NOTES

Current Electricity
 Electric Current

The rate of flow of charge through a

• The net amount of charge flowing across
the area in the time interval ∆𝑡, is defined
given area is called current.
to be the average current across the area.
Δ𝑄
𝑖𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
Δ𝑡

• SI unit of electric current is 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 (A).

• Electric current has direction as well as
magnitude but it is a scalar quantity.
Δ𝑄
• If charge 𝑑𝑄 is flowing across the area in an
𝒆 𝒆 infinitesimally small time interval 𝑑𝑡, it is
𝒆 𝒆 defined to be the instantaneous current
across that area.
Δ𝑡
𝑑𝑄
𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
 Direction of Conventional Electric Current

• In reality, the free electrons of the conductor flow

from end B at lower potential to end A at higher
potential.

• However, we choose the direction of

electric current as that of supposed flow of
positive charge as convention. i.e., from A
to B.
- +
𝐼
𝑉𝐴 (> 𝑉𝐵 ) 𝑉𝐵

𝒆 𝒆 𝒆
𝐴 𝐵
𝒆 𝒆 𝒆

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
A flow of 107 electrons per second in a conducting wire constitutes a current of?

𝑛 = 107 , 𝑡 = 1 𝑠 𝐼

10−7
Current is given by: 𝒆 𝒆
∆𝑄 𝒆 𝒆
𝐼=
∆𝑡
1𝑠
7 −19
𝑛𝑒 10 × 1.6 × 10
⇒𝐼 = =
∆𝑡 1

∴ 𝐼 = 1.6 × 10−12 𝐴
The current vs time graph of a conductor is given in the figure. Find the net
charge passing through the conductor during time interval, 𝑡 = 0 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 4 𝑠.

𝐼(𝐴)
A 12 𝐶
6

B 18 𝐶

C 6𝐶

𝑂 2 4 𝑡(𝑠)

D Cannot be determined Net charge = Area under 𝐼 − 𝑡 curve

 Current – Vector or Scalar

3𝐴 3𝐴 3𝐴

6𝐴 6𝐴
60° 150° 6𝐴 180°

3𝐴 3𝐴 3𝐴

Electric current is a treated as a scalar quantity.

It does not follow the law of vector addition.

 Current Density

The amount of electric current traveling per unit cross-section

area is called as current density.

𝐼 𝐴
𝐽 =
𝐴 𝑚2
𝐼 𝐴Ԧ
𝐼 = 𝐽.Ԧ 𝐴Ԧ
𝐽 Where,

𝐽Ԧ → Direction same as 𝐼
+ −
𝐴 → Perpendicular to
the current flow
 Current in a Conductor

Isolated Conductor
Average thermal velocity is zero.
𝑢ത 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0

Number of electrons passing through

any area in the left and right direction
is same.
𝐼=0

Conductor Connected to a battery

Electrons will start displacing opposite
to the direction of electric field and
𝑎Ԧ thus constituting current.
𝐸
Acceleration of an electron is:
𝐼
𝑒𝐸
𝑎Ԧ = −
+ − 𝑚
 Drift Velocity

The average velocity attained by charged

particles in a material due to an electric field
is called as drift velocity.
𝐸 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝐼 𝑛

+
𝑉 −
𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 + ⋯ + 𝜆𝑛
Drift Mean free Path: 𝜆𝑚 =
𝑛
𝑢1
𝑣2
𝜆1 𝜆2 Drift Velocity: 𝑒𝐸 𝑒𝑉
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = − 𝜏 𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏
𝑚 𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑚𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑣1 𝑢2
 Relation between Current and Drift Velocity

Relation between current

and drift velocity is:

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑

𝐴 𝑑𝑞 Where,
𝐼
𝑛 = No. of free electron
per unit volume
𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑒 = Charge of an electron

𝐴 = Area of cross section

+ −
𝑣𝑑 = Drift velocity
 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly

proportional to the current flowing through it, provided all physical
conditions and temperature remain constant.

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑

𝑒𝑉
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏
𝐸 𝑚𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝑒
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴 𝜏 𝑉
𝑚𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑔
+ −

∆𝑉 ∝ 𝐼
A current of 10 𝐴 exists in a wire of cross-sectional area of 5 𝑚𝑚2 . The number of
free electrons in each cubic meter of the wire is 6.25 × 1027 . What is the drift
velocity of the electrons in the wire

Given :
𝐼 = 10 𝐴, 𝑛 = 6.25 × 1027 , 𝐴 = 5 𝑚𝑚2 = 5 × 10−6 𝑚2

Formula used : 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑

Solution:

𝐼
⇒ 𝑉𝑑 =
𝑛𝑒𝐴
10
⇒ 𝑉𝑑 =
6.25 × 1027 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 5 × 10−6

⇒ 𝑉𝑑 = 2 × 10−3 𝑚𝑠 −1
 If the drift velocity of current in a 5 𝑚 long wire connected between
the bulb and switch is 2 × 10−3 𝑚𝑠 −1 . How much time will it take for
the bulb to turn ON after switch is turned ON.

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑖𝑟𝑒 5
𝑡= = 𝑠 = 2500 𝑠 ≈ 41.6 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2 × 10−3

When the bulb is turned on it establishes an

electric field throughout the conductor.

Electric field exerts force on the free

electrons in the conductor and the
free electrons everywhere in the wire
begin drifting almost at once.
So, even though the electron drift
velocity is very small electric bulb
lights up instantly when switched
on.
 Electrical Resistance

Resistance is a property of conductor due to which it resists the flow of electric current through it.

𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 Resistor Symbol :

𝑅= 𝑜𝑟 Ω (Ohm)
𝐼 𝐴𝑚𝑝

𝑚𝑙
𝑉= 𝐼
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐴
𝑉 𝑚𝑙
𝑚 = mass of 𝑒 − 𝐼
=
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐴
𝑙 = length of the conductor
𝑚𝑙
𝑅= Ω
𝑛 = No. of free 𝑒 per unit volume
−
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐴

𝑒 = charge on 𝑒 −
1
𝜏 = Avg. Relaxation Time ∴𝑅∝𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅∝
𝐴
𝐴 = Area of cross-section
 Electrical Resistivity

It is defined as the resistance offered by the material per unit length for unit cross-sectional
area.

