as a percentage.
• Breakeven point (in £) = total fixed costs ÷ contribution ratio.
• The margin of safety is the difference between the budgeted sales volume and the breakeven
sales volume. It is sometimes expressed as a percentage of the budgeted sales volume.
• The contribution required for a target profit is equal to the fixed costs plus the target profit.
1.1 Contribution
Definition
Breakeven analysis: An analysis of costs, volume and profit at various levels of activity. Also known as
cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis.
Breakeven analysis or cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis is the study of the interrelationships

between costs, volume and profit at various levels of activity.
Contribution, a concept we encountered in Chapter 4, is fundamental to CVP analysis. As you know,
contribution per unit is the difference between the selling price per unit and the variable costs per
unit. The total contribution from the sales volume for a period can be compared with the fixed costs
for the period. Any excess of contribution is profit, any deficit of contribution is a loss.
1.2 Breakeven point
Definition
Breakeven point: Number of units sold at which neither a profit nor a loss is made.
The management of an organisation usually wishes to know the profit likely to be made if the aimed
for production or activity and sales for the year are achieved. Management may also be interested to
know the activity level at which there is neither profit nor loss. This is known as the breakeven point.
The breakeven point (BEP) can be calculated as:
Breakeven point = Number of units of sale required to break even
= Total fixed costs/Contribution per unit
= Contribution required to breakeven/Contribution per unit
Worked example: Breakeven point

Expected sales – 10,000 units at £8 = £80,000
Variable cost – £5 per unit
Fixed costs – £21,000
Requirement
Compute the breakeven point.
Solution
The contribution per unit is £(8 – 5) = £3
Contribution required to break even = fixed costs = £21,000
Breakeven point (BEP) = £21,000/3
= 7,000 units
In revenue, BEP = (7,000 × £8) = £56,000
Sales above £56,000 will result in profit of £3 per unit of extra sales and sales below £56,000 will
mean a loss of £3 per unit for each unit by which sales fall short of 7,000 units. In other words, profit
will improve or worsen per unit of sales by the level of contribution per unit.
7,000 units 7,001 units

£ £
Revenue 56,000 56,008
Less variable costs 35,000 35,005
Contribution 21,000 21,003
Less fixed costs 21,000 21,000
Profit 0 (= breakeven) 3
1.3 The contribution ratio

The contribution ratio is a measure of how much contribution is earned from each £1 of sales
revenue.
An alternative way of calculating the breakeven point to give an answer in terms of sales revenue and
using the contribution ratio is as follows.
Breakeven point = Sales revenue required to break even
= Contribution required to break even/Contribution ratio
= Fixed costs/Contribution ratio
Context example: Contribution ratio

Using the data in the last worked example the contribution ratio is £3/£8 = 37.5%
Breakeven is where sales revenue equals £21,000/0.375 = £56,000. At a price of £8 per unit, this
represents 7,000 units of sales, as calculated earlier.
Interactive question 1: Contribution ratio

The contribution ratio of product W is 20%. IB, the manufacturer of product W, wishes to make a
contribution of £50,000 towards fixed costs.
Requirement
If the selling price is £10 per unit, the number of units of W that must be sold is .

1.4 The margin of safety
Definition
Margin of safety: The difference in units between the budgeted sales volume and the breakeven
As well as being interested in the breakeven point, management may also be interested in the
amount by which actual sales can fall below anticipated sales without a loss being incurred. This is
the margin of safety.
The margin of safety is the difference in units between the budgeted or expected sales volume and
the breakeven sales volume. It is sometimes expressed as a percentage of the budgeted sales
volume. Alternatively, the margin of safety can be expressed as the difference between the budgeted
sales revenue and breakeven sales revenue, expressed as a percentage of the budgeted sales
revenue.
Worked example: Margin of safety

Mal de Mer Co makes and sells a product which has a variable cost of £30 and which sells for £40.
Budgeted fixed costs are £70,000 and budgeted sales are 8,000 units.
Requirement
Calculate the breakeven point and the margin of safety.
Solution
Breakeven point = Total fixed costs/Contribution per unit = £70,000/£(40 – 30)
= 7,000 units
Margin of safety = 8,000 – 7,000 units = 1,000 units
which may be expressed as (1,000 units/8,000 units) × 100% = 12½% of budget
The margin of safety indicates to management that actual sales can fall short of budget by 1,000
units or 12½% before the breakeven point is reached and no profit is made.
1.5 Cost-volume-profit analysis and profit targets

Once the selling price and cost structure have been established for a product or service it is possible
to manipulate the data to provide a variety of information for management decisions.
Worked example: CVP analysis

Butterfingers Company makes a product which has a variable cost of £7 per unit.
Requirement
If fixed costs are £63,000 per annum, calculate the selling price per unit if the company wishes to
break even with a sales volume of 12,000 units.
Solution
Contribution required to break even (= fixed costs) = £63,000

Volume of sales = 12,000 units
£
Required contribution per unit = £63,000/12,000 = 5.25
Variable cost per unit = 7.00
Required sales price per unit = 12.25
Worked example: Target profits
RB Co makes and sells a single product, for which variable costs are as follows.
£ per unit
Materials 10
Labour 8
Production overhead 6
24
The sales price is £30 per unit, and fixed costs per annum are £68,000. The company wishes to make
a profit of £16,000 per annum.
Requirement
Determine the sales required to achieve this profit.
Solution
Since the contribution earned in a period is literally the contribution towards fixed costs and profit, in
order to achieve a certain target profit the contribution required is equal to the fixed costs plus the
target profit.
Required contribution = fixed costs + profit = £68,000 + £16,000 = £84,000
Required sales can be calculated in one of two ways.
(1) Required contribution/Contribution per unit = £84,000/£(30 – 24) = 14,000 units, or £420,000 in
revenue
(2) Required contribution/Contribution ratio = £84,000/20%* = £420,000 of revenue, or 14,000
units
* Contribution ratio = £(30 – 24)/£30 = £6/£30 = 0.2 = 20%
Interactive question 2: Target profits

SLB Limited wishes to sell 14,000 units of its product, which has a variable cost of £15 to make and
sell. Fixed costs are £47,000 and the required profit is £23,000.
Requirement
The required sales price per unit is £ .
1.5.1 Variations on breakeven and profit target calculations

You may come across variations on breakeven and profit target calculations in which you will be
expected to consider the effect of altering the selling price, variable cost per unit or fixed cost.
Worked example: Change in selling price

Stomer Cakes Ltd bake and sell a single type of cake. The variable cost of production is £0.15 per
cake and the current sales price is £0.25 per cake. Fixed costs are £2,600 per month, and the annual
profit for the company at the current sales volume is £36,000. The volume of sales demand is
constant throughout the year.
The sales manager wishes to raise the sales price to £0.29 per cake, but considers that a price rise
will result in some loss of sales.
Requirement
Ascertain the volume of sales required each month to maintain current profitability, if the selling
price is raised to £0.29.

Solution
The volume of sales required is one which would leave total profit the same as before, ie, £3,000 per
month. Required profit should be converted into required contribution, as follows.
£
Monthly fixed costs 2,600
Monthly profit required 3,000
Current monthly contribution 5,600
The volume of sales required after the price rise will be an amount which earns a contribution of
£5,600 per month, the same as before. The contribution per cake at a sales price of £0.29 would be
(£0.29 – £0.15) = £0.14.
Required sales = Required contribution/Contribution per unit = £5,600/£0.14 = 40,000 cakes per
month
Worked example: Change in production costs

Close Brickett Ltd makes a product which has a variable production cost of £8 and a variable selling
cost of £2 per unit. Fixed costs are £40,000 per annum, the sales price per unit is £18, and the current
volume of output and sales is 6,000 units.
The company is considering whether to hire an improved machine for production. Annual hire costs
would be £10,000 and it is expected that the variable cost of production would fall to £6 per unit.
Requirements
1 Determine the number of units that must be produced and sold to achieve the same profit as is
currently earned, if the machine is hired.
2 Calculate the annual profit with the machine if output and sales remain at 6,000 units per annum.
Solution
1 The current unit contribution is £(18 – (8 + 2)) = £8
£
Current contribution (6,000 × £8) 48,000
Less current fixed costs 40,000
Current profit 8,000
With the new machine fixed costs will increase by £10,000 to £50,000 per annum. The variable
cost per unit will reduce to £(6 + 2) = £8, and the contribution per unit will increase to £10.
£
Required profit (as currently earned) 8,000
Fixed costs 50,000
Required contribution 58,000
Contribution per unit £10

Sales required to earn £8,000 profit = £58,000/£10 = 5,800 units
2 If sales are 6,000 units
£
Profit at 5,800 units of sale (see 1) 8,000
£
Contribution from sale of extra 200 units (× £10) 2,000
Profit at 6,000 units of sale 10,000
2 Breakeven charts
Section overview
• A breakeven chart is a chart that indicates the profit or loss at different levels of sales volume
within a limited range.
• A traditional breakeven chart has a line for sales revenue, for fixed costs and for total costs.
• The breakeven point is at the intersection of the sales line and the total costs line.
• A contribution breakeven chart depicts variable costs, so that contribution can be read directly
from the chart.
• Despite the usefulness of breakeven analysis, the technique has some serious limitations.
2.1 Breakeven charts
provided in various formats’. This could include breakeven charts.
The breakeven point can be determined graphically using a breakeven chart. A breakeven chart is a
chart that indicates the profit or loss at different levels of sales volume within a limited range.
A breakeven chart has the following axes.
• A horizontal axis showing the sales/output (in value or units).
• A vertical axis showing £ for sales revenues and costs.
2.2 Lines on a breakeven chart

The following lines are drawn on the breakeven chart.
(a) The sales line:
– starts at the origin
– ends at the point signifying expected sales volume and sales value
(b) The fixed costs line
– runs parallel to the horizontal axis
– meets the vertical axis at a point which represents the value of total fixed costs
(c) The total costs line
– starts where the fixed costs line meets the vertical axis
– ends at the point which represents anticipated sales volume on the horizontal axis and the total
costs of anticipated sales on the vertical axis
The breakeven point is the intersection of the sales line and the total costs line.
The distance between the breakeven point and the expected (or budgeted) sales, in units, indicates
the margin of safety at that level of sales.

Worked example: A breakeven chart
The budgeted annual output of a factory is 120,000 units. The fixed overheads amount to £40,000
and the variable costs are 50p per unit. The sales price is £1 per unit.
Requirement
Construct a breakeven chart showing the current breakeven point and profit earned up to the
present maximum capacity of 120,000 units.
Solution
We begin the construction of the breakeven chart by calculating the profit at the budgeted annual
output.
£
Sales (120,000 units) 120,000
Variable costs 60,000
Contribution 60,000
Fixed costs 40,000
Profit 20,000
The chart is drawn as follows.

(1) The vertical axis represents money (costs and revenue) and the horizontal axis represents the
level of activity (production and sales).
(2) The fixed costs are represented by a straight line parallel to the horizontal axis (in our example,
at £40,000).
(3) The variable costs are added ‘on top of’ fixed costs, to give total costs. It is assumed that fixed
costs are the same in total and variable costs are the same per unit at all levels of output.
The line of costs is therefore a straight line and only two points need to be plotted and joined
up. Perhaps the two most convenient points to plot are total costs at zero output, and total costs
at the budgeted output and sales.
– At zero output, costs are equal to the amount of fixed costs only, £40,000, since there are no
variable costs.
– At the budgeted output of 120,000 units, total costs are £100,000.
£
Fixed costs 40,000
Variable costs 120,000 × 50p 60,000
Total costs 100,000
(4) The sales line is also drawn by plotting two points and joining them up.
– At zero sales, revenue is nil.
– At the budgeted output and sales of 120,000 units, revenue is £120,000.
£'000
120
Budgeted profit
100
Breakeven point
80
ts Budgeted variable costs
60 al cos
Tot
Fixed costs
40
s Margin
ale
20 S of safety Budgeted fixed costs
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 '000 Units
2.3 Interpreting the breakeven chart

The breakeven point is where total costs are matched exactly by total revenue. From the chart, this
can be seen to occur at output and sales of 80,000 units, when revenue and costs are both £80,000.
This breakeven point can be calculated as:
Required contribution (= fixed costs)/Contribution per unit = £40,000/£0.50 per unit = 80,000 units
The margin of safety can be seen on the chart as the difference between the budgeted level of
activity and the breakeven level.
2.4 The contribution breakeven chart

The main problem with the traditional breakeven chart is that it is not possible to read contribution
directly from the chart.
The contribution breakeven chart remedies this by drawing the variable cost line instead of the fixed
cost line. This line will always run parallel to the total cost line. A contribution breakeven chart for the
last worked example would include the variable cost line passing through the origin and the total
variable cost of £60,000 for 120,000 units.
£'000
120
Budgeted
profit
100
Budgeted
Breakeven point
contribution
80
s
ost
60 al c
Tot
s
40
cost
l es i a ble
20 Sa Var
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 '000 Units
Figure 10.1: Contribution breakeven chart

If you look back at the traditional breakeven chart shown in the previous Worked example, you will
see that the breakeven point is the same, but that the budgeted contribution can now be read more
easily from the chart.
Interactive question 3: Breakeven chart

Match the following labels to (a), (b), (c) and (d) marked on the breakeven chart below.
• Budgeted fixed costs
• Margin of safety
• Budgeted profit
• Budgeted variable costs
£
Breakeven point
sts c
co
Total
Fixed costs
s
le
Sa d
a
Units
Budgeted sales
2.5 Limitations of breakeven or CVP analysis and breakeven charts
faults in arguments’. For example, you could be asked about the assumptions made in CVP analysis.
CVP analysis is a useful technique for managers. It can provide simple and quick estimates, and
breakeven charts provide a graphical representation of breakeven arithmetic. It does, however, have
a number of limitations.
• It can only apply to a single product or a constant mix of a group of products.
• A breakeven chart may be time-consuming to prepare.
• It assumes fixed costs are constant at all levels of output.
• It assumes that variable costs are the same per unit at all levels of output.
• It assumes that sales prices are constant at all levels of output.
• It assumes production and sales are the same (inventory levels are ignored – effectively marginal
costing is used).
• It ignores the uncertainty in the estimates of sales prices, fixed costs and variable cost per unit.
3 Limiting factor analysis
Section overview
• A limiting factor is anything which limits the activity of an entity.

• If a specific resource is a limiting factor, contribution will be maximised by earning the highest
possible contribution per unit of limiting factor.
• To establish the contribution-maximising product or service mix the products or services must be
ranked in order of their contribution-earning ability per unit of limiting factor.
• When there is a maximum potential sales demand for an organisation’s products or services the
contribution-maximising decision is to produce the top-ranked products (or to provide the top-
ranked services) up to the sales demand limit.
• If there is a minimum demand for particular products or services, the optimum plan must first take
into account the minimum requirements. The remaining resource must then be allocated
according to the ranking of contribution per unit of limiting factor.
• In a situation where a company must sub-contract work to make up a shortfall in its own in-house
capabilities, total costs will be minimised if those units bought in have the lowest extra variable
cost of buying per unit of limiting factor saved by buying.
3.1 Limiting factors
Questions on limiting factors will require you to ‘Identify and apply relevant technical knowledge and
skills to analyse a specific problem’. For example, you could be asked to produce the optimum
production plan.
Definition
Limiting factor: Anything that limits the activity of a business.
One of the more common problems faced by management is a situation where there are insufficient
resources to meet the potential sales demand. In this situation a decision has to be made about what
mix of products to manufacture or services to provide, using the available resources as effectively as
possible. The resource that limits the organisation’s ability to meet sales demand is called a limiting
factor or key factor.
A limiting factor or key factor is ‘anything which limits the activity of an entity’. An entity seeks to
optimise the benefit it obtains from the limiting factor. Examples are a shortage of supply of a
resource or a restriction on sales demand at a particular price.
A limiting factor could be sales if there is a limit to sales demand but any one of the organisation’s
resources (labour, materials and so on) may be insufficient to meet the level of production
demanded.
It is assumed in limiting factor analysis that management wishes to maximise profit and that since
there is no change in the fixed cost incurred profit will be maximised when contribution is
maximised.
3.2 Limiting factor situations

For example, if grade A labour is the limiting factor, contribution will be maximised by earning the
highest contribution from each hour of grade A labour worked.
The limiting factor decision therefore involves the determination of the contribution earned by each
different product or service from each unit of the limiting factor.

