UNIT 15 REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE

Structure

15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Ancient Period
15.2.1 Stupas
15.2.2 Rock Cut Architecture
15.2.3 Temples
15.3 Medieval Period
15.3.1 Eastern India
15.3.2 Western India
15.3.3 Central India
15.3.4 Deccan
15.3.5 Vijaynagar
15.4 Colonial Period
15.4.1 Princely Buildings
15.4.2 British Architecture
15.5 Let Us Sum Up
15.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
Appendix

15.0 OBJECTIVES
The present Unit oversteps the political boundaries of the North Indian cultures and attempts
a study of the development of architecture in regions outside these areas. Its purpose is to:
• emphasize the character and development of architectural styles in the buildings in regional
states,
• highlight the influences which were exerted by these regions over central area and vice-
versa, and
• account for some of the major developments in the architecture during the colonial period.

15.1 INTRODUCTION

The development of art and architecture in the regional states follows diverse course. The evolution of
any architectural style greatly depends upon the nature of available building material. It determines the
evolution of a particular type of technology and its application. The regions where wood is available in
plenty, for instance, abounds in buildings constructed of wood using lintel and beam technology. Areas
where big rocks are available in plenty, we find very fine kind of rock cut architecture. It must be
understood that this multiplicity of form does not conform to any set geographical pattern. Rather, at
times, it takes a cross -regional course.
The different sections of this Unit take into account the developments in architecture in Eastern,
Western and Central India, the Deccan and the Vijaynagar kingdom, as also in the colonial period.

15.2 ANCIENT PERIOD

The architecture of this period can be broadly divided into two categories:
i) Residential structures
ii) Religious monuments

Under the first category we have very few surviving monuments since they were built of perishable
material like wood. However, a number of monuments have survived or been unearthed through
excavations which come under the second category. It included stapes, followed by rock-cut temples
and free standing temples.

15.2.1 Stupas
In the preceding Unit we have already discussed the concept behind the construction of the stupa and
their architectural design. Here we will discuss some of the prominent structures of this category.
1) Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh)

It is one of the-most famous stupa sites in India. It has three stupas all with gateways around them. But
the most is the Great stupa which was originally made of bricks in Ashoka’s (250 BC) 'nearly doubled
in circumference (in 150 B.C.). The bricks of Ashoka’s time were replaced by stones, and vedika was
also constructed around it. Four gates, one in each direction were added to beautify it. From the
southern gate we get an inscription which tells us that it was donated by King Satkarni and the, incision
was done by those craftsmen who worked in ivory.

The northern gate and the panels depict stories from the intakes. The relief of Sanchi quite prominently
displays the following:

1) The four great events of the Buddha's life i.e. birth, attainment of knowledge,' dharmachakra -
pravartana and maha parinirvana.
2) Representations of animals like lion, elephant, camel, ox etc, are abundant. Some of the animals
are shown with riders in heavy coats and boots.
3) Lotus has been prominently and beautifully carved out as ornamentation, and
4) A unique representation of forest animals, in a manner which looks as if the whole animal
world turned out to worship the Buddha.

2) Nagarjunakonda stupa

The Nagarjunakonda stupa was built in a style different from that of North India. Here two circular
walls, one at the hub and the other at the outer end, were joined by spoke walls and the intervening
space was filled with mud or small stones or Pieces of bricks. The diameter of this Stupa was 30 meters
and the height was 18 meters. The outer casing the drum consisted of richly carved marble slabs. The
hemispherical top of the drum was decorated with lime and mortar work. The four rectangular
projections, one at each cardinal point, supported a row of five free standing pillars.

The importance of this stupa is due to the beautiful panels which illustrate episodes from the life of the
Buddha. The most important scenes are:
1) Gods praying to bodhisattva to take birth on the earth.
2) Buddha's entry into womb in the form of a white elephant.
3) Birth of the Buddha under a flowering tree.

A number of other Stupas have been found in many parts of the country. For example, two stupas were
found in Mathura. In fact, this was a period when stupa architecture developed into particular style and
the presence of similar features in stupas of various regions suggests the mobility of and interaction
between artisans who built the stupas and beautiful works of art associated with the stupas.

