Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 594

Proceedings of the 2021 3rd International Conference on Literature, Art and

Human Development (ICLAHD 2021)

Colonialism and Popular Music: Moments in Japan

and Korea’s Encounter With Foreign Culture Between
The Late Nineteenth and Mid-Twentieth Century
Ziyun Lan1, *
1
Guangzhou Foreign Language School, 102 Fenghuang Avenue, Nansha District, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 511455,
China
*
Corresponding author. Email: 177075@qq.com

ABSTRACT
Japanese music historian Takashi Iba wrote “Technically, Japanese culture was largely imported from foreign countries,
then refined into Japanese things.” As a Japanese scholar who would have lived through the late nineteenth century,
Iba witnessed the peak of colonialist and imperialist practices by the very same Western countries influencing Japan;
Korea, whose popular music has become a national trademark in the twenty-first century, also seems to have been
influenced by Japan and the Western countries during the same time.
As Western colonialism expanded to East Asia in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Western culture began to
heavily influence the emergence of both J-pop and K-pop. This paper traces the birth and growth of popular music in
Japan and Korea (known as J-pop and K-pop). Nevertheless, it must be noted that popular music in modern Japan and
Korea also retained elements from their own traditional music while they absorbed Western elements. In studying the
Western foreign influences on Japanese and Korean popular music, this paper seeks to understand the two countries’
responses to colonialism, imperialism, and modernization in the realm of culture.
Although the development trajectories of Japanese and Korean popular music shared many similarities in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, they ultimately diverged. By examining foreign influences on popular music
in Japan and Korea, this paper reveals that, although Japanese and Korean music were both inflected by external
influences, they carried distinct meanings for the common people and governments in each country. Since this foreign
influence was appropriated in Japan and imposed in Korea, it reflected different forms of national identity in the two
countries.
In the twenty-first century, other parts of East Asia have developed musical culture in direct response to Japanese and
South Korean popular music, especially in Mainland China. Due to the historical contact among countries in East Asia,
current Chinese popular music includes many traits of Japanese and South Korean popular music, even though they all
have similarities to Western popular music. As a result, listeners of music from these traditions should learn more about
the historical background and connections among China, South Korea, and Japan, as well as those between these
countries and the West if they want to understand Chinese, South Koreans, and Japanese popular music.

Keywords: popular music, Japan, Korea, colonialism, imperialism, modernization, culture, East Asia, J-pop
and K-pop.

to the surrounded society." He pinpoints Japan’s ability

1. INTRODUCTION
to syncretize elements from foreign culture with its own,
Writing in the early twentieth century, Japanese arguing, “Technically, Japanese culture was largely
music historian Takashi Iba articulates the difference imported from foreign countries, then refined into
between Japanese music and the classical music of Bach Japanese things.” [1] As a Japanese scholar who would
and Mozart in the following way: “[Japanese music] is have lived through the late nineteenth century, Iba
not a product of individual fascinating talents that exceed witnessed the peak of colonialist and imperialist practices
the surrounding world. Its rise and fall are often related by the very same Western countries influencing Japan;

Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Atlantis Press SARL.

This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC 4.0 license -http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/. 125
 Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 594

