12393 SEPTEMBER 1976 CO3

JOURNAL OF THE.
CONSTRUCTION DIVISION
GOALS FOR EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
A
IN CONSTRUCTION

By Boyd C. Paulson, Jr.,’1 M. ASCE

INTRODUCTION

This paper summarizes results of a policy-level workshop attended by a distinguished

group of construction people representing owners, contractors, government, and educators. The
April f975 workshop was funded by the National Science Foundation and was sponsored by the
Construction Institute at Stanford University. In 2 full days of frank far-reaching deliberations,
these industry leaders attempted to define basic problems that the industry will face in the years
ahead.
In specific terms, the workshop was designed to: (1) Identify basic research needs in the
management of construction; and (2) define and formulate goals for basic research in this area.
The participants’ efforts were concentrated in four general subject areas, including: (l) Manpower
and organizational development; (2) management methodologies; (3) innovations in construction
methods; and (4) construction industry dynamics. Before outlining the results, however, this
paper will consider the nature of basic research and its relationship to construction.

BASE RESEARCH IN CONSTRUCTION

The meaning of "basic research" is subject to continuing debate. To link the terms
"construction" and "basic research" would appear to invite a paradox. "Construction" implies
designing and building facilities to meet specific needs. Most of the industry’s research advances
come from solving specific problems when encountered on new projects; often this involves
applied scientific and engineering research of a very high order.
On the other hand, "basic research" implies investigation of fundamental

.
Note – Discussion open until February l. 1977. To extend the closing date one month. a written request
must be filed with the Editor of Technical Publications, ASCE. This paper is part of the copyrighted
Journal of the Construction Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Vol. 102,
No. CO3, September, l976. Manuscript was submitted for review for possible publication on October 31,
1975.
a
Presented at the November 3-7, 1975, ASCE Annual Convention and CExpo '75. held at Denver, Colo.
(Preprint '2525).
1
Asst. Prof. of Civ. Engrg., Stanford Univ., Stanford, Calif.

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concepts or principles, but with no conscious intent that it lead to tools that are expected, much
less guaranteed, to solve problems. For example, Einstein’s now-famous (though once obscure)
basic research led to the equation relating mass and energy. Yet it took a long evolution through
further basic research, applied research, and development to the eventual engineering, design, and
production that we now see in nuclear power plants or machines that cure cancer.
There are many ways to describe basic research. Some characterize it as "long-range" and
"theoretical." as contrasted to short-term applied problem solving. Others say it means the
problem itself has not been defined yet, Perhaps more relevant than a general definition of basic
research would be an assessment of its role. Bush, head of the World War II Office of Scientific
Research and Development, made such a statement in his 1945 report to President Harry S.
Truman (I). In explaining the need for an agency to support basic research, he said:

Such an agency, moreover, should be an independent agency devoted to the support of

scientific research and advanced scientific education alone. Industry learned many years
ago that basic research cannot often be fruitfully conducted as an adjunct to or a
subdivision of an operating agency or department. Operating agencies have immediate
operating goals and are under constant pressure to produce in a tangible way, for that is
the test of their value. None of these conditions is favorable to basic research. Research is
the exploration of the unknown and is necessarily speculative. It is inhibited by
conventional approaches, traditions, and standards. It cannot be satisfactorily conducted
in an atmosphere where it is gauged and tested by operating or production standards....
Research will always suffer when put in competition with operations.
Bush’s statement predated by 3 yr the establishment of the National Science Foundation. As
overseer of much of the World War II research effort. he was intimately familiar with the role of
basic research in breaking new ground in which to plant seeds of applied research and
development. With a few word changes, most of what he said could apply directly to
construction.
Many would still object that the construction industry simply cannot afford the "luxury"
of basic research while clear and urgent problems go begging for answers. To some, basic
research conjures up images of impractical. "blue sky," "ivory tower" theoreticians whose
seeming unconcern for potential economic returns borders on being irresponsible. And yet, this
intolerance for risk and delay is ironic in an industry that has its share of gamblers.
Others, however, argue that construction must invest in basic research if it is to cope with
increasingly complex projects in the future and reverse its declining productivity compared to
other industries. Taking this adieu: the workshop sought to define the role of basic research in
construction and to outline some promising areas of investigation.