15.2.2 Rock Cut Architecture

Of the centuries before the Gupta period the chief architectural remains, other than stupas and their
surrounding gateways and railings, are artificial caves, excavated for religious purposes. Early
specimens show a slavish imitation of carpentry. The two caves of Barabar Hills near Bihar, dedicated
by Ashoka to Aivika monks, are in the form of a plain rectangular outer hall, at one end of which is an
inner chamber with a carved wall and overhanging caves. Similar dependence on wooden models is
evident in many other features of design until the Gupta period.

Later cave temples and monasteries are to be found in many parts of India, but it was in the western
Deccan under the Satavahana Empire and its successors, that the longest and most famous artificial
caves were excavated. The oldest Deccan cave is at Bhaja near Poona which is very simple. The finest
single example is the-great chaitya hall at Karle, probably made around the beginning of the Christian
era. This is cut 12 feet' deep into the rock, and is of the same general pattern as that at Bhaja and many
other caves of the western Deccan, but much developed in size and splendor. The columns are no
longer plain and austere but by a process which can be traced through earlier stages, they have become
heavy and ornate. Each is set on a square stepped plinth, and rises from a bulbous base, which is carved
to represent a large pot with base end view. Each pillar carries a complicated group of horses and
elephants with riders to support the roof, which is carved in imitation of the timber rafter of barrel
vaulting. The chaitya or shrine at the end of the hall is much enlarged in comparison with those of other
caves.

The simple facades of the earlier caves were developed into elaborately carved verandas,
each usually with a large window; the full size of the gable-end, which let light into hall.

The Karle cave has three entrances, and splendid relief panels of dampati (couples), with small carved
gable-end above.

Perhaps even more impressive are the later cave temples of Ellora, near Aurangabad. There are no less
than thirty - four caves constructed from 5th to 8th centuries AD, most of them Hindu but some
Buddhist and Jaina. The crowning achievement of Ellora is the great Kailasanatha Temple, made out of
a monolithic rock on the instructions of the Rashtrakuta Emperor Krishna (C.756-775 AD)

The entire rock face was cut away and a splendid temple was carved like a statue from the hill side,
complete with shrine - room, hall, gateway, votive pillars, lesser shrines and cloisters, the whole
adorned with divine figures and scenes large and small of a grace and strength rarely seen again in
Indian art. The ground plan of Kailasanath is of about the same size as the Parthenon, and it is half as
high. The labour necessary to construct it, however, was less than that which was required to build a
comparable temple of masonry.

Kailasanatha is not the earliest temple hewn from solid rock. Others are to be found at Mamallapuram,
on the sea-coast where seventeen temples, none very large in size, were carved from outcropping
hillocks of granite under the patronage of 7th century Pallava kings. They still show the influence of
wood construction, and are of a distinctive style, possibly looking back to Dravidian prototypes.

The Latest cave-temples of importance are those of Elephanta, a beautiful little island off Bombay. It is
famous for the sculpture, especially for the great Trimurti figure of Siva.

15.2.3 Temples

The first major landmark in temple architecture is the temple generally known, from the modern name
of the site, as that of Jandial, Taxila. It contained a square inner sanctuary, a meeting hall and a
courtyard, and its outer and inner entrances were each flanked by two large pillars of orthodox pattern.
The Jandial temple was probably a Zoroastrian religious place.

From the Gupta period several examples survived, chiefly in western India, all showing the same
general pattern. Pillars were usually ornate, with heavy bell shaped capitals surmounted by animal
motifs, and the entrances were often carved with mythological scenes and figures. All the Gupta
temples were small and most had flat roofs. The finest Gupta temple that of Deogarh near Jhansi,
probably of the 6th century marks a great advance. Here iron dowels 'were used to hold the masonry
together, and a small tower rose above the sanctum. The portal veranda was continued all round the
building making a covered walk.