his analysis reflects the traces of that history. This chain ultimately diverged. Three primary similarities defined
of influence did not end there: Korea, whose popular their early stages: First, both traditions bear visible (or,
music has become a national trademark in the twenty- more precisely, audible) marks of foreign culture
first century, also seems to have been influenced by Japan introduced by colonial or semi-colonial rule. Second,
and the Western countries during the same time. This they retained elements of their indigenous music
prompts some important questions: what was the role of traditions while adapting foreign culture to form a hybrid
colonialism and imperialism in the development of form of music. Third, the lyrics of the Japanese and
popular music in Japan and Korea? What roles have Korean popular music concerned in this study both
Japan and Korea actively played when they encountered demonstrated strong interests in politics and individual
such influences brought by colonialism and imperialism? expression. Nevertheless, the two countries have also
What are the similarities and differences in their enacted distinct approaches and attitudes towards foreign
responses to foreign influences in terms of music? incursions into the cultural realm. For context, Meiji
Japan has long been referred to as the first Asian country
This paper traces the birth and growth of popular
to successfully industrialize and modernize following
music in Japan and Korea (known as J-pop and K-pop).
Western models. As this paper will show, modern
In contrast to art music and traditional folk music,
Japan’s drive to learn from and appropriate foreign
popular music, in its modern form, is mostly a Western
culture can also be found in the expansion of its popular
invention. As Western colonialism expanded to East Asia
music. Meanwhile, in contrast to Japan, foreign
in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Western culture
influences on popular music were mostly imposed on
began to heavily influence the emergence of both J-pop
Korea from the outside during the early twentieth century.
and K-pop. Nevertheless, it must be noted that popular
In other words, Japan was an importer of Western culture
music in modern Japan and Korea also retained elements
whereas Korea was more of an unwilling recipient. These
from their own traditional music while they absorbed
contrasting approaches to foreign influences ultimately
Western elements. In studying the Western foreign
resulted in the two countries’ different policymaking
influences on Japanese and Korean popular music, this
toward music and popular culture.
paper seeks to understand the two countries’ responses to
colonialism, imperialism, and modernization in the realm In order to pinpoint the effects of colonialism and
of culture. I argue that Japan and Korea’s different imperialism on Japanese and Korean popular music, this
experiences with colonialism and imperialism resulted in paper will address several important historical moments.
divergent attitudes toward foreign influences on culture. Throughout, the maturing of Japanese and Korean
popular music, colonialism, imperialism, and inter-state
In recent decades, scholars have researched various
wars played important parts. First of all, the processes of
aspects related to popular culture or popular music in
modernization that decimated the traditional elite classes
Japan and Korea. Many of them have paid attention to the
and weakened social stratification in both countries were
relationship between popular music and domestic politics.
sparked by colonial or semi-colonial rule. As a result of
For example, in Tears of Longing, Christine Yana
modernization, court music declined while popular music
explores how Japanese enka was influenced by
emerged. In modern Japan and modern Korea, music was
contemporary political images. As a form of Japanese
no longer an elite privilege. Neither musicians nor
popular music, enka literally means “speech song” in
listeners were now required to obtain professional
Japanese language. The meaning of this word indicates
musical theories or knowledge in order to produce or
that enka places more emphasis on lyrics than melody
appreciate music. In other words, it was colonization and
because it is supposed to deliver political messages to the
modernization that enabled the birth of popular music in
listeners [2]. Additionally, Byung-Kook Kim’s
Japan and Korea. By examining foreign influences on
investigation of the political environment under Park
popular music in Japan and Korea, this paper reveals that,
Chung Hee’s regime between the 1960s and 1970s
although Japanese and Korean music were both inflected
provides a useful analysis of the impact of politics on
by external influences, they carried distinct meanings for
popular music at that time [3]. While these studies have
the common people and governments in each country.
separately examined the pervasive influences of domestic
Since this foreign influence was appropriated in Japan
political environments on the progression of popular
and imposed in Korea, it reflected different forms of
music in Japan and Korea, my research offers a
national identity in the two countries.
comparative perspective by studying how Japanese and
Korean popular music responded to foreign influence.
More specifically, I will consider the role colonialism and 2. A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF AMERICAN
imperialism played in the development of Japanese and POPULAR MUSIC FROM THE 1800S TO
Korean popular music. THE 1970S
Although the development trajectories of Japanese To study Western influences on Japan and Korea’s
and Korean popular music shared many similarities in the popular music, it is necessary to understand the basic
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, they history of Western popular music. First of all, popular

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music is a form of mass culture with popular appeal, from an elite art to a tool of nation-building, which meant
which means that, contrary to high art, it is readily that it eventually began to be made for the masses [12].
accessible to large numbers of musically uneducated
In the nineteenth and late twentieth century, the
listeners rather than to the elite class [4]. One of the most
arrival of Western colonialism in Asia was accompanied
well-known examples of early popular music was
by force. In fact, many conflicts involving foreign forces
American “Tin Pan Alley songs” produced around the
took place throughout the modern histories of Japan and
1850s, the simplicity and accessibility of which made it
South Korea. However, the contact between Asia and the
popular [5]. Finally, and perhaps most influentially, as
West was not only marked by military conflicts and
the product of industrial modernization, popular music is
atrocity, but also the mobility of population and exchange
distributed through means of mass dissemination, such as
of ideas. Sometimes, when foreign forces invaded a
modern communications technology [6]. Starting in the
place, they also left their cultural influence on the
nineteenth century, new types of popular music can be
indigenous culture, including ideologies that represented
correlated to developments in technology. In the 1870s
Western values. These interactions between colonizers
and onward, the phonograph started to challenge the
and the colonized necessarily affect how music was
status of printed sheet music as the recording industry
created and recreated. Both Japan and Korea have been
grew. These means of diffusing music brought popular
subjected to colonialism and imperialism in their modern
songs to a larger audience who could not read music. In
history, which resulted in the two countries’ exposure to
the 1950s, untrained musicians replaced the previous
foreign culture, including music.
professional composers, orchestrators, singers, and
studio orchestras, quickly overtaking half of the popular
music market with rock and roll [7]. 3.1. Japanese Popular Music
As mass music popularized, political debates and Although there had been foreign presence in pre-
trends quickly spilled over into the discourse around modern Japan, the country did not voluntarily learn from
popular music. In the 1960s, rock music was increasingly Western culture until the arrival of Commodore Perry in
associated with social movements political radicalism the late Tokugawa period. Like many places in Asia, in
and left-wing thoughts. During this time, because of the the nineteenth century Western culture arrived in Japan
presence of African American performers in the industry, through force. However, Japan’s acceptance of Western
mainstream critics also started to connect it to “racial culture was relatively voluntary than many other Asian
conflicts, promiscuity and juvenile delinquency” as white countries. This attitude was most evident in the Meiji
teenagers were increasingly influenced by popular music Restoration – a series of top-down Western-style
such as rock [8]. The radical culture of this era further modernization programs carried out between the 1860s
nurtured rock music, making it a democratic and and 1890s. This meant that popular music in Japan also
accessible form of popular culture [9]. voluntarily absorbed elements from Western music.
Western influence arrived in Japan in the nineteenth
3. POPULAR MUSIC IN JAPAN AND century and deeply affected how the Japanese people
KOREA: DEVELOPMENT AND FOREIGN viewed the world. In 1853, Commodore Matthew C.
INFLUENCE Perry, who commanded a squadron of U.S. warships
during America’s mission to open Japanese ports to
In the nineteenth century, East Asia caught the American trade, fired cannons on Japanese territory and
attention of many industrialized Western colonial forced the Japanese who had been ruled under the policy
powers, such as Britain and the United States. It was of “Sakoku” – or national seclusion – for over two
during this time of Western expansion into Asia that hundred years to commence trade with the Americans
Western music began to shape indigenous music in Japan [13]. As a result of this shock, the Japanese started to
and Korea. Prior to the arrival of Western music in the realize that Western countries like the United States were
late nineteenth century, music in Japan and Korea was much stronger than them; therefore, they chose to imitate
rarely performed for the common people. Instead, it was Western institutions and ideas such as constitutional
composed and played for the elite class on formal as well monarchy and liberalism [14]. Those who accepted these
as religious occasions. The elite nature of music in this modern concepts would lay the foundations of the Meiji
time means that it required both taste and training to Restoration, which sought to systematically modernize
produce and appreciate [10]. Although certain forms of Japan by introducing Western political institutions such
folk music did exist, few composers wrote music as constitutional monarchy and ideas such as liberalism
specifically for the commoners. Mainstream values held and equality. These Western values would later influence
music and art to be a privilege of the aristocracy and the how Japanese popular music was performed.
literati [11]. Thus, it was only in the late nineteenth
century, when Western colonialism stimulated top-down The Meiji Restoration in 1868 occupied an important
modern reforms in Japan, that the role of music shifted position in the development of Japanese popular music.
The loss of sovereignty as Japan opened its ports to

