Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt.

Ltd
Chapter 3

Measurement and Scaling

Business Research Methods, 2e Author: Naval Bajpai

 Learning Objectives

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
 Understand the scale of measurement and four levels of data
measurement
 Understand the criteria for good measurement
 Learn about the various established measurement scales used
in business research
 Understand the factors to be considered in selecting the
appropriate measurement scales

Business Research Methods, 2e Author: Naval Bajpai

• Griff Mitchell is the vice president of customer relationship management (CRM)
for one of the world’s largest suppliers of industrial heavy equipment. In this
role, he oversees all sales and service operations.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• This year, for the first time, the company has decided to perform a CRM
employee evaluation process that will allow an overall ranking of all CRM
employees.
• Griff knows this will be a difficult task for many reasons, not the least of which
is that he oversees over a thousand employees worldwide.
• The ranking will be used to single out the best performers. These employees
will be recognized at the company’s annual CRM conference.
• The rankings will also be used to identify the lowest 20 percent of performers.
These employees will be put on a probationary list with specific targeted
improvement goals that will have to be met within 12 months or they will be
fired.
• Griff is becoming really stressed out trying to define the performance ranking
process

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
• Griff’s key question is, “What is performance?” Although these
employees are now often referred to as CRM employees, they have

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

traditionally performed the sales function.
• Griff calls a meeting of senior CRM managers to discuss how
ranking decisions should be made One manager simply argues that
sales volume should be the sole criteria.
• She believes that “sales figures provide an objective performance
measure that will make the task easy and difficult to refute.”
• Another counters that for the past 22 years, he has simply used his
opinion of each employee’s performance to place each of them
into one of three groups: top performers, good performers, and
underperformers.
• “I think about who is easy to work with and doesn’t cause much
trouble
Business Research Methods
Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• It has worked for 22 years, why won’t it work now?” Another
responds curtly, “It’s margin! It’s margin! I don’t care about sales
volume; I want my guys selling things that improve my division’s
profit!”
• One of the newer managers sits silently through most of the
meeting and finally summons up the courage to speak. “Aren’t we
CRM? That means performance should not be tied to sales,
profits, or convenience, it should be based on how well a
salesperson builds and maintains relationships with customers
• So, we should see how satisfied the customers assigned to the
employee are and use this in the evaluation process!”
• After this, the meeting disintegrates into a shouting match with
each manager believing Business
the others’ ideas are flawed
Research Methods
Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• Griff’s situation in this vignette illustrates how difficult it can be to
define, let alone measure, important business phenomena.
• While some items can be measured quite easily, others present
tremendous challenges to the business researcher

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• In the field of business research, a researcher tries to gather
information through administering questionnaire.
• In most of the cases, this information happens to be psychological
in nature.
• For example,
• A researcher may be interested in knowing the consumer
motivation for buying a product,
• their perception about the product,
• impact of the advertisement related to the advertisement
campaign for that product etc

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• Most of this kind of information is based on the feelings of the
consumers and their intended future behavior.
• The marketer will always be willing to assess the following:
• Why a particular product is preferred over the other products?
• How a consumer evaluates a product with respect to the other
leading brands available in the market?
• what are his reasons of liking or disliking a particular product?
• To generate useful data, a researcher has to be careful in
assessing what to be measured and how to be measured

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 What Should be Measured

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• “What should be measured” is a complex task to be performed.
• Measurement objects can be tangible such as the number of
people or consumers, or psychological such as attitude or
perception measurement
• A researcher attempts to measure either physical or psychological
properties of a phenomenon

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 What Should be Measured?
• The measurement of physical properties is not a complex deal,

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

whereas measurement of psychological properties requires a
careful attention of a researcher.
• For example, consider a business researcher willing to address a
research question “What motivates a consumer to buy a luxury
car.”
• In this case, a researcher has to focus on unfolding the underlying
motives of a consumer
• Therefore, a researcher has to broadly quantify the research focus
on “consumer motivation” to address the above
• The quality of the research always depends on the fact that what
measurement techniques are adopted by the researcher and
how these fit in the prevailing research circumstances.
Business Research Methods, 2e Author: Naval Bajpai
 Consumer motivation to buy luxury cars
• [1] Not strongly motivated
How motivated • [2] Not motivated
are you to buy

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• [3] Neutral
luxury car? • [4] Motivated
• [5] Strongly motivated
• Mercedes__
Give ranks from 1 to
5, for your • Range Rover__
motivation to buy • Roll-Royce__
luxury cars of these • Bentley__
brands:
• BMW__
Will you be buying
luxurious car from • Yes 
Mercedes? • NO 

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• If a consumer has obtained Score 5, then we will say that the
consumer is strongly motivated to purchase a new car. This is one
way of measurement
• Another way that can be adopted is to compare consumer ranks
for a luxury car in the light of other brands of luxury cars available
in the market.
• In another way of measurement, the researcher will simply ask a
question that will you be purchasing a luxury car produced by
Company X, say “Yes” or “No.”