𝑉𝑏
Resistance of a conductor
𝐴
𝐼
𝜌𝑙 𝑚
𝑅= 𝜌= = Resistivity = Ω. 𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝐴

𝑙
Where, 𝜌 = Resisitivity
𝑙 = Length of the conductor in the
direction of current flow
𝐴 = Cross-sectional area normal 𝑉𝑎
to the direction of current flow

Note: − Resistivity depends on temperature and the nature of material itself

 Consider the circuit as shown in the figure. The dimension of the conductor is
𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐 = 30 × 15 × 10 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚 while resistivity is 𝜌 = 10 × 10−8 Ω𝑚. If its is
connected to a 10 𝑚𝑉 cell, then what will be the value of current flowing
through the circuit?

Given: 𝜌 = 10 × 10−8 Ω𝑚

𝜌𝑙
Formula used: 𝑅 = , 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐴

Solution: 𝑉 = 10 × 10−3 𝑉

10 × 10−8 × 0.03 10 × 10−3

𝑅= 𝐼=
0.015 × 0.01 2.0 × 10−5 Ω

𝑅 = 2.0 × 10−5 Ω 𝐼 = 500 𝐴𝑚𝑝

 A thick spherical shell has inner radius 𝑎 and outer 𝑏, the material has resistivity
𝜌. when a potential difference is applied between the inner & outer surfaces, its
resistance is?

Resistance of the sphere of radius 𝑟 :

𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑅 = 𝜌
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑟
𝑟
Resistance of the hollow sphere : 𝑎
𝑏
𝜌 1 1
𝑅 = න 𝑑𝑅 𝑅= − +
𝑎 4𝜋 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏

𝑏
𝑑𝑟
𝑅=න 𝜌
𝑎 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜌 𝑏−𝑎
𝑅=
𝑏 4𝜋 𝑎𝑏
𝜌 1
𝑅= −
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑎
Conductance Conductivity

Measurement of how The conductance of a

easily current can flow block having unit
through a resistor. dimensions.

Reciprocal of resistance, Reciprocal of the

symbolized by 𝐺. resistivity, symbolized by
𝜎.
Unit : 𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 (𝑆). Unit: 𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑆/𝑚).

1 1
𝐺= 𝜎=
𝑅 𝜌
 Vector form of Ohm’s Law

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 1 1
𝐽Ԧ = 𝐸 × ∵
𝜌
= 𝜎 (Conductivity)
𝜌
𝑒𝑉 S.I unit = Siemens/metre = 𝑆/𝑚
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴 𝜏
𝑚𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝐽Ԧ = 𝜎𝐸
𝑉 𝑚𝐼
= 2
𝑙 𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
Resistivity 𝜌

𝑉 𝑚 𝐼
= ×
𝑙 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴

𝑉 𝐼
⟹ 𝐸 = 𝜌 𝐽Ԧ ∵𝐸= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽 =
𝑙 𝐴
 A wire of a certain material is stretched slowly by ten percent. Its new resistance
and specific resistance become respectively

Given : 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅 Ω, 𝑙2 = 𝑛𝑙 𝐴

𝜌𝑙 𝑙
Solution: 𝑅 = … (1)
𝐴 𝐴2

𝜌𝑛𝑙 ∵ 𝑉 = 𝐴. 𝑙 = 𝐴2 . 𝑛𝑙 𝑛𝑙
𝑅2 =
𝐴2
𝐴 𝑙 ′ = 𝑙 ′ = 𝑙 + 10% 𝑙
𝜌𝑛𝑙 ∴ 𝐴2 =
𝑅2 = 𝑛 ∴ 𝑙 = 1.1 𝑙
𝐴/𝑛
When 𝑙 ↑ 𝑛 times, 𝑅′ = 𝑛2 𝑅
𝜌𝑙 2
𝑅2 = .𝑛 𝑅2 = 𝑅. 𝑛2
𝐴
∴ 𝑅′ = 1.1 2 𝑅 = 1.21 𝑅
 The masses of the wires of copper are in the ratio 1: 3: 5 and their lengths are in
the ratio 5: 3: 1. The ratio of their electrical resistance is

Given: 𝑀1 : 𝑀2 : 𝑀3 = 1: 3: 5, 𝑙1 : 𝑙2 : 𝑙3 = 5: 3: 1 𝐴1
Solution: 𝑙1 , 𝑀1

𝜌𝑙 𝐴2
𝑅=
𝐴
52 32 12 𝑙2 , 𝑀2
𝑀 = Volume × Density = 𝐴𝑙 × 𝑑 ∴ 𝑅1 ∶ 𝑅2 ∶ 𝑅3 =
1
:
3
:
5

𝑀 1 𝐴3
∴𝐴= = 25 ∶ 3 ∶
5
𝑙𝑑
= 125 ∶ 15 ∶ 1 𝑙3 , 𝑀3
𝜌𝑙 2 𝑑 𝑙2
𝑅= ⇒𝑅 ∝
𝑀 𝑀
∴ 𝑅1 ∶ 𝑅2 ∶ 𝑅3 = 125 ∶ 15 ∶ 1
 Effect of temperature on Resistance & Resistivity

Conductors

𝑛↑ Heading
𝑅 ↓, 𝜌 ↓ 1

𝑇↑

𝜏↓ Heading
𝑅 ↑, 𝜌 ↑ 1

𝑚𝑙 𝑚
𝑅= where = 𝜌 (resistivity)
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐴 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
 Effect of temperature on Resistance & Resistivity

𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇) 𝑅0 = Resistance at reference temperature 𝑇0 𝑅𝑓 − 𝑅0

𝛼=
𝑅0 ∆𝑇
𝛼 = Co-efficient of thermal resistance
𝜌𝑓 = 𝜌0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)
 The temperature coefficient of resistance of wire is 0.00125 °𝐶 −1 . At 300 𝐾 its
resistance is 1 Ω. At what temperature will its resistance become 2Ω ?