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Western trade and signed unequal treaties with the songs were also inspired by school songs (shoka) and
Western powers stimulated a strong sense of shame and military songs (gunka), both of which had been borrowed
nationalism among the Japanese [15]. Hence, the from Western countries to modernize Japan’s own music
government decided to learn from the Western powers [22]. Around 1907, violin was also used as an
and, as a result, model their country’s government and accompanying instrument in enka performance [23].
culture on the West. With the demise of the Tokugawa Later on, throughout the nineteenth and twentieth
Shogunate (Japanese government under the control of centuries, enka continuously absorbed influences from
military leaders from the Tokugawa family), the society European and American music genres such as folk and
underwent great transformations and grew more “new music.” [24] Therefore, the arrival of the Western
turbulent. The abolishment of the samurai class and the countries stimulated the process of modernization in
social outcasts undermined traditional social hierarchy Meiji Japan and inspired the creation of enka, a new form
and enhanced social mobility [16]. As a result, court of music combining modern Western features with
music specifically designed for and protected by the Japanese traditional musical forms.
elites and royalty began to decline [17]. Since Western
At the turn of the twentieth century, Japan was
culture was celebrated as the advanced form of human
engaged in a series of large-scale wars with foreign
civilization in this period, in 1880, the Meiji government
countries, including the first Sino-Japanese War (1894-
hired a music teacher from Boston to help modernize
1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Japan’s
Japanese schools’ music education [18]. Meanwhile,
victories in these wars led to the rise of expansionism and
modern ideas of democracy and liberalism spread in
colonization in other Asian countries, which greatly
Japan and affected the political scene, and people became
shaped mass culture and popular music in this period. In
more engaged in politics. In addition, the enlargement of
the wake of the first Sino-Japanese War, Japan obtained
modern commerce and trade also accelerated Japan’s
its first overseas colonies, including Korea and Taiwan.
urbanization process [19]. Gradually, the political and
Then, after defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese war
social changes taking place in this time also began to
(1904-1905), Japan demonstrated to the world for the
affect the presentation of music.
first time that an Asian country could win a victory over
These factors resulted in the creation of a form of a European country [25]. The victories in these wars,
music called enka, a Japanese term that literally translates together with the success in revising unequal treaties with
to “speech-song.” In the 1880s, during the Freedom and the Western powers in the 1890s, greatly boosted
People’s Rights Movement, enka emerged as a category Japanese nationalism and expansionism. Many Japanese
of songs that expressed criticism of government in ways scholars and statesmen started to promote the concept of
easily comprehensible to the general public. Enka Pan-Asianism, which argued that Japan should lead its
songwriters intended these songs to express the ideas of Asian neighbors to shed Western colonialism and thrive
the movement to the illiterate masses and gain popular together as a family [26]. Despite the collaborative tone
support for the democratic ideals that Meiji intellectuals of this propaganda, Japanese politicians ultimately
hoped to promote [20]. Therefore, enka was often heard wielded this ideology as a justification for Japanese
in public places like teahouses and outdoors on the streets, colonialism and imperialism in Asia. In particular, it was
where enka lyric sheets were sold. Since enka songs were employed to normalize Japanese cultural superiority over
composed to deliver political messages, the lyrics were its Asian neighbors, thus facilitating the transplantation
considered more important than the melody and often of Japanese culture to its colonies in Asia, such as Korea
concerned current affairs. For example, in 1881 the [27].
Japanese political activist and theorist Ueki Emori (1857-
During the early twentieth century, Japan developed
1892) composed a famous enka song named Minken
a specific genre of music that served a military function
kazoe uta (Civil Rights Counting Song). Aiming to
in the many wars they were fighting. “Gunka,” a form of
promote the Western concepts of freedom and
music used to bolster soldiers’ fighting spirit and appeal
democracy in Japan, Emori wrote in this song: “No man
to Japanese patriotic feelings, became popular during this
is above another man, and no right is above another man.
period. Originally inspired by British and French military
I'd give up my life for freedom, and I'm not afraid to do
songs, gunka was a Japanese adaptation of Western
so. In a world of civil rights and liberties, there are still
military band music. As early as 1850s, Japanese elites
people who haven't woken up... what a pity! How quickly
had noticed the presence of military bands in Western
the world is opening up, and how sad it is when parents
countries and their role in boosting military morale. In the
teach their children that among the five great continents,
1860s, the fear of being colonized by Western powers
Asia is still half-opened.” [21] The song was widely
prompted the Meiji government to formally establish
circulated among Japanese people and became one of the
Western-style military bands in its own force. As they
symbols of the Jiyu minken undo (Freedom and Rights
instituted this Western-style military band in Japan, a
Movement) in the 1870s and 1880s.
new genre of music – gunka – gradually formed. The
Although enka melodies shared many similarities music style of gunka “featured a steady march beat and
with traditional Japanese music, during this time enka an instrumental accompaniment emphasizing Western