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

The construction industry itself meets another meaning of paradox, that of

CO3 EDUCATION AND RESEARCH 481

"something with seemingly contradictory qualities," In its share of the nation’s gross national
product it is the largest industry, but the vast majority of its hundreds of thousands of participants
are small businesses. Its firms are intensely competitive among themselves in the best tradition of
the free enterprise system, yet compared to other industries its technological advances sometimes
appear trivial.
Construction is highly fragmented and sometimes divisive, yet in response to pressing
national needs, such as a major war effort, few industries can mobilize resources more quickly.
Each of its elements – designers, constructors, regulators, consumers, suppliers, crafts – can be
highly skilled in its own areas, yet there is little general perspective on how all the pieces fit
together. There really is no central focus.
Construction is very custom-oriented: there is a strong feeling that if something is unique,
it is better. Yet this also means that the industry has been slow to respond to the benefits of mass
production. Its structure is specialized and layered, with complex interlocking interests and
traditions. Its character makes it highly effective on practical or project matters, yet often
ineffective on general or program matters.
Needless to say, basic research falls in the latter category of the less practical and more
general and speculative. Accurate data are not available, but it is generally assumed that only a
fraction of 1% of the industry's gross revenues are invested even in applied research let alone
basic research. This is in strong contrast to industries such as electronics, where an estimated
15%-20% of revenues go into research and development. This, in turn, at least partially accounts
for the quantum leaps that industry has taken in recent years.
It has been observed that the construction industry is almost completely incentive-
oriented. If there is little research and almost no basic research, it is likely that there is little
incentive for investing in it. This probably results in part because advances in construction tend to
result from innovations or “better ideas." Most of these cannot be protected either by secrecy or
patents and thus disseminate rapidly through the industry. Thus, there is little incentive for one
firm to invest heavily in research that can soon he expected to equally benefit its competitors. If
there is to be an increased research effort in construction, and particularly a deliberate move into
basic research, incentives will most likely be provided through nontraditional means. This subject
will be examined later in the paper.

CHALLENGES IN CONSTRUCTION’S FUTURE

The most profound recent developments in construction are seen as the increasing size of many of
its projects and organizations, the increasing techno-logical complexity of such projects, more
complex interdependencies and variations in the relationships between its organizations and
institutions, and proliferating regulations from government. At the project level, management has
just begun to integrate design, procurement, and construction into one total process. There are
now and will continue to be shortages of resources, including materials, equipment, skilled
workers, and technical and supervisory staff. There will be more and more governmental
regulation of: (1) The safety of the design and of field construction methods; (2) the
environmental consequences of projects;

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and (3) personnel policies at all levels. Management must also cope with the new economic and
cultural realities resulting from inflation, the energy crisis, changing world development patterns,
and new societal standards. These trends have been accelerating and will most probably continue
into the future. Fig. 1 summarizes some of the elements that are involved. Despite continuing
economic problems, there is an ongoing need (or the construction industry to expand and improve
its capabilities and its scope of operation to meet changing and, in the long run. growing demands
for its services.

QUALIFICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS ON SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES

Before proceeding to the findings of the workshop, it is important to recognize the

qualifications and limitations that were assumed in its scope and objectives.

FIG. 1. – Challenges of Construction

and consequently in this paper. First, the focus is primarily on basic research as defined in the
context of construction. This differs from, but is complementary to, earlier efforts
(2,3.4.6.7,8,9.10). The workshop's purpose was not to assess general and applied research and
development in construction. The latter, of course, does account for the vast majority of the
research carried out in this field. Second, within construction engineering and management in
general, emphasis was primarily upon management, assuming that it is indeed possible to
separate the two. Finally, the basic research topics identified subsequently are drawn primarily
from the aforementioned workshop. For example, it was well beyond the scope of this effort to
attempt a comprehensive survey of construction organizations.
Since the participants were deliberately selected for their stature and experience, it is
believed that a reasonably accurate and balanced understanding of the industry's main problems
did evolve. Nevertheless, one can by no means guarantee that the findings of the workshop
precisely reflect the needs of construction
CO3 EDUCATION AND RESEARCH 483

as a whole. Indeed, since there was deliberately no attempt to reach concensus within the
workshop, the render must not assume that this paper will necessarily represent the individual
position of any one of the workshop’s participants.