Solution : 𝑅1 = 1 𝛺, 𝑅2 = 2 𝛺, 𝑇1 = 300 𝐾 = 27 °𝐶, 𝛼 = 0.00125 °𝐶 −1

Let the resistance of wire is 𝑅0 at 𝑇 = 0 °𝐶. Hence,

𝑅1 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼𝑇1 & 𝑅2 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼𝑇2 )

𝑅1 1 + 𝛼𝑇1
⇒ =
𝑅2 1 + 𝛼𝑇2
𝑅1 − 𝑅2
⇒ 𝛼=
𝑅2 𝑇1 − 𝑅1 𝑇2

1−2
1.25 × 10−3 = ⇒ 𝑇2 = 854 °𝐶 or 𝑇2 = 1127 𝐾
2 27 − 1(𝑇2 )
 Resistor and Colour Coding

• Resistor is an object with desired resistance.

Resistor Symbol of resistor

Colour 4 or no colour stands for tolerance

1 2 3 4 or possible variation in percentage about
the indicated values.
Indicates the decimal multiplier.

Indicate the first and second

significant figures of the
resistance in ohm.
 Colour Coding of Carbon Resistors

Trick Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance Example:

B Black 0 1
B Brown 1 101
R Red 2 102
O Orange 3 103 Digit 1 = 5 (Green)
Y Yellow 4 104
Digit 2 = 3 (Orange)
Great Green 5 105
Britain has a Blue 6 106 Multiplier = 104 (Yellow)
Very Violet 7 107 Tolerance = ± 5 % (Gold)
Good Grey 8 108
Wife White 9 109 Resistance of Carbon resistor,
Gold 10−1 ± 5% 𝑅 = 53 × 104 ± 5 %
Silver 10−2 ± 10%
No colour ± 20% 𝑅 = 530 𝑘Ω ± 5 %
 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s Current Law(KCL) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law(KVL)

The algebraic sum of currents at a node In any closed loop, the algebraic sum of all the
(junction) must be equal to zero. potential differences is zero.
𝐴 𝐵

−𝑉 + + 𝑉1 − + 𝑉2 − +𝑉3 −

𝑄 = +1𝐶
We consider current entering as positive
𝐷 𝐶
and current leaving as negative.
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + −𝐼4 + −𝐼5 = 0 𝑉 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 𝐼4 + 𝐼5 Σ𝑉 = 0

Sum of currents Sum of current Kirchhoff’s voltage law is based on the conservation
entering = leaving of Energy.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law – sign convention

𝐼 + − 𝐼 + −
Δ𝑉 → −𝑣𝑒 Δ𝑉 → +𝑣𝑒

− V + − V +
Δ𝑉 → +𝑣𝑒 Δ𝑉 → −𝑣𝑒
In the given circuit, find the value of currents 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 respectively.

In loop 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐹𝐴
10 Ω 10 Ω
20 − 10𝑖1 − 10 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 10 = 0 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
2𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 1 ….(𝑖)
𝑖1 𝑖2
In loop 𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹𝐶
20 𝑉 10 Ω
10 + 10 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 10𝑖2 − 20 = 0 20 𝑉
10 𝑉
2𝑖2 + 𝑖1 = 1 ….(𝑖𝑖)

From (𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖)

1 𝐴 𝐹 𝐸
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝐴
3
 The potential difference (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) between the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the given figure is

Going from point A to point B

𝑉𝐴 − 2 × 2 − 3 − 2 × 1 = 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴 2Ω 1Ω 𝑉𝐵

2 Ω resistor 1 Ω resistor 𝐴 𝐼 =2𝐴

+ − 𝐵
3𝑉
Battery

𝑉𝐴 − 4 − 3 − 2 = 𝑉𝐵
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 9 𝑉
 In the circuit shown in the figure, if the potential at point 𝐴 is taken to be zero,
the potential at point 𝐵 is

𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐴 = 1 𝑉
𝑅1
𝑉𝐶 − 0 = 1 𝑉 𝐷 𝐵
𝑉𝐶 = 1 𝑉
1𝐴 2𝑉
𝑖𝐷𝐶 = 2 𝐴 − 1 𝐴 = 1 𝐴
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 𝑖𝐷𝐶 × 2 Ω = 2 𝑉
𝑅2 2Ω 2𝐴
𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐶 = 2 𝑉
𝑉𝐷 − 1 = 2 𝑉
𝑉𝐷 = 3 𝑉

𝑉𝐷𝐵 = 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐵 = 2 𝑉 𝐴 𝐶
𝑉𝐷𝐵 = 3 𝑉 − 𝑉𝐵 = 2 𝑉 1𝑉
𝑉𝐵 = 1 𝑉
 Resistors in series

• Current in all the resistors connected in series remains the same.

• 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 , 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 , 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3

Applying KVL to the loop ABCD, 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓

𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝐴 𝐵
Applying KVL to the loop ABCD, 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
+ 𝑉1 − + 𝑉2 − + 𝑉3 −
𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝐼
𝐷 𝐶
+𝑉 −
 From the given figure. Find the potential difference across each resistor.

1Ω 2Ω 7Ω
𝐴 𝐵
A 2 𝑉, 4 𝑉, 14 𝑉

B 1 𝑉, 2 𝑉, 7 𝑉
𝐼
𝐷 𝐶
+ 20 V −
C 20 𝑉, 20 𝑉, 20 𝑉

D 14 𝑉, 4 𝑉, 2 𝑉
 Parallel Combination of Resistors

Same Potential difference across resistors

𝐼1 , 𝑅1 , 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 ; 𝑉 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 ; 𝑉 = 𝐼3 𝑅3
𝐼1 1 1
= :
𝐼2 , 𝑅2 , 𝑉 𝐼2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐴 𝐵
Applying 𝐾𝐶𝐿 at 𝐵

𝐼 𝐼3 , 𝑅3 , 𝑉 𝐼 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

For 𝑛 equal resistances in parallel,

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅/𝑛
𝑉
 𝑅
If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = . Find the equivalent resistance between A and B .
2

𝑅1

For the Parallel combination of 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3

𝑅2
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
2 2 2
𝑅3 1 6
=
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅

𝑅
𝐴 𝐵 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
6
 Find the current 𝐼, 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 by current division method .