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military and drum instruments.” [28] In addition, the pentatonic scales. For example, many songs contained a
lyrics expressed primarily sentiments of patriotism and solo voice and an orchestra that mainly consisted of
nationalism. For example, a gunka song composed by European instruments, harmonies and rhythms; however,
Koyama Sakunosuke and Yamada Bimyosai before the the vocal techniques used by Japanese singers and the
Sino-Japanese War named "Thousands of Enemies May melodic patterns were still traditionally Japanese [32].
Come" ("Teki Wa Ikuman") read: “Thousands of enemies
After the end of WWII, many countries around the
may come, / but they are only disorderly troops! / Even if
world experienced rapid economic development and a
they are not, / we have always absolute justice!” [29]
sudden uptick in birthrates known as the "baby boom."
This poem's lyrical content aimed primarily at inspiring
The rapidly growing number of youths in the post-war
the Japanese common people by appealing to their
era played an important role in the mass culture of the
patriotism and disparaging Japan’s enemies. Since the
1960s and 1970s, a period that witnessed tides of
purpose of gunka was to promote patriotism and mobilize
progressive social movements about civil rights, gender
war participation, people who commissioned musicians
equality, decolonization, and protests against the
to compose gunka songs primarily worked for the
Vietnam War [33]. In Europe and the United States, the
government.
popular music of this time, such as rock and roll, often
In other instances, the lyrics of gunka songs featured expressions of opposition against the authority
demonstrated Japan’s growing ambitions toward and resistance to traditional values [34]. Popular music
becoming an imperialist power. For instance, one famous such as rock and roll became a new tool of expressing
military song written after the Russo-Japanese War discontent toward traditional power structures.
expresses Japan’s ambitions toward Manchuria: “Here in
In postwar Japan, these global trends in politics also
far-off Manchuria / hundreds of leagues from the
shaped popular culture and music [35]. With the
homeland / our comrades lie beneath the rocky plain / lit
introduction of rock and roll, a genre known as “Group
by the red setting sun.” [30] Thus, though gunka came
Sounds” influenced by British and American pop music
into being as a result of Japan’s encounter with Western
groups in the 1960s appeared in Japan [36]. Some of the
imperialism, it transcended this origin when it became a
most famous group sounds players included music
tool in Japanese imperialist ventures in Asia. Gunka can
groups “The Tigers” and “The Spiders,” and they took
be considered a form of popular music because its
their cues from similar Western musical groups, for
listeners were mainly composed of uneducated people
instance, the Beatles [37]. For example, The Spiders’
and soldiers, who belonged to the general public.
lineup consisted of guitarists, pianist, bass players,
Importantly, the emergence of gunka and the purpose it
drummer, and a singer, similar to Western bands [38].
served vividly demonstrated a specific period in modern
Their tonal sense, overt beats, tonal harmonies, and usage
Japanese history in terms of Japan’s changing
of Western scales copied rock and roll. Along with rock
international position and diplomatic relations. As
and roll, a Western-influenced folk style that prioritized
discussed above, gunka was one of the earliest forms of
the melody over rhythmic basics or instrumental
Western music introduced to Japan to modernize its army.
accompaniment also emerged in Japan under the
In this regard, gunka represented Japan’s relatively
continued influence of Western music and culture [39].
voluntary acceptance of Western culture as well as its
During this time, Japanese music saw the rise of protests
aptitude in adopting Western culture to serve its own
about the decolonization movement, which was a focus
purposes. Therefore, gunka was a form of popular music
of the anti-war movement in Japan. Therefore, new
that demonstrated how Japan imagined and reacted to
popular music expressed dissatisfaction, opposition to
modernization, colonialism, and imperialism.
authority, and reflections on colonization [40]. In this
The scale of foreign influence on Japanese popular way, post-war Japanese popular music not only absorbed
music may have reached its pinnacle during World War from Western music technical characteristics such as
II. After the end of the war, Western popular music musical arrangement and rhythm, but also expressed
directly affected Japanese music. The American troops concerns about political trends in the Western world.
that occupied Japan after the war spread American taste
in popular music, which led to many translations of 3.2. Korean Popular Music
American and European hits in the post-war years. For
example, the 1948 song Tōkyō Bugiugi – or ‘Tokyo Even though the popular music of Japan and Korea
Boogie Woogie’– was written in a major scale and sung were both products of foreign influence, the social
without traditional Japanese vocal techniques, and the contexts of how the music was enjoyed differed.
1950s hits Tennessee Waltz and Que sera, sera were Importantly, Westernization and modernization were
songs translated from Western hits [31]. Up till the 1970s, imposed on Korea by either Western power or Japanese
popular songs kept westernizing and including more colonizers when Korea became a Japanese colony (1910-
characteristics from Western music. Even enka 1945). Regarding Korean music, the first time when
underwent changes, with its melody combining western Western music was systematically imposed on it was in
major and minor scales with traditional Japanese the wake of the first Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895),

