MODULE 4: BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain how behavior is learned based on the behavioral learning theories
 discuss the salient processes and phenomena of the behavioral learning
theories
 cite classroom implications of the behavioral learning theories in teaching and
learning

Some of the most popular learning theories are lodged under behaviorism. It is
primarily concerned with influencing change in one’s behavior. In the parlance of
psychology, behaviorism is concerned with behavioral changes and the role of the
environment in these changes. Behaviorists claim that nurture is crucial in the process of
acquiring knowledge (Dastpak et al., 2017).

According to behaviorism the major subject matter of psychology is activity rather

than structure. All behaviorists are focused on the analyses of stimuli and responses. The
methodology used in behaviorism is basically scientific where stimulus variables can be
objectively manipulated and response variables can be reliably measured. Many of the
behaviorists’ experiments were conducted using animals as their test subjects. This practice
only demonstrates a primary assumption of their theory. That is, behaviorism adheres to
the belief that learning follows the same laws regardless of species. Also, it clearly shows
that while some species may be able to learn more complex behaviors than other species,
the basic phenomena by which learning occurs is the same in humans.

A. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) was a Russian

physiologist, who out of serendipity discovered classical
conditioning. In 1904, he won the Nobel Prize for his
outstanding studies on the physiology of digestion. He spent the
rest of his life studying reflexes of dogs, which led him to the
discovery of classical conditioning, also known as the association
theory.
Still recognized as an essential parcel of contemporary
psychological knowledge, classical conditioning has become the
basis for many early learning theories.
nobelprize.org

In his discovery, Pavlov found out that the sight of food does not only trigger the
salivation of the dog, but any other stimulus may result to such effect if paired with the food
(Le Francois, 2000). In another version, the salivation of the dog is influenced by associating
the steps of the attendant with the food (Schunk, 2012).

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 Pavlovian conditioning involves a set of multi-layered procedures. Initially, the food
is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In psychology, an environmental event that
affects the organism is called stimulus. The food is an unconditioned stimulus because it
leads to an unconditioned response (UCR) without any learning taking place. The immediate
salivation of the dog is referred to as the UCR. The UCS and the UCR are considered
unlearned stimulus-response units termed as reflexes.
Conditioning the dog requires recurrent presentation of a neutral stimulus paired
with the UCS. For instance, the bell was sounded repeatedly but caused no dog’s salivation
at all. However, when the bell came with the food, the dog salivated. Later, by just hearing
the bell, the dog learned to salivate (Fig 11). The bell is now called a conditioned stimulus
(CS) that elicited the salivation of the dog, now termed as a conditioned response (CR).

Figure 11. Illustration of Pavlovian Conditioning

When applied in the classroom, the use of a pointer or stick to whip unruly learners
in class may affect other pupils. They may associate the stick with whipping, thus they learn
to fear. Later, merely hearing or seeing a stick in class may elicit fear among them. This is
why expert educators in the country suggest that classroom teachers should avoid using
stick as pointers. Instead, they are advised to use their open palm to pointing words on the
chalkboard.
Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with your teacher. So
at present, when you encounter the objects, you are reminded of your teacher. This is an
example of classical conditioning.

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Other Phenomena in Classical Conditioning
According to Buoton and Moody (2004), when the CS is repeatedly unreinforced, that
is without the UCS, the CR will eventually diminish in intensity and effect called extinction.
When the extinction of learning passes through time, the CR may be restored (Robins, 1990).
This recovery-after-extinction phenomenon is spontaneous recovery. This means that
extinction does not completely involve unlearning of the pairings (Redish et al., 2018).
When the dog salivates by just merely hearing the bell, it is likely to elicit similar CS
when it hears a faster or slower ring of the bell or any device with quite a similar sound
which is known as generalization. Harris (2006) pointed out that the more different the new
stimulus to the CS, the lesser generalization surfaces.
When the dog recognizes the sound of the bell is different from other stimuli (i.e., the
sound of the buzzer), thus salivating only upon hearing the bell, discrimination occurs. This is
a phenomenon when the subject reacts differently to other stimuli, where it can decipher CS
very strongly.
Higher-order conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time
that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the
sound of the bell.

John Broadus Watson (1878-1958), an American

psychologist, wrote that the ultimate goal of behaviorism is to
derive laws to explain the relationships existing among
antecedent conditions (stimuli), learned behavior (responses)
and following conditions (rewards, punishments or neutral
effects). The theory of behaviorism may be dichotomized into
associationism and reinforcement.

facweb.funman.edu

During the dawn of the 20th century, John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) who was
greatly influenced by Pavlov, rose and aimed to revolutionize the status of American
psychology. According to him, if Pavlov is successful in proving associationism between
stimulus and response, people can also have such ability to associating certain feelings,
behaviors, instances and even symbols. He theorized that unlearning and relearning can
occur. He posited that humans are born with emotional responses such as love, fear and
hate.
Perhaps, the most popular conditioning experiment he did was “Little Albert.” Here,
Watson tried to prove that emotions can be learned. Initially, 11-month old Albert played
with the white rat showing that he was not afraid of the rat. After some time, Watson and
his partner, Rosalie Rayner, accompanied the appearance of the white rat with a banging
sound, so Albert was conditioned to fear the rat.

