Water is a transparent, odorless, and tasteless liquid composed of two

hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom (H₂O). It exists in various

forms, including liquid, solid, and gas. Water is essential for life on earth
and serves numerous crucial purposes, including:

Hydration: Essential for human and animal survival.

Cleaning: Used for personal hygiene, washing dishes, and maintaining

cleanliness.

Agriculture: Vital for irrigating crops.

Industry: Employed in manufacturing processes across various

industries.

Energy Production: Used in power generation, especially in

hydroelectric plants.

Cooking: An integral component in preparing food.

Transportation: Plays a role in maritime and other forms of

transportation.

Ecosystem Support: Necessary for maintaining natural habitats and

biodiversity.

Medical Purposes: Used in healthcare, from basic hygiene to medical

procedures.

Every of these uses of water requires water with specific characteristics.

This is why humans have learned to analyze water, searching for ions
and molecules that might hinder our purposes.

PH
One of the initial analyses water undergoes is the pH analysis, pure
water has 7 as pH value measuring pH is a key component of water
quality monitoring, enabling the identification of
potential issues. This analysis is done with a pH meter. A pH meter is an
instrument used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It
provides a numerical pH value by measuring the concentration of
hydrogen ions (H⁺) in a solution. It typically consists of a glass electrode
and a reference electrode. The glass electrode is sensitive to the
concentration of H⁺ ions. When the electrode is immersed in the
solution, it generates a voltage proportional to the pH of the solution.
The potential difference between the glass electrode and the reference
electrode is then converted into a pH value by the instrument.

CONDUCTIVITY
Water conductivity analysis measures the ability of water to conduct an
electric current, which is caused by the presence of dissolved ions, pure
water doesn't conduct. It is measured with the electrical conductivity
meter, it is formed by two electrodes at a fixed distance, applying a
known voltage to the electrodes it is able to read the current passing
through the substance.
Conductivity is usually expressed in mS/cm or in uS/cm

SOLID RESIDUE
Solid residue is usually done as one of the firsts analysis, it indicates the
quantity of dissolved solids in one liter of freshwater, namely the
minerals and elements it contains, dependent on the lengthy process of
water mineralization flowing through rocks. It is an important parameter
used to classify mineral waters: depending on the quantity of total
dissolved solids present, the water has a different impact on our
organism, with some health benefits and potential problems. Inside the
total dissolved solids, the main components are bicarbonates, sulfates,
silica, calcium, sodium, magnesium, and potassium. It is done by placing
a known volume of water in a heater, letting all the water evaporate and
then weigh the residue leaved by the water, at the end devide the mg of
residue by the liters of water taken
 INSTANT OXYGEN DEMAND
Instant oxygen demand analysis typically refers to the rapid assessment
of the amount of oxygen required to degrade or oxidize organic matter in
water. This analysis is crucial in environmental monitoring and water
quality assessment to understand the level of pollution or contamination
in a water body. By measuring the immediate oxygen demand, scientists
and environmental professionals can gauge the impact of pollutants and
assess the health of aquatic ecosystems. It is done by letting potassium
permanganate oxydate every oxydable substance in acidic solution, then
adding the same quantity of sodium oxalate that is going to reduce the
permanganate left in solution, at the end titrate the oxalate in excess,
equal to the initial oxydable substance, with permanganate. The results
are typically expressed in milligrams of oxygen per liter (mg/L) of water.

CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a crucial parameter used in
environmental chemistry to quantify the amount of organic and inorganic
pollutants in water. It measures the total amount of oxygen required to
chemically oxidize both organic and oxidizable inorganic substances in
water. In the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid, organic and
inorganic substances in the sample are oxidized using a solution of
potassium dichromate. The digestion is performed on the samples with a
predetermined amount of oxidizing agent, sulfuric acid, and heat
(150°C). During digestion, an excess of oxidizing agent is necessary to
ensure complete oxidation of the sample. The excess dichromate is
titrated with Mohr's salt. The concentration of COD is proportional to the
amount of potassium dichromate consumed and so to the Mohr's salt
consumed. The results are typically expressed in milligrams of oxygen
per liter (mg/L) of water.