Worked example: Limiting factor
AB Ltd makes two products, the Ay and the Be. Unit variable costs are as follows.
Ay Be
£ £
Materials 1 3
Labour (£9 per hour) 18 9
Overhead 1 1
20 13
The sales price per unit is £26 per Ay and £17 per Be. During July 20X2 the available labour is
limited to 8,000 hours. Sales demand in July is expected to be 3,000 units for Ays and 5,000 units for
Bes.
Requirement
Determine the profit-maximising production mix, assuming that monthly fixed costs are £20,000, and
that no inventories are held.
Solution
Step 1
Confirm that the limiting factor is something other than sales demand.
Ay Be Total
Labour hours per unit 2 hrs 1 hr
Sales demand 3,000 units 5,000 units
Labour hours needed 6,000 hrs 5,000 hrs 11,000 hrs
Labour hours available 8,000 hrs
Shortfall 3,000 hrs
Labour is the limiting factor on production

Step 2
Identify the contribution earned by each product per unit of limiting factor, that is per labour hour
worked.
Ay Be
£ £
Sales price 26 17
Variable cost 20 13
Unit contribution 6 4
Labour hours per unit 2 hrs 1 hr

Contribution per labour hour (= unit of limiting factor) £3 £4
Although Ays have a higher unit contribution than Bes, two Bes can be made in the time it takes to
make one Ay. Because labour is in short supply it is more profitable to make Bes than Ays.
Step 3
Determine the optimum production plan. Sufficient Bes will be made to meet the full sales demand,
and the remaining labour hours available will then be used to make Ays.
Hours Hours Priority of
Product Demand required available manufacture
Bes 5,000 5,000 5,000 1st
Ays 3,000 6,000 3,000 (bal) 2nd
11,000 8,000
Hours Contribution
Product Units needed per hour Total
£ £
Bes 5,000 5,000 4 20,000
Ays 1,500 3,000 3 9,000
8,000 29,000
Less fixed costs 20,000
Profit 9,000
Interactive question 4: Limiting factors

LF Ltd makes a single product for which the standard cost details are as follows.
£
Variable material (£3 per kg) 12
Variable labour (£8 per hour) 72
Production overhead 48
Total production cost 132
Demand for next period will be 20,000 units. No inventories are held and only 75,000 kg of material
and 190,000 hours of labour will be available.
Requirement
Indicate which resource or resources represent a limiting factor for LF Ltd.
Limiting factor/Not a limiting factor
Materials
Labour
Interactive question 5: Limiting factor analysis

POV Ltd manufactures three products – X, Y and Z – that use the same machines. The budgeted
income statements for the three products are as follows.
X Y Z
£’000 £’000 £’000
Sales 1,000 1,125 625

X Y Z
£’000 £’000 £’000
Variable material and labour costs (500) (563) (438)
Variable overheads (250) (187) (62)
Fixed overheads (200) (315) (130)
Profit/(loss) 50 60 (5)
Annual sales demand (units) 5,000 7,500 2,500
Machine hours per unit 20 21 26
However, after the budget had been formulated, an unforeseen condition has meant that during the
next period the available machine capacity has been limited to 296,500 hours.
Requirement
Complete the following.
(1) The shortfall in available machine hours for next period is hours.
(2) The contribution earned per machine hour used on product X is £ .
The contribution earned per machine hour used on product Y is £ .
The contribution earned per machine hour used on product Z is £ .
(3) The number of units of each product that should be manufactured next period is:
(a) Product X – units
(b) Product Y – units
(c) Product Z – units
Worked example: Extra supply of limiting factor

HMF Ltd makes three products, the X1, Y2 and the Z3. Materials are expected to be in short supply in
May and the budget for May is as follows:
X1 Y2 Z3
Maximum demand (units) 10,000 12,000 8,000
Optimum planned production (units) 7,000 12,000
Contribution (per unit) £15 £20 £10
Material cost per unit (@ £3 per kg) £9 £6 £7.5
The planned production is based on optimising the use of the current supply of materials at £3 per
kg. A new supplier has offered to supply an additional 25,000 kg of material.
Requirement
Calculate the maximum total price that HMF Ltd should pay for the extra 25,000 kg of materials.
Solution
Step 1
Identify the contribution earned by each product per unit of limiting factor, that is per kg of material,
and rank products.
In this case, the question states that the planned production is based on the optimal use of materials.
We can therefore conclude that Y2 has the highest contribution per kg as 12,000 units are produced
to meet the maximum demand. We can also conclude that Z3 has the lowest contribution per kg as
no units are produced.
Step 2
Determine the optimum production plan using the extra resource. 12,000 units of Y2 and 7,000 units
of X1 will be made from the existing materials available. The additional materials purchased from the
new supplier will be used to make the outstanding demand of X1s and Z3s.
Demand Kg Kg Priority of Optimum

Product Units required available manufacture units
X1 (10,000 – 7,000) 3,000 9,000 9,000 1st 3,000
Z3 8,000 20,000 16,000 (bal) 2nd 6,400
29,000 25,000
Step 3
Determine the contribution earned from the extra resource and add back resource cost already
accounted for within the contribution per unit.
Optimum Contribution per

Product Units unit Total
£ £
X1 3,000 15 45,000
Z3 6,400 10 64,000
109,000
Add material cost already included in
contribution per unit (25,000 kg @ £3) 75,000*
Maximum that should be paid: 184,000
*This is the cost from the old supplier. The cost was included in the contribution calculation but will
no longer be paid due to purchasing materials from the new supplier.
3.3 Limiting factor analysis and restricted freedom of action

In certain circumstances an organisation faced with a limiting factor on production and sales might
not be able to produce the profit-maximising product mix because the mix and/or volume of
products that can be produced and sold is also restricted by a factor other than a scarce resource.
(a) A contract to supply a certain number of products to a customer which cannot be cancelled.
(b) Production/sales of a minimum quantity of one or more products to provide a complete product
range and/or to maintain customer goodwill.
(c) Maintenance of a certain market share of one or more products.
In each of these cases, the organisation might have to produce more of a particular product or
products than the level established by ranking according to contribution per unit of limiting factor.
If an organisation has to produce more of a particular product or products than the level established
by ranking according to contribution per unit of limiting factor, the products should be ranked in the
normal way but the optimum production plan must first take into account the minimum production
requirements. The remaining resource must then be allocated according to the ranking.
Worked example: Restricted freedom of action

Harvey is currently preparing its budget for the year ending 30 September 20X2. The company
manufactures and sells three products, Beta, Delta and Gamma.

The unit selling price and cost structure of each product is budgeted as follows.
Beta Delta Gamma

£ £ £
Selling price 100 124 32
Variable costs:
Labour 24 48 6
Materials 26 7 8
Overhead 10 5 6
60 60 20
The labour rate is budgeted at £6 per hour, and fixed costs at £1,300,000 per annum. The company
has a maximum production capacity of 228,000 labour hours.
A meeting of the board of directors has been arranged to discuss the budget and to resolve the
problem as to the quantity of each product which should be made and sold. The sales director
presented the results of a recent market survey which reveals that market demand for the company’s
products will be as follows.
Product Units
Beta 24,000
Delta 12,000
Gamma 60,000
The production director proposes that since Gamma only contributes £12 per unit, the product
should no longer be produced, and the surplus capacity transferred to produce extra quantities of
Beta and Delta. The sales director does not agree with the proposal. Gamma is considered necessary
to complement the product range and to maintain customer goodwill. If Gamma is not offered, the
sales director believes that sales of Beta and Delta will be seriously affected. After further discussion
the board decided that a minimum of 10,000 units of each product should be produced. The
remaining production capacity would then be allocated so as to achieve the maximum profit
possible.
Requirement
Prepare a budget statement which clearly shows the maximum profit which could be achieved in the
year ending 30 September 20X2.
Solution
Step 1
Ascertain whether labour hours are a scarce resource
Labour hours per

Units demanded unit Total labour hours
Beta 24,000 4 (£24/£6) 96,000
Delta 12,000 8 (£48/£6) 96,000
Gamma 60,000 1 (£6/£6) 60,000
252,000
Labour hours are a limiting factor.

Step 2
Rank the products
Since only 228,000 hours are available we need to establish which product earns the greatest
contribution per labour hour.
Beta Delta Gamma

Contribution per unit £40 £64 £12
Labour hours 4 8 1
Contribution per labour hour £10 £8 £12
Ranking 2nd 3rd 1st
Step 3
Determine a production plan
The optimum production plan must take into account the requirement that 10,000 units of each
product are produced, and then allocate the remaining hours according to the above ranking.
Hours
Beta 10,000 units × 4 hours 40,000
Delta 10,000 units × 8 hours 80,000
Gamma 10,000 units × 1 hour 10,000
130,000
Gamma 50,000 units × 1 hour (full demand) 50,000
Beta 12,000 units × 4 hours (balance) 48,000
228,000
Step 4
Draw up a budget.
Budget statement
£
Contribution
Beta (22,000 units × £40) 880,000
Delta (10,000 units × £64) 640,000
Gamma (60,000 units × £12) 720,000
Total contribution 2,240,000
Fixed costs 1,300,000
Profit 940,000
3.4 Make or buy decisions and scarce resources
Definition
Outsourcing: The use of external suppliers as a source of finished products, components or services.
This is also known as contract manufacturing or sub-contracting.

An organisation might want to do more things than it has the resources for, and so its alternatives
would be as follows.
(a) Make the best use of the available resources and ignore the opportunities to buy help from
outside.
(b) Combine internal resources with subcontracting externally so as to do more and increase
profitability.
Buying help from outside is justifiable if it adds to profits. A further decision is then required on how
to split the work between internal and external effort. What parts of the work should be given to
suppliers or subcontractors so as to maximise profitability?
In a situation where a company must subcontract work to make up a shortfall in its own in-house
capabilities, its total costs will be minimised if those units bought have the lowest extra variable cost
of buying per unit of scarce resource saved by buying.
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify and apply technical
knowledge and skills to analyse a specific problem’. For example, you could be asked to apply your
technical knowledge to decide which products should be outsourced.
Worked example: Make or buy decisions with scarce resources

MM manufactures three components, S, A and T using the same machines for each and assembles
them into a single product. The budget for the next year calls for the production and assembly of
4,000 of each component. The variable production cost per unit of the final product is as follows.
Machine
hours Variable cost
£
1 unit of S 3 20
1 unit of A 2 36
1 unit of T 4 24
Assembly 100
Only 24,000 hours of machine time will be available during the year, and a subcontractor has quoted
the following unit prices for supplying components: S £29; A £40; T £34.
Requirement
Advise MM on its most profitable plan.
Solution
The organisation’s budget calls for 36,000 hours of machine time, if all the components are to be
produced in-house. Only 24,000 hours are available, and so there is a shortfall of 12,000 hours of
machine time, which is therefore a limiting factor. The shortage can be overcome by subcontracting
the equivalent of 12,000 machine hours’ output to the subcontractor.
The assembly costs are not relevant costs because they are not affected by the decision.
The decision rule is to minimise the extra variable costs of subcontracting per unit of scarce
resource saved (that is, per machine hour saved).
S A T
£ £ £
Variable cost of making 20 36 24
Variable cost of buying 29 40 34
S A T
£ £ £
Extra variable cost of buying 9 4 10
Machine hours saved by buying 3 hrs 2 hrs 4 hrs
Extra variable cost of buying per hour saved £3 £2 £2.50
This analysis shows that it is cheaper to buy A than to buy T and it is most expensive to buy S. The
priority for making the components in-house will be in the reverse order: S, then T, then A. There are
enough machine hours to make all 4,000 units of S (12,000 hours) and to produce 3,000 units of T
(another 12,000 hours). 12,000 hours’ production of T and A must be subcontracted.
The cost-minimising and so profit-maximising make and buy schedule is as follows.
Machine hours Unit variable Total variable

Component used/saved Number of units cost cost
£ £
Make: S 12,000 4,000 20 80,000
T 12,000 3,000 24 72,000
24,000 152,000
Buy: T 4,000 1,000 34 34,000

A 8,000 4,000 40 160,000
12,000
Total variable cost of components, excluding assembly costs 346,000
Interactive question 6: Make or buy and limiting factors

TW manufactures two products, the D and the E, using the same material for each. Annual demand
for the D is 9,000 units, while demand for the E is 12,000 units. The variable production cost per unit
of the D is £10, and that of the E £15. The D requires 3.5 kg of raw material per unit, the E requires 8
kg of raw material per unit. Supply of raw material will be limited to 87,500 kg during the year.
A sub contractor has quoted prices of £17 per unit for the D and £25 per unit for the E to supply the
product. How many of each product should TW manufacture in order to maximise profits?
Requirement
Fill in the boxes in the sentence below.
TW should manufacture units of D and units of E to maximise

profits.

Summary
Contribution =
Sales price – Variable cost
Breakeven point (BEP) Contribution ratio Limiting factor

= No profit and no loss = Contribution analysis
Sales
Fixed cost Fixed costs Maximise the

BEP in units = BEP in £ = contribution per
Contribution per unit Contribution ratio
unit of limiting
factor
Margin of safety Make or buy

Budgeted sales – BEP decision
= × 100%
Budgeted sales
Breakeven chart
Depicts the profit or
loss over a range of activities
Contribution breakeven chart

Includes the variable cost line so
that contribution is highlighted
indicated.
1. Do you know the formulae for the breakeven point, contribution ratio and margin of
safety? (Topic 1)
2. Do you know how to incorporate a target profit into the breakeven formula? (Topic 1)
3. Can you identify the total costs line, sales line, fixed cost line and breakeven point on a
breakeven chart? (Topic 2)
4. In a limiting factor situation, contribution is maximised by ranking products in order of

what? (Topic 3)
5. When a business needs to subcontract work in a limiting factor situation, how is total cost
minimised? (Topic 3)

questions in the Breakeven analysis and limiting factor analysis chapter of the Management
Information Question Bank. Refer back to the learning in this chapter for any questions which you did
not answer correctly or where the suggested solution has not provided sufficient explanation to
answer all your queries. Once you have attempted these questions, you can move on to the next
chapter.

Self-test questions

1 Information concerning K Limited’s single product is as follows.
£ per unit
Selling price 6.00
Variable production cost 1.20
Variable selling cost 0.40
Fixed production cost 4.00
Fixed selling cost 0.80
Budgeted production and sales for the year are 10,000 units.
Requirements
What is the company’s breakeven point, to the nearest whole unit?
A 8,000 units
B 8,333 units
C 10,000 units
D 10,909 units
How many units must be sold if K Limited wants to achieve a profit of £11,000 for the year?
E 2,500 units
F 9,833 units
G 10,625 units
H 13,409 units
It is now expected that the variable production cost per unit and the selling price per unit will each
increase by 10%, and fixed production costs will rise by 25%. Other costs are expected to remain the
same.
Requirement
What will be the new breakeven point, to the nearest whole unit?
I 8,788 units
J 11,600 units
K 11,885 units
L 12,397 units
2 W Limited sells one product for which data is given below:
£ per unit
Selling price 10
Variable cost 6
Fixed cost 2
The fixed costs are based on a budgeted level of activity of 5,000 units for the period.
Requirements
How many units must be sold if W Limited wishes to earn a profit of £6,000 for one period?
A 1,500
B 1,600
C 4,000
D 8,000
What is W Limited’s margin of safety for the budget period if fixed costs prove to be 20% higher than
budgeted?
E 29%
F 40%
G 50%
H 662/3%
If the selling price and variable cost increase by 20% and 12% respectively by how much must sales
volume change compared with the original budgeted level in order to achieve the original budgeted
profit for the period?
I 24.2% decrease
J 24.2% increase
K 39.4% decrease
L 39.4% increase
3 Review the chart below.
£
s A
le
Sa s
D ost
al c C
Tot
B
s
ec ost
iabl
Var
x Units
Requirement
In the above breakeven chart, the contribution at level of activity x can be read as:
A Distance A
B Distance B
C Distance C
D Distance D
4 R Limited manufactures three products, the selling price and cost details of which are given below.
Product P Product Q Product R

£ £ £
Selling price per unit 150 190 190
Costs per unit
Variable materials (£5/kg) 20 10 30
Variable labour (£8/hour) 32 48 40

£ £ £
Variable overhead 16 24 20
Fixed overhead 48 72 60
Requirement
In a period when materials are restricted in supply, the most and least profitable uses of materials
are:
A R – most profitable; P – least profitable
B Q – most profitable; R – least profitable
C Q – most profitable; P – least profitable
D R – most profitable; Q – least profitable
5 JJ makes two products, the K and the L. The K sells for £50 per unit, the L for £70 per unit. The
variable cost per unit of the K is £35, that of the L £40. Each unit of K uses 2 kg of raw material. Each
unit of L uses 3 kg of material.
In the forthcoming period the availability of raw material is limited to 2,000 kg. JJ is contracted to
supply 500 units of K. Maximum demand for the L is 250 units. Demand for the K is unlimited.
Requirement
What is the profit-maximising product mix?
A K – 250 units; L – 625 units
B K – 1,250 units; L – 750 units
C K – 625 units; L – 250 units
D K – 750 units; L – 1,250 units
6 B has insufficient workshop capacity to carry out all the repair work currently required on its fleet of
delivery vehicles. In such circumstances certain repair jobs will be sub-contracted to local garages.
Set out below are the routine repair jobs scheduled for the coming week.
Job A B C D E F
Cost of parts £1,200 £1,375 £1,450 £500 £375 £690
Labour hours 150 100 200 50 150 100
Equipment hours 170 30 70 30 70 70
Sub-contract cost (including
parts) £3,950 £2,700 £4,900 £1,800 £2,700 £2,400
Labour is paid £6 per hour. Overtime is not worked on routine jobs. Labour-related variable
overheads are £2 per labour hour. Equipment-related variable overheads are £1 per equipment-
hour. Depreciation on workshop equipment is £960 per week. Other workshop fixed overheads are
£1,540 per week.
Requirement
Which of the following jobs should be subcontracted if the amount of workshop labour available in
the week is fixed at 400 hours and there is no restriction on equipment availability?
A Job A
B Job B
C Job C
D Job D
E Job E
F Job F
this chapter.