𝐼1 3Ω

4Ω Equivalent resistance is given as :

3×6
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4 + =6Ω
3+6
𝐼2 6Ω
𝐼 𝑉 3 1
𝐼= = = 𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 6 2

6 1 1
𝐼1 = = 𝐴
6+3 2 3

3𝑉 3 1 1
𝐼2 = = 𝐴
6+3 2 6
 When a wire of uniform cross-section 𝐴, length 𝑙 and resistance 𝑅 is bent into a
complete circle, resistance between any two of diametrically opposite points will
be____________

𝑅/2

As 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙
𝑙 𝐴 𝐵
𝑙 𝑅
∝
4 4
𝑅/2 1 1 1
𝐴 𝐵 = +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅ൗ 𝑅ൗ
2 2
𝑅
𝑅/2 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
4

𝐴 𝐵

𝑅/2
 A ring is made of a wire having a resistance 𝑅0 = 12 Ω. Find the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 , as
shown in the figure, at which a current carrying conductor should be connected
so that the resistance 𝑅 of the sub circuit between these points is equal to 8/3 Ω.

𝑅1 = 𝑟𝑙1
𝑙1 8
𝑅1 𝑅2 = × 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 32 Ω
3
𝐵
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 12 Ω … . (1) 𝑅1 𝑅2 = 32 Ω … . (2)
𝐴
2 2
𝑅2 − 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 − 4𝑅2 𝑅1
2 2
𝑅2 − 𝑅1 = 12 − 4 × 32
𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑙2
𝑅2 − 𝑅1 =4 … . (3)
𝑙2
Using (1) and (3), we get

𝑅0 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑙1 + 𝑟𝑙2 = 12 Ω 𝑅2 = 8 Ω and 𝑅1 = 4 Ω

𝑅1 𝑅2 8 𝑅1 𝑙1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = Ω = =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 3 𝑅2 𝑙2 2
 Find the Potential drop across 3 Ω resistor.

3Ω
4Ω
Equivalent Resistance for 3 Ω and 6 Ω
𝑉1
6Ω 𝑖 3×6
𝑖 = =2Ω
𝑉2 3+6

3𝑉

Equivalent Resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4 + 2 =6Ω

4Ω 2Ω 𝑅𝑒𝑞
3
Total Current, 𝑖= = 0.5 𝐴
6
𝑖 𝑖
3𝑉 Potential drop , 𝑉2 = 0.5 × 2 = 1 𝑉
 Find equivalent resistance between 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅4 = 𝑅

𝐵
𝑅1 Equivalent Resistance across AB
is given as :

𝑅2 𝐴 𝑅3 1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4
𝑅4
1 1 1 1 1 4
= + + + =
𝑅1 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

1 4
𝑅2 𝑉𝐵 =
𝑉𝐴 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅
𝐴 𝐵
𝑅
𝑅3 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
4
𝑅4
Find equivalent resistance between 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅4 = 𝑅

Equivalent Resistance across AB is given as :

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑃1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1 2 𝑅
= + = 𝑅𝑃1 =
𝑅𝑃1 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 2

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑃2 𝑅3 𝑅4
1 1 1 2 𝑅
= + = 𝑅𝑃2 =
𝑅𝑃2 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 2

𝑅 𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑃1 + 𝑅𝑃2 = + =𝑅
2 2
An infinite ladder network is arranged with resistances 𝑅 and 2𝑅 as shown. The
effective resistance between terminals 𝐴 and 𝐵 is:

Equivalent resistance (𝑅𝐴𝐵 ) 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝐴

Let 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥 2𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅 ⇒∞ 𝑥

2𝑅𝑥
𝑥=𝑅+ 𝐵
2𝑅 + 𝑥

𝑥(2𝑅 + 𝑥) = 𝑅(2𝑅 + 𝑥) + 2𝑅𝑥

𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑅 − 2𝑅2 = 0 𝑅
𝐴
𝑅 ± 𝑅2 + 8𝑅2 4𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅 𝑥
𝑥= = 𝑜𝑟 −
2 2 2

𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥 = 2𝑅 𝐵
 Galvanometer

A device used to detect the presence of current, the direction of flow and
compare the magnitudes of two currents.

𝑖=0 𝑖 𝑖

G G G

Angle of deflection (𝜃) ∝ Magnitude of current (𝑖) flowing through it

 Wheatstone’s Bridge

For a Balanced Wheatstone Bridge :

𝑖𝑔 = 0
𝐵 𝐵
𝑖3 𝑖1
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑖1 = 𝑖3 𝑖2 = 𝑖4
𝑖𝑔 𝑖1
𝑖1
𝐴 G 𝐶 𝐴 𝐶 𝑖1 𝑖3
𝑅2 𝑅2 =
𝑖2 𝑖2 𝑖2 𝑖4
𝑖𝑔
𝑅4 𝑅4
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖2
𝑖4
Condition for Balanced
𝐷 𝐷 Wheatstone Bridge :

𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
Three resistances, 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, each of 2Ω, and an unknown resistance 𝑆 form the four
arms of a wheat stone bridge circuit. When a resistance of 6Ω is connected in
parallel to 𝑆, the bridge gets balanced. What is the value of 𝑆?

𝑅𝑃 = 𝑅𝑄 = 𝑅𝑅 = 2Ω
𝑅𝑃 = 2Ω 𝑅𝑅 = 2Ω
𝑅𝑆

1 1 1 G
= + …………(1) 𝑅𝑆 𝑆′
𝑆 ′ 6 𝑅𝑆
𝑅𝑄 = 2Ω
6Ω
For balanced Wheatstone bridge:
𝑅𝑃 𝑅𝑅 2 2
= ′ ⇒ = ′ ⇒ 𝑆 ′ = 2 Ω …………(2)
𝑅𝑄 𝑆 2 𝑆

From Eq (1) and Eq (2), we get,

1 1 1
= + ⇒ 𝑅𝑆 = 3 Ω
2 6 𝑅𝑆
 Symmetric Circuits – Mirror Symmetry

Perpendicular • The circuit on the left and on the right of

axis perpendicular axis must be exactly the same.
4𝑅 4𝑅
𝑖1 𝑖1 • The currents through the resistances 4𝑅 and
2𝑅 on the left side must be same as the
𝐴 𝑖2
2𝑅 𝑖2 𝐵 currents through the resistances 4𝑅 and 2𝑅
2𝑅 on the right side.
• The current through the branch along the
perpendicular axis is zero and hence, this
branch can be removed.