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Scales of Measurement

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• numbers convey different meanings that are
always case specific.
• there is a need to understand the concept of scale
of measurement to use an appropriate statistical
tool and technique, based on different scales of
measurement.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Scales of Measurement

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

1.Nominal scale
2.Ordinal scale
3.Interval scale
4.Ratio scale

Business Research Methods, 2e Author: Naval Bajpai

 Nominal scale

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• A Nominal Scale is a measurement scale, in which numbers serve
as “tags” or “labels” only, to identify or classify an object
• Nominal scale possesses only the description characteristic which
means it possesses unique labels to identify or delegate values to
the items
• For example, numbers are written on cars in a racing track. The
numbers are there merely to identify the driver associated with
the car, it has nothing to do with characteristics of the car.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Characteristics of Nominal Scale
• 1) In nominal scale a variable is divided into two or more
categories, for example, agree/disagree, yes or no etc. It’s is a

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

measurement mechanism in which answer to a particular
question can fall into either category.
• 2) Nominal scale is qualitative in nature, which means numbers
are used here only to categorize or identify objects.
• For example, football fans will be really excited, as the football
world cup is around the corner! Have you noticed numbers on a
jersey of a football player? These numbers have nothing to do
with the ability of players, however, they can help identify the
player.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Characteristics of Nominal Scale

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• In nominal scale, numbers don’t define the characteristics
related to the object, which means each number is assigned
to one object.
• The only permissible aspect related to numbers in a nominal
scale is “counting
• Examples
• Employee identification numbers,
• contributory provident fund numbers,
• personal identification number

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Scales of Measurement
 Nominal Scale:
 When data are labels or names used to identify the attribute of an

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

element, the nominal scale is used.
• For example, assume that a marketing research company wants to
conduct a survey in three towns of India: Bhopal, Nagpur, and
Baroda. While compiling the data, the company assigns the
Numeric Code “1” to Bhopal, “2” to Nagpur, and “3” to Baroda.
• In this case, 1, 2, and 3 are the labels used to identify the three
different towns.
Bhopal = 1
Nagpur = 2
Baroda = 3
• Data show the numeric value, but the scale of measurement is
nominal

Business Research Methods, 2e Author: Naval Bajpai

 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• we cannot say that the Numeric Code 1 indicates any ranking
or any rating; this is only for the sake of convenience in
identification
• Nominal level measurement is the lowest level of data
measurement
• ,

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Ordinal Scale

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• Reports the ranking and ordering of the data without actually
establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal level
of measurement is the second of the four measurement scales.
• “Ordinal” indicates “order”. Ordinal data is quantitative
data which have naturally occurring orders and the difference
between is unknown.
• It can be named, grouped and also ranked.
• Likert Scaleis an example of why the interval difference between
ordinal variables cannot be concluded. In this scale the answer
options usually polar such as, “Totally satisfied” to “Totally
dissatisfied”

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
 Ordinal Scale: In addition to nominal level data capacities, ordinal scale
can be used to rank or order objects.
• For example, A manufacturing company administers a questionnaire to 150
consumers to obtain the consumer perception for one of its products.
• Each consumer is asked to judge between given options:
• excellent, good, Average or poor.
Excellent = 1
Good= 2
Average = 3
Poor = 4
Difference between Excellent and Good OR between Good and Average is
unknown
Business Research Methods
Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Ordinal Scale Characteristics
• Along with identifying and describing the magnitude, the
ordinal scale shows the relative rank of variables.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• The properties of the interval are not known.
• Measurement of non-numeric attributes such as frequency,
satisfaction, happiness etc.
• In addition to the information provided by nominal scale
ordinal scale identifies the rank of variables.
• Using this scale, survey makers can analyze the degree of
agreement among respondents with respect to the identified
order of the variables.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Ordinal Scale Examples
• Ranking of high school students – 1st, 3rd, 4th, 10th… Nth. A student
scoring 99/100 would be the 1st rank, another student scoring