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after which Korea was in reality controlled by Japan. In United Service Organizations (USO) arranged live
1910, Japan formally annexed Korea as a colony [41]. shows, which provided the template for the first South
Under Japanese colonization, the Japanese government Korean music show, Sho Sho Sho, broadcast by the
used the Korean school system to teach Koreans the government-owned TV station, KBS.” Moreover,
Japanese language while prohibiting them from learning American popular music was transmitted to the Koreans
about their own language and culture. Japan at this time by radios and television sets through the Armed Forces
was deeply Westernized, so it essentially became a Korean Network (AFKN). Furthermore, South Korean
medium of diffusing Western ideas to Korea [42]. musicians who came to play for American soldiers at the
Therefore, the Korean government was sensitive to officers’ club also immersed themselves into American
foreign influences on its culture because it indicated popular music [50]. They “fully absorbed the American
foreign invasion. In particular in South Korea during popular musical trends of those times in order to appeal
Park’s regime, the government maintained rigid control to the American soldiers.” [51] After working in an
of popular music and subjected it to censorship because atmosphere full of American music, the style of South
it was suspicious of foreign erosion of tis national culture Korean musicians, who “dressed and comported
and identity. themselves in line with American expectations,” had
absorbed many exotic elements [52]. As a result, their
Japanese colonization over the Korean peninsula
songs exhibited traits typical of both Korean and
would not end until the defeat of Japan by the Allied
American music [53]. Later on, when they performed for
Powers at the end of World War II. However, the Korean
the domestic audience, they helped spread the influence
War (1950-1953) afterward again subjected Korean
of American popular music to a wider population. Given
people to the atrocities of wars and foreign invasion [43].
the direct exposure to American popular music in post-
A series of changes to Korean popular music occurred
war era, Korean popular music continued to syncretize
during the period of Japanese colonization [44]. Since
characteristics and traits from both Western and Korean
Japan served as an intermediary for transmitting Western
music styles.
culture to Korea, as Korea became more “Japanized,” it
also became more Westernized. In order to better control However, Korean people’s attitudes toward foreign
Korea, Japan chose to assimilate Korean culture into music changed drastically during Park Chung-Hee’s rule
Japanese culture, which included the prohibition of in South Korea from 1961 to 1979. Park, who was a
speaking Korean and the establishment of the Japanese military general before coming to power, led a military
school system in Japan [45]. This went as far as using coup that overthrew the previous government. His
Japanese music textbooks in Korean schools; therefore, government, which had brought enormous economic
“[T]he school songs hakkyo ch’anggas (Western songs growth to South Korea, “maintained a policy of guided
for school) were, for the most part, based in Western democracy, with restrictions on personal freedoms,
musical idioms” instead of traditional Japanese musical suppression of the press and of opposition parties, and
styles [46]. In addition to reshaping Korean musical control over the judicial system and the universities.”
styles, the Japanese also introduced large recording [54] When Park first assumed office, not only American
companies, which sold phonographs and records and rock started to spread in South Korea, Japanese-inspired
“boosted the recording production of the Korean popular Group Sounds performed by musician Sin Chung-hyŏn
songs by cutting the price of the records.” [47] This also became increasingly popular. As rock became more
helped promote the later mass diffusion of popular music popular in South Korea, it became associated with things
in Korea. Under Japanese colonial rule, t’ŭrot’ŭ, a genre that would disrupt social order, such as sex, drug abuse,
influenced by enka, emerged and dominated Korean communism, and student movements. The perceived
popular music. It was constructed upon the Japanese threats of popular music “prompted the Park regime to
pentatonic minor scale [48]. However, Korean traditional place Sin and his associates under heavy surveillance.”
traits in popular music did not vanish. Early female [55] As a result, government censorship and crackdown
t’ŭrot’ŭ singers “used nasal voices with lots of inflections on progressive culture became harsher, banning “222
and vibrations, which had been the trademarks of the South Korean records and 261 foreign songs, on the
traditional Korean singing performance.” [49] As a grounds of everything from ‘negative influences on
result, t’ŭrot’ŭ, one of the earliest Korean popular music national security’ to ‘pessimistic content.’” [56] Overall,
styles, synthesized different features of Western, until the mid-1980s, the South Korea government had
Japanese, and traditional Korean music styles. It was not silenced the nascent culture of rock music, along with
designed only for the elite class, but also the common sexy clothing and other marks of popular culture deemed
people who could appreciate the music without dangerous to social stability [57]. Meanwhile, in the
specialized knowledge. 1970s, folk music emerged as an alternative genre around
which anti-government urban youths coalesced, and
After the Korean War, many United States troops
“became inextricable from the student anti-government
remained in South Korea, directly spreading their culture.
movement in South Korea.” [58]
Regarding the impact of U.S. military presence on
Korean culture, John Lie’s study has pointed out that “the