4𝑅 4𝑅 8𝑅
𝑖1 𝑖1
𝐴 𝐵
𝑖2 𝑖2 𝐴 𝐵
2𝑅 2𝑅 4𝑅
 Symmetric Circuits – Folding Symmetry

𝑉𝑥 • The circuit above and below the parallel

axis must be exactly the same.
4𝑅 2𝑅

Equipotential 𝐴 𝐵 Parallel
axis
• The symmetric points are equipotential.
points 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵
4𝑅 2𝑅 • The current in the middle branch is zero
as the potential difference across this
𝑉𝑥 branch is zero. Hence, this branch can
be eliminated.
𝑉𝑥
𝑉𝑥

4𝑅 2𝑅
4𝑅 2𝑅

𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝐵 4𝑅 2𝑅
4𝑅 2𝑅 𝐴 𝐵
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵
𝑉𝑥
Find the equivalent resistance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the given circuit.

The equivalent resistance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is:

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 2𝑅 3𝑅 2𝑅

3𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
4
Find the equivalent resistance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the given circuit.
Consider all resistances to be 𝑅.

𝐵
𝐵

𝑅 𝐴
𝑅 𝑅
3𝑅 𝑅 3𝑅
𝑅 𝑅

𝑅 𝑅
𝐴

The equivalent resistance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is:

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 3𝑅 𝑅 3𝑅

3𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
5
 Find the equivalent resistance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the given circuit.
Consider all resistances to be 𝑅.

The equivalent resistance

between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is:
1 3 1 3
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 8𝑅 2𝑅 8𝑅

4𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
5
 A cell is a device which converts chemical energy
Cell into electrical energy and is used to maintain a
steady current through an electrical circuit.

Electromotive Force (𝑬) Internal Resistance (𝒓) Terminal Voltage (𝑽)

Electromotive force is the Internal resistance is the Terminal Voltage is the

potential difference between the electrical resistance of the potential difference between
positive and negative electrodes electrolyte inside the cell the positive and negative
of a cell in an open circuit. through which the current electrodes of a cell in a closed
flows. circuit.
 Discharging of a Cell

Current is given by: 𝐼 𝑅

𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
𝑟
Terminal voltage is given by: 𝐴 𝐵
𝐸
𝐸 𝑉= 𝑟
𝐸 1+
𝑉= 𝑟 𝑅
1+
𝑅

Ideal Cell Open Circuit Ideal Case

(𝑟 = 0) (𝐼 = 0) 𝑅=∞

𝑉=𝐸
 Charging of a Cell

When current is driven through the cell by the help

of an external means, then the cell gets charged.

Applying KVL, we get:

𝐼 𝑟 𝑉𝐴 − 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑉𝐵
𝐴 𝐵
⇒ 𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑟
𝐸
A set of ‘𝑛’ equal resistors, of value ‘𝑅’ each, are connected in series to a battery of
e.m.f. ‘𝐸’ and internal resistance ‘𝑅’. The current drawn is 𝐼. Now the ‘𝑛’ resistors are
connected on parallel to the same battery. Then the current drawn from battery
becomes 10𝐼. The value of ‘𝑛’ is

𝑛𝑅 𝑅/𝑛

10 𝐼
𝐼

𝐸, 𝑅 𝐸, 𝑅

𝐸
𝐸 𝐼𝑝 = 10𝐼 =
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼 = 1
𝑛+1 𝑅 +1 𝑅
𝑛

𝑛 = 10
 For a cell terminal potential difference is 2.2 𝑉 when circuit is open, and reduces
to 1.8 𝑉 when cell is connected to a resistance of 𝑅 = 5 Ω. Determine internal
resistance of cell (𝑟).

𝐸 = 2.2 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡, 𝑉 = 1.8 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡, 𝑅 = 5 Ω

𝑟 𝐸, 𝑟
1.8 𝑉

𝐼
Terminal voltage is given by:
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 5Ω

1.8
⇒ 1.8 = 2.2 − 𝑟
5

10
∴𝑟= Ω
9
 Series Combination of cells

When there are two or more cells connected such that one terminal of any cell is connected
to only one terminal of any other cell, then the cells are said to be in series combination.

𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵

𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝜀2 , 𝑟2 𝜀𝑛 , 𝑟𝑛 𝜀𝑒𝑞 , 𝑟𝑒𝑞

𝑅 𝑖 𝑅 𝑖
𝑖 𝑖

𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ⋯ + 𝑟𝑛 𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 + ⋯ + 𝜀𝑛

ε1 + ε2 + ε3 + ⋯ ε𝑛 σ εi (with polarity)
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ⋯ + 𝑟𝑛 𝑖= =
𝑅 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + ⋯ 𝑟𝑛 𝑅 + σ 𝑟
 Series Combination of Identical Cells

𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵

𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝜀2 , 𝑟2 𝜀𝑛 , 𝑟𝑛 𝜀𝑒𝑞 , 𝑟𝑒𝑞

𝑅 𝑖 𝑅
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

𝑛ε
𝑖=
𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟

𝑅 ≫ 𝑛𝑟 𝑅 ≪ 𝑛𝑟
𝑛𝜀 𝜀
𝑖= 𝑖=
𝑅 𝑟
 Two cells, having the same e.m.f. are connected in series through an external
resistance 𝑅. Cells having internal resistances 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 (𝑟1 > 𝑟2 ) respectively.
When the circuit is closed, the potential difference across the first cell is zero.
The value of 𝑅 is

Equivalent emf is: Equivalent resistance is:

𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 2𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2

Current is given by:

2𝜀
𝑖=
𝑅 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2

Potential Difference across first cell is:

2𝜀
𝑉1 = 𝜀 − 𝑟 =0
𝑅 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 1

∴ 𝑅 = 𝑟1 − 𝑟2
 Parallel Combination of Cells

𝜀1 − 𝑉 𝜀2 − 𝑉
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 =
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
𝑖1 𝑖1
𝑋 𝑌
𝜀1 𝜀2
𝑖 𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝑖 + 1
𝐴 𝐵 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑉= −𝑖
𝑖2 𝑖2 1 1 1 1
+ +
𝑃 𝑄 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝜀2 , 𝑟2
𝑅

𝜀1 𝜀2
+
𝑟1 𝑟2 1 1 1
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = = +
1 1 𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2
+
𝑟1 𝑟2
 Parallel Combination of Cells

𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀3 𝜀𝑛
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛

For 𝑛 non identical cells in parallel:

𝜀
σ 1 1
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟 =෍ (with polarity)
1 𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟
σ
𝑟
 Find the equivalent e.m.f and equivalent resistance of the given
combination of cells.