BASIC RESEARCH NEEDS IN CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

This section summarizes potential areas for basic research in four main categories: (1)
Manpower and organizational development: (2) management methodologies: (3) innovations in
construction methods: and (4) construction industry dynamics. The interested reader can find
more detail on all of these in the workshop’s research report (5).
Manpower and Organizational Development. – The present economy notwithstanding,
it appears certain that some of the most critical problems in many sectors of construction are. (1)
A future shortage of skilled technical ill1l1 managerial talent: and (2) effective employment of
the human resources that ore available. Especially on large projects, many companies are finding
that existing organizational structures cannot adequately cope with growing needs. Increasing
governmental requirements are further complicating this situation. One full session was therefore
devoted to topics within this field. General areas examined included human and organizational
development the interplay of design and construction, and the evaluation of management
productivity. Specific research needs identified or implied within the workshop are summarized
in Table l.
Of the topics in Table I, there was a general impression that some of the most difficult
problems are: (1) To improve selection and development of managers who can be both
comfortable and capable in running "super-projects": and (2) to develop organizational structures
that can most effectively cope with such projects. These views, of course, were somewhat
influenced by the large-project backgrounds of several participants. Nevertheless, in terms of both
needs and potential impact, this area deserves a high priority for basic research efforts.
Management Methodologies. – Much academic research to date in construction has
been devoted to new and improved analytical tools and administrative aids for management, but
the results have often been subject to question and controversy. Subjects of interest herein include
cost engineering, planning and scheduling, quality assurance, resource analysis, management
information systems, productivity analysis, simulation, estimating, etc. The workshop's session in
this area served to identify fundamental problems in need of work and to suggest ways that
related research could be made more meaningful. Table 2 summarizes some of the major basic
research needs that were either explicitly or implicitly stated in the workshop.
Topics in Table ‘2 that might be considered for highest priority include: (I) Bring analytical
methods, information systems and control tools closer to the managers who need them (or
decision making. i.e., adapt the technology to fit management, not the other way around: (2)
reduce the "care and feeding" required to implement such systems while making the models
themselves more realistic and adaptable to actual project conditions; (3) develop better methods
for “problem forecasting," with provisions for analyzing risk and uncertainty: and (4) improve
means of communications at the design-construction interface.

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TABLE 1. – Research Needs in Manpower and Organizational Development

Category Problem sources Research areas
(1) (2) (3)
Management personnel Super projects – Super projects, Selection – Identify qualities that
often lasting decades and costing determine which managers can
over $1 billion, have stretched endure on large projects and
managers too far. They "burn make sound decisions.
out," suffer "combat fatigue." and Training – What basic skills are
boggle at the enormity of most important? What special
decisions. Long project durations training can develop the de-sired
– The duration of large projects abilities? How can the training
make it difficult for potential and development be accelerated?
managers to obtain well-rounded What is the potential for
experience. simulation with management
games and case studies" What is
"management development?"
Analysis – Make comparative
studies of management styles,
characteristics and effectiveness.
Study cause-effect relationships:
What is and is not relevant in
enabling managers to accomplish
objectives”.
Evaluation – Determine how to
objectively evaluate and compare
productivity and efficiency of
managers and alternative
management approaches.
Organizational development Structure – Project-type Building project teams –
organization with typica1 matrix Behavioral science concepts
organization problems applied to improving
Project life cycle – Temporary communications and motivation
organization with rapid growth, in project environment Consider
intense activity, limited in the context of temporary team
resources, and phase-out building. Study working
Repetition and duplication – lack relationship within
of effective transfer of knowledge interdisciplinary prospect teams.
and experience from one project Structure versus project size –
organization to another Analysis of necessary changes in
External constraints – Project characteristics and requirements
organizations have difficulty of organizational structure with
responding to outside groups – changes in size of company or of
environmental, regulatory project.
agencies, etc. – that affect Documentation and transfer of
construction. knowledge – Develop more
effective means to document
knowledge, experience, methods,
successes, and failures from
previous projects so that they can
be effectively transferred to new
projects to minimize reinvention
of procedures and repetition of
mistakes.
External interaction – Deter-mine
how projects could be bet-
CO3 EDUCATION AND RESEARCH 485

(1) (2) (3)

Interplay of design, construction, Communications – Regardless ter organized to interact
and owner of contractual approach, there effectively with the external
continue to be communication organizations
barriers between engineering New training requirements –
design and field construction. Improve the breadth of
Objective - There are different specialized training to enable
time-cost tradeoff for the owner, engineers and others to function
architect/engineer, contractors, effectively at the design-
etc., that produce different goals construction interface.
for each. Interplay of design and
construction – Study the owner-
designer-constructor interplay for
means to improve communication
and understanding.