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Therefore, during Park’s rule, different types of political views. In Korea, t’ŭrot’ŭ, being a product of
popular music underwent decades of quelling, in which Japanese influence, often contained political views as
“[t’ŭrot’ŭ] was too Japanese, Japanese songs were well. However, during the Korean War, South Korean
imperialist, rock was sex-addled and drug-infused, and musicians learned Western popular songs in order to
folk songs were anti-government; even composers of entertain the American soldiers stationed in South Korea
classical music, such as Isang Yun, came under fire for [67]. Therefore, after the end of the war, when South
their political views.” [59] In its place, the government Korean musicians started to perform for Korean people
attempted to promote “healthy songs” with cheerful in the same way they had for the Americans, the purpose
lyrics and melodies [60]. Due to governmental of music changed to pure entertainment. Nevertheless,
suppression, the advance of popular music was strictly during Park’s reign, the existing popular music was seen
controlled to stabilize the country. Nevertheless, t’ŭrot’ŭ, as politically “unhealthy," which resulted in a new type
Japanese music, rock, and anti-government music could of “healthy” popular music that could strengthen the
still be heard in teahouses, individual homes, and various stability of the country, showing the influence of politics
urban quarters [61]. on South Korean music. One example of the healthy
popular music was “Saemaŭl ŭi norae” (The song of the
4. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES new village), a song composed by Park himself to
BETWEEN JAPANESE AND KOREAN celebrate a state-led rural reform called the New Village
POPULAR MUSIC Movement (1961-1979) [68].
One major difference between Japanese and Korean
Both Japanese and Korean popular music were
popular music is the way by which colonialism came to
products of syncretism. This is most evident in the case
influence them. In the case of Japan, Western culture
of enka, which was a music genre that combined
directly influenced Japanese people after the arrival of
traditional Japanese music elements and Western ideas of
foreign forces in the nineteenth century. This process
liberalism and freedom. As for gunka, it featured an
differed in Korea. Instead, Western influence came
instrumental accompaniment emphasizing Western
through the Japanese colonial rule, which served as a
military and drum instruments. After the Second World
medium of the diffusion of Western culture. By the time
War, Japanese popular music kept integrating Western
Japan occupied Korea, it had already absorbed several
elements; songs with mainly Western musical
elements of Western culture and combined them with its
instruments and arrangements would be sung using
own cultural practices. Therefore, while Japan forced the
Japanese-style vocal techniques [62]. Additionally, the
Koreans to erase traditional Korean culture, it was
melody of Japanese popular songs combined Western
actually delivering Western ideas to Korea in the same
major and minor scales with the Japanese traditional
process. It was only after the Korean War that Korea had
pentatonic scales [63]. As a result, “enka is ‘modern’
more direct contact with American culture. Therefore,
music that brings Western instruments together with
one could argue that Western culture came to Japan
Japanese scales, vocal techniques, and textual themes.”
directly but came to Korea indirectly through the
[64] In Korea, since the Japanese government forced
Japanese occupation [69].
Koreans to learn westernized Japanese music, the
resulting Korean popular music combined elements from The core difference between Japanese popular music
Japanese, Western, and Korean traditional music. During and Korean popular music lies in their respective
the Korean War, Korean musicians who were immersed response to Western influences. It seems that Japan
in Western popular music composed songs based on both voluntarily accepted and promoted Western ideas and
Korean and Western musical structures. As a result, both culture. In addition, Japanese popular music spread freely
Japanese and Korean popular music syncretized musical without much government intervention. It must be noted
traits and elements from other culture, resulting in new that, throughout the evolution of Japanese popular music,
forms of music. [65-66] the Japanese government barely put any restrictions on
the topics and ways of expression of popular songs,
Another similarity is that the focus and themes of
which left ample room for Japanese popular music to
Japanese and Korean popular music both shifted back
mature freely. Enka, gunka, and Group Sounds all either
and forth between politics and individuals. As the first
copied directly from Western countries or combined
type of popular music that emerged in Japan, enka’s
borrowed elements with Japanese characteristics.
lyrics expressed the political opinions of ordinary people.
Later, during times of war, gunka aimed to evoke As for the Korean case, the Korean government
nationalism and patriotic spirit in both the soldiers on the always kept a close eye on popular music, especially in
battlefield and among the general public in order to the 1960s. Under the rule of Park Chung-Hee, rock was
encourage morale. However, after the Second World usually associated with sex, drugs, and political dissent,
War, popular music focused more on the melody of the and so was placed under strong government censorship.
songs rather than the lyrics, and those songs expressed Since Korea had been subjugated to colonial rule and
the personal feelings of the composers rather than their foreign incursions for most of the late nineteenth and