Parallel
𝜀3 𝜀2 4 10 combination
−
𝑟3 𝑟2 2 − 2
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = = = −3 𝑉
1 1 1 1 10 𝑉, 2 Ω 𝐵
+ + 𝐴
𝑟3 𝑟2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 6 𝑉, 1 Ω
= + = + =1Ω
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟2 𝑟3 2 2
4 𝑉, 2 Ω
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 6 𝑉 − 3 𝑉 = 3 𝑉

𝐴 𝐵
𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 1 Ω + 1 Ω = 2 Ω
6 𝑉, 1 Ω 3 𝑉, 1 Ω
 Mixed Combination of Identical Cells

𝑚 rows of 𝑛 identical cells (𝜀, 𝑟) are in series. In each row, 𝜀𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛𝜀

𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛𝑟
1 1
2 𝑖 2
𝑖 𝑖
𝐴 3 𝐴 3
…

…
𝑚 𝑚

𝑛 identical cells
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

𝑅 𝑅

Now 𝑚 cells (𝑛𝜀, 𝑛𝑟) are in parallel

𝜀𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝑛𝜀 𝑛𝜀
𝑛𝑟 𝑖=
𝑛𝑟 𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑟
𝑟𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝑚 𝑅+
𝑚 𝑚
 Maximum Current Condition

𝑚𝑛𝜀 𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 → Should be minimum 1

𝑖= 2
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 2 𝑖 𝑖
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 = 𝑚𝑅 − 𝑛𝑟 + 2 𝑚𝑅𝑛𝑟 𝐴 3

…
Minimum value is zero 𝑚
𝑛𝑟
𝑚𝑅 − 𝑛𝑟 = 0 𝑚𝑅 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑅= 𝑛 identical cells
𝑚
𝑖 𝑖
Maximum current passes through the circuit
when the load resistance is equal to the effective 𝑅
internal resistance of the combination of cells.

To get the maximum current,

𝑚𝑛𝜀 𝑚𝑛𝜀 𝑛𝜀 𝑚𝑛𝜀 𝑚𝜀

𝑖= 𝑚𝑅 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 𝑚𝑅 + 𝑚𝑅 2𝑅 𝑛𝑟 + 𝑛𝑟 2𝑟
 36 cells are arranged in mixed grouping with each cell having an EMF
of 4 𝑉 and internal resistance of 4 Ω. Find the grouping such that the
current through the external resistance of 8 Ω is maximum and find
the maximum current.

Let there be 𝑚 rows each having 𝑛 cells each 𝑚𝑛𝜀

𝑖=
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟
𝑛𝑚 = 36
36 × 4
For maximum current condition 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(3 × 8) + 12 × 2
𝑛𝑟
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 ⟹ 𝑅 =
𝑚
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3 𝐴
𝑛 2
8= ⟹ 𝑛 = 4𝑚
𝑚
𝑛𝑚 = 36

4𝑚2 = 36 ⟹ 𝑚 = 3, 𝑛 = 12

Therefore, the arrangement has 3 rows of 12 cells each

for maximum current.
 Power

Work done by the battery = 𝑞 × 𝑉

𝑞×𝑉 𝑅
Power delivered by the cell = = 𝑉𝐼
𝑡
• Power gets dissipated across the resistor 𝐼
in the form of heat and light.

• Resistor is a passive device.

Power dissipated across the resistor = Power 𝑉

delivered by the cell
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = = 𝐼2𝑅
𝑉2 𝑅
𝑃=
𝑅
 Energy Dissipated

Energy dissipated across the resistor in a time 𝑡 =

𝑅
𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡

𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝐼

න 𝑑𝐸 = න 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 (If 𝐼 is varying with time 𝑡)

𝐸 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 (If 𝐼 is constant) 𝑉

𝑉 2𝑡
𝐸=
𝑅

𝑉 2𝑡
𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
𝑅
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

𝑑𝑃 𝑢 ′ 𝑢′ 𝑣 − 𝑣 ′ 𝑢
Power dissipated across 𝑅, 𝑃 = 𝑖2𝑅 = =
𝑑𝑅 𝑣 𝑣2
𝐸
Substituting 𝑖 = in the power equation, 𝐸 2 and 𝑟 are constants, only load
𝑅+𝑟 resistance 𝑅 is variable
𝐸2𝑅
𝑃=
𝑅+𝑟 2 𝑢 = 𝐸 2 𝑅 ⟹ 𝑢′ = 𝐸 2
𝑑𝑃 𝑣 = 𝑅+𝑟 2
⟹ 𝑣 ′ = 2(𝑅 + 𝑟)
For maximum power across 𝑅, =0
𝑑𝑅

𝑢′ 𝑣 − 𝑣 ′ 𝑢 2
𝑅 + 𝑟 2 − 2𝑅(𝑅 + 𝑟)
=𝐸 . =0
𝑣2 𝑅+𝑟 4
2
⇒ 𝑅+𝑟 = 2𝑅(𝑅 + 𝑟) ∴𝑟=𝑅

The power dissipated across the external resistance is

maximum when the value of external resistance is equal
to the effective internal resistance.
 Equivalent Power for Resistors in Series

Consider two different resistors connected to a battery of same potential difference 𝑉.

• Power dissipated by the first resistor = 𝑃1 =
𝑉2
𝑅1
.

• Power dissipated by the second resistor = 𝑃2 =

𝑉2
𝑅2
.
 Bulbs

Glass bulb
Bulb rating
• Bulb rating is 100 W at 220 V.
Inert gas
Tungsten filament
• Resistance of filament is constant.
Contact wires
𝑉 2 2202
𝑅= = = 484 Ω
𝑃 100

• The bulb glows brighter if it dissipates

more heat.

Brightness ∝ Power
Foot contact
 Series Combination of Bulbs

𝑃1 , 𝑉1 𝑃2 , 𝑉2 𝑃3 , 𝑉3

• Bulbs connected in series have different

voltage drop and power consumption.