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 Later, he and his partner paired the presentation of the rat with other objects. They
found out that baby Albert also feared the occurrence of the objects even without the rat’s
presence. This experiment became the anchor of Watson’s belief that learning happens by
association.

ASSOCIATION

Behavioristic
Stimulus Response Repetition Learning
n

Illustration of Association Theory

Watson’s research methods would be questioned today but his work clearly shows
the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This
may help us understand the fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop.
Separation anxiety among kindergarten and early elementary pupils continue to
persist (Hudson et al., 2011). In using the theories of Pavlov and Watson, teachers can
diminish the recurrence of fear and anxiety by association. For instance, before the opening
of classes, teachers might want to encourage parents with prospective kinder pupils to go
and visit their classrooms with seats that have their names on them. Fun and calm activities
must be given in the first few weeks to condition the children that learning in school is fun,
thus diminishing anxiety.
The application of classical conditioning has a wide influence in education, including
classroom management (Macias, 2018). For example, a teacher wants to condition her class
to pass their test papers quietly and systematically. Before the conditioning stage, the
teacher will instruct the students to pass their papers forward.
The unconditioned response will be the passing of papers. Later the teacher will clap
10 times. Initially, the students will not pass their papers, as instructions have not been
disclosed. The teacher will try to accompany the instruction of passing papers with clapping
10 times. During the post conditioning stage, when the teacher claps 10 times, students will
be conditioned to pass their papers without repeated verbal instructions.
Even in tertiary education or adult learning, conditioning may be applied. In a drama
class for example, many students as neophyte actors may experience jittery feelings and
stage fright. Drama teachers may help diminish anxiety by conditioning students to perform
in an actual stage and later opening the rehearsals to a few audiences. Exposing the
students in this type of repetition may condition them to act with ease with the presence of
other people.

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B. THORNDIKE’S CONNECTIONISM THEORY

Within the first half of the 21st Century in the United States,
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949), an American psychologist, was
prominent because of his laws of learning, primarily under
associationism or connectionism (Mayer, 2003). It is mainly
concerned with the connection between the stimulus and response
(S-R).
More than a hundred years ago, he wrote a textbook entitled,
Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is
the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or
“habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency o the S-R pairings.
The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be
repeated than others because of rewards. The neural impulses called responses are
behaviorally manifested. He believed that learning often occurs by trial and error (selecting
and connecting) and that intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
According to Karadut (2012), Thorndike is one of the few psychologists who focused
on education. In proving his findings, he used an experimental approach in measuring a
student’s academic achievement. Thorndike believed that forming associations or
connections between sensory experiences and neural impulses results in the prime type of
learning.

Three Primary Laws of Learning

Thorndike’s basic ideas rest in the laws of exercise and effect. The Law of Exercise is
divided into the Law of Use and the Law of Disuse. Drills are vital to acquire and sustain
learning. In the very words of Thorndike (1913), bonds between stimuli and responses are
strengthened through being exercised frequently, recently and vigorously.
Learners usually learn faster when they often apply a certain skill (spelling new terms)
and tend to forget when such a response does not occur over some time (Karadut, 2012).

Primary Laws Description Example

Law of Exercise The more an SR bond is practiced the stronger Pianists practice their
it will become. He also revised this when he pieces before performing
found that practice without feedback does not on stage.
necessarily enhance performance.
Teacher gives spelling test
Frequent recurring of the response to a
Law of Use everyday to improve
stimulus strengthens their connection
vocabulary.
Law of Disuse When a response is not made to a stimulus,
the connection’s strength is weakened or
even forgotten.
Law of Effect Connection between a stimulus and Teacher giving insulting
response is strengthened when the remarks discourages
consequence is positive (reward) and is students to go to school;
weakened when the consequence is however, there are

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 negative (punishment). He later revised students who are more
this when he found that negative reward challenged to do better
did not necessarily weaken bonds, and when insulted.
some seemingly pleasurable consequences
do not necessarily motivate performance.
Law of The more readiness the learner has to When learner knows the
Readiness respond to stimulus, the stronger will be answer when called,
the bond between them. reciting is rewarding but
If one is prepared to act, to do so is when he does not know, it
rewarding and not to do so is punishing. is annoying on his part.
Other Laws
Law of Primacy The first thing learned has the strongest S-R Relearning correct concept
bond and is almost inerasable. It implies later will be confusing, the
that learning a concept or skill again is first (prime) learning
more difficult than the first time one has should be as functional, as
learned it. This explains why teachers precise and as positive as
correct students who have misconceptions possible.
in a new lesson. In English Language Remembering the first
Teaching, a recurring