Innovations in Construction Methods. – Most new construction methods have been developed
to solve immediate and pressing problems. This session in the workshop explored whether it
would be appropriate to carry out basic research in anticipation of problems that may still be well
into the future. A possible example might be prefabrication and standardization to accelerate
construction of projects designed to implement new energy technologies. The session focused not
so much on specific technical problems that need solving, as on identifying broad areas and on
exploring the relationship of universities and industry in carrying nut research. The results ore
summarize in Table 1
Subjects within Table 3 viewed as having higher priority include: (1) Develop integrated
approaches to design and construction, with increased use of multipurpose components and
subsystems, less total components, reduced incompatibility, and less field labor; and (2) develop
rational efficient function-oriented standards that will aid automation, mass production, and
industrialization in construction.
Construction Industry Dynamics. – The final session was devoted to examining the
construction industry from a national perspective. Questions here included: What are the
underlying relationships of construction to the U.S. economy? What are the primary interactions?
What secondary impacts do major construction policy decisions – or individual project decisions
– have on other areas of the economy? How can the resources of construction hest be used'? Is
there a need for a coordinated national construction policy?
It has been said that the construction industry, as a whole, cannot significantly influence the
demand for its services. or control the supply. In contrast to industries such as automobiles and
railroads, construction is not in a position to accumulate capital. It is largely a service industry.
How, then, could the industry be more effective in controlling, or at least influencing, its own
supply and demand?
As an example, in early 1974 there seemed to be an insatiable need for more nuclear
projects, and the industry was hard-pressed to fill it, Six months later, largely as a result of short-
run financial problems in the utilities industries.

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Category Problem sources Research areas

(1) (2) (3)
Utilization of metals and Demand on users – At present, Communication barriers –Break
information sophisticated, analytical models down communication barriers
and management information between managers and analytical
systems designed by technical systems Study the interface
people often seem to be designed between them: develop means for
primarily for such people. In more direct and effective
reality, there is often a large interaction: permit query,
“temperament gap” between sensitivity analysis and insertion
model builders and managers. of managerial judgment. In
The technology needs to he electronic forms this means
adapted to fit the managers other computers must be used in more
than hoping for the reverse to innovative ways to communicate
happen. directly with non-technical
Data inundation – In both volume human beings.
and content, managers often have Temperament gap – Identify
difficulty absorbing let alone characteristics of "analytical" and
applying information provided by "managerial" people. This
analytical models and systems. understanding could help bridge
the so-called "temperament gap"
between the two and help build
teams capitalizing on the real
strengths of each.
Problem solving – By applying
“management by exception."
good systems have over-come
many problems of data
inundation. Identification of
problems, however, is only a
relatively passive first step. Re-
search must progress to dynamic
manager-system interaction for
solutions to problems once
identified.
System development Operational workability – Dispensing with data – Make
Existing systems require existing systems more workable.
excessive “care and feeding" Integrated systems can reduce
relative to benefits obtained Data duplication of data entry. It is
required for maintenance and possible in many cares to dispense
updating is often voluminous and with data altogether and instead
cumbersome. derive it on demand through proven
Oversimplification of reality – models and known operators.
Oversimplification may limit Realistic modeling – Integration
casting models to artificial of analytical models and
situations and thus discredit them information systems could better
in broader applications blare of recognize complex
the richness of real life is needed interdependencies in projects.
in model building. Further research would provide
Duplication and repetition – systems which vary in complexity
Development and implementation and sophistication depending on
of methods for scheduling, cost the size and complexity of
control, etc., have seen projects.
considerable reinvention. There is Coordinated development efforts
little standardization. – The MIT research that
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Table 2. - Continued
(1) (2) (3)
Quality endurance – Quality led to standard civil engineering
assurance requires tremendous programs such as STRESS,
amount of field and office labor. STRUDL, and COGO could
Another problem is mutually benefit construction in areas such
acceptable incentives for as project scheduling, cost control,
contractors to provide quality estimating, and quality assurance.
products at reasonable cost Industry-wide efforts could reduce
the duplication and repetition
inherent in independent
development.
Research in quality assurance and
inspection – How can quality
assurance procedures become
more standardized and reliable?
To what extent can such
procedures be programmed and
handled by computer? There is
especially a need for simplified
and more accurate testing and
inspection appropriate to
“performance specification.”
Forecasting and decision making Problem forecasting – Many Forecasting – Research could
systems point out problems investigate improved methods for
after the fact, or just make projecting costs, cash flows,
linear projections of trends inflation, manpower productivity,
Information is needed in time resource demands, schedules, and
for corrective action, quality results, including the
Functional integration – With analysis of risk and uncertainty
date bases and integrated mentioned as follows.
systems, diverse specialties Influence of technology on
are more closely interwoven organization – Determine how
This creates problems hut also data bases and integrated
have potential advantages. management information systems
Risk and uncertainty – There is effect the ways people work
insufficient evaluation of actual together. This. in turn, could lead
hazards or steps to minimize to ways to restructure
them, especially in hostile construction project organizations
environments and prospects to lake hest advantage of new
starting construction without technology.
detailed plans Analysis of risk and uncertainty –
Investigate improved methods to
analyze risk quantify uncertainty,
consider alternative strategies,
and make decisions. This, in turn,
could improve forecasting
techniques for methods decisions
and cost estimating.
Communications Design-construction interface – Improved design-construction
As construction becomes more communications – Investigate
complex, traditional orthographic new technology and alternative
drawings and written media for communicating
specifications create problems between design and construction.