If the selling price is £10 per unit, the number of units of W that must be sold is 25,000 .
WORKING
Number of units
Required contribution/Contribution ratio = £50,000/20% = £250,000
 Number of units = £250,000 ÷ £10 = 25,000.

The required sales price per unit is £ 20 .
WORKING
Required sales price
Required contribution = fixed costs plus profit
= £47,000 + £23,000
= £70,000
Required sales = 14,000 units
Required contribution per unit = £70,000/14,000 = £5 per unit
£
Required contribution per unit sold 5
Variable cost per unit 15
Required sales price per unit 20

(a) = Margin of safety
(b) = Budgeted profit
(c) = Budgeted variable costs
(d) = Budgeted fixed costs
Limiting factor/Not a limiting factor
Materials Limiting factor
Labour Not a limiting factor
WORKINGS
(1) Materials
Material required = 20,000 units × (£12/£3) = 80,000 kg
Material is therefore a limiting factor, since 75,000 kg are available.
(2) Labour
Labour required = 20,000 units × (£72/£8) = 180,000 hours
Labour is not a limiting factor, since 190,000 labour hours are available.

Complete the following.
(1) The shortfall in available machine hours for next period is 26,000 hours.
(2) The contribution earned per machine hour used on product X is £ 2.50 .
The contribution earned per machine hour used on product Y is £ 2.38 .
The contribution earned per machine hour used on product Z is £ 1.92 .
(3) The number of units of each product that should be manufactured next period is:
(a) Product X – 5,000 units
(b) Product Y – 7,500 units
(c) Product Z – 1,500 units
WORKINGS
(1) Shortfall
Machine hours required to satisfy annual sales demand:
Hours
Product X 5,000 units × 20 hrs 100,000
Product Y 7,500 units × 21 hrs 157,500
Product Z 2,500 units × 26 hrs 65,000
Total machine hours required 322,500
Machine hours available 296,500
Shortfall in available machine hours 26,000
(2) Contribution per machine hour
X Y Z
£’000 £’000 £’000
Sales revenue 1,000 1,125 625
Variable material and labour costs (500) (563) (438)
Variable overheads (250) (187) (62)
Contribution 250 375 125

Contribution per machine hour £2.50 £2.38 £1.92

(3) Production plan
Hours Hours Production

Ranking Product Demand units required available units
1st X 5,000 (× 20) 100,000 100,000 5,000
2nd Y 7,500 (× 21) 157,500 157,500 7,500
3rd Z 2,500 (× 26) 65,000 39,000* 1,500
296,500
* Balance (296,500 – 100,000 – 157,500)

TW should manufacture 9,000 units of D and 7,000 units of E to maximise profits.
WORKING
Production plan
D E
Variable cost of making 10 15
Variable cost of buying 17 25
Extra variable cost of buying 7 10
Raw material saved by buying 3.5 kg 8 kg
Extra variable cost of buying per kg saved £2 £1.25
Priority for internal manufacture 1 2
Production plan Material used

kg
 Make D (9,000 × 3.5 kg) 31,500
E (7,000 × 8 kg) 56,000
87,500
The remaining 5,000 units of E should be purchased from the sub contractor.
D 10,909 units
Breakeven point = Fixed costs/Contribution per unit
= (10,000 × (£4.00 + £0.80))/(£6.00 – (£1.20 + 0.40)) = £48,000/£4.40 = 10,909 units
If you selected option A you divided the fixed cost by the selling price, but the selling price also has
to cover the variable cost. Option B ignores the selling costs, but these are costs that must be
covered before the breakeven point is reached. Option C is the budgeted sales volume, which
happens to be below the breakeven point.
Correct answer(s):
H 13,409 units
Contribution required for target profit = Fixed costs + Profit
= £48,000 + £11,000
= £59,000
 Contribution per unit (from question 1) = £4.40
 Sales units required = £59,000/£4.40 = 13,409 units
If you selected option A you divided the required profit by the contribution per unit, but the fixed
costs must be covered before any profit can be earned. If you selected option B you identified
correctly the contribution required for the target profit, but you then divided by the selling price per
unit instead of the contribution per unit. Option C ignores the selling costs, which must be covered
before a profit can be earned.
Correct answer(s):
K 11,885 units
£ per unit
New selling price (£6 × 1.1) 6.60
New variable cost (£1.20 × 1.1) + £0.40 1.72
Revised contribution per unit 4.88
New fixed costs ($40,000 × 1.25) + £8,000 = £58,000

Revised breakeven point = £58,000/£4.88 = 11,885 units
If you selected option A you divided the fixed cost by the selling price, but the selling price also has
to cover the variable cost. Option B fails to allow for the increase in variable production cost and
option D increases all of the costs by the percentages given, rather than the production costs only.
C 4,000
£
Target profit 6,000
Fixed costs (5,000 × £2) 10,000
Target contribution 16,000
Contribution per unit (£10 – £6) £4

Units required to achieve target profit = £16,000/£4 = 4,000

If you selected option A you divided £6,000 target profit by the £4 contribution per unit, but the
fixed costs must be covered before any profit can be earned. If you selected option B you divided
by the selling price, but the variable costs must also be taken into account. If you selected option D
you divided by the profit per unit instead of the contribution per unit, but the fixed costs are taken
into account in the calculation of the target contribution.
Correct answer(s):
F 40%
Fixed costs (£10,000 × 120%) £12,000
Units required now to break even = £12,000/£4 (contribution) = 3,000

Budgeted units of sales 5,000
Margin of safety (units) 2,000
In percentage terms, margin of safety = (2,000/5,000) × 100% = 40%

Option A increases the variable cost by 20% and option C increases the activity by 20%. If you
selected option D you calculated the margin of safety as a percentage of the breakeven volume, but
it should be expressed as a percentage of budgeted sales.
Correct answer(s):
I 24.2% decrease
£
Original budgeted profit:
Contribution (5,000 × £4) 20,000
Fixed costs 10,000
Profit 10,000
£ per unit
New sales price (£10 × 1.20) 12.00
New variable cost (£6 × 1.12) 6.72
New contribution 5.28
Contribution required (as above) £20,000

Sales volume now needed = £20,000/£5.28 = 3,788 units
This is 1,212 units or 24.24% less than the original budgeted level of 5,000 units of sales.
If you selected option B you identified the correct percentage change but you misinterpreted it as a
required increase. If you selected options C or D you took £6,000 as your figure for the original
budgeted profit. However, the budgeted profit would be based on the budgeted level of activity of
5,000 units for the period.
C Distance C
Contribution at level of activity x = Sales value less variable costs, which is indicated by distance C.
Distance A indicates the profit at activity x, B indicates the fixed costs and D indicates the margin of
safety in terms of sales value.
B Q – most profitable; R – least profitable
kg required per unit 4 2 6
Contribution per kg of material £20.50 £54 £16.67
Ranking 2 1 3
Therefore Q is the most profitable and R is the least profitable.

If you selected option A you ranked the products according to their profit per unit, but this takes no
account of the limiting factor and is distorted by the fixed costs.
C K – 625 units; L – 250 units
K L
Contribution per unit £15 £30
Contribution per unit of limiting factor £15/2 = £7.50 £30/3 = £10
Ranking 2 1
Raw materials
used
kg
Contracted supply of K (500 × 2 kg) 1,000
Meet demand for L (250 × 3 kg) 750
Remainder of resource for K (125 × 2 kg) 250
2,000
B Job B
E Job E
F Job F
WORKINGS
(1) Ranking of jobs to subcontract
A B C D E F
Extra cost of subcontracting (W2) £1,380 £495 £1,780 £870 £1,055 £840
Labour hours required 150 100 200 50 150 100
Cost per labour hour saved by
subcontracting £9.20 £4.95 £8.90 £17.40 £7.03 £8.40
Ranking of jobs to subcontract 5 1* 4 6 2* 3*
* Subcontracted jobs
As labour capacity is restricted to 400 hours per week there is only enough capacity for jobs C, A
and D. Jobs B, E and F should therefore be subcontracted as they have the lowest incremental
cost per labour hour saved.

(2) Extra cost of subcontracting
A B C D E F
£ £ £ £ £ £
Cost of doing work in-house
Parts 1,200 1,375 1,450 500 375 690
Labour (labour hours × £6 per hour) 900 600 1,200 300 900 600
Labour-related overhead (labour
hours × £2 per hour) 300 200 400 100 300 200
Equipment-related overhead
(equipment hours × £1 per hour) 170 30 70 30 70 70
Total cost of doing work in-house 2,570 2,205 3,120 930 1,645 1,560
Cost of subcontracting (including
parts) 3,950 2,700 4,900 1,800 2,700 2,400
Extra cost of subcontracting 1,380 495 1,780 870 1,055 840
Chapter 11
Investment appraisal
techniques
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Syllabus links
Examination context
Learning topics
1 Making investment appraisal decisions
2 The payback method
3 The accounting rate of return method
4 The net present value method
5 The internal rate of return method
6 Environmental costing
Summary
Self-test questions
Introduction
11
Learning outcomes
• Calculate the net present value, internal rate of return, payback period or accounting rate of
return for a given project
• Identify the advantages and disadvantages of the investment appraisal techniques specified
above
The specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 4c and d.
11
Syllabus links
You will be using the techniques you learn in this chapter when you study the Financial Management
syllabus. In that syllabus you will explore further the investment decision-making process and
associated issues.
11
Examination context
Since most of this part of your syllabus is concerned with calculation techniques you can expect to
encounter predominately numerical questions about these topics.
• calculate the net present value, internal rate of return, payback period or accounting rate of return
from data supplied
• interpret information about the net present value, internal rate of return, payback or accounting
rate of return for a project or projects
• demonstrate an understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of the investment appraisal
techniques specified above
• manipulate simple data involving annuities, perpetuities and non-conventional cash flows
• demonstrate an understanding of the derivation and meaning of the net terminal value of a
project
While most of the questions in this area of the syllabus will be numerical (where such issues as the
timing of cash flows will be critical) it is vital to understand what each of the techniques involves (and
their weaknesses) in order to be able to tackle narrative questions.
11

of this chapter.

questions
1 Making investment Approach Objective test N/A

appraisal decisions Read quickly questions on this
Capital expenditure through section 1 of section may test the
differs from day-to-day the chapter to set investment decision
revenue expenditure appraisal decisions stages.
for two reasons: in context.
• Capital expenditure
often involves a Stop and think
larger outlay of cash
Why might £1 today
• The benefits from be preferred to £1
capital expenditure in one year’s time?
are likely to accrue

questions
over a long
period of time,
usually well over
a year and often
over very long
time periods. In
such
circumstances
the benefits
cannot all be set
against costs in
the current year’s
income
statement
For these reasons any
proposed capital
expenditure should be
properly appraised,
and found to be
worthwhile, before the
decision is taken to go
ahead with the
expenditure. Formal
procedures should
therefore be in place
for the appraisal and
monitoring of
investment projects
before they are
undertaken, while they
are in progress, and
after they have been
completed.
2 The payback period Read section 2. Objective test N/A

This is the simplest of Calculation of the questions may require
the project appraisal payback period you to calculate the
methods and often should not cause payback period.
used as an initial you too many Alternatively, narrative
screening method. problems but make questions may focus on
sure that you know the advantages and
the advantages and disadvantages of the
disadvantages of payback method.
this appraisal
method.
Stop and think

Why do you think
this method is a
commonly used
method of project
appraisal?
3 The accounting rate of In section 3 learn Objective test IQ1: The ARR
return both formulae for questions may require and mutually
calculating the ARR, you to pick out correct exclusive
ICAEW 2023 11: Investment appraisal techniques 391

questions
The ARR is the only practise their definitions or projects

appraisal method we application in the statements from a This question
cover that uses profits worked example number of statements provides
instead of cash flows. and study the supplied in a question, practice of
method’s or you may have to the ARR
advantages and calculate the ARR. calculation.
disadvantages.
Stop and think

Can you think of a
potential problem
of using profits
rather than cash
flows?
4 The net present value Section 4 is very Objective test IQ3: Non-
method important and questions may require standard
It is worth really getting explains a number you to calculate a net discount
to grips with the net of techniques and present value or pick factors
present value method their advantages out correct definitions This question
as you will need it and disadvantages. or statements from a covers the
again later in your It is crucial that you number of statements calculation of
studies. work carefully supplied in a question – NPV and how
through all the for example, to calculate
examples and statements about an discount
narrative NPV graph or about factors.
information in this the advantages and (However,
section. disadvantages of NPV. always use
the discount
Stop and think tables if you
can.)
What are the cost
units in the business
you work for?
5 The internal rate of Study all the graphs Objective test IQ4: IRR
return method in section 5 and questions may require You must
The internal rate of learn the formula for you to calculate the IRR learn how to
return is the discount calculating the IRR. or pick out correct calculate the
rate that gives an NPV In section 5.6 use statements from a IRR.
of zero. The main the interactive number of statements
advantage of this question to practice supplied in a question,
appraisal method is sketching NPV for example statements
that it gives a profiles. This is a about the advantages
percentage, this may useful technique and disadvantages and
be more easily which might come comparisons with IRR
understood by non- in handy in the and NPV.
financial managers exam. Although you
than NPV. would not be
required to produce
a sketch you might
need to be able to
do so for your own
workings in order to
select the correct
option in a multiple

questions
choice question.
Stop and think

Is the IRR method
suitable when a
project has multiple
IRRs?
6 Environmental costing Read through this Objective test N/A

The impact on the short section questions may require
environment of new making a note of you to identify the
ventures should be the four types of different classifications
considered as part of environmental cost. of environmental costs.
the investment Stop and think
appraisal process. Businesses can save
costs by
considering
environmental
issues such as
energy
consumption and
waste.

1 Making investment appraisal decisions
Section overview
• A typical model for investment decision making has a number of distinct stages.
• These stages are typically: the origination of proposals, project screening, analysis and
acceptance, and monitoring and review.
1.1 The investment decision-making process
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify the solution which is
the best fit with acceptance criteria and objectives.’ This chapter covers methods to help
management make investment decisions based on acceptance criteria.
You will study the investment decision-making process in more detail in your Financial Management
syllabus so we will review the process in outline only here, to set the financial investment appraisal
techniques in context.
A typical model for investment decision making has a number of distinct stages.
• Origination of proposals. It has been suggested that good ideas for investment are likely to occur
in environments in which staff feel free to present and develop ideas. Some alternatives will be
rejected early on. Others will be more thoroughly evaluated.
• Project screening. Before a detailed financial analysis is undertaken a qualitative evaluation of the
project will be made. For example, questions will be asked such as whether the project ‘fits’ with
the organisation’s long-term objectives and whether all possible alternatives have been
considered. Only if the project passes this initial screening will more detailed financial analysis
begin.
• Analysis and acceptance. This will include a financial analysis, using the organisation’s preferred
investment appraisal techniques. You will be studying the most common techniques in the
remainder of this chapter. Qualitative issues will also be considered before a decision is made
whether to proceed and the project is implemented.
• Monitoring and review. During the project’s progress it will be necessary to ensure that capital
spending does not exceed the amount authorised, that the implementation of the project is not
delayed and that the anticipated benefits are eventually obtained.
2 The payback method

Section overview
• The payback period is the time it takes for a project’s net cash inflows to equal the initial cash
investment.
• The payback period is often used as an initial screening process.
• If a project’s payback period is shorter than a defined maximum period then the project should
be evaluated further using a more sophisticated project appraisal technique.
• A major disadvantage is that the timing of cash flows within the payback period are ignored and
therefore no account is taken of the time value of money.