• However, the current through each bulb 𝐼

will be same.
𝑉2
𝑃= = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑅
𝑃 ∝ 𝑅 (𝐼 = constant)

• More resistance ⇒ Brighter bulb 𝑉

 Parallel Combination of Bulbs

𝑃1 , 𝑉

• Bulbs connected in parallel have different

current flow and power consumption.
𝑃2 , 𝑉
• However, the potential difference across
each bulb will be the same.
𝑉2 𝑃3 , 𝑉
𝑃= = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑅
1
𝑃 ∝ (𝑉 = constant)
𝑅
• Greater resistance ⇒ Less brightness
𝑉
 Heaters-Series combination

Heater is a coil that dissipates heat in the infrared region.

The amount of heat 𝐻 is dissipated

by the two heaters in series in a
time 𝑡𝑠 such that, 𝑃1 𝑃2

𝐻 1 1 1 𝐻 𝐻
𝑡𝑠 = Where, = + 𝑡1 = 𝑡2 =
𝑃𝑠 𝑃𝑠 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑃2

1 1 𝐻 𝐻
𝑡𝑠 = 𝐻 + = +
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑉

⇒ 𝑡𝑠 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2
 Heaters-Parallel combination

The amount of heat 𝐻 is dissipated

by the two heaters in parallel in
time 𝑡𝑝 such that,

𝐻
𝑡𝑝 = Where, 𝑃𝑝 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑃𝑝 𝑉

1 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑃2 1 1
= = + = +
𝑡𝑝 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 𝑡1 𝑡2

𝑡1 𝑡2
⇒ 𝑡𝑝 = 𝐻 𝐻
𝑡1 + 𝑡2
𝑡1 = 𝑡2 =
𝑃1 𝑃2
Heat is supplied fastest when the
heaters are connected in parallel.

𝑡𝑝 < 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 < 𝑡𝑠
 An electric kettle consists of two heaters 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 . If only 𝑅1 is used, it takes 3 𝑚𝑖𝑛
to make tea and if only 𝑅2 is used, it takes 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛 to make the tea. How much time
it will take to make the tea, if 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are used by connecting them in
(a) Parallel (b) Series ?

Solution: (a) When the heaters are connected in parallel:

𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑡𝑝 =
𝑡1 + 𝑡2

3×5 15
⇒ 𝑡𝑝 = = 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3+5 8

(b) When the heaters are connected in series:

𝑡𝑠 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2

⇒ 𝑡𝑠 = 3 + 5 = 8 𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Galvanometer

Principle : G

• A current-carrying coil when

placed in an external magnetic
field experiences a torque. 𝑖

• Angle of deflection is
proportional to the magnitude
of current in the coil. G

• Maximum current passing

through Galvanometer for 𝑖𝑔
full scale deflection is 𝑖𝑔

Full Scale Deflection

 Ammeter

It is a device that measures current in the circuit.

Symbol : 𝑨

Use :

1. Measures larger values of current .

2. Ammeter is always connected in
series with the component through
which the current needs to be
measured.

𝑅
𝑨
𝑖 + −
 Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter

• Use a shunt resistor (very small resistance) such that

maximum current flows through it leaving measurable
current (𝑖𝑔 ) with the galvanometer.

• Calibrate the galvanometer to give the actual reading

with the help of current in the circuit.

• This combination of shunt resistance and

galvanometer is collectively an ammeter.

𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝑆 Resistance of ammeter

𝑖𝑔 × 𝐺 = (𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 ) × 𝑆 𝑆𝐺
𝑅𝐴 =
𝑆+𝐺
𝑖𝑔 × 𝐺
𝑆= For an ideal Ammeter, resistance
𝑖𝑔 : Full Scale deflection current 𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 is 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
𝐺: Resistance of Galvanometer Coil
𝑆: Shunt resistance 𝑆≈0 ⇒ 𝑅𝐴 → 0
 A galvanometer whose coil resistance is 20 Ω gives full scale deflection of 1 𝑚𝐴.
How can you convert it into an ammeter of range 0 − 5 𝐴.

𝑖𝑔 = 1 𝑚𝐴, 𝑖 = 5 𝐴, 𝐺 = 20 Ω
𝑆
𝐺
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑔 1 +
𝑆
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔

𝐺
𝑖 𝑖𝑔 𝐺
20
5 = 1 × 10−3 1+
𝑆

20
5000 = 1 + 𝑆 ≈ 0.004 Ω
𝑆
 Voltmeter

• Device used to measure potential

difference across an appliance.
V
𝑉 • Voltmeter is always connected
parallel to the appliance.

𝑅
 Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter

• Device used to measure potential difference

across an appliance.

• Voltmeter is always connected parallel to

the appliance.

• Max potential Difference accross Galvanometer is 𝑖𝑔 𝐺

• Max potential Difference that can be measure in

Voltmeter is

𝑉 = 𝑖𝑔 (𝐺 + 𝑆)
 Ideal Voltmeter

𝑉
𝑖 𝑅
𝑖1

𝑖 𝑖 − 𝑖1
𝑅

Actual PD is 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 Measured PD is 𝑉 = 𝑖 − 𝑖1 𝑅

• For an ideal Voltmeter 𝑖1 = 0

𝑉
𝑖1 = =0
𝐺+𝑆

• For an ideal Voltmeter, 𝑆 = ∞

 A galvanometer whose coil resistance is 10 Ω gives full scale deflection of 5 𝑚𝐴.
How can you convert it into a voltmeter of range 0 − 3 𝑉.

𝑖𝑔 = 5 𝑚𝐴, 𝑖 = 5 𝐴, 𝑉 = 3 𝑉

𝑉 = 𝑖𝑔 (𝐺 + 𝑆) 𝐴 𝐺 𝑆 𝐵
𝐺

𝑖𝑔

3 = 5 × 10−3 (10 + 𝑆)
𝑖 𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔

3000
= 10 + 𝑆 𝑆 = 590 Ω
5
By connecting a resistor of 590 Ω in series with coil of galvanometer
 Meter Bridge

A meter bridge is an electrical instrument used to find the value of unknown resistance.