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TABLE 2. - Continued
(1) (2) (3)
in communicating designers’ Some projects already make
intentions to constructors, and in extensive use of physical models;
designers’ understanding of field this could be expanded.
construction. Computer graphics and other
On-site communications – On manipulable visual displays could
large projects it is especially add another dimension.
difficult for management to Computers could also assist more
monitor all operations in in presenting technical
progress. specifications.
Improving on-site
communications – Visual
communications give
management a better feel for the
project and more confidence in
decision making. Possibilities in
this area include more innovative
use of closed circuit TV and time-
lapse cameras as management
tools.

there were postponements and cancellations of projects, and pending payoffs of the skilled people
the industry was so recently struggling to find. What are the long-run consequences of these
decisions for the construction industry and for the U.S. economy?
Topics considered in this session may lead to research in economic modeling, long-range
forecasting, environmental impact policies, long-term goal definition, developmen1 of an
industry profile, etc. Table 4 gives an overview of some of the long-term research needs in these
areas.
Of the topics in Table 4, the following may be viewed as having higher priority: (1)
Develop a better understanding of the relationship of construction to society, to government, and
to the economy; (2) explore how to moderate instability of demand for construction services, and
temper the consequent effects on the industry: and (3) improve cooperation for research within
the industry, and between the industry and universities.

IMPLEMENTATION

Two major requirements for implementation of basic research efforts in construction project
management are: (1) Individuals and institutions with the resources, experience, interest, and
capabilities to carry out such research; and (’2) the incentives and means to provide funding. This
section will examine each of these in turn.
University Education and Research in Construction. – Since World War II, and especially in the
last decade, numerous college and university programs have evolved that are aimed primarily at
the construction industry. Suddenly, the construction process and its management – the logical
culmination of the conceptual and design phases – has been recognized for what it is: An integral
part of the total engineering and management process required to provide new facilities. There are
now dozens of 4-yr undergraduate programs: many are divisions within
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TABLE 3. – Research for Innovations in Construction Methods

Category Problem sources Research areas
(1) (2) (3)
Design-construction interplay Uncoordinated suboptimized Integrated design – Integrated
components – Today components design could make increased use
and materials for structures, of multi-purpose components and
including framing members, subsystems, reduce the number of
HVAC, plumbing, electrical, etc., physical elements in structures,
are produced by many separate reduce costly on-site labor, and
industries, but with little overall hence reduce costs. Perhaps even
coordination and few multiple- more important are evaluation of
purpose components. There is the overall life-cycle costs of
need for fewer total components facilities.
and especially fewer on-site- Rational standards and
assembled components. industrialization – Impartial
Inefficient standards – Many research is needed for lighting
standards are suboptimized by standards, optimum room
system and are often set by the temperature, de- sired fire
industries that manufacture the resistance. etc. There is need for
components. Also, specifications new ways to express precise yet
by architect/engineers are realistic specifications that
sometimes unnecessarily high for communicate to designers,
actual requirements. owners, contractors, craftsmen,
Energy factors – Energy users, and vendors.
shortages create problems in Energy Research – Development
diverse situations like designing of energy-related guide- lines for
for improved HVAC efficiency, design of systems, selection of
minimizing fuel needs in earth- materials and components, and
moving and analyzing total construction methods would
energy requirements from raw assist designers and constructors
material through life of facility. in this area. More fundamentally,
Space restrictions – In how should changing energy
conventional structures, land economics affect traditional
costs and other factors are putting approach towards design and
space at a premium. These construction.”
problems are even more acute for Miniaturization – Determine
structures in hostile ways of reducing the size of
environments, portable structures, support service facilities such as
etc. utilities, HVAC, etc. Study how
New situations – There is need much space is really needed by
for more rapidly adapting design users and determine ways to
and construction to new utilize space more efficiently
environments and new while not detracting from its
technologies, such as ocean function.
construction. Adaptation – Determine how
research can he incorporated into
new situations to accelerate the
evolution of efficient solutions.
Materials and components Testing – There is need for Automated testing – Develop
accelerated test methods for long- methods to accelerate tempting
life but failure-prone materials and make results more reliable:
such as paint, joint sealer, roofing e.g., means for reliable testing
systems, etc. This also applies to concrete in the plastic state could
obtaining shorter provide quick feedback.