2.1 The payback period
Definition
Payback: The time required for the cash inflows from a capital investment project to equal the cash
outflows.
Payback is often used as a ‘first screening method’. By this, we mean that when a capital investment
project is being subjected to financial appraisal, the first question to ask is: ‘How long will it take to
pay back its cost?’ The organisation might have a target payback, and so it would reject a capital
project unless its payback period was less than that target payback period.
However, a project should not be evaluated on the basis of payback alone. Payback should be a first
screening process, and if a project gets through the payback test, it ought then to be evaluated with
a more sophisticated project appraisal technique, such as those presented later in this chapter.
You should note that when payback is calculated, we use profits before depreciation in the
calculation, because we are trying to estimate the cash returns from a project and profit before
depreciation is likely to be a rough approximation of cash flows.
Definition
Mutually exclusive: If two events are mutually exclusive, it means that they cannot both occur at the
same time.
2.2 Why is payback alone an inadequate project appraisal technique?

Look at the figures below for two mutually exclusive projects (this means that only one of them can
be undertaken).
Project P Project Q
£ £
Capital cost of asset 60,000 60,000
Profits before depreciation
Year 1 20,000 50,000
Year 2 30,000 20,000
Year 3 40,000 5,000
Year 4 50,000 5,000
Year 5 60,000 5,000
Project P pays back in Year 3 (one quarter of the way through Year 3). Project Q pays back halfway
through Year 2. Using payback alone to judge projects, project Q would be preferred. But the
returns from project P total £200,000 over its life and are much higher than the returns from project
Q which totals just £85,000.
Definitions
Residual value: The disposal value of equipment at the end of its life, or its disposal cost.
Scrap: Discarded material having some value.
Worked example: Payback period

An asset costing £120,000 is to be depreciated over 10 years to a nil residual value. Profits after
depreciation for the first five years are as follows.

Year £
1 12,000
2 17,000
3 28,000
4 37,000
5 8,000
Requirement
Calculate the payback period to the nearest month.
Solution
Cash flows, ie, profits before depreciation should be used.
Profit after Cumulative

Year depreciation Depreciation Cash flow cash flow
£’000 £’000 £’000 £’000
1 12 12 24 24
2 17 12 29 53
3 28 12 40 93
4 37 12 49 142
5 8 12 20 162
 Payback period = 3 years + (((120 – 93)/49) × 12 months)

= 3 years 7 months
information provided’. For example, you may be given profits instead of cash flows in a question on
payback, as well as information on depreciation. The depreciation is provided so that you can work
back to the cash flow amount from the profit.
2.3 Disadvantages of the payback method
Definition
Time value of money: Recognises that £1 today is worth more than £1 at a future time, because the
£1 can be reinvested today to earn more money over time.
There are a number of serious drawbacks to the payback method.

• It ignores the timing of cash flows within the payback period.
• It also ignores the cash flows after the end of the payback period and therefore the total project
return.

• It ignores the time value of money (a concept incorporated into more sophisticated appraisal
methods). This means that it does not take account of the fact that £1 today is worth more than £1
in one year’s time. This is because an investor who has £1 today can either consume it
immediately or alternatively can invest it at the prevailing interest rate, say 10%, to get a return of
£1.10 in a year’s time.
There are also other disadvantages.
• The method is unable to distinguish between projects with the same payback period.
• The choice of any cut-off payback period by an organisation is arbitrary.
• It may lead to excessive investment in short-term projects.
• It takes account of the risk of the timing of cash flows but does not take account of the variability
of those cash flows.
2.4 Advantages of the payback method

The use of the payback method does have advantages, especially as an initial screening device.
• A long payback means capital is tied up.
• Focus on early payback can enhance liquidity.
• Investment risk is increased if payback is longer.
• Shorter-term forecasts are likely to be more reliable.
• The calculation is quick and simple.
• Payback is an easily understood concept.
3 The accounting rate of return method

Section overview
• The accounting rate of return (ARR) expresses the average accounting profit as a percentage of
the capital outlay.
• The capital outlay (the denominator in the ARR calculation) may be expressed as the initial
investment or as the average investment in the project.
• The decision rule is that projects with an ARR above a defined minimum are acceptable; the
greater the ARR, the more desirable the project.
• The main advantage of the ARR is that it is simple to calculate and understand. However, it does
have a number of major disadvantages.
• The main disadvantage of the ARR is that it does not take account of the timing of the profits from
a project.
3.1 Calculating the accounting rate of return
Definition
Accounting rate of return: A measure of the expected average annual accounting profits from an
investment expressed as a percentage of the value of that investment. Either the initial or average
value of the investment can be used. Also called return on investment (ROI) or return on capital
employed (ROCE).
The accounting rate of return (ARR) method of appraising a project involves estimating the
accounting rate of return that a project should yield. If it exceeds a target rate of return then the
project is acceptable.
There are two different ways of calculating the ARR.
ARR = (Average annual accounting profit/Initial investment) × 100%
ARR = (Average annual accounting profit/Average investment) × 100%

The average investment is calculated as:
1/2 (initial investment + final or scrap value)
An examination question will always make it clear whether you are to calculate the ARR based on the
average investment or based on the initial investment.
Note that this is the only appraisal method that we will be studying that uses accounting profits
instead of cash flow.
Worked example: The accounting rate of return

A project involves the immediate purchase of plant at a cost of £110,000. It would generate annual
profits before depreciation of £24,000 for five years. Scrap value will be £10,000 at the end of the
fifth year.
Requirement
Calculate the ARR using the initial and average investment.
Solution
Using initial investment
Average profit = (Profits before depreciation – Depreciation)/5
= ((£24,000 × 5) – (£110,000 – £10,000))/5
= £4,000 p.a.
ARR = (£4,000/£110,000) × 100% = 3.6%
Using average investment
£4,000
× 100% = 6.7%
£(110,000 + 10,000)/2
3.2 The ARR and the comparison of mutually exclusive projects

The ARR method of capital investment appraisal can also be used to compare two or more projects
which are mutually exclusive. The project with the highest ARR would be selected (provided that the
expected ARR is higher than the company’s target ARR).
Interactive question 1: The ARR and mutually exclusive projects

Arrow wants to buy a new item of equipment. Two models of equipment are available, one with a
slightly higher capacity and greater reliability than the other. The expected costs and profits of each
item are as follows.
Equipment Equipment
item X item Y
Capital cost £100,000 £175,000
Life 5 years 5 years
Profits before depreciation
Year 1 £50,000 £50,000
Year 2 £50,000 £50,000
Year 3 £30,000 £60,000
Year 4 £20,000 £60,000
Year 5 £10,000 £60,000
Disposal value for equipment £20,000 £25,000
ARR is measured as the average annual profits divided by the average investment.

Requirement
Fill in the boxes below to determine which equipment item should be purchased, if the company’s
target ARR is 25%.
The equipment that should be purchased is item .
Item X Item Y
£ £
Total profit over life of equipment:
Before depreciation
After depreciation
Average annual accounting profit
Average investment
ARR, based on average investment % %
3.3 The advantages and disadvantages of the ARR method of project appraisal
The ARR method has the serious disadvantage that it does not take account of the timing of the
profits from a project. Whenever capital is invested in a project, money is tied up until the project
begins to earn profits which pay back the investment. Money tied up in one project cannot be
invested anywhere else until the profits come in. Management should be aware of the benefits of
early repayments from an investment, which will provide the money for other investments.
There are a number of other disadvantages.
• It is based on accounting profits rather than cash flows, which are subject to a number of different
accounting policies.
• It is a relative measure rather than an absolute measure and hence takes no account of the size of
the investment.
• It takes no account of the length of the project.
• Like the payback method, it ignores the time value of money.
There are, however, advantages to the ARR method.
• It is quick and simple to calculate.
• It involves a familiar concept of a percentage return.
• Accounting profits can be easily calculated from financial statements.
• It looks at the entire project life.
• Managers and investors are accustomed to thinking in terms of profit, and so an appraisal method
which employs profit may be more easily understood.
• It allows more than one project to be compared.

4 The net present value method
Section overview
• The terminal value of an investment is its value at some point in the future, including an allowance
for interest.
• Discounting converts a sum of money receivable or payable in the future to its present value,
which is the cash equivalent now of the future value.
• Discounted cash flow (DCF) techniques discount all the forecast cash flows of an investment
proposal to determine their present value.
• The net present value (NPV) of a project is the difference between its projected discounted cash
inflows and discounted cash outflows.
• The decision rule is to accept a project with a positive NPV.
• An annuity is a constant cash flow for a number of years.
• The net terminal value (NTV) is the cash surplus remaining at the end of a project after taking
account of interest and capital payments.
• One of the principal advantages of the DCF appraisal method is that it takes account of the time
value of money.
• The payback method can be combined with DCF to calculate a discounted payback period.
• A perpetuity is a constant cash flow forever. The present value of a perpetuity is £a/r, where a is
the constant annual amount and r is the discount rate.
4.1 Compounding: calculating the terminal value

Suppose that a company has £10,000 to invest and wants to earn a return of 10% (compound
interest*) on its investments. This means that if the £10,000 could be invested at 10%, the value of the
investment with interest would build up as follows.
1 After 1 year £10,000 × (1.10) = £11,000

2 After 2 years £10,000 × (1.10)2 = £12,100
3 After 3 years £10,000 × (1.10)3 = £13,310
and so on.
* This means that interest is earned each year on the previous years’ interest.
This is compounding. The formula for the future value or terminal value of an investment plus
accumulated interest after n time periods is V = X(1 + r)n
Where:
• V is the future value or terminal value of the investment with interest
• X is the initial or ‘present’ value of the investment
• r is the compound rate of return per time period, expressed as a decimal (so 10% = 0.10, 5% =
0.05 and so on)
• n is the number of time periods
• Usually r is an annual rate of return and n is the number of years
Worked example: Terminal value

What is the terminal value of £200 invested today at an interest rate of 7% per annum in 10 years’
time?
Solution
Terminal value = £200 × (1.07)10 = £393

Terminal values can cause difficulties when trying to compare or choose between projects because:
• the projects may not end on the same future date (or may not end at all)
• decision makers are more likely to be interested in the effect of the project on shareholder wealth
now, rather than in the future
It is therefore more common to look at present values. The present value of a future sum shows what
that future sum is worth today. This is in effect the reverse of compounding.
4.2 Discounting
Definition
Discounted cash flow: Converting future sums of money to their present value, which is the cash
equivalent now of those future sums.
Discounting starts with the future value (a sum of money receivable or payable at a future date), and
converts the future value to a present value, which is the cash equivalent now of the future value.
For example, if a company expects to earn a (compound) rate of return of 10% on its investments,
how much would it need to invest now to have the following investments?
(a) £11,000 after 1 year
(b) £12,100 after 2 years
(c) £13,310 after 3 years
The answer is £10,000 in each case, and we can calculate it by discounting.
The discounting formula to calculate the present value (X) of a future sum of money (V) at the end of
n time periods is X = V/(1 + r)n
(a) After 1 year, £11,000/1.10 = £10,000
(b) After 2 years, £12,100/1.102 = £10,000
(c) After 3 years, £13,310/1.103 = £10,000
The timing of cash flows is taken into account by discounting them. The effect of discounting is to
give a bigger value per £1 for cash flows that occur earlier: £1 earned after one year will be worth
more than £1 earned after two years, which in turn will be worth more than £1 earned after five years,
and so on.
The discount rate (r) used when calculating the present value is the relevant interest rate (or cost of
capital) to the entity in question. In the exam this will always be made clear.
4.2.1 Discount factors

In the calculations above we were converting each cash flow into its present value by effectively
multiplying by a discount factor. This discount factor is calculated as 1/(1 + r)n.
The calculations could be presented as follows.
Multiply by 10% discount factor Present value £

After 1 year £11,000 × 1/1.10 10,000
2
After 2 years £12,100 × 1/(1.10) 10,000
After 3 years £13,310 × 1/(1.10)3 10,000
Interactive question 2: Present value calculation

Spender expects the cash inflow from an investment to be £40,000 after two years and another
£30,000 after three years. Its target rate of return is 12%.
Requirement
Use the table below to calculate the present value of these future returns.

Multiplied by 12%
Year Cash flow discount factor Present value
£ £
Total present value
4.3 Net present value (NPV)
Definition
Net present value: The sum of the present value of the benefits (revenues or savings) from an
investment, less the present value of expenditures.
Discounted cash flow (DCF) techniques are used in calculating the net present value of a series of
cash flows. This measures the change in shareholder wealth now as a result of accepting a project.
NPV = present value of cash inflows less present value of cash outflows
• If the NPV is positive, it means that the cash inflows from a project will yield a return in excess of
the cost of capital, and so the project should be undertaken if the cost of capital is the
organisation’s target rate of return.
• If the NPV is negative, it means that the cash inflows from a project will yield a return below the
cost of capital, and so the project should not be undertaken if the cost of capital is the
organisation’s target rate of return.
• If the NPV is exactly zero, the cash inflows from a project will yield a return which is exactly the
same as the cost of capital, and so if the cost of capital is the organisation’s target rate of return,
the project will have a neutral impact on shareholder wealth and therefore would not be worth
undertaking because of the inherent risks in any project.
technical knowledge and skills to analyse a specific problem’. For example, you could calculate the
NPV of a project and use it to decide whether the project is worthwhile or not.
Worked example: NPV

Slogger has a cost of capital of 15% and is considering a capital investment project, where the
estimated cash flows are as follows.
Year Cash flow

£
0 (ie, now) (100,000)
1 60,000
2 80,000
3 40,000

Year Cash flow
£
4 30,000
Requirement
Calculate the NPV of the project and assess whether it should be undertaken.
Solution
Present
Year Cash flow Discount factor value
£ 15% £
0 (100,000) 1.000 (100,000)
1 60,000 1/1.15 = 0.870 52,200
2
2 80,000 1/1.15 = 0.756 60,480
3 40,000 1/1.153 = 0.658 26,320
4 30,000 1/1.154 = 0.572 17,160
NPV = 56,160
Tutorial Note
The discount factor for any cash flow ‘now’ (time 0) is always 1, whatever the cost of capital.
The present value (PV) of cash inflows exceeds the PV of cash outflows by £56,160, which means
that the project will earn a discounted cash flow (DCF) yield in excess of 15%. It should therefore
be undertaken.
4.4 Timing of cash flows: conventions used in DCF

Discounting reduces the value of future cash flows to a present value equivalent and so is clearly
concerned with the timing of the cash flows. As a general rule, the following guidelines may be
applied.
• A cash outlay to be incurred at the beginning of an investment project (‘now’) occurs in time 0.
The present value of £1 now, in time 0, is £1 regardless of the value of the discount rate r.
• A cash flow which occurs during the course of a time period is assumed to occur all at once at the
end of the time period (at the end of the year). Receipts of £10,000 during time period 1 are
therefore taken to occur at the end of time period 1.
• A cash flow which occurs at the beginning of a time period is taken to occur at the end of the
previous time period. Therefore, a cash outlay of £5,000 at the beginning of time period 2 is
taken to occur at the end of time period 1.
4.5 Cash flows, not accounting profits

It is important to remember that DCF techniques are based on the cash flows of a project, not the
accounting profits. Like the payback technique of investment appraisal, DCF is concerned with
liquidity, not profitability. Cash flows are considered because they show the costs and benefits of a
project when they actually occur. For example, the capital cost of a project will be the original cash
outlay, and not the notional cost of depreciation which is used to spread the capital cost over the
asset’s life in the financial accounts.
4.6 Discount tables for the PV of £1

Instead of having to calculate the discount factor every time we can use tables. Discount tables for
the present value of £1, for a range of integer values of r and n, are shown in the third column of the

discount table in the Appendix at the back of this Workbook. These tables will be provided in the
exam.
4.7 Annuities
Definition
Annuity: A constant annual cash flow, for a number of years.
An annuity is a series of constant cash flows for a number of years. For example, a college might
enter into a contract to provide training courses for a firm for a fixed annual fee of £30,000 payable at
the end of each of the next three years. This would be a three-year annuity.
Context example: Calculating the present value of an annuity

In the example of the college training course, the present value of the fees, assuming a 20% cost of
capital, could be calculated as follows.
Present value of
Year Cash flow Present value factor cash values
£ 20% £
1 30,000 0.833 24,990
2 30,000 0.694 20,820
3 30,000 0.579 17,370
2.106 63,180
Where there is a constant cash flow from year to year (in this case £30,000 per annum for Years 1–3)
it is quicker to calculate the present value by adding together the discount factors for the individual
years. These total factors could be described as ‘same cash flow per annum’ factors, ‘cumulative
present value’ factors or ‘annuity’ factors. They are shown in the final column of the discount tables
in the Appendix at the back of this Workbook (2.106, for example, is in the final column for 20% per
annum and the row for Year 3).
The calculation could then be performed in one step:
£30,000 × 2.106 = £63,180
4.8 Net terminal value

Net terminal value (NTV) is the cash surplus remaining at the end of a project after taking account of
interest and capital repayments.
The NTV discounted at the cost of capital will give the NPV of the project.
Worked example: The net terminal value

A project has the following cash flows.
Year £
0 (5,000)
1 3,000
2 2,600
3 6,200
The project has an NPV of £4,531 at the company’s cost of capital of 10% (workings not shown).