WATER HARDNESS
Water hardness refers to the concentration of
calcium and magnesium ions, in water. It is typically measured in terms
of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) equivalents, expressed as milligrams per
liter (mg/L) or French degrees (°F). Water hardness can be categorized
into three types: total, temporary and permanent hardness. Water
hardness analysis is done via titration with ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid (EDTA) which is a chemical compound that functions as a chelating
agent. It has the ability to form coordination complexes with metal ions
like calcium and magnesium in alcaline solution (pH 10). Eriochrome
black t (NET) is used to see a change in color once the metallic ions are
all reacted. Repeat the analysis after boiling the sample for permanent
one, substract the two results for temporary one.
ALCALINITY
This titration allows you to quantify the alkalinity, which mainly comes
from carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide ions in the water. It's crucial
for understanding a water system's ability to resist changes in pH and is
relevant in
environmental, industrial, and water treatment applications. It consist of
a titration with HCl in which there could be 2 equivalent points, once you
put phenolphthalein in the sample you could get an acidic pH that
incates the presence of bicarbonates HCO3-. Once the bicarbonates are
neutralised by HCl add mixed indicator which will turn colour once even
carbonates and hydroxides are neutralised.
NITRATES
Analyzing nitrates with a spectrophotometer involves measuring the
absorbance of a sample at a specific wavelength to determine nitrate
concentration. It is usefull to analyze the sample at 210 nm and at 275
nm, at this wavelenght organics substances absorb half the real value,
so substract double the value of this lecture from the 210 nm one. It is
necessary to create a graph with standards of NO3- so that we can
compare the absorbance to some others known concentrations.
Remember to add 1 ml of HCl in the standards and in the sample so that
the carbonates influence is negligible.
 NITRITES
Elevated levels of nitrites in water, food, or the environment can pose
health risks. Nitrites can react with amines to form nitrosamines, some of
which are known carcinogens. Nitrites are often present in water as a
result of agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, or sewage
contamination. High nitrite levels can indicate poor water quality,
potentially impacting aquatic ecosystems and posing a threat to human
health if consumed. Monitoring nitrite levels helps ensure the safety of
water and food supplies. The most common way to analyze nitrites in a
water is to make them react with Griess reagents: Griess reagent I
(sulfanilamide solution) and Griess reagent II (N-1-
napthylethylenediamine dihydrochloride solution). Which react with
nitrites to form a colored compound. It is necessary to crate a graph, and
so we have to make some standards and make even them react with
griess reagents.
Analyze both sample and standards at 520 nm.
 AMMONIACAL NITROGEN
The ammonia present in water reacts with an alkaline solution of
potassium iodomercurate (Nessler's reagent) to form a colored complex
according to the reaction:
2(HgI2+KI)+2NH3 -> 2(NH3HgI2)+2KI
2(NH3HgI2) → NH2Hg2I3 + NH4I
Prepare 4 standards at known concentration then add the stabilizing
solution (1 drop of EDTA reagent or 2 drops of Seignette salt) and mix
well. Add 2 mL of Nessler's reagent (if EDTA solution was used) or 1 mL
(if Seignette salt solution was used), wait for 15 minutes, and measure
the absorbance at a wavelength of 420 nm. The 15-minute waiting time
before reading on the spectrophotometer is sufficient to ensure complete
color development before the colored complex begins to flocculate.

ION CROMATOGRAPHY
Ion chromatography (IC) is a technique used for the separation and
analysis of ions in a solution. It is commonly used to determine
concentrations of various ions in environmental, pharmaceutical, and
food samples. In ion chromatography, a liquid mobile phase carries the
sample through a column containing a stationary phase, typically a resin
with ion-exchange properties. Ions in the sample interact with the
charged sites on the stationary phase based on their affinity for the resin.
The separated ions are then detected and quantified by a conductivity
detector or other suitable detectors. IC is particularly useful for analyzing
anions (negatively charged ions) and cations (positively charged ions)
separately.
CHLORIDES
This is a titration of chloride ions with a silver nitrate solution in a neutral
or slightly basic environment, using potassium chromate as an indicator:
after the quantitative precipitation of silver chloride, a persistent brick-red
coloration of silver chromate is observed. Take exactly 100 ml of the
sample, or a precisely known smaller volume, which is diluted to 100 ml
depending on the chloride ion content. Ensure that the sample
is around pH 8. If not, adjust the value using 0.5 M sulfuric acid or 1 M
sodium hydroxide. Add 1 ml of potassium chromate solution and titrate
with 0.1 N silver nitrate until a persistent red color change. It is essential
to perform, under the same conditions, a blank test on a 100 ml aliquot
of water treated similarly to the sample.
FLAME EMISSION
Flame emission spectroscopy is a method of analyzing the composition
of a sample by heating it in a flame and observing the light emitted by
the sample. This light can provide information about the elements
present in the sample. It is often used to determine metallic ions in
solution, to do so all you have to do is creating some standard solutions
with the metal ion your searching for and water milliQ + HNO3.
Then make a graph with the readings of the emissions to know the
concentration in the sample.
ATOMIC ABSORPTION
Atomic absorption is a useful instrument to determine concentrations in a
sample.
Atomic absorption spectrometry detects elements in either liquid or solid
samples through the application of characteristic wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation from a light source. Individual elements will
absorb wavelengths differently, and these absorbances are measured
against standards. In effect, AAS takes advantage of the different
radiation wavelengths that are absorbed by different atoms.
OUR RESULTS