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Table 3. – Continued
(1) (2) (3)
feedback on production-critical Computerized weld-testing needs
items such as concrete strength, investigation. Reliable
welding, and weld testing. predictions of long-term
Better solutions – Lighter, performance on the basis of
stronger, more durable materials short-term changes under
are needed as design capabilities accelerated lab testing.
advance. Also needed are New research in materials –
improved field capabilities for Considerable work is now
handling, and for obtaining and underway in composites of
verifying specified quality. concrete, fibers and polymers for
Approval of new materials – producing durable, high-strength
There are problems in getting concrete. More can be done on
new techniques and materials this and similar approaches could
approved with respect to safety be taken to other elements.
building codes, etc. Accelerated approvals – Re-
Excessive field labor – Many search could investigate both
methods and materials are organizational and testing aspects
developed with little regard for of accelerating the approval of
the amount of labor required for new materials and components
on-site fabrication installation. for construction.
This applies to old methods too. Automation and mass production
"We still lay bricks one at a – Develop ways to apply
time." automation and mass production
Waterproofing – Problems are in the more labor-intensive
common in making structures aspects of construction, such as
waterproof, especially basements. installing electric wiring.
Roofs, etc. Examine prefabrication, both on-
site and off-site.
Improved waterproofing –
Investigate both improved
materials and construction
procedures for waterproofing.
Equipment and technologies New tools – There is continuing New and improved equipment –
need for improved equipment for Investigate equipment for
applications such as open sea operations in hostile
dredges capable of structural environments, such as the arctic,
excavation with wider tolerance under sea, and near the equator.
for swells: excavation and Others could explore new
materials disposal under-ground: applications of technologies such
welding high-strength steels; as compressed air for production
laying large-diameter pipe in the (erecting structures. transport,
open sea: concrete handling; and excavation. etc.), mobile factories
excavation. for field manufacture, etc.
Productivity and efficiency – Automation – Miniaturized
Even the best equipment has wide computers and logic have
variations in productivity potential for anything from fuel-
depending on the operator's skill metering and gear-shifting to
and working environment. providing an equipment-control
interface for field implementation
of simulation. Automated
equipment could remain
productive in bad weather or even
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TABLE 3. – Continued
(1) (2) (3)
Construction procedures Investigation and exploration – in areas hazardous to human life.
Better means are needed of Improved geologic investigation
predicting material to he – Improve means of determining
excavated and supported in properties of materially to he
tunnels, shafts, chambers and excavated: evaluate their
deep foundations. implications for construction.
Start-up – Improved techniques Start-Up – Study successful
are needed for starting projects in methods used for establishing
remote locations – bootstrap construction projects in remote
operations. locations, identify the elements of
Lack of innovation on projects – success, then document these in a
Often people doing work know of form useful for other projects.
better way it could be done, but Motivating innovation – How can
are reluctant to suggest their management create an
ideas. "innovative atmosphere" on
projects and within the industry?
How can people with knowledge
for improving the tasks become
involved in improvements as well
as performance'? What are the
characteristics and key elements
on projects where innovation is
prevalent.”
architecture, civil engineering, or architectural engineering. There are also handful of graduate
education and research programs, most are small, having anywhere from one to five full-time
faculty. Of these, most are identified with engineering departments in some of the most
distinguished universities in the United States and abroad. Research in graduate construction
engineering and management programs is worth at least a brief review since this in turn may
become an important source of basic research in construction.
Although most are still fairly new, established graduate programs hove already made
significant progress in both research and education. Until a few decades ago, there was very little
university research and no coherent body of college-level coursework aimed specifically at
construction. Many innovations that are increasingly taken for granted in the industry today either
originated in or acre considerably advanced through research efforts of these programs. Examples
include time-lapse photography for operations analysis, computer simulation of field operations,
behavioral science research into the workings of project management teams, computer-based
information systems, studies of labor and industrial relations, and new methods and techniques
for the planning, scheduling, and control of resources on projects.
On the education side, there are now many widely-accepted courses that make up the
core curriculums of today’s graduate and undergraduate programs. New courses continue to be
introduced, and many of these will become standard subject matter in the future. There have now
been literally thousands of graduates from the established construction programs. Many have
gone on to become

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TABLE 4. – Research in Construction Industry Dynamics