Requirement
Calculate the net terminal value of the project.
Solution
The net terminal value can be determined directly from the NPV, or by calculating the cash surplus at
the end of the project.
Assume that the £5,000 for the project is borrowed at an annual interest rate of 10% and that cash
flows from the project are used to repay the loan.
£
Loan balance outstanding at beginning of project 5,000
Interest in Year 1 at 10% 500
Repaid at end of Year 1 (3,000)
Balance outstanding at end of Year 1 2,500
Interest Year 2 250
Repaid Year 2 (2,600)
Balance outstanding Year 2 150
Interest Year 3 15
Repaid Year 3 (6,200)
Cash surplus at end of project 6,035
The net terminal value is £6,035.

Check
NPV = £6,035 × 0.751 (10% discount factor for year 3) = £4,532
Allowing for the rounding errors caused by three figure discount tables, this is the correct figure for
the NPV.
4.9 Advantages of NPV

The advantages of NPV are as follows.
• It is directly linked to the assumed objective of maximising shareholder wealth as it measures, in
absolute (£) terms, the effect of taking on the project now, ie, Year 0.
• It considers the time value of money, ie, the further away the cash flow the less it is worth in
present terms.
• It considers all relevant cash flows, so that it is unaffected by the accounting policies which cloud
profit-based investment appraisal techniques such as ARR.
• Risk can be incorporated into decision making by adjusting the company’s discount rate.
• It provides clear, unambiguous decisions, ie, if the NPV is positive, accept; if it is negative, reject.
Interactive question 3: Non-standard discount factors

A project has the following forecast cash flows.
Year £
0 (280,000)
1 149,000
2 128,000
3 84,000

Year £
4 70,000
Requirement
Using two decimal places in all discount factors, complete the following table to calculate the net
present value of the project at a cost of capital of 16.5%.
Year Cash flow 16.5% discount factor Present value
£ £
Net present value
4.10 The time value of money

DCF is a project appraisal technique that is based on the concept of the time value of money, that £1
earned or spent sooner is worth more than £1 earned or spent later. Various reasons could be
suggested as to why a present £1 is worth more than a future £1.
• Uncertainty. The business world is full of risk and uncertainty, and although there might be the
promise of money to come in the future, it can never be certain that the money will be received
until it has actually been paid. This is an important argument, and risk and uncertainty must always
be considered in investment appraisal. But this argument does not explain why the discounted
cash flow technique should be used to reflect the time value of money.
• Inflation. Because of inflation it is common sense that £1 now is worth more than £1 in the future.
It is important, however, that the problem of inflation should not confuse the meaning of DCF, and
the following points should be noted.
– If there were no inflation at all, discounted cash flow techniques would still be used for
investment appraisal.
– Inflation, for the moment, has been completely ignored.
– It is obviously necessary to allow for inflation.
• An individual attaches more weight to current pleasures than to future ones, and would rather
have £1 to spend now than £1 in a year’s time. Individuals have the choice of consuming or
investing their wealth and so the return from projects must be sufficient to persuade individuals to
prefer to invest now. Discounting is a measure of this time preference.
• Money is invested now to make profits (more money or wealth) in the future. Discounted cash
flow techniques can therefore be used to measure either of two things.
– What alternative uses of the money would earn (NPV method) (assuming that money can be
invested elsewhere at the cost of capital).
– What the money is expected to earn (IRR method – this is to be covered in the next section of
this chapter).
4.11 Advantages of DCF methods of appraisal

Taking account of the time value of money (by discounting) is one of the principal advantages of the
DCF appraisal method. Other advantages include the following.
• the method uses all cash flows relating to the project.

• it allows for the timing of the cash flows.
• there are universally accepted methods of calculating the NPV and IRR.
4.12 A comparison of the ROI and NPV methods

In Chapter 8 we saw that managers are often judged on the return on investment (ROI) of their
division or responsibility centre which is very similar in principle to the ARR. Managers will only want
to invest in projects that increase divisional ROI but sometimes such a strategy may not correspond
with the decision that would be arrived at if NPV were used to appraise the investment.
For example, suppose that Division M is considering an investment of £200,000 which will provide a
net cash inflow (before depreciation) of £78,000 each year for the four years of its life. It is group
policy that investments must show a minimum return of 15%.
As the working below shows, using net book value (NBV) at the start of each year and depreciating
on a straight-line basis to a nil residual value, in Year 1 the ROI would be below the target rate of
return of 15%. If management were to take a short-term view of the situation, the investment would
be rejected if the ROI measure were to be used, despite the fact that the investment’s NPV is positive
and that in Years 2 to 4 the ROI is greater than the target rate of return.
Years
1 2 3 4
£ £ £ £
NBV of investment at start of year 200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000
Cash flow (before depreciation) 78,000 78,000 78,000 78,000

Less depreciation (50,000) (50,000) (50,000) (50,000)
Net profit 28,000 28,000 28,000 28,000
ROI 14.00% 18.67% 28.00% 56.00%
Net present value = –£200,000 + (£78,000 × 2.855) = £22,690.
4.13 Discounted payback
Definition
Discounted payback method: How long it will take for a project to pay back the capital outlay on a
discounted cash flow basis.
The payback method can be combined with DCF to calculate a discounted payback period (DPP).
The discounted payback period is the time it will take before a project’s cumulative NPV turns from
being negative to being positive.

Context example: Discounted payback
If we have a cost of capital of 10% and a project with the cash flows shown below, we can calculate a
discounted payback period.
Discount factor
Year Cash flow 10% Present value Cumulative NPV
£ £ £
0 (100,000) 1.000 (100,000) (100,000)
1 30,000 0.909 27,270 (72,730)
2 50,000 0.826 41,300 (31,430)
3 40,000 0.751 30,040 (1,390)
4 30,000 0.683 20,490 19,100
5 20,000 0.621 12,420 31,520
NPV = 31,520
The DPP is early in Year 4.

A company can set a target DPP and choose not to undertake any projects with a DPP in excess of a
certain number of years, say five years.
4.13.1 Advantages and disadvantages of discounted payback period

The approach has all the perceived advantages of the payback period method of investment
appraisal: it is easy to understand and calculate, and it provides a focus on liquidity where this is
relevant. In addition, however, it also takes into account the time value of money. It therefore
bridges the gap between the theoretically superior NPV method and the regular payback period
method.
Because the DPP approach takes the time value of money into consideration, it produces a longer
payback period than the non-discounted payback approach and takes into account more of the
project’s cash flows.
Another advantage it has over traditional payback is that it has a clear accept-or-reject criterion.
Using payback, acceptance of a project depends on an arbitrarily determined cut-off time. Using
DPP, a project is acceptable if it pays back within its lifetime (because it has a positive NPV).
DPP still shares one disadvantage with the payback period method: cash flows which occur after the
payback period are ignored (although as the DPP is longer than the payback period, fewer of these
are ignored).
4.14 The discount rate

Throughout our study of DCF techniques we have been using the same discount rate across all years
of the project under consideration, on the assumption that the cost of capital will remain the same
over the life of the project. There are a range of factors that influence the cost of capital, however,
including inflation and interest rates, and these can fluctuate widely over fairly short periods of time.
An organisation may therefore wish to use different discount rates at different points over the life of
a project to reflect this. This is possible if NPV and discounted payback methods of appraisal are
being used, but IRR (see section 5) and ARR methods are based on a single rate.
Another problem is deciding on the correct rate in the first place. This is difficult enough in year one
of a project’s life, but even more problematic five years later, say, because of economic changes and
so on.
4.15 Other aspects of discounting

Now that we have learned about the basics of the discounted cash flow technique, we can move on
to consider some of the complications that might arise.

4.15.1 Delayed annuities
A company may take out a loan, agreeing to repay it in equal annual instalments (ie, an annuity) but
starting at the end of Year 2, so that the first cash flow does not occur until after Year 1. As annuity
factor tables work on the assumption that the first cash flow occurs at the end of Year 1, care will be
needed when using the tables. Remember that if an annuity factor from the table is used, the present
value of the annuity stream is being found one period before the first annuity flow, so further
discounting will be needed to find the present value at Year 0.
4.15.2 Annuities in advance

When, for example, a firm leases vans for its business, the lease payments are usually paid in
advance, ie, the first cash flow occurs in Year 0. This is a combination of a normal annuity starting at
Year 1 plus an extra sum now which does not need to be discounted.
Worked example: Annuities in advance and delayed annuities

Use a discount rate of 15%.
Requirements
What is the present value of £1,000 received annually for five years if the first receipt is:
1 in one year’s time?
2 now?
3 in three years’ time?
Solution
1 Present value = £1,000 × annuity factor for five years at 15%
= £1,000 × 3.352 = £3,352
2 Only the cash flows at the end of Years 1 to 4 need discounting.
Present value = £1,000 received now + (£1,000 × annuity factor for four years at 15%)
= £1,000 + (£1,000 × 2.855)
= £3,855
3 This can be solved in two possible ways.
(1) Present value = £1,000 × (annuity factor for seven years – annuity factor for two years)
This leaves the cash flows for Years 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 being discounted.
= £1,000 × (4.160 – 1.626)
= £2,534
(2) Present value of annuity at end of Year 2 = £1,000 × 3.352
= £3,352
Now this must be discounted again to bring it back to the present value at year 0 (now).
Present value = £3,352 × PV factor for Year 2 at 15%
= £3,352 × 0.756
= £2,534
4.15.3 Annual cash flows in perpetuity
Definition
Perpetuity: A constant annual cash flow that continues forever (a perpetual annuity).
A perpetuity is an equal annual cash flow forever, ie, an annuity that lasts forever.
The present value of a perpetuity of £a per annum forever is calculated as £a/r, where r is the annual
discount rate. This formula finds the present value of the perpetuity stream one year before the first
cash flow.

Worked example: Perpetuities
1 What is the present value of £3,000 received in one year’s time and forever if the annual interest
rate is 10%?
2 What would be the present value if the first receipt is in four years’ time?
Solution
1 Present value = £3,000/0.10
= £30,000
2 Present value one year before the first cash flow = at end of Year 3
= £3,000/0.10
= £30,000
Present value at year 0 = £3,000 × Year 3 10% discount factor
= £30,000 × 0.751
= £22,530
4.15.4 Changing discount rates

If the discount rate changes over time the net present value is calculated as follows
Year 0 Year 1 Year 2

NPV = outflow + inflow/(1+r1) + inflow/(1+r1)(1+r2) etc
Where:
r1 = interest rate for Year 1
r2 = interest rate for Year 2
Worked example: Changing discount rates

A project’s estimated cash flows are as follows.
Year 0 Year 1 Year 2

£m £m £m
Cash flow (10) 6 8
Requirement
Calculate the NPV if the cost of capital is 10% for the first year and 20% for the second year.
Solution
£6m £8m
NPV = (£10m) + + = £1.52m
1.10 1.10 × 1.20

5 The internal rate of return method
Section overview
• The internal rate of return (IRR) is the DCF rate of return that a project is expected to achieve. It is
the discount rate at which the NPV is zero.
• If the IRR exceeds a target rate of return, the project would be worth undertaking.
• The IRR can be estimated from a graph of the project’s NPV profile. The IRR can be read from the
graph at the point on the horizontal axis where the NPV is zero.
• The IRR interpolation formula is:
NPVa
IRR = a + (b−a)
NPVa−NPVb
• The IRR method has a number of disadvantages compared with the NPV method.
– It ignores the relative size of the investments.
– There are problems with its use when a project has non-conventional cash flows or when
deciding between mutually exclusive projects.
– Discount rates which differ over the life of a project cannot be incorporated into IRR
calculations.
5.1 The internal rate of return
Definition
Internal rate of return: The discount rate at which a project has a zero NPV.
Another discounted cash flow (DCF) technique for appraising capital projects involves calculating
the internal rate of return (IRR). The IRR is a relative measure (%) in contrast to the absolute (£)
measure resulting from NPV calculations.
The IRR is the DCF rate of return (DCF yield) that a project is expected to achieve, in other words the
discount rate at which the NPV is zero.
If the IRR exceeds a target rate of return, the project would be worth undertaking.
5.2 Graphical approach

The easiest way to estimate the IRR of a project is to find the project’s NPV at a number of costs of
capital and sketch a graph of NPV against discount rate. The graph can be used to estimate the
discount rate at which the NPV is equal to zero (the point where the curve cuts the axis).
Context example: Graphical approach

A project might have the following NPVs at the following discount rates.
Discount rate NPV

% £
5 5,300
10 700
15 (1,500)
20 (3,200)
This could be sketched on a graph as follows.

NPV
£'000
6
0
5 10 15 20 Discount
–1 rate %
–2
–3
–4
The IRR can be estimated as 13%. The NPV should then be recalculated using this interest rate. The
resulting NPV should be equal to, or very near, zero. If it is not, extra NPVs at different discount rates
should be calculated, the graph resketched and a more accurate IRR determined.
5.3 Interpolation method

If we are appraising a ‘typical’ capital project, with a negative cash flow at the start of the project, and
positive net cash flows afterwards up to the end of the project, we could draw a graph of the
project’s NPV at different costs of capital. It would look like this.
NPV
Positive
IRR
0
Cost of capital %
Negative
Figure 11.1: NPV at different costs of capital
If we determine a cost of capital where the NPV is (slightly) positive, and another cost of capital
where it is (slightly) negative, we can estimate the IRR – where the NPV is zero – by drawing a
straight line between the two points on the graph that we have calculated.

NPV
Q
Positive P
A
B
0
Cost of capital %
True IRR
Negative
P
Q
Figure 11.2: Estimating the IRR
• If we establish the NPVs at the two points P, we would estimate the IRR to be at point A.
• If we establish the NPVs at the two points Q, we would estimate the IRR to be at point B.
The closer our NPVs are to zero, the closer our estimate will be to the true IRR.
The interpolation method assumes that the NPV rises in linear fashion between the two NPVs close
to zero. The real rate of return is therefore assumed to be on a straight line between the two points at
which the NPV is calculated.
The IRR interpolation formula to apply is:
NPVa
IRR = a + (b−a)
NPVa−NPVb
Where:
• a is the first discount rate giving NPVa
• b is the second discount rate giving NPVb
Worked example: The IRR method and interpolation

A company is trying to decide whether to buy a machine for £80,000 which will save costs of £20,000
per annum for five years and which will have a resale value of £10,000 at the end of Year 5.
Requirement
If it is the company’s policy to undertake projects only if they are expected to yield a DCF return of
10% or more, ascertain using the IRR method whether this project should be undertaken.
Solution
The first step is to calculate two net present values, both as close as possible to zero, using rates for
the cost of capital which are whole numbers. Ideally one NPV should be positive and the other
negative although the formula will work with two positive or two negative NPVs (extrapolation).
Choosing rates for the cost of capital which will give an NPV close to zero (that is, rates which are
close to the actual rate of return) is a hit and miss exercise, and several attempts may be needed to
find satisfactory rates. As a rough guide, try starting at a return figure which is about two thirds or
three quarters of the ARR.
Annual depreciation would be £(80,000 – 10,000)/5 = £14,000.
The ARR would be (£20,000 – depreciation of £14,000)/(½ of £(80,000 + 10,000)) = £6,000/£45,000
= 13.3%.
Two thirds of this is 8.9% and so we can start by trying 9%. The discounted tables do not provide
discount factors for an interest rate of 9% therefore we need to calculate our own factors.