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early twentieth centuries, the unstable domestic and response to Japanese and South Korean popular music,
international environment made the government especially in Mainland China. Similar to K-pop, Chinese
extremely sensitive to music and culture in general, popular music is under the control of the government. For
which they considered to be a tool of political expression example, Chinese rap culture, which became popular a
that might either strengthen or weaken the country. The few years ago, has been suppressed by the government
government banned Japanese songs because they because it is more frequently associated with illegal
considered them to be imperialist propaganda that might behaviors such as drugs than other types of popular
lead South Koreans to recall the shameful history of music. Big Chinese entertainment companies have
living under Japanese colonization. Although t’ŭrot’ŭ started to imitate the K-pop industry, which includes the
was born in Korea, it was seen as Japanese because it system of training singers, the appearance of stars, and
contained elements of Japanese music. Folk songs were musical arrangements. Additionally, fan culture, a
anti-government, which would hinder the government’s special feature of K-pop, has also influenced China,
control of the country [70]. Therefore, most popular where music fans begin to pay a significant amount of
music was seen as unhealthy and prohibited by the money to buy albums or accessories that could represent
government. The Japanese government allowed the free their idols or gather into communities to organize events
flourishing of popular music, while the Korean expressing their support for their idols. In Hong Kong
government viewed music as a tool to control the country and Taiwan, though, J-pop influence is more important.
[71]. Since Hong Kong was an early economic center in East
Asia, it was influenced greatly by Japan, which was the
5. CONCLUSION dominant economic power in Asia in the 1970s and
1980s. Taiwanese popular music was also significantly
As a result of long-time interactions with foreign influenced by its Japanese equivalent because the island
culture, both Japanese and Korean popular music was a Japanese colony between 1895 and 1945 and have
syncretized elements from Western music with its own maintained a close relationship with Japan even today.
indigenous culture. However, whereas Western culture
affected Japan directly, it affected Korea indirectly Due to the historical contact among countries in East
though Japan’s occupation. After the Second World War, Asia, current Chinese popular music includes many traits
Japanese popular music evolved freely whereas Korean of Japanese and South Korean popular music, even
popular music progressed only under a lot of government though they all have similarities to Western popular
restrictions. Born in a time shaped by political reforms music. These common traits stem from their similar
and social changes, popular music in both countries historical background. Historically, both Japan and South
expressed abundant individual feelings and political Korea had different levels of contact with China, since
concerns. However, because the two countries Korea was a Chinese tributary state and Japan frequently
experienced colonialism and imperialism in very sent missions to China. This suggests that there could
different ways, their responses to foreign influences on also be similarities at the base of Chinese, South Korean,
indigenous culture also varied. In Japan, although the and Japanese popular music. As a result, listeners of
Tokugawa state was initially struck by American gunboat music from these traditions should learn more about the
polices, the succeeding Meiji government quickly historical background and connections among China,
adapted to these challenges and launched a systematic South Korea, and Japan, as well as those between these
Western-style reform, which imitated Western countries and the West if they want to understand
institutions and promoted Western culture. In this regard, Chinese, South Koreans, and Japanese popular music.
the Japanese government’s attitude toward foreign The similarities and differences among the popular music
culture was quite open-minded, its attitude to learn was of these three countries demonstrate the unique history
also voluntary. For Korea, however, things were a bit and characteristics of East Asian popular music
different. For many years in its early history of compared to popular music from other parts of the world.
modernization, Korea had lived under the shadow of
large empires. First colonized by Japan and later AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS
subjected to influences from the United States, Korea's
The title "AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS" should
government after WWII had a strong desire for national
be in all caps.
independence. This might have partially explained the
South Korean government’s sensitive attitudes toward
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
foreign culture, demonstrated in the rigid control over
popular music. The title "ACKNOWLEDGMENTS" should be in all
Ultimately, popular music in East Asia shows the caps and should be placed above the references. The
wide-reaching and sometimes surprising effects of references should be consistent within the article and
colonialism. In the twenty-first century, other parts of follow the same style. List all the references with full
East Asia have developed musical culture in direct details.