Category Problem sources Research areas
(1) (2) (3)
Construction, the public, and Industry credibility – Many Relationship to society – Assess
government problems in construction's how construction affects our way
credibility with the public stem of life. This may enable the
from much-publicized cost industry to more effectively cope
overruns and schedule delays on with forces ad-verse to it.
projects such as rapid transit Determine how construction
systems, and to the disruptions expertise can enter more into the
that occur while work is in evaluation of what and where
progress. services to the public should be
Mutual perception – Problems with developed.
government, including perceived Interactions – investigate the
overregulation by EEO, OSHA, relationship of construction to
EPA, etc., largely stem from a lack government, study the interaction
of government understanding of between the industry and
construction; e.g., regulatory government agencies, and develop
agencies may not realize their good information with which to
cumulative effects on the industry educate all parties concerned for
Use of construction in fiscal/ social their decision making and action.
policy – Construction is often Interrelationships – Study
placed on the forefront of interrelationships of politics,
government fiscal and social legislation, industry, owners and
policy. Examples include money the public. Determine more direct
for home loans, using contractors to ways to meet industry and national
increase minorities in unions, etc. objectives.
Construction and the economy Demand instability – Instability of Economic modeling – What
demand dominates everything in factors in the economy have the
construction. Seasonality is greatest impact on construction,
chronic. Construction has an and vice versa? Identify the
amplified reaction to basic predicators, then model, then try
business and economic cycles. to influence. Coordinate existing
Many economic problems in models. What are the industry's
construction relate to the lack of capacities for production today?
mobility of resources, especially Assess its adaptability to short-
labor. Often there is too much run and long-run demand
work in some regions at the same changes. Determine how to
time that others are suffering forecast resource capacity versus
localized recessions. There is a backlog. What is the post-
need for a more continuous industrial economy going to
workload, for market forecasting, require in construction ser-vices?
and for improved projections of Evaluating costs – Determine
future trends by type, area and procedures for identifying the
volume. elements in cost overruns. i.e., the
Finance – Problems recur in portions attributable to inflation
funding both large and small versus change of scope versus
projects. Government competition inefficiencies. Develop ways to
for finite funds exaggerates these internalize and quantify external
problems. Related problems are in costs, such as OSHA, EPA, etc.
predicting escalation, and
incorporating it into equitable
contracts.
Construction industry Structure – In general, there is a Restructuring – If the industry
organization perceived need for a corn- were to be restructured.
CO3 EDUCATION AND RESEARCH 493

TABLE 4. – CONTINUED

(1) (2) (3)

piete restructuring of the industry what objectives ought to guide
to reduce "layering, permit an this effort? What new
integrated approach to objectives, relationships would be needed?
and permit more standardization. What new institutions and
Contractual relationships – Some procedures'? Would the benefits
fear that noncompetitive contracts outweigh the costs?
may reduce incentives for Contractual relationships – What
efficiencies in construction, slow are the long-run influences of
innovation, cause more inflation, different forms of contracts on
etc. efficiency, innovation, Inflation,
Research cooperation – There is a etc.
lack of desire to share re-search Improved cooperation in re-
with competitors. Therefore an search – Explore possibilities for
impartial means for sharing is a "clearinghouse" organization
needed. Similarly, there is a need for disseminating construction
for closer cooperation between research. Study the close
university and industry people relationships between universities
working in construction. and industry in Northern Europe
to find ideas that might promote
closer cooperation in the United
States.

managers on some of today’s most challenging and successful projects. Others have advanced to
the top executive ranks of some of the largest and most reputable companies, and of many smaller
but innovative companies as well. Still others are found in government construction agencies,
large private consumers of construction services, and as faculty in construction programs in other
universities.
It is especially important to recognize the indirect impact that university research has by
its close relationship to the educational process. Of course, it is good when a given research effort
directly contributes to solving an existing problem. But in the long run, university research can
have a greater impact through two influences it has on students. First, while research is in
progress, student assistants have the opportunity to sharpen their minds and immediately apply
their learning doing research. Second, results of successful research efforts often find their way
into courses that will be taken by other students, perhaps a decade or more in the future, who. in
turn. will apply this new body of knowledge in their own careers. Universities are thus not only
charged with developing new knowledge through research, but of passing that knowledge on to
succeeding generations through education. It is in this interplay between research and education
that universities can have their greatest impact. This should apply equally well to basic research
in construction.
Incentives for Funding. – As mentioned earlier, the fragmented intensely competitive
nature of construction makes it difficult to undertake industry-wide programmatic efforts such as
a significant venture into basic research. Furthermore, construction is primarily a service industry
and thus does not accumulate significant amounts of capital when compared to industries such as
steel, transportation, and minerals. Thus, if a firm cannot preserve the fruits of its research
innovations in the form of new processes or more efficient capital