𝐶 𝑅 𝑆
𝐶
𝑅 𝑆

𝐺
𝐴 𝐺 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵
𝐷
𝑅𝑐𝑚 (𝑙1 ) 𝑅𝑐𝑚 (100 − 𝑙1 ) 𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1

𝐷 100 𝑐𝑚

𝑅 𝑅𝑐𝑚 𝑙1 𝑙1 𝑆𝑙1
= = ⇒𝑅=
𝑆 𝑅𝑐𝑚 (100 − 𝑙1 ) 100 − 𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
 In a meter bridge, the balancing length from the left end (standard resistance
of one ohm is in the right gap) is found to be 20 cm. The value of the unknown
resistance is

𝑙1 = 20 𝑐𝑚, 100 − 𝑙1 = 80 𝑐𝑚, 𝑆 = 1 Ω

𝑆𝑙1
𝑅=
100 − 𝑙1

𝑋 1Ω

20
𝑋 = 1× Ω
80 𝐺

𝑋 = 0.25 Ω
20 𝑐𝑚 80 𝑐𝑚
In the given meter bridge, null point is observed at 40 𝑐𝑚 from end 𝐴. If a 2 Ω
resistor is connected in parallel to 𝑆, the null point shifts to 25 𝑐𝑚 from end 𝐴.
Find the value of 𝑆 and 𝑅 ?

2Ω

𝑆 𝑅 𝑆 𝑅
𝐺 (𝐼 = 0) (𝐼 = 0) 𝐺

40 𝑐𝑚 25 𝑐𝑚

2𝑆 𝑅
=
𝑆+2 3
𝑆 𝑅 𝑆 2
= ⇒ =
40 60 𝑅 3

𝑆 = 2 Ω and 𝑅 = 3 Ω
 Potentiometer

An electrical device which measures potential difference without drawing any current from the
given circuit.

Finding Potential Gradient :

Potential drop across wire: 𝑉

𝑉
Potential gradient: 𝐾 =
𝐿
𝑉𝑥
Potential drop across length 𝑥 is:
𝐿
 A potentiometer wire has length 4 𝑚 and resistance 8 Ω. The resistance that
must be connected in series with the wire and an accumulator of emf 2 𝑉, so as
to get a potential gradient 1 𝑚𝑉, per 𝑐𝑚 on the wire is:

Length of wire: 𝐿 = 4 𝑚 2𝑉
+ − 𝑅
Resistance of wire: 𝑟 = 8 Ω
PD of wire: 𝐾 = 1 𝑚𝑉
𝑖
𝑅
𝑉0
1 𝑚𝑉
PD across wire: 𝑉0 = × 400 𝑐𝑚 = 0.4 𝑉
𝑐𝑚
4 𝑚, 8 Ω
0.4
Current in the wire: 𝑖 = = 0.05 𝐴
8
Voltage difference across 𝑅 = 2 𝑉 − 0.4 𝑉 = 1.6 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑖𝑅 = 1.6 𝑉

∴ 𝑅 = 32 Ω
 Potentiometer: Finding EMF of Cell

Primary Circuit: Secondary Circuit:

𝑉 𝑉
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑥 𝑉𝐴 − 𝜀 = 𝑉𝐶
+ − 𝐿
(Primary Circuit)
∴ 𝑉 − 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐾𝑥 ∴ 𝑉 − 𝑉𝐶 = 𝜀
𝐿
(𝑉) 𝐴 𝐵 (0)
𝑥 𝐶
𝑖=0 𝐺 𝜀 = 𝐾𝑥
(Secondary Circuit)
+ −
𝑋 𝑌 Same polarities of battery and cell
𝜀 𝑟 should be connected to each other

EMF of battery should be greater

than EMF of the Cell
 Potentiometer: Comparing EMF of Cells

𝑉
+ EMF of cell 1 is given by:
−
𝑉
𝜀1 = 𝑙
𝐿 1

EMF of cell 2 is given by:

𝐿
(𝑉) 𝐴 𝜀1 𝑉
+ − 𝜀2 = 𝑙
𝑋 𝐿 2
𝑙1 𝐵 (0)
𝑙2
𝐺 The ratio of the EMF is:
+ −
𝜀1 𝑙1
𝜀2 =
𝜀2 𝑙2
 Potentiometer: Finding Internal Resistance of Cell

𝑉 𝑉
+ − + −

𝐿 𝐿
(𝑉)𝐴 𝐵(0) (𝑉)𝐴 𝐵(0)
𝑙1 𝑙2

+ − 𝑟 + − 𝑟

𝜀 𝐺 𝜀 𝐺

𝑅 𝑅

𝑉 𝑉 ε𝑟
× 𝑙1 = ε × 𝑙2 = ε −
𝐿 𝐿 𝑅+𝑟

𝑙1
𝑟=𝑅 −1
𝑙2
A potentiometer wire is 100 𝑐𝑚 long and a constant potential difference is
maintained across it. Two cells are connected in series, first to support one
another and then in opposite direction. The balance points are obtained at 50 𝑐𝑚
and 10 𝑐𝑚 from the positive end of the wire in the two cases. The ratio of EMF’s is:

𝑅 𝑅

100 𝑐𝑚 100 𝑐𝑚

50 𝑐𝑚 10 𝑐𝑚
𝐺 𝐺

𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸1 𝐸2

𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝐾 × 50 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = 𝐾 × 10

𝐸1 : 𝐸2 = 3: 2
A potentiometer circuit has been set up for finding the internal resistance of a
given cell. The main battery, used across the potentiometer wire, has an emf of
2 𝑉 and a negligible internal resistance. The potentiometer wire itself is 4 𝑚 long.
When the resistance connected across the given cell, has values of infinity and
9.5 Ω, the balancing lengths, on the potentiometer wire are found to be 3 𝑚 and
2.85 𝑚, respectively. Find the value of internal resistance of the cell.

2
Potential gradient of wire is: 𝐾 =
4

2
EMF of the cell is: 𝐸 = 𝐾𝑙 𝐸= × 3 = 1.5 𝑉
4

Potential difference between 𝐴 and 𝐶 is:

2 9.5𝐸 9.5 × 1.5 1.9 9.5
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖 × 9.5 Ω ⇒ × 2.85 = = ⇒ =
4 𝑟 + 9.5 𝑟 + 9.5 2 𝑟 + 9.5

∴ 𝑟 = 0.5 Ω