The temples were ornately decorated, often even to the dark shrine rooms lighted only by flickering oil-
lamps. Despite this ornate, the apprenticeship of this tradition in rock architecture gave the architect a
strong sense of mass. Heavy cornices, strong pillars, wide in proportion to their height and the broad
base of the sikhara or tower, give to Indian temple architecture a feeling of strength and solidity, only
in part counteracted by the delicately ornate friezes.
Considering the size of the land, Indian temple architecture is remarkably uniform, but authorities
distinguish two chief styles and numerous schools. The Northern or Indo-Aryan style prefers a tower
with rounded top and curvilinear outline, while the tower of the Southern or Dravidian style is usually
in the shape of a rectangular truncated pyramid.

The temple building gained much from the patronage of the Pallava and Chalukya kings in the 6th - 8th
centuries. These are situated in Mamallapuram, Kanchi & Badami. These styles show the gradual
emancipation of the architect from the techniques of carpentry and cave architecture. The apogee of the
Pallava style was reached in the shore temple of Kanchi which has a pyramidal tower formed of two
courses of small barrel vaults, surrounded by a solid cupola suggesting a Buddhist stupa.
The style of the Pallavas was developed further under the Chola dynasty (10 -12th centuries); their
finest products are the temple of Shiva at Tanjavur built by Rajaraja the Great (985 -1014 A.D.) and a
temple built by Rajendra I at Kondacholapuram. The former was probably the largest temple built in
India up to that time, a great tower in the shape of a pyramid, rising from a tall upright base and
crowned with a domed finial, the whole being nearly 60 meters high.

In the next phase of Dravidian architecture the emphasis shifted from the tower above the chief shrine
to the entrance gateway of the surrounding wall. From the 12th century onwards it became usual to
fortify the temple often with three square concentric walls, with gates on the four sides. The gates were
surrounded by watch-towers or gatehouses, and these developed into soaring towers (gopuram),
generally much taller than the modest sikhara over the central shrine. The entrance tower was usually
in the form of an oblong pyramid, with its broadest side parallel to the wall.

The new style is often called Pandyan. The great temple of Madurai is the most famous and beautiful of
Pandyan temples.

Check Your Progress-I

1) What are the characteristics of Stupa Architecture?

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2) What are the features of rock cut architecture?

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15.3 MEDIEVAL PERIOD

The regional styles of architecture came into vogue usually after the provinces had thrown off the
allegiance to Delhi Sultanate and proceeded to develop a form suiting their individual requirements.
These were distinct from the Indo-Islamic style practiced at Delhi and often displayed definitely
original qualities. In the areas which had a strong indigenous tradition of workmanship in masonry,
regional styles of Islamic architecture produced the most elegant structures. On the other hand where
these traditions are not so pronounced, the buildings constructed for the regional states were less
distinctive. In some cases totally novel tendencies, independent of both the indigenous and the imperial
Sultanate traditions, are also visible.

It is interesting that the development of the, earliest regional style in architecture should have taken
place at the other end of the subcontinent, in eastern India. In fact there did emerge two major strands
of architectural style in this region viz., in Bengal and in Jaunpur, both of which witnessed the rise of
regional states.
15.3.1 Eastern India

Bengal: The establishment of an independent Muslim power in Bengal took place within a gap of five
years since the capture of Delhi by the Turks. But an independent building style, distinct from the one
prevalent at Delhi, developed at the beginning of the 14th century and lasted for nearly 250 years.

Bengal style spread in all parts of the region, but most of the prominent buildings were located within
the boundary of the Malda district which had been the strategic centre of the region due to the
confluence of the two rivers, the Ganga and the Mahananda. Here lie the remains of the two principal
cities - Gaur & Pandua - which, in turn, enjoyed the status of the capital seat of the regional ruling
power. In our effort to understand the distinctive features of the architectural style of this region we
have to depend mostly on the buildings extant in these two cities and a few important examples
elsewhere.

The building art of Bengal is generally divided into the following three phases of which the first two
are considered preliminary stages and the third its ultimate development into a specific style.
• The first phase is from A.D. 1200 - 1340 (During most of this time Gaur was the capital seat.
Only in later years it was shifted to Pandua).
• The second extended from A.D. 1340 to 1430.
• The third phase from A.D.1442 to 1576 when the Mughals captured the province. During this
phase the capital was shifted back to Gaur.