493
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facilities, it has less incentive to invest in research. For these and other reasons, it is unlikely that
the construction industry itself could invest in basic research on the scale found in capital-and-
technology-intensive industries.
Nevertheless, there are major financial incentives for investing not only in applied
research in construction, but in basic research. These days one too often hears of large projects
with cost escalation measured not just in millions of dollars, but in billions. The cumulative effect
of cost escalations on smaller projects is undoubtedly even greater. American ingenuity and
know-how is still effectively coping with most technological problems in construction, but
management and administration is too frequently inadequate on larger and more complex
projects. If investments in research could overcome some of these difficulties and begin to pare
down these billion-dollar cost increases, someone ought of benefit. In the workshop, the
participants from the consumers of construction services, in both government and private
industry, were generally the first to point out that it is their organizations that ultimately should be
willing to make such investments, since they and their customers will be the primary
beneficiaries. Once recognized, however, there is still a quantum leap to be taken to develop
effective institutions to support such research in a coordinated and productive fashion.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

This paper and the workshop upon which it was based were designed to identify, set
priorities for, and focus high-level attention on the need for basic research in construction
engineering and management. There is now and will increasingly he a need to bring research
talents and capabilities both within and beyond the academic community to bear on performing
basic research leading to means to solve problems in construction. A second important purpose of
the workshop was to bring about closer working relationships between the construction industry,
consumers of construction services, and university pro-grams in construction engineering and
management.
Earlier sections of this paper had several topical recommendations. General policy
recommendations are as follows:

1. Universities and related research institutions should recognize construction and the
management of construction projects as important areas of endeavor in which research can make
major contributions.
2. The construction industry should focus attention upon the importance of basic research to its
own long-run well-being and that of its clients. It should thus support and encourage the
establishment of organized research programs, and play an active role in such programs once they
are established.
3. As the primary economic beneficiaries of improved methods and management in construction,
and as the organizations with the necessary capital and resources, both public and private
consumers of construction services should actively encourage the development of research
programs in construction and should provide the major funding to enable such efforts to grow.

It is inevitable that many readers will take issue with both major and minor points in this paper.
1ndeed, this paper will have failed if it does not bring
CO3 EDUCATION AND RESEARCH 495

forth other points of view. Its underlying purpose has been to provide "raw material" that can
serve as a focal point for analysis, criticism, and suggestions which, in turn, will provide a useful
background for consideration and decision making.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The sponsors of the workshop and the writer of this paper gratefully acknowledge the U.S.
National Science Foundation, Grant No. ENG 74-23111, for providing funds that made this
venture possible. We are also grateful to the many leaders in industry, government, and education
who contributed their own time and personal expenses to participate.

APPENDIX I. REFERENCES
1. Bush, V., "Science – The Endless Frontier: A Report to the President." U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington. D.C., July, 1945.
2. "Construction Engineering and Management Research." Report of Engineering Foundation
Research Conference. University School. Milwaukee. Wise., Engineering Foundation, Ne'er York.
N.Y., July 17-21. 1967.
3. Hutcheon. N. B., "Research for Construction." Special Technical Publication No. 2. Division of
Building Research. National Research Council. Ottawa. Canada. Mar., 1974.
4. "Outline of Research Requirements for Construction," Report by the Committee on Research, W.
F. Burkart, Chmn.. Journal of the Construction Division, Vol. 94. No. CO2, Proc. Paper 6189,
Oct., 1968, pp. 233-244.
5. Paulson, B. C., Goals for Basic Research in Construction. Department of Civil Engineering.
Stanford University, Stanford. Calif., July, 1975.
6. "Probing the Future," Engineering News-Record. Centennial Issue, Vol. 192. No. 18, April 30.
1974.
7. "Research Needs in Civil Engineering Relevant to the Goals of Society." Colorado State
University and the American Society of Civil Engineers. Fort Collin., Colo., June, l971. pp. 246-
250.
8. Rossow, J. K.. and Moavenzadah. F., The Construction Industry: A Review of the Major Issues
Facing the Industry in the United States. Department of Civil Engineering. Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. Cambridge. Mass.. Summer. 1974.
9. Shaffer. L. R., Research in Construction Management: Its impact on the Industry. Department of
Civil Engineering. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, N.C., Jan.. 1974.
10. Taylor, D. C., "Report on a Program Plan form Experimental R&D Incentives Program in the
Construction Industry." ASCE Research Incentives Program. New York. N.Y., July. 1974.

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