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

92/100 would be 3rd and so on and so forth.
• Rating surveys in restaurants – When a waiter gets a paper or online
survey with a question: “How satisfied are you with the dining
experience?” having 0-10 option, 0 being extremely dissatisfied and
10 being extremely satisfied
• Understanding the socio-economic background of the
target audience– Rich, middle class, poor etc.
• The frequency of occurrence – Questions such as “How frequently do
you have to get the phone repaired?”
• Very often
• Often
• Not Often
Business Research Methods
• Not at all
Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• Evaluating the degree of agreement – State your level of
agreement with the company policies:
• Totally agree
• Agree
• Neutral
• Disagree
• Totally disagree

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• Understanding preferences: If a marketer conducts surveys to
understand which laptop brand do their respondents do not
prefer, they can use the ordinal scale.
• Out of the five mentioned laptop brand, rate the order of
preference –
• HP
• Apple
• Lenovo
• Dell
• Acer

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Interval scale
• The interval scale is a quantitative measurement scale where there
is order, the difference between the two variables is meaningful

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

and equal, and the presence of zero is arbitrary.
• It measures variables that exist along a common scale at equal
intervals. The measures used to calculate the distance between
the variables are highly reliable
• It is easy to remember the objective of this scale because
“interval” refers to the interval (or distance) between two variables
• With the interval scale is that the data between two variables can
be added or subtracted, but not multiplied or divided.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
 Interval Scale: In interval level measurement, the difference between
two consecutive numbers is meaningful.
 The interval data are always numeric
Marks of 3 rankers in Business Statistics:
Rank 1 – 85 marks
Rank 2 – 75 marks
Rank 3 – 65 marks
• These three students can be rated in terms of their performances.
However, the difference in the numbers is also meaningful
• The student who secured 85 marks is the highest-ranking performer,
whereas the student who secured 65 is the lowest, with the student
who secured 75 marks in the middle.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Characteristics of interval scale
• There is no true zero

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• The interval scale is quantitative in the sense that it can quantify the
difference between values

• Interval data can be discrete with whole numbers like 8 degrees, 4

years, 2 months, etc., or continuous with fractional numbers like
12.2 degrees, 3.5 weeks or 4.2 miles.

• You can subtract values between two variables that help

understand the difference between two variables

• Interval measurement allows you to calculate the mean and median

of variables Business Research Methods
Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• Interval data is especially useful in business, social, and scientific
analysis and strategy because it is straightforward and quantitative.

• This is a preferred scale in statistics because you can assign a

numerical value to any arbitrary assessment, such as feelings and
sentiments

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• Excellent is ranked the best and poor the worst, with good
ranked between the two.
• If we want to assign numeric values to these three attributes,
“1” can be used for excellent, “2” for good, and “3” for poor
• It can be stated that 1 is superior followed by 2 and 3
• The exact difference between these numeric values cannot be
measured in any of these cases
• The nominal and ordinal level data measurements are often
used for imprecise measurements such as demographic
questions, ranking of items under the study, and so on.
• This is why these data are termed as non-metric data and are
referred as qualitative data.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• In the interval level measurement, the meaningful difference
between the two ranking points can be obtained
• In the above example, we can also compute that between the
highest and the lowest ranking points, the difference is 20
marks

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Ratio scale
• Ratio scale allows any researcher to compare the intervals or
differences.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• Ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement and possesses a zero
point or character of origin.
• A ratio scale is the most informative scale as it tends to tell about
the order and number of the object between the values of the
scale. The most common examples of ratio scale are height, money,
age, weight etc

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Scales of Measurement

 Ratio Scale: Ratio level measurements possess all the properties of

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

interval data with meaningful ratio of two values.
 Must contain ZERO value. e.g. Price
• For example, a company markets two toothbrushes priced Rs 30
and Rs 15, respectively.
• In the ratio scale, the difference between the two prices, that is, Rs
30 − Rs 15 = Rs 15, can be calculated and is meaningful.
• With it, we can also say that the price of the first product, Rs 30, is
two times that of the second product
• The interval and ratio level data are collected using some precise
instruments.
• These data are called metric data and are sometimes referred as
quantitative data
Business Research Methods, 2e Author: Naval Bajpai
 Characteristics of Ratio Scale
• Ratio scale, as mentioned earlier has an absolute zero
characteristic. It has orders and equally distanced value between

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

units.
• The zero point characteristic makes it relevant or meaningful to
say, “one object has twice the length of the other” or “is twice as
long.”
• Ratio scale doesn’t have a negative number, unlike interval scale
because of the absolute zero or zero point characteristic.
• To measure any object on a ratio scale, researchers must first see
if the object meets all the criteria for interval scale plus has an
absolute zero characteristic

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
• Ratio scale provides unique possibilities for statistical analysis.
• In ratio scale, variables can be systematically added, subtracted,