The data in the form of extant buildings for the first phase is scanty. Even where two or three structures
survive they are in a badly ruined state. It is, nonetheless, evident that big buildings raised during the
period were wholesale conversion of the existing non-Islamic structures. Similarly, the second phase is
also deficient in data as it is represented by a solitary example. But this building - Adina Masjid at
Panda. (built 1364) – surpasses all other Islamic structure in Bengal in size. It introduces two new
features in the architectural style:
• the "drop" arch, having a span greater than its radii, and centres at the import-level, and
• the method of raising the roof in a system of arched-bays: where small domes supported by
brick-pendentives in over- sailing courses were raised over each bay. The bricks in this
pendentive were set. Diagonally in each alternate course in such a manner that their corners
projects and help in the transition from a square to a circular base.

The third phase is the most remarkable as it depicts the emergence of a serni-indigenous style in tune
with the peculiar environment and local conditions in Bengal. The result was to translate the native
bamboo structures into brick. In the course of time this special form of curved roof became a fixed
convention. In most of these buildings, moreover, an indigenous form of decoration. i.e., terracotta
tiles, was adopted.

It thus becomes clear that nowhere in India did climate and local conditions as well as indigenous
building styles affect the development of architecture as profoundly as in Bengal. Its merit lies in its
dynamic ability to transform itself by adoption and adaptation.

Jaunpur:- The Sharqi Kingdom at Jaunpur was founded by Malik Sarwar, a noble of Ferozshah
Tughluq, in 1394. In the wake of Timur's invasion and sack of Delhi, Jaunpur took over from the
capital as a centre of scholars and writers. The surviving architecture of Jaunpur consists exclusively of
mosques. Moreover, all the surviving buildings produced under the Sharqis are located in the capital
city Jaunpur.

The Sharqi architecture of Jaunpur carries a distinct impact of the Tughluq style, the battering effect of
its bastions and the use of arch and beam combination in the openings being the two most prominent
features. However, the most striking feature of the Jaunpur style is the designs of the facade of the
mosques. It is composed of lofty propylons with sloping sides raised in the centre of the sanctuary
screen. The propylons consist of a huge recessed arch framed by tapering square minars of exceptional
bulk and solidity, divided into registers.
The best examples can be seen in the Atala Devi Masjid (built in 1408) and the Jami Masjid. Evidently
the propylon was the keynote at Jampur style and occurs in no other manifestation of Indo-Islamic
architecture.

15.3.2 Western India

The regional style of architecture that came into being in western India towards the beginning of the
14th century is almost exclusively confined to Gujarat.

Gujarat: The regional style flourished for a period of some 250 years beginning early in the 14th
century. The founders of Gujarat style of Indo-Islamic architecture were in fact the governors of the
Khalji Sultans of Delhi.

There were three different phases of the Gujarat style.

1) The first phase lasting for the first half of the 14th century was marked by the demolition of the
temples, and their reconversion into Muslim buildings.
2) The second phase prevailing mostly during the first half of the 15th century and showing signs
of hesitant maturity of a distinctive style.
3) Finally the phase beginning in the latter half of the 15th century when Gujarat style emerges in
its own magnificent form. Most of the typical examples relate to this period of Gujarat style.

Here it is important to remember that the Gujarat Style of architecture is the most indigenous in
character. In some of the finer examples of this style considerable portions of the buildings are in fact
adaptations from either Hindu or Jain temples. The essence of Gujarat style will be easily understood if
you envisage a scheme of construction where the structure of a temple is fitted into the sanctuary of the
mosque in the form of a central compartment. Almost all the mosques from the second and third phase
are composed in this manner.

15.3.3 Central India

In Central India the development of Indo-Islamic architecture remained confined within Malwa region
which became an independent kingdom at the turn of the 15th century. But, unlike other regions, the
Muslim rulers of Malwa did not inherit any strong tradition of visual art.

It was only in the later period that original elements of architecture were developed and decorative
motifs on their own were adopted in the buildings of the Malwa rulers which gave them a distinctive
appearance.