Using the formula provided at the top of the final column in the tables:
1 1
PV of an annuity
=
r[1−
(1 + r)n ]
1 1
PV factor for 5 years at 9%
=
0.09
1−
[
(1.09)5 ]
= 3.89
1
=
PV factor at 9% for year 5 (1.09)5
= 0.65
We can use these factors to discount the cash flows.
Try 9%
Year Cash flow PV factor PV of cash flow

£ 9% £
0 (80,000) 1.00 (80,000)
1–5 20,000 3.89 77,800
5 10,000 0.65 6,500
NPV 4,300
This is fairly close to zero. It is also positive, which means that the internal rate of return is more than
9%. We can use 9% as one of our two NPVs close to zero, although for greater accuracy, we should
try 10% or even 11% to find an NPV even closer to zero if we can. As a guess, it might be worth trying
12% next, to see what the NPV is. Again, we will need to calculate our own discount factors.
1 1
PV factor for 5 years at 12%
=
0.12
1−
[
(1.12)5 ]
=3.605
PV factor at 12% for year 5 = 1/(1.12)5 = 0.567
Try 12%
Year Cash flow PV factor PV of cash flow

£ 12% £
0 (80,000) 1.000 (80,000)
1–5 20,000 3.605 72,100
5 10,000 0.567 5,670
NPV (2,230)
This is fairly close to zero and negative. The internal rate of return is therefore greater than 9%
(positive NPV of £4,300) but less than 12% (negative NPV of £2,230).
Note: If the first NPV is positive, choose a higher rate for the next calculation to get a negative NPV.
If the first NPV is negative, choose a lower rate for the next calculation.

4,300
So IRR = 9 +
[ 4,300 + 2,230 ]
× (12−9) % = 10.98%, say 11%
If it is company policy to undertake investments which are expected to yield 10% or more, this
project would be undertaken. An alternative approach would be to calculate the NPV at 10%. As it
would be positive it would tell us that the IRR is greater than 10% and therefore the project should be
accepted.
Interactive question 4: IRR
Time £
0 Investment (4,000)
1 Receipts 1,200
2 Receipts 1,410
3 Receipts 1,875
4 Receipts 1,150
Requirement
Calculate the IRR of the project above and complete the box below.
The project IRR is %
5.4 NPV and IRR compared

The IRR method has a number of advantages and disadvantages when compared with the NPV
method.
5.4.1 Advantages of IRR method

• The main advantage is that the information it provides is more easily understood by managers,
especially non-financial managers. ‘The project will be expected to have an initial capital outlay of
£100,000, and to earn a yield of 25%. This is in excess of the target yield of 15% for investments’ is
easier to understand than ‘The project will cost £100,000 and have an NPV of £30,000 when
discounted at the minimum required rate of 15%’.
• A discount rate does not have to be specified before the IRR can be calculated. A hurdle discount
rate is simply required which is then compared with the IRR.
5.4.2 Disadvantages of IRR method

• If managers were given information about both ARR and IRR, it might be easy to get their relative
meaning and significance mixed up.
• It ignores the relative size of investments. Both projects below have an IRR of 18%.
Project A Project B
£ £
Cost, year 0 350,000 35,000
Annual savings, Years 1–6 100,000 10,000
Clearly, project A is bigger (10 times as big) and so more ‘profitable’, but if the only information on
which the projects were judged were to be their IRR of 18%, project B would be made to seem just as
beneficial as project A, which is not the case.

• When discount rates are expected to differ over the life of the project, such variations can be
incorporated easily into NPV calculations, but not into IRR calculations.
• There are problems with using the IRR when the project has non-conventional cash flows (see
section 5.5) or when deciding between mutually exclusive projects (see section 5.6).
5.5 Non-conventional cash flows
One of the professional skills assessed in the ACA exams is the ability to ‘Identify inconsistencies and
contradictory information.’ This could include non-conventional cash flows, where the IRR method is
not recommended.
The projects we have considered so far have had conventional or normal cash flows (an initial cash
outflow followed by a series of inflows) and in such circumstances the NPV and IRR methods give
the same accept or reject decision. When flows vary from this, they are termed non-conventional. The
following project has non-conventional cash flows.
Year Project X
£’000
0 (1,900)
1 4,590
2 (2,735)
Project X has two IRRs, as shown by the diagram which follows.

NPV
£'000
40
30
Positive
20
10
0
5 10 20 30 40 Cost of
–10 capital %
–20
Negative
–30
–40
Figure 11.3: Non-conventional cash flows
Suppose that the required rate of return on project X is 10%, but that the IRR of 7% is used to decide
whether to accept or reject the project. The project would be rejected, since it appears that it can
only yield 7%. The diagram shows, however, that between rates of 7% and 35% the project should
be accepted. Using the IRR of 35% would produce the correct decision to accept the project. Lack of

knowledge of multiple IRRs could therefore lead to serious errors in the decision of whether to
accept or reject a project.
In general, if the sign of the net cash flow changes in successive periods (inflow to outflow or vice
versa), it is possible for the calculations to produce up to as many IRRs as there are sign changes.
The use of the IRR is therefore not recommended in circumstances in which there are non-
conventional cash flow patterns (unless the decision maker is aware of the existence of multiple
IRRs). The NPV method, on the other hand, gives clear, unambiguous results whatever the cash flow
pattern.
Before moving on to the worked example you might like to check that the IRRs of project X are
indeed 7% and 35%. Apply the relevant discount factors to the project cash flows and on both
occasions you should arrive at an NPV of approximately zero.
Context example: Sketching an NPV graph with non-conventional cash flows

Two projects have estimated cash flows as follows.
Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 IRR

£ £ £
Project C (4,000) 25,000 (25,000) 25% and 400%
Project D 1,000 (1,600) 1,200 –
To clear up the confusion about whether the projects are acceptable when using IRR draw a graph.
To find the starting point on the vertical axis find the NPV at 0% (ie, add up the cash flows).
NPV +
600 D
0% Discount rate
25% 400%
NPV –
4,000
Project C is acceptable for discount rates between 25% and 400%.

The graph for project D starts at +600 on the vertical axis (the NPV at 0% = the sum of the cash flows).
The graph does not cut the horizontal axis at all because there is no IRR. Therefore, the IRR decision
rule cannot be used for project D.
5.6 Mutually exclusive projects

The IRR and NPV methods can give conflicting rankings when assessing which project should be
given priority. Let us suppose that a company with a cost of capital of 16% is considering two
mutually exclusive options, option A and option B. The cash flows for each are as follows.
Year Option A Option B

£ £
0 Capital outlay (10,200) (35,250)
1 Net cash inflow 6,000 18,000

Year Option A Option B
£ £
The NPV of each project is calculated below. Use the formula 1/(1+r)n to calculate the discount
factors.
Option A Option B
Year Discount factor Cash flow Present value Cash flow Present value
16% £ £ £ £
0 1.000 (10,200) (10,200) (35,250) (35,250)
1 0.862 6,000 5,172 18,000 15,516
2 0.743 5,000 3,715 15,000 11,145
3 0.641 3,000 1,923 15,000 9,615
NPV = + 610 NPV = + 1,026
The IRR of Option A is 20%, while the IRR of Option B is only 18% (workings not shown).
On a comparison of NPVs, Option B would be preferred, but on a comparison of IRRs, Option A
would be preferred.
The preference should go to Option B because with the higher NPV it creates more wealth than
Option A.
Interactive question 5: Sketching NPV profiles

Use the working table below to deduce the data required to sketch the NPV profiles of projects A
and B on the scales provided.
5.1 Complete the following table.
Cash flows
NPV at NPV at NPV at
Project Year 0 Year 1 IRR 0% 10% 30%
£ £ £ £ £
A (1,000) 1,250 25%
B (100) 140 40%
5.2 Sketch the NPV profiles.

NPV
250
200
100
0
10 20 30 40 50 Discount
-50 rate %
5.3 At what discount rate do the two projects earn the same NPV?
5.7 Reinvestment assumption

An assumption underlying the NPV method is that any net cash inflows generated during the life of
the project will be reinvested elsewhere at the cost of capital (that is, the discount rate). The IRR
method, on the other hand, assumes these cash flows can be reinvested elsewhere to earn a return
equal to the IRR of the original project.
In the example in section 5.6, the NPV method assumes that the cash inflows of £6,000, £5,000 and
£3,000 for option A will be reinvested at the cost of capital of 16% whereas the IRR method assumes
they will be reinvested at 20%. If the IRR is considerably higher than the cost of capital this is an
unlikely assumption. In theory, a firm will have accepted all projects which provide a return in excess
of the cost of capital and any other funds which become available can only be reinvested at the cost
of capital. (This is the assumption implied in the NPV rule.) If the assumption is not valid the IRR
method overestimates the real return.
6 Environmental costing
Section overview
• The impact on the environment of new ventures should be considered as part of the investment
appraisal process.
• Environmental costs can be classified as prevention, appraisal, internal failure and external failure
costs.
6.1 Importance of environmental costs

There are, of course, ethical reasons why environmental costs are important to the management
accountant. For example, using energy generates carbon dioxide emissions, and these contribute to
climate change and threaten the future of our planet. Management accountants, however, should
also consider environmental costs for the following reasons.
• Identifying environmental costs associated with individual products, services or processes helps
with correct product or service pricing. Correct pricing helps to increase profitability.

• Poor environmental behaviour can result in fines, increased liability to environmental taxes and
damage to the business’ reputation.
• Recording environmental costs is important, as some may require regulatory compliance. Most
Western countries now have laws to cover land-use planning, smoke emissions, water pollution
and destruction of animals and natural habitats.
• Saving energy generally leads to cost savings.
Management information should include the identification of environmental costs and monitoring of
resource usage and consideration of environmental impacts should be accounted for as part of
capital investment decisions.
6.2 Environmental cost classification

As part of recording and monitoring environmental costs, it useful to classify the costs in an
environmental report as suggested by Hansen and Mendoza (1999).
(a) Environmental prevention costs are the costs required to eliminate environmental impacts
before they occur. For example, forming environmental policies, performing site and feasibility
studies, staff training.
(b) Environmental appraisal costs are the costs involved with establishing whether activities are
complying with environmental standards and policies. For example, developing performance
measures, monitoring, testing and inspection costs, site survey costs.
(c) Environmental internal failure costs are the costs of activities that must be undertaken when
contaminants and waste have been created by a business but not released into the environment.
Examples include maintaining pollution equipment and recycling scrap.
(d) Environmental external failure costs are the costs that arise when a business releases harmful
waste into the environment. A business can harm its reputation by doing this. Examples include
cleaning up oil spills or decontaminating land.

Summary
Investment appraisal
Discounted cash Non-discounting

flow techniques techniques
Discounted
Allowing for the
payback Accounting
time value of money period Payback rate of
method return (ARR)
Net present Internal rate Uses

value (NPV) of return (IRR) Uses cash accounting
flows profits
Inconsistency between
NPV and IRR as
decision tools
Superiority of NPV

indicated.
1. Can you calculate and list the advantages and disadvantages of the payback period?
(Topic 2)
2. Can you calculate and list the advantages and disadvantages of the ARR? (Topic 3)
3. What does a positive NPV mean? (Topic 4)
4. What is an annuity? (Topic 4)
5. Can you calculate non-standard discount rates? (Topic 4)
6. What is the main advantage of the NPV method? (Topic 4)
7. Can you calculate and list the advantages and disadvantages of the IRR? (Topic 5)
8. What are the four classifications of environmental cost? (Topic 6)

questions in the Investment appraisal techniques chapter of the Management Information Question

Self-test questions

1 The payback period takes some account of the time value of money by:
A placing greatest value on £1 receivable in the first year and progressively less on £1 received in
each subsequent year.
B placing least value on £1 receivable in the first year and progressively more on £1 received in
each subsequent year.
C placing the same value on £1 receivable up to the payback period and no value on subsequent
receipts.
D placing the same value on each £1 receivable over the life of a project.
2 A project has the following cash flows.
Year £
0 (40,000)
1 15,000
2 15,000
3 15,000
4 15,000
Requirement
If the company were to discover that the cash inflow in year 4 had been overestimated, what would
be the effect on the project’s internal rate of return (IRR) and payback period if the error were
corrected?
A IRR: Decrease; Payback period: No change
B IRR: Decrease; Payback period: Increase
C IRR: Increase; Payback period: No change
D IRR: Increase; Payback period: Increase
3 A project requires an initial investment in equipment of £100,000 and will produce eight equal
annual cash flows of £40,000. The investment has no scrap value and straight-line depreciation is
used.
Requirement
What are the payback period and accounting rate of return (ARR), based on the initial investment?
A Payback: 2 years 6 months; ARR: 27.5%
B Payback: 2 years 6 months; ARR: 40%
C Payback: 3 years 6 months; ARR: 27.5%
D Payback: 3 years 6 months; ARR: 40%
4 £50,000 is to be spent on a machine having a life of five years and a residual value of £5,000.
Operating cash inflows will be the same each year, except for Year 1 when the figure will be £6,000.
The accounting rate of return on the initial investment has been calculated at 30% pa.
Requirement
What is the payback period?
A 2.75 years
B 2.55 years
C 2.54 years

D 2.33 years
5 A firm has two projects available. Project 1 has two internal rates of return of 15% and 30%, and
project 2 has two internal rates of return of 10% and 20%. At a zero discount rate project 1 has a
positive NPV and project 2 has a negative NPV. The appropriate discount rate for both projects is
25%.
Requirement
Which of the following decisions about projects 1 and 2 should be taken?
A Project 1: Accept; Project 2: Accept
B Project 1: Accept; Project 2: Reject
C Project 1: Reject; Project 2: Accept
D Project 1: Reject; Project 2: Reject
6 A project has a normal pattern of cash flows (ie, an initial outflow followed by several years of
inflows).
Requirement
What would be the effects of an increase in the company’s cost of capital on the internal rate of
return (IRR) of the project and its payback period?
A IRR: Increase; Payback period: Increase
B IRR: Increase; Payback period: No change
C IRR: No change; Payback period: Increase
D IRR: No change; Payback period: No change
7 Which two of the following statements about the use of IRR as an investment appraisal method are
incorrect?
A It always establishes if a single project is worthwhile
B It always establishes which of several projects to accept
C It ignores the relative size of the investment
8 Consider the following graph.
NPV
Pro
ject
X
Proj
ectY
0 15% Discount rate
Requirement
Which of the following statements is true?
A Project Y has a higher internal rate of return than project X
B At a discount rate of less than 15%, project Y is preferred to project X
C Project X is preferred to project Y irrespective of the discount rate
D Project Y is preferred to project X irrespective of the discount rate

9 A firm is evaluating the following four mutually-exclusive projects. All four projects involve the same
initial outlay and have positive net present values. The projects generate the following cash inflows
during their lives:
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4

£ £ £ £
Project A £500 £400 £600 £300
Project B £300 £600 £500 £400
Project C £500 £300 £600 £400
Project D £300 £500 £600 £400
Requirement
Which project should be chosen?
A Project A
B Project B
C Project C
D Project D
10 An investment of £100,000 now is expected to generate equal annual cash flows to perpetuity of
£15,000 pa, commencing in five years’ time.
Requirement
If the discount rate is 10% pa, what is the net present value of the investment (to the nearest £10)?
A –£15,330
B –£6,860
C +£2,450
D +£50,000
this chapter.


The equipment that should be purchased is item X .
Both projects would earn a return in excess of 25%, but since item X would earn a bigger ARR, it
would be preferred to item Y, even though the profits from Y would be higher by an average of
£10,000 a year.
Item X Item Y
£ £
Total profit over life of equipment:
Before depreciation 160,000 280,000
After depreciation 80,000 130,000
Average annual accounting profit 16,000 26,000
Average investment = (capital cost + disposal value)/2 60,000 100,000
ARR, based on average investment 26.7% 26%
Multiplied by 12%
Year Cash flow discount factor Present value
£ £
2 40,000 1/(1.12)2 = 0.797 31,880
3 30,000 1/(1.12)3 = 0.712 21,360
Total present value 53,240
Year Cash flow 16.5% discount factor Present value
£ £
0 (280,000) 1.00 (280,000)
1 149,000 1/(1.165) = 0.86 128,140
2 128,000 1/(1.165)2 = 0.74 94,720
3 84,000 1/(1.165)3 = 0.63 52,920
4 70,000 1/(1.165)4 = 0.54 37,800
Net present value 33,580

The project IRR is 15 %
The total receipts are £5,635 giving a total profit of £1,635 and average profits of £409. The average
investment is £2,000. The ARR is £409 ÷ £2,000 = 20%. Two thirds of the ARR is approximately 14%.
The initial estimate of the IRR that we shall try is therefore 14%.
Try 14% Try 16%

Discount Discount
Time Cash flow factor PV factor PV
£ 14% £ 16% £
0 (4,000) 1.000 (4,000) 1.000 (4,000)
1 1,200 0.877 1,052 0.862 1,034
2 1,410 0.769 1,084 0.743 1,048
3 1,875 0.675 1,266 0.641 1,202
4 1,150 0.592 681 0.552 635
NPV 83 NPV (81)
The IRR must be less than 16%, but higher than 14%. The NPVs at these two costs of capital will be
used to estimate the IRR.
Using the interpolation formula:
83
IRR = 14% +
( 83 + 81
× (16%−14%)
) = 15.01%
The IRR is, in fact, exactly 15%.