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 Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 594

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[14] For a detailed account on the reforms took place in
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[33] Robert Tignor et al., Worlds Together, Worlds
[16] Gordon, A Modern History of Japan from
Apart: A History of the World From 1000CE to the
Tokugawa Times to the Present, 14.
Present (W.W. Norton & Company, 2010), 770-
[17] Iba, History of Japanese Music, 185. 771.
[18] Gordon, A Modern History of Japan from [34] Barry Shank, “The Face of Race in Rock and Pop”
Tokugawa Times to the Present, 108. This music in S. Frith, W. Straw and J. Street, eds., The
teacher from Boston later helped design the first Cambridge Companion to Pop and Rock
songbook for school children in Japan. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001),
265.
[19] The urbanization process of Japan and its impact on
social culture during the nineteenth and twentieth [35] Japanese popular culture in the postwar era also
centuries has been studied by many scholars. For benefited from its own economic miracle, in
instance, Louise Young, Beyond the Metropolis: particular the rapidly developing industry of mass
Second Cities and Modern Life in Interwar Japan media. Gordon, A Modern History of Japan from
(University of California Press, 2013), 3-14. Tokugawa Times to the Present, 245-250.
[20] Yano, Tears of Longing, 31. [36] Shin, Hyunjoon, and Pil Ho Kim. “Birth, Death, and
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[21] Sakuma, Kōji. Teiten no jiyū minken undō:
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shinshiryō no hakken to paradaimu [The Free Civil
Choe Youngmin (Durham; London: Duke
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University Press, 2014), 275-95.
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[22] Linda Fujie, “Popular Music” in Handbook of [38] “Sukiyaki Sound ‘Especial The Spiders’,” Jrock
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[23] Yano, Tears of Longing, 32. [39] Fujie, “Popular Music,” 209.

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[40] Ibid., 208. [61] Michio Kitahara, “Kayokyoku: An Example of

Syncretism Involving Scale and Mode,”
[41] Jansen, The Cambridge History of Japan, 781.
Ethnomusicology, vol. 10, no. 3 (Sep. 1966): 271 –
[42] Hook, Glenn D. Japan's International Relations: 272.
Politics, Economics, and Security. (London; New
[62] Ibid., 133.
York: Routledge, 2001), 491. Here is an excerpt of
the treaty: “Article II. It is confirmed that all treaties [63] Yano, Tears of Longing, p. 28.
or agreements concluded between the Empire of
[64] Son, “The Politics of the Traditional Korean Popular
Japan and the Empire of Korea on or before August
Song Style Tŭrotŭ,” 109.
22, 1910 are already null and void.”
[65] Michio Kitahara, “Kayokyoku: An Example of
[43] A detailed accounts of Korean culture under
Syncretism Involving Scale and Mode,”
Japanese colonial rule could be found in Taylor E.
Ethnomusicology, vol. 10, no. 3 (Sep. 1966): 271 –
Atkins, Primitive Selves: Koreana in the Japanese
272, doi:10.2307/924345.
Colonial Gaze, 1910–1945 (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 2010). [66] Lie, K-Pop, 32.
[44] Yong Mee Lee, "The Beginnings of Korean Pop: [67] Ibid., 49.
Popular Music during the Japanese Occupation era
[68] Kim, "Rethinking Colonialism,” 41.
(1910-1945),” Korean Pop Music: Riding the Wave,
ed. Keith Howard (Folkstone, Kent, UK: Global [69] Hyunjoon Shin, “Reconsidering Transnational
Oriental, 2006). Cultural Flows of Popular Music In East Asia:
Transbrodering Musicians in Japan and Korea
[45] Kim, Jeong Ha, “Rethinking Colonialism: Korean
Searching for Asia,” Korean Studies 33 (2009), 101-
Primary School Music Education during the
123.
Japanese Colonial Rule of Korea, 1910-
1945,”Journal of Historical Research in Music [70] Park, Sang Mi. "The Paradox of Postcolonial
Education 36, no. 1 (2014): 24. Korean Nationalism: State-Sponsored Cultural
Policy in South Korea, 1965-Present," The Journal
[46] Son, Min-jung. “The Politics of the Traditional
of Korean Studies 15, no. 1 (2010): 69.
Korean Popular Song Style Tŭrotŭ,” (PhD diss.,
University of Texas at Austin, 2004), 109. [71] Kim, Kyung Hyun, "Introduction: Indexing Korean
Popular Culture," in The Korean Popular Culture
[47] Ibid., 102.
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[48] Ibid., 133. (Durham; London: Duke University Press, 2014), 1-
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[49] Ibid., 134.
[72] Angela Hao-Chun Lee, “The Influence of Japanese
[50] John Lie, K-Pop: Popular Music, Cultural Amnesia,
Music Education in Taiwan During the
and Economic Innovation in South Korea (Oakland:
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Research in Music Education 23, no. 2 (2002): 108.
[51] Son, The Politics of Traditional Korean Pop Song,
158.
[51] Lie, K-Pop, 32.
[52] Son, The Politics of Traditional Korean Pop Song,
158.
[53] Kim and Vogel, The Park Chung Hee Era, 27.
[54] Lie, K-Pop, 46.
[55] Ibid., 48.
[56] Ibid., 48.
[57] Ibid., 48.
[58] Ibid., 48.
[59] Ibid., 49.
[60] Ibid., 49.

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