PH
Our water resulted in having a pH of 7.65

CONDUCTIVITY
Our water resulted in having a conductivity of 7,36 mS/cm

SOLID RESIDUE
Our water resulted in having a solid residue of 5,088 g/l
Weighed residue in grams ÷ volume of water in liters = solid residue in
g/l

IOD
Our water resulted in having an istant oxygen demand of 8,5 ppm O2

((V1*N1)/V0)*M2= IOD

V1= volume of permanganate in ml

N1= concentration of permanganate in eq/l
V0= volume of sample in l
M2= equivalent mass of oxygen

COD
Our water resulted in having a chemical oxygen demand of 22,46 ppm
O2

(((V2-V1)*N1)/V0)*M2=COD

V2= volume of mohr's salt consumed for the blanc in ml

V1= volume of mohr's salt consumed for the
sample in ml
N1= mohr's salt concentration in eq/l
V0= volume of the sample in l
M2= equivalent mass of oxygen

HARDNESS
Our water resulted in having a total hardness of 10,36 °F, a permanent
of 9.84 °F and a temporary of 0.518 °F

(((V1*N1)/V0)*M2)/10=TOTAL HARDNESS in °F

V1= volume of EDTA consumed in ml

N1=concentration of EDTA in eq/l
V0= volume of the sample
M2= equivalent mass of CaCO3

After boiling:
(((V1*N1)/V0)*M2)/10=PERMANENT HARDNESS in °F

V1= volume of EDTA consumed in ml

N1=concentration of EDTA in eq/l
V0= volume of the sample
M2= equivalent mass of CaCO3

TOTAL HARDNESS - PERMANENT HARDNESS = TEMPORARY

HARDNESS

ALCALINITY
Our water resulted in having a total alcalinity of 164.25 ± 4.94 ppm
And HCO3- 200,39 ± 6,04 ppm
Since our water hasn't got any other species than HCO3-, we only have
1 equivalent point with phenolphthalein.

((V1*N1)/V0)*M2 = ALCALINITY

V1= volume of HCl consumed in ml

N1= concentration of HCl in eq/l
V0= volume of the sample in l
M2= equivalent mass of CaCO3

NITRATES
Our water resulted in having nitrates of 5,17 ppm
 NITRITES
Our water resulted in having nitrites of 28,08 ppm

AMMONIACAL NITROGEN
Our water resulted in having ammoniacal nitrogen of 6,16 ppm

CHLORIDES
Our water resulted in having chlorides of 287,55 ppm

(((V1-V2)*N1)/V0)*M2 = ppm of CHLORIDES

V1= volume of AgNO3 consumed for the sample in ml

V2= volume of AgNO3 consumed for the blanc in ml
N1= concentration of AgNO3 in eq/l
V0= volume of the sample
M2= equivalent mass of chloride ion

FLAME EMISSION
We analyzed lithium, sodium and potassium in flame emission:
our water resulted in having 8,35 ppm of lithium, 23,5 ppm of potassium
and 181,2 ppm of sodium.
ATOMIC ABSORPTION
We analyzed iron, manganese and zinc in atomic absorption:
our water resulted in having 789 ± 30 ppb of iron, 466 ± 10 ppb of
manganese and 44 ± 0,88 ppb of zinc