5.1
Cash flows
NPV at NPV at NPV at
Project Year 0 Year 1 IRR 0% 10% 30%
£ £ £ £ £
A (1,000) 1,250 25% 250 136 (38)
B (100) 140 40% 40 27 8

NPV
250
200
100
40
10 20 30 40 B 50 Discount
–50 A rate %
5.3 The two projects earn the same NPV at the point where the lines intersect, which is at a discount
rate of approximately 23%.

C placing the same value on £1 receivable up to the payback period and no value on subsequent
receipts.
Statement A describes how DCF methods account for the time of money. Statement B is the reverse
of statement A and is incorrect because it is not taking account of the time value of money at all.
Statement D is incorrect because the payback method ignores cash flows after the payback period.
A IRR: Decrease; Payback period: No change
The payback period is not affected because the Year 4 cash flow occurs after the payback period,
however the IRR would be reduced because of the lower cash inflow in Year 4.
A Payback: 2 years 6 months; ARR: 27.5%
Payback period = £100,000/£40,000

= 2.5 years
Annual depreciation = £100,000/8
= £12,500
Annual profit = £40,000 – £12,500
= £27,500
ARR = (£27,500/£100,000) × 100%
= 27.5%
C 2.54 years
ARR = (Average profit/initial investment) × 100

0.3 = Average profit/£50,000
Average profit = 0.3 × £50,000
= £15,000
Total profit for five years = 5 × £15,000
= £75,000
Total cash inflows equals total profit plus total
depreciation = £(75,000 + 45,000)
= £120,000
Cash inflow for year 1 = £6,000
Cash flow, years 2 to 5 = £114,000
Annual inflow, years 2 to 5 = £28,500
Payback period = 1 + £(50,000 – 6,000)/£28,500
= 2.54 years

D Project 1: Reject; Project 2: Reject
The NPV profiles can be sketched as follows.
NPV Project 1 NPV Project 2
15 30 i 10 20 i
At a discount rate of 25%, both projects have a negative NPV therefore they should be rejected.
D IRR: No change; Payback period: No change
Both the internal rate of return and the payback period are independent of the cost of capital.
A It always establishes if a single project is worthwhile
B It always establishes which of several projects to accept
A is not true because IRR cannot be used to assess projects that do not have an IRR.
B is not true because NPV is used for mutually exclusive projects.
A Project Y has a higher internal rate of return than project X
Statement A is correct because the NPV profile of project Y crosses the horizontal axis at a higher
discount rate than that for project X.
Statement B is incorrect because at discount rates less than 15% project X has a higher NPV and is
therefore preferred.
Statements C and D are incorrect because at discount rates less than 15% project X is preferred,
whereas at rates greater than 15% project Y is preferred.
A Project A
By a comparison of the cash flows A is better than C (it gives the same inflows in Year 1 and Year 3,
but returns £100 higher in Year 2 and £100 lower in Year 4).
B is also better than D (same flows in Years 1 and 4, but returns £100 more in Year 2, and £100 less in
Year 3).
By a similar argument A is better than B; therefore, A is the preferred project.
C +£2,450
–£100,000 + (£15,000/0.1) × 0.683 (Year 4 factor at 10%) = £2,450

Appendices
Discount tables
Interest rate p.a. Number of years Present value of £1 Present value of £1
receivable at the end of receivable at the end of
n years each of n years
r n
1 1
r[1−
(1 + r)n ]
1% 1 0.990 0.990
2 0.980 1.970
3 0.971 2.941
4 0.961 3.902
5 0.951 4.853
6 0.942 5.795
7 0.933 6.728
8 0.923 7.652
9 0.914 8.566
10 0.905 9.471
5% 1 0.952 0.952
2 0.907 1.859
3 0.864 2.723
4 0.823 3.546
5 0.784 4.329
6 0.746 5.076
7 0.711 5.786
8 0.677 6.463
9 0.645 7.108
10 0.614 7.722
10% 1 0.909 0.909
2 0.826 1.736
3 0.751 2.487
4 0.683 3.170
5 0.621 3.791
6 0.564 4.355
7 0.513 4.868
8 0.467 5.335
ICAEW 2023 Appendix 433

Interest rate p.a. Number of years Present value of £1 Present value of £1
receivable at the end of receivable at the end of
n years each of n years
r n
1 1
r[1−
(1 + r)n ]
9 0.424 5.759
10 0.386 6.145
15% 1 0.870 0.870
2 0.756 1.626
3 0.658 2.283
4 0.572 2.855
5 0.497 3.352
6 0.432 3.784
7 0.376 4.160
8 0.327 4.487
9 0.284 4.772
10 0.247 5.019
20% 1 0.833 0.833
2 0.694 1.528
3 0.579 2.106
4 0.482 2.589
5 0.402 2.991
6 0.335 3.326
7 0.279 3.605
8 0.233 3.837
9 0.194 4.031
10 0.162 4.192

Notes
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Chapter 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Chapter 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Chapter 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Chapter 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Chapter 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Chapter 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ICAEW 2023 Appendix 435

Glossary of terms
A responsibility centre:
A department or function whose performance is the direct responsibility of a specific manager.
Absorption costing: The direct (or prime) cost of an item plus a fair share of the indirect (overhead)
costs.
Accounting rate of return: A measure of the expected average annual accounting profits from an
investment expressed as a percentage of the value of that investment. Either the initial or average
value of the investment can be used. Also called return on investment (ROI) or return on capital
employed (ROCE).
Activity-based budgeting: An approach to budgeting which uses cost drivers as a basis for
preparing budgets.
Activity-based costing: An alternative to traditional absorption costing where overheads are related
to output using multiple cost drivers (activities which cause the overheads).
Allocation: The process by which overheads are charged directly to cost centres.
Annuity: A constant annual cash flow, for a number of years.
Apportionment: A process where indirect (overhead) costs are spread fairly between cost centres.
Artificial intelligence (AI): Artificial intelligence (AI) is the use of computers to do tasks which are
thought to require human intelligence. It typically refers to tasks such as learning, knowing, sensing,
reasoning, creating things, and generating and understanding language.
Average cost: Defined by CIMA as a method ‘used to price issues of goods or materials at the
weighted average cost of all units held.’ (CIMA Official Terminology, 2005)
The cumulative weighted average pricing method calculates a weighted average price for all units in
inventory. Issues are priced at this average cost, and the balance of inventory remaining would have
the same unit valuation. The average price is determined by dividing the total cost by the total
number of units.
A new weighted average price is calculated whenever a new delivery of materials is received into
store. This is the key feature of cumulative weighted average pricing.
Balanced scorecard approach: An approach to the provision of information to management to help

strategic policy formulation and achievement. It emphasises the need to provide the user with a set
of information which addresses all relevant areas of performance in an objective and unbiased
fashion. The information provided may include both financial and non-financial elements, and cover
areas such as profitability, customer satisfaction, internal efficiency and learning and growth.
Batch costing: A costing method applied where a group (batch) of identical items is treated as a cost
unit. The cost per item = total batch cost ÷ number of items in the batch.
Big data: The term that describes those ‘datasets whose size is beyond the ability of typical database
software to capture, store, manage and analyse.’ (McKinsey Global Institute, Big data: The next
frontier for innovation, competition and productivity)
An alternative definition is provided by Gartner.
Big data: It concerns ‘high-volume, high-velocity and high-variety information assets that demand
cost-effective, innovative forms of information processes for enhanced insight and decision making.’
(Gartner, www.gartner.com/it-glossary/big-data/)
ICAEW 2023 Glossary of terms 439

Blanket absorption rate: An absorption rate used throughout a factory for all products irrespective of
the department in which they were produced.
Breakeven analysis: An analysis of costs, volume and profit at various levels of activity. Also known as
cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis.
Breakeven point: Number of units sold at which neither a profit nor a loss is made.
Budget: A quantitative statement, for a defined period of time, which may include planned revenues,
expenses, assets, liabilities and cash flows.
Budget manual: A collection of instructions governing the responsibilities of persons and the
procedures, forms and records relating to the preparation and use of budgetary data.
Budget slack: Deliberately underestimating revenues or overestimating costs in order to ensure that
achieving the budget is easy.
Cash budget: A cash budget is a statement in which estimated future cash receipts and payments are
tabulated in such a way as to show the forecast cash balance of a business at defined intervals.
Cash operating cycle: The period of time which elapses between the point at which cash begins to
be spent on the production of a product and the collection of cash from the customer who
purchases it.
Cause and effect relationship: A cause and effect relationship (also known as a causal relationship)
exists between two variables when a change in one causes the change in the other.
Cloud accounting: An application of cloud computing where accountancy software is provided in the
cloud by a service provider.
Cloud accounting applications can be hosted applications or software as a service (SaaS). Hosted
applications involve using your own desktop or server accounting application and accessing the
accounting software using the internet. Using SaaS involves using a cloud accounting supplier’s
server where the accounting software and data are stored.
Cloud computing: “Is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a
shared pool of configurable computing resources (eg, networks, servers, storage, applications, and
services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service
provider interaction”. (US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology)
Contract costing: A form of specific order costing where costs are attributed to contracts.
Contribution: The difference between the selling price and all the variable costs of a product.
Controllable cost: A cost that can be influenced by management decisions and actions.
Corporate responsibility: The actions, activities and obligations of business in achieving

sustainability.
Cost behaviour: The way in which costs are affected by changes in the level of activity where ‘activity’
can be volume of output, number of production runs etc.
Cost centre: Any part of an organisation that incurs costs.
Cost driver: Something which causes costs to change eg, volume of output, number of production
runs etc.

Cost object: Anything for which we are trying to ascertain the cost.
Cost pool: A grouping of costs relating to a particular activity in an activity-based costing system.
Cost unit: The basic measure of product or service for which costs are determined.
Cost-plus pricing: A method of determining the sales price by calculating the full (absorption) cost of
the product and adding a percentage mark-up for profit.
Current ratio: Current assets ÷ current liabilities
Cyclical variations: Cyclical variations are medium- to long-term patterns such as economic booms
and recessions. In practice, they are difficult to predict and model.
Data analytics: The process of collecting, organising and analysing large sets of data to discover
patterns and other information which an organisation can use for its future business decisions.
Closely linked to the term data analytics is data mining.
Data bias: Data is biased when it is not representative of the population. Data may be biased before
its analysed just because the method of collecting the data means that some members of the
population have a lower (or zero) chance of being included in the sample. People who analyse data
and reach conclusions can also introduce bias.
Data mining: The process of sorting through data to identify patterns and relationships between
different items. Data mining software, using statistical algorithms to discover correlations and
patterns, is frequently used on large databases. In essence, it is the process of turning raw data into
useful information. Predictive analytics is a type of data mining that aims to predict future events.
Data outliers: Data outliers are observations that are abnormal and can therefore significantly distort
the results. Sometimes outliers are removed from the data set before applying forecasting
techniques.
Direct cost: A cost that can be traced in full to the cost unit.
Discounted cash flow: Converting future sums of money to their present value, which is the cash
equivalent now of those future sums.
Discounted payback method: How long it will take for a project to pay back the capital outlay on a
discounted cash flow basis.
ESG: ESG (environmental, social and governance) is a set of criteria used to measure and report
sustainability. Therefore, ESG reporting involves disclosing operational data on areas of ESG.
Economic order quantity (EOQ): The order quantity which minimises inventory costs. The EOQ can
be calculated using a table, graph or formula.
FIFO (first in, first out): A method of pricing materials based on the cost of the oldest units held
FIFO assumes that materials are issued out of inventory in the order in which they were delivered into
inventory issues are priced at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in inventory.
Factoring organisation: Takes over the management of the trade debts owed to its client (a business
customer) on the client’s behalf. The factor company collects the debts and provides an immediate
cash advance of a proportion of the money it is due to collect.

Fixed budget: A budget which is set for a single activity level.
Fixed costs: Costs that, within a relevant range of activity levels, are not affected by increases or
decreases in the level of activity.
Fixed overhead expenditure variance: The difference between the budgeted fixed overhead
expenditure and actual fixed overhead expenditure.
The fixed overhead expenditure variance is (Budgeted fixed overhead cost – Actual fixed overhead
cost)
Flexible budget: A budget which, by recognising different cost behaviour patterns, is designed to
change as volume of activity changes.
Functional budgets: The budgets for the various functions of the business eg, production, marketing,
sales, purchasing budgets.
Goal congruence: When individuals’ goals and company goals coincide.
Governance: The way organisations are directed and controlled by senior officers.
Imposed budget: A budget set without allowing the budget holder to participate in the budgeting
process.
Incremental budgeting: Basing this year’s budget on last year’s budget with adjustments for changes
and inflation.
Indirect cost (or overhead): A cost that is incurred which cannot be traced directly and in full to the
cost unit.
Internal rate of return: The discount rate at which a project has a zero NPV.
Investment centre: A section of an organisation whose manager has some say in investment policy in
their area of operations as well as being responsible for costs and revenues.
Invoice discounting: The purchase (by the provider of the discounting service) of a company’s trade
debts, at a discount. Invoice discounting enables a company to raise finance based on their expected
invoice receipts. The invoice discounter does not take over the administration of the client’s sales
ledger, so the client remains in control of debt collection.
Job costing: The costing method used where work is undertaken to customers’ special requirements
and each order is of comparatively short duration.
Just-in-time (JIT): A system whose objective is to produce or to procure products or components as

they are required by a customer or for use, rather than for inventory. A JIT system is a ‘pull’ system,
which responds to demand, in contrast to a ‘push’ system, in which inventories act as buffers
between the different elements of the system, such as purchasing, production and sales.
Just-in-time production: A system which is driven by demand for finished products whereby each
component on a production line is produced only when needed for the next stage.
Just-in-time purchasing: A system in which material purchases are contracted so that the receipt and
usage of material coincide to the maximum extent possible.
LIFO (last in, first out): A method of pricing materials based on the cost of the newest units held

LIFO assumes that materials are issued out of inventory in the reverse order from that in which they
were delivered.
Labour efficiency variance: The difference between the hours that should have been worked for the
number of units actually produced, and the actual number of hours worked, valued at the standard
labour rate per hour.
Labour rate variance: The difference between the standard cost and the actual cost for the actual
number of labour hours paid.
Labour total variance: Measures the difference between the standard labour cost of the output
produced and the actual labour cost incurred.
Life cycle costing: A costing method that takes into account all of the costs and revenues of a
product over its entire life span.
Limiting factor: Anything that limits the activity of a business.
Linear regression analysis: A technique for estimating the equation of a line of best fit.
Machine learning (ML): Machine learning is a field within AI whereby computers learn to do things
rather than follow pre-programmed rules. Through machine learning techniques, computers find
patterns in data and use statistical models to classify or make predictions about other pieces of data.
There are different types of learning (eg, supervised, unsupervised or reinforced) but all draw on
large sets of training data that enable the computer to learn.
Management accounting systems: Provide information specifically for the use of managers within an
organisation.
Management by exception: Defined by CIMA as the ‘practice of concentrating on activities that

require attention and ignoring those which appear to be conforming to expectations. Typically
standard cost variances or variances from budget are used to identify those activities that require
attention.’ (CIMA Official Terminology)
Margin of safety: The difference in units between the budgeted sales volume and the breakeven
Marginal cost: The variable cost of one unit of product or service.
Material price variance: The difference between the standard cost and the actual cost for the actual
quantity of material used or purchased.
Material total variance: ‘Measures the difference between the standard material cost of the output
produced and the actual material cost incurred.’ (CIMA Official Terminology, 2005)
Material usage variance: The difference between the standard quantity of materials that should have
been used for the number of units actually produced, and the actual quantity of materials used,
valued at the standard cost per unit of material.
Moving average: A moving average is an average of the data of a fixed number of periods. The aim
of calculating moving averages is to remove the effect of seasonal variations, for use in forecasting
long-term trends.
Mutually exclusive: If two events are mutually exclusive, it means that they cannot both occur at the
same time.