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

multiplied and divided (ratio).
• All statistical analysis including mean, mode, the median can be
calculated using ratio scale.
• Also, chi-square can be calculated on ratio scale variable.
• Ratio scale has ratio scale units which have several unique and
useful properties.
• One of them is they allow unit conversion. Take an example of
calculation of energy flow. Several units of energy occur like
Joules, gram-calories, kilogram-calories, British thermal units.
• Still more units of energy per unit time (power) exist kilocalories
per day, liters of oxygen per hour, ergs, and Watts
Business Research Methods
Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
FOUR LEVELS OF DATA MEASUREMENT

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• Nominal data have the most limited use in terms of the use of analytical
and statistical tools and techniques.
• When compared with the nominal data, the ordinal data allows a
researcher to use statistical tools and techniques with some additional
features
• In terms of using the data level, statistical tools and techniques can be
divided into two categories: parametric statistics and non-parametric
statistics
• In parametric statistics, the information about the distribution of the
population is known and is based on a fixed set of parameters.
• In nonparametric statistics, the information about the distribution of a
population is unknown, and the parameters are not fixed, which makes
is necessary to test the hypothesis for the population

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• The nominal and ordinal level data can be analysed using non-
parametric statistics, whereas the interval and ratio level data
can be analyzed using parametric statistics.
• In terms of usage, nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio level
data can be placed in an increasing order
• In terms of measurement capacity, nominal, ordinal, interval,
and ratio level data are placed in an ascending order.
• This means that the nominal data are the weakest and the
ratio data are the strongest in terms of applicability in
different statistical tests.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Figure 3.1: A comparison between the four levels of data
measurement in terms of usage potential (capacity)
In terms of measurement capacity, nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio level
data are placed in ascending order.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Parametric Ratio
data
tests
Interval
data
Non-
Ordinal data
parametric
tests
Nominal data

Business Research Methods, 2e Author: Naval Bajpai

 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
Business Research Methods
Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
Business Research Methods
Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
Business Research Methods
Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• For scale evaluation, three criteria are generally
applied:
• validity,
• reliability,
• sensitivity

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 The Criteria for Good Measurement

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Business Research Methods, 2e Author: Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of
research.
• They indicate how well a method, technique or test measures
something. Reliability is about the consistency of a measure, and
validity is about the accuracy of a measure.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Reliability
• What does it tell you?:

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• The extent to which the results can be reproduced when the
research is repeated under the same conditions
• How is it assessed?
• By checking the consistency of results across time, across
different observers, and across parts of the test itself.
• How do they relate?
• A reliable measurement is not always valid: the results might be
reproducible, but they’re not necessarily correct.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
• Reliability refers to how consistently a method measures
something. If the same result can be consistently achieved by

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

using the same methods under the same circumstances, the
measurement is considered reliable.

• Eg. You measure the temperature of a liquid sample several times

under identical conditions. The thermometer displays the same
temperature every time, so the results are reliable.

• Eg.A doctor uses a symptom questionnaire to diagnose a patient

with a long-term medical condition. Several different doctors use
the same questionnaire with the same patient but give different
diagnoses. This indicates that the questionnaire has low reliability
as a measure of the condition
Business Research Methods
Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 validity

Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

• What does it tell you :
• The extent to which the results really measure what they are
supposed to measure.
• How is it assessed :
• By checking how well the results correspond to established theories
and other measures of the same concept.
• How do they relate? :
• A valid measurement is generally reliable: if a test produces accurate
results, they should be reproducible.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is
intended to measure. If research has high validity, that means it
produces results that correspond to real properties,
characteristics, and variations in the physical or social world.
• High reliability is one indicator that a measurement is valid. If a
method is not reliable, it probably isn’t valid

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• Eg. If the thermometer shows different temperatures each
time, even though you have carefully controlled conditions to
ensure the sample’s temperature stays the same, the
thermometer is probably malfunctioning, and therefore its
measurements are not valid.
• Eg. If a symptom questionnaire results in a reliable diagnosis
when answered at different times and with different doctors,
this indicates that it has high validity as a measurement of
the medical condition.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai
 Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
• However, reliability on its own is not enough to ensure validity.
Even if a test is reliable, it may not accurately reflect the real
situation.
• The thermometer that you used to test the sample gives
reliable results. However, the thermometer has not been
calibrated properly, so the result is 2 degrees lower than the
true value. Therefore, the measurement is not valid.
• A group of participants take a test designed to measure working
memory. The results are reliable, but participants’ scores
correlate strongly with their level of reading comprehension.
This indicates that the method might have low validity: the test
may be measuring participants’ reading comprehension instead
of their working memory.

Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods, 2e Author:
Naval Bajpai Naval Bajpai