Malwa — Dhar & Mandu: The regional manifestations of Indo-Islamic architecture in Malwa are
located essentially within the confines of two cities, Dhar and Mandu though some buildings may also
be seen at Chanderi. The buildings at Dhar and Mandu derive many features from the Tughluq
architecture such as the battered walls, fringed arch and the arch-beam combination. Most prominent
features are:

• The two separate structural systems of the arch and the lintel have been combined and a new
artistic style developed.
• The construction of stately flights of steps of considerable length leading to their entrances. It
became necessary due to the use of unusually high plinths on which most of the buildings were
raised.
• The element of colour assumes a significant role. We notice the use of two separate methods for
obtaining this colour effect. The first is the use of various coloured stones and marble, and the
second is by means of encaustic tiles. Jahaz Mahal at Mandu is a representative building.

15.3.4 Deccan
The architecture in Deccan seems to have ignored to a large extent the pre-Islamic traditions of the
region. It consisted basically of the fusion of:

• The architectural systems in vogue at Delhi under the Sultans, particularly the Tughlaq form,
and
• an entirely extraneous source, that is, the architecture of Persia.

The architecture of Deccan can be divided into three phases, Gulbarga — (1347 - 1425), Bidar (1425-
1512), and Golconda (1512- 1687).

Gulbarga: The early structures did not represent a distinctive style of Deccan Islamic architecture. For
the most part they followed the contempory Tughluq architecture. The Jami Masjid (1367) inside the
Gulbarga fort was, however, different and unique. The central designing idea lay in reversing all the
architectural principles of mosques with a courtyard. Thus, in the Jami Masjid of Gulbarga the
conventional design of the courtyard was filled with small cupolas supported by arches placed close
together. But this design was never repeated. Possibly the unorthodox plan of this mosque did not find
favour with the traditionalists.

Bidar: The city of Bidar is full of palaces with large-audience halls and hammams, mosques, a
madarsa and royal tombs. The buildings show a strong contemporary Iranian influence. The Indo-
Islamic style of Delhi was also assimilated in the new style.

• Since colour was the characteristic feature of Iranian architecture, palaces at Bidar show a brilliant
scheme of the use of coloured tiles and the mural painting. The glazed tiles which covered the
exteriors were imported by sea from Iran.
• There is a distinctive change in the shape of some of the domes in the buildings at Bidar. They are
slightly constricted in the lower contour and thus become the fore runners of the famous bulbous
domes of the Mughals. The drums of those domes are made tall so as to project the domes in full
view.

The madarsa of Mahmud Gausan is a fine specimen of this style.

15.3.5 Vijayanagar

Vijayanagar, founded in about 1336, is now deserted. It is one of the most important historical and
architectural sites as it is the only Hindu city from the pre-modern period of which extensive remains
still exist above ground. The city, in fact, had a great advantage as a site for large-scale building
activity in that it abounds in granite and a dark green-chlorite stone, both used extensively as building
material. The use of monolithic multiple piers in the temples at Vijayanagar testify this fact.

The expanse of the city of Vijaynagar at the height of its glory measured some 16 sq.Km., and it was
enclosed with a stonewall. Besides palaces and temples, the city had extensive water works and many
secular buildings such as elephant stables and the Lotus Mahal. The basic elements of Vijayanagar
style are:

• The use of pillars for architectural as well as decorative purpose is on an unprecedented scale.
• Numerous compositions are used in raising the pillars, but the most striking and also the most
frequent is one in which the shaft becomes a central core with which is attached an upraised animal
of a supernatural kind resembling a horse or a hippogryph.
• Another distinguishing feature is the use of huge reverse- curve eaves at the cornice. This feature
has been borrowed into the style from the Deccan and gives the pavilions dignified appearance.
• Pillars have ornamental brackets as capitals. Usually this bracket is a pendant known as bodegal in
local parlance. This pendant, in Vijayanagar style, is elaborated into the volute terminating in an
inverted lotus band
The glory of Vijayanagar Empire ended in A.D. 1565 at the battle of Talikota and with that ended the
architectural activity.
Check Your Progress - 2

1) How many major architectural styles developed after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate?
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2) In which region foreign architectural influence is evident on the buildings, and what was this
influence.
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15.4 COLONIAL PERIOD

The state of confusion created by the contending forces, after the decline of Mughal Empires, within
the subcontinent, left India vulnerable to an external power. The British after many battles, gained
supremacy in India in the last quarter of 18th century.