Net present value: The sum of the present value of the benefits (revenues or savings) from an
investment, less the present value of expenditures.
Operating statement: A regular report for management of actual costs and revenues, usually
showing variances from budget.
Opportunity cost: The value of the benefit sacrificed when one course of action is chosen in
preference to an alternative.
Outsourcing: The use of external suppliers as a source of finished products, components or services.
This is also known as contract manufacturing or sub-contracting.
Overhead absorption: The process whereby overhead costs allocated and apportioned to
production cost centres (in traditional costing systems) or cost pools (in activity-based costing
systems) are added to direct unit, job or batch costs. Overhead absorption is sometimes called
overhead recovery.
Participative budgeting: Budgeting style which allows all budget holders to participate in setting
their own budget.
Payback: The time required for the cash inflows from a capital investment project to equal the cash
outflows.
Period cost: A cost relating to a period of time.
Perpetuity: A constant annual cash flow that continues forever (a perpetual annuity).
Prime cost: The sum of all the direct costs.
Principal budget factor: The budgeted factor which limits the activities of an organisation.
Process costing: A form of costing applicable to continuous processes where process costs are
attributed to the number of units produced.
Product cost: The cost of a finished product made up of its cost elements.
Professional scepticism: Assessing information, estimates and explanations critically, with a

questioning mind, and being alert to possible misstatements due to error or fraud.
Profit centre: Any section of an organisation, for example, a division of a company, which earns
revenue and incurs costs. The profitability of the section can therefore be measured.
Quick ratio: Current assets less inventories ÷ current liabilities
Random variations: Random variations are the product of randomness and so cannot be predicted.
Residual income: Profit less a notional interest charge for invested capital.
Residual value: The disposal value of equipment at the end of its life, or its disposal cost.
Responsibility accounting: A system of accounting that segregates revenue and costs into areas of
organisation.

Return on investment (ROI): Also called return on capital employed (ROCE). It is calculated as
(profit/capital employed) × 100% and it shows how much profit has been made in relation to the
amount of resources invested.
Revenue centre: A section of an organisation which creates revenue but has no responsibility for
production. A sales department is an example.
Rolling budget: A budget continually updated to add a new budget period as the most recent one
has finished.
Sales price variance: A measure of the effect on expected profit of a different selling price to
standard selling price. It is calculated as the difference between what the sales revenue should have
been for the actual quantity sold, and the actual sales revenue.
Sales volume variance: The difference between the actual units sold and the budgeted (planned)
quantity, valued at the standard contribution per unit.
Scrap: Discarded material having some value.
Seasonal variation: Seasonal variations are short-term patterns that occur during different periods,
such as rush hour during the day, weekdays during the week, or warmer months of the year.
Semi-variable, semi-fixed or mixed costs: Costs that are part-fixed and part-variable and are
therefore partly affected by changes in the level of activity.
Sensitivity analysis: Assesses how sensitive a budget is to changes in the budget assumptions.
Shared service centre: A centre responsible for operational tasks such as accounting, for multiple
parts of the same organisation.
Standard costing: Defined by the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants as a ‘control

technique that reports variances by comparing actual costs to pre-set standards so facilitating action
through management by exception’. (CIMA Official Terminology, 2005)
Step fixed cost: A cost that is fixed for a certain range of activity but increases to a new fixed level
once a critical level of activity is reached.
Structured data: Data that is contained within a field in a data record or file (eg, databases and
spreadsheets).
Sustainability: The ability to ‘meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs’ (Brundtland Report 1987).
Sustainable development: The process by which we achieve sustainability.
Target costing approach: A process that begins with the development of a product concept followed
by the determination of the price customers would be willing to pay for that concept. The desired
profit margin is deducted from the price, leaving a figure that represents total cost. This is the target
cost.
The relevant range: The range of activity levels within which assumed cost behaviour patterns occur.
Time series: A time series is a series of observations recorded over time. Any pattern found in the
data is assumed to continue into the future and a forecast is produced. There are four components of
a time series: trend, seasonal variations, cyclical variations and random variations.

Time value of money: Recognises that £1 today is worth more than £1 at a future time, because the
£1 can be reinvested today to earn more money over time.
Transfer price: The amount charged by one part of an organisation for the provision of goods or
services to another part of the same organisation.
Trend: The trend is the long-term underlying movement in the data.
Uncontrollable cost: A cost that cannot be affected by management within a given time span.
Unstructured data: Data that is not easily contained within structured data fields, such as pictures,
videos, webpages, PDF files, emails or blogs.
Variable cost: A cost that increases or decreases as the level of activity increases or decreases.
Variable production overhead efficiency variance: The standard variable production overhead cost
of any change from the standard level of efficiency.
Variable production overhead expenditure variance: Measures the actual cost of any change from
the standard variable overhead rate per hour.
Variable production overhead total variance: Measures the difference between the variable
production overhead that should be used for actual output and the variable production overhead
actually used.
Variance: Defined by CIMA as ‘the difference between a planned, budgeted, or standard cost and
the actual cost incurred. The same comparisons may be made for revenues.’ (CIMA Official
Terminology, 2005)
Variance analysis: Defined as the ‘evaluation of performance by means of variances, whose timely
reporting should maximise the opportunity for managerial action’. (CIMA Official Terminology, 2005)
Working capital: The total of the current assets of a business less its current liabilities.
Zero-based budgeting: Involves preparing a budget for each cost centre from a zero base. Every
item of expenditure has to be justified in its entirety in order to be included in the next year’s budget.

Index
A Cash shortages, 249
ABC system, 242 Causal relationship, 192
Absorption, 79 Cause and effect relationship, 192
Absorption costing, 70, 116, 124 Cloud accounting, 280
Absorption rate, 79 Cloud computing, 280
Accounting rate of return, 397 Coefficient of correlation, 191
Activity-based budgeting, 206 Coefficient of determination, 191
Activity-based costing, 86 Communication, 173
Administration overhead, 13 Composite cost units, 11
Allocation, 70 Compounding, 400
Annuity, 404, 409 Continuous budgets, 204
Apportionment, 71 Contract costing, 90
Artificial intelligence, 201 Contribution, 112, 357
Assessing the liquidity position via ratios, 232 Contribution breakeven chart, 364
Authorisation, 173 Contribution ratio, 358
Average cost, 47 Control, 174
Control cycle, 272
B
Controllable cost, 20, 273
Balanced scorecard, 288
Coordination, 203
Balanced scorecard approach, 288
Corporate responsibility, 23
Bank overdrafts, 249
Correlation, 189
Batch costing, 91
Cost behaviour, 14
Beyond budgeting, 174
Cost behaviour patterns, 14
Big data, 198
Cost centre, 70, 276, 277, 282
Blanket absorption rate, 82
Cost driver, 87
Bottom-up style of budgeting, 203
Cost elements, 12
Breakeven analysis, 357
Cost object, 10
Breakeven charts, 362
Cost of holding cash, 249
Breakeven point, 357
Cost pool, 87
Budget, 173
Cost unit, 10
Budget bias, 204, 274, 275
Cost-plus pricing, 143
Budget committee, 176
Cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis, 357
Budget constrained, 274
Costs associated with holding inventory, 241
Budget cost allowance, 291
Costs of running out of cash, 249
Budget manual, 177
Credit control and collection policies, 245
Budget officer, 176
Credit insurance, 248
Budget period, 176
Credit rating, 246
Budget preparation, 177
Credit terms, 245
Budget slack, 204, 274
Cumulative weighted average pricing, 47
C Current ratio, 235, 282
Cash, 231 Curvilinear correlation, 191
Cash budget, 250 Cyclical variations, 193
Cash budgeting, 249
D
Cash float, 249
Data analytics, 198
Cash operating cycle, 237
ICAEW 2023 Index 449

Data bias, 207 H
Data mining, 198 High-low method, 186, 291
Data outliers, 196 Holding costs, 241
DCF yield, 411 Holding inventory, 241
Decentralisation, 275 Hopwood, 274
Direct cost, 11, 12
I
Direct expenses, 40
ICAEW ethical guidance, 21
Direct material, 40
Imposed budget, 202
Direct wages, 40
Incremental budgeting, 202
Discount factors, 401
Indirect cost, 12, 13, 40
Discounted cash flow, 401, 402
Inflation, 145, 239
Discounted payback method, 407
Inter-relationships between variances, 336
Discounting, 401
Internal rate of return, 411
Distribution overhead, 14
Interpolation method, 412
Divisionalisation, 275
Inventory, 232
Dual pricing, 153
Inventory control systems, 242
E Inventory turnover period, 233
Economic order quantity (EOQ), 242 Inventory valuation and profitability, 50
Exception principle, 273 Inventory-holding period, 237
Extrapolation, 17 Investing surplus funds, 249
Investment centre, 277, 278, 282, 287
F
Investment in working capital, 239
Factoring, 249
Invoice discounting, 247, 249
Factoring organisation, 247
Feedback, 272, 272 J
FIFO (first in, first out), 43 Job costing, 90
Financial accounting versus cost accounting, 8 Just-in-time (JIT), 94
Financing trade receivables, 247 Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing systems, 243
Finished goods inventory budget, 178 Just-in-time production, 94
Fixed budget, 290, 290 Just-in-time purchasing, 94
Fixed costs, 15, 112, 124, 291
K
Fixed overhead expenditure variance, 327
Key factor, 366
Fixed production overhead, 124
Key performance indicators (KPIs), 281
Flexible budget, 291
Forecast, 175 L
Forecasting, 186 Labour budget, 178
Full cost-plus pricing, 146 Labour efficiency variance, 323
Full costing, 70, 116 Labour rate variance, 323
Functional budgets, 178, 180 Labour total variance, 323
Fundamental principles, 21 Life cycle costing, 93
LIFO (last in, first out), 46
G
Limitations of working capital performance
Goal congruence, 150, 152, 273, 281, 284
measures, 240
Governance, 23
Limiting factor, 366
Linear regression analysis, 189

Linear relationship, 186 Overhead recovery rates, 80
Overtrading, 240
M
Machine learning, 201 P
Machine usage budget, 178 Participative budgeting, 203
Make or buy decisions, 372 Payables, 232
Management accounting systems, 9 Payables payment period, 233, 237
Management by exception, 319 Payback, 395
Managerial performance, 274 Payback period, 395
Margin, 148 Performance evaluation, 174
Margin of safety, 359 Period costs, 14, 112
Marginal cost, 112 Periodic review system, 242
Marginal costing, 112, 124 Periodic weighted average pricing, 49
Mark-up, 143, 148 Perpetual inventory methods, 243
Master budget, 178, 183 Perpetuity, 409
Material price variance, 321 Planning, 173
Material total variance, 321 Present value, 401
Material usage variance, 321 Prime cost, 12, 13, 40
Materials inventory budget, 178 Principal budget factor, 178
Materials usage budget, 178 Process costing, 91, 92
Mixed costs, 16 Product cost, 14
Moving average, 194 Product life cycle, 243
Multiple IRRs, 417 Product-based budgets, 205
Mutually exclusive, 395 Production budget, 178
Mutually exclusive projects, 395, 417 Production overhead, 13, 79
Production period, 237
N
Professional scepticism, 23
Net present value, 402
Profit and cash flows, 232
Net terminal value (NTV), 404
Profit centre, 277, 282
Non accounting, 274
Profit conscious, 274
Non-conventional cash flows, 416
Progress payments, 243
Non-financial performance measures, 288
Project screening, 394
Non-linear correlation, 191
Pull systems, 94
O Push systems, 94
Open book accounting, 145
Q
Operating leases, 249
Quick (liquidity) ratio, 235, 282
Operating statement, 329
Opportunity cost, 241, 249 R
Outsource, 243 Random variations, 193
Outsourcing, 372 Rate of inventory turnover, 233
Overhead, 13, 40 Raw materials holding period, 237
Overhead absorption, 79 Raw materials purchases budget, 178
Overhead absorption rate, 79 Re-order costs, 241
Overhead allocation, 70 Re-order level system, 242
Overhead apportionment, 71 Receivables, 231
ICAEW 2023 Index 451

Receivables collection period, 233, 237 Sustainable development, 23
Receivables factoring, 247
T
Receivables management, 247
Target costing, 93
Relevant range, 17
Target costing approach, 93
Residual income, 277, 278, 285
Terminal value, 400
Residual value, 395
Time series, 193
Resource allocation, 173
Time value of money, 396, 399, 406
Responsibility accounting, 19, 173, 276
Top-down style of budgeting, 202
Responsibility centre, 19, 276, 281
Trade credit, 243
Responsibility-based budgets, 205
Trade credit insurance, 248
Return, 231
Trade payables, 243
Return on capital employed, 278
Trade receivables, 245
Return on investment, 277, 283
Transaction-related cost drivers, 87
Revenue centre, 277, 282
Transfer price, 150, 277
Risk, 231
Trend, 193
Risk in working capital decisions, 236
Two-part transfer price, 153
Rolling budget, 174, 204
U
S
Uncontrollable cost, 20
Sales budget, 178
Unstructured data, 199
Sales price variance, 328
Sales volume variance, 328 V
Scrap, 395 Variable cost, 15, 291
Seasonal variation, 193 Variable overheads, 42
Second stage: service cost centre cost Variable production overhead efficiency
apportionment, 76 variance, 325
Selling overhead, 13 Variable production overhead expenditure
Semi-fixed, 16 variance, 325
Semi-variable, 16 Variable production overhead total variance, 325
Semi-variable costs, 291 Variance, 294, 320
Sensitivity analysis, 184 Variance analysis, 320
Service cost centres, 76 Volume-related cost drivers, 87
Settlement discounts, 245
W
Shared service centres (SSC), 279
Weighted average pricing, 47
Short-term bank loans, 249
What if?, 185
Shortage costs, 242
Working capital, 231, 237
Solutions to short-term liquidity problems, 241
Working capital ratios, 233
Specific order costing, 90
Standard cost, 318 Z
Standard costing, 183, 318 Zero-based budgeting, 204
Step fixed cost, 17
Strategic plans, 203
Structured data, 199
Sub-optimal decisions, 151
Subcontracting, 373
Sustainability, 23

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The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales

1 The fundamentals of costing 1

Discount tables 433

ICAEW 2023 Contents iii

iv Management Information ICAEW 2023

Ethics and professional scepticism

Syllabus area Weighting (%)

1 Costing and pricing; 5 Ethics 25

2 Budgeting and forecasting 25

3 Performance management and management information 25

ICAEW 2023 Introduction v

Syllabus and technical knowledge grids

Student support team

ICAEW Business and Finance Professional (BFP)

vi Management Information ICAEW 2023

Skill area Overall objective

Assimilating and using Understand a business or accounting situation, prioritise by

Concluding, Apply technical knowledge, skills and experience to support

ICAEW 2023 Introduction vii

The fundamentals of costing

Chapter study guidance

Topic Practical signiﬁcance Study approach Exam approach Interactive

1 What is cost Approach Many of the

2 Management Information ICAEW 2023

of expenditure Why do you think Therefore, you are

ICAEW 2023 1: The fundamentals of costing 3

3 Cost classiﬁcation for Learn the two Objective test

4 Management Information ICAEW 2023

making decisions (eg, graphs. Do not This question

5 Cost classiﬁcation for Skim through Objective test

6 Ethics and Work through the Objective test

7 Sustainability, Read through this Objective test

ICAEW 2023 1: The fundamentals of costing 5

6 Management Information ICAEW 2023

1.1 The cost accountant

1.2 Cost accounting and management accounting

1.3 Cost accounting systems

ICAEW 2023 1: The fundamentals of costing 7

1.4 Financial accounting versus cost accounting

Financial accounts Management accounts

Most ﬁnancial accounting information is of a Management accounts incorporate non-

Financial accounts present an essentially Management accounts are both a historical

8 Management Information ICAEW 2023

2 Basic cost accounting concepts

2.1 Functions and departments

Production Administration Marketing

Mixing Baking Stores

Figure 1.1: Manufacturing organisation structure

ICAEW 2023 1: The fundamentals of costing 9

Service personnel Administration Marketing

Front ofﬁce Housekeeping Maintenance Catering

Figure 1.2: Service organisation structure

2.2 Cost objects

Examples of cost objects include:

2.3 Cost units

Organisation Possible cost unit

Steelworks Tonne of steel produced

Freight organisation Tonne/kilometre

Passenger transport organisation Passenger/kilometre