15.4.1 Princely Buildings

During the period of Mughal domination client princes, enlarged their seats in a manner befitting the
new dignity bestowed upon them by the Emperor. During the period of Mughal decline, especially, the
independent Muslim rulers like the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Sultan of Mysore, the Nawabs of Bhopal
and Oudh endowed their capitals and dynasties with lavish mosques and palaces.

Hindu princes, who had learnt from the Muslims to erect monuments to the dead, constructed
increasingly elaborate cenotaphs - chattris, and even imitation temples.

Most spectacular by far are the palaces of the Rajputs. At least three zones, varied in their
differentiation but invariably still knit together by a network of easily defensible companion corridors
and galleries are the hallmark of these palaces. An outer service court led to the principal court of
public audience with a grand darbar hall. The ruler's personal apartments, with a ball for private
audience, treasury, and sumptuous pavilions of retreat, preceded the last zone.

The trend of imitation/assimilation of different architectural styles continued. On a still larger and often
even coarser scale native rulers adopted western palace types in whole or in part with state rooms
incorporating ante-chambers, salons, and halls designed to cater for westernized manners and European
guests. Notable examples are Falaknuma of Hyderabad, Jai-vilas commissioned by the Maharaja of
Gwalior, and 'La-Martinere' at Lucknow.

15.4.2 British Architecture

Now we shall try to analyse the styles evolved at Bombay, Madras and Calcutta, as they represent the
longer course of interaction between British authority and Indian people.

There were two main axes of architecture in Calcutta. The first was military buildings and the second
civil buildings like the Council House, and Town Hall. There were other major buildings too. Most
distinguished, was the "English Palladian" Town Hall. In general the colonial expression of the English
Georgian styles was adopted to lend the appropriate decorum to the accommodation of the company's
principals in India.
The Madras Government house was adopted for Lord Clive in 1790s from an earlier one, after the
pattern set at Pondicherry by the residence built for Duplex, some fifty years ago. Quite different is the
Bombay Town Hall of Colonel Thomas Lower of Bombay Engineers. It is hardly inferior to many of
the works of the masters of French Neo-classicism.

From the 1840s it was the norm for the architect to follow the precedent with greater assimilation of
indigenous styles. It was a reformative approach towards architecture. These developments may be
traced primarily in the great public building campaign in Bombay. The campaign opened with the
decorated Gothic Scheme for the rebuilding of St.Thomas Cathedral.

Following the lead, an Anglo-Indian synthesis for the Prince of Wales Museum was achieved in 1905
and for the Gateway of India. The Museum, classic in plan and purpose, prefers a full blooded Adil-
Shahi revival. The Gateway recalls the Roman form of triumphal arches as much as Ahmedabad's Tin
Darwaza.

Check Your Progress-2

1) Describe the features of princely state's architecture.

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2) Describe the characteristics of British Indian architecture.

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15.5 LET US SUM UP

A notable fact about the regional architectural style is that their most interesting structures are to be
found in areas previously known for a thriving building activity, and where indigenous masonry
traditions were strongest. In brief the following may be noted:
• Different kinds of building material generally introduced technical differences in architectural
styles in different regions.
• The unusual climatic conditions in certain parts of the country necessitated special treatment for
the corresponding regional styles.
• It also represented the process of gradual assimilating of foreign architectural styles with the
indigenous styles with regional variations.

15.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress-1

1) See Sub-sec.15.2.1
2) See Sub-sec.15.2.2

Check Your Progress -2

1) We may list them as:

 Bengal,
Jaunpur,
Gujarat,
Malwa,
Bidar and
Gulbarga

2) See Sub-sec. 15.3.4.

Check Your Progress-3

1) See Sub-sec.15.4.1.
2) See Sub-sec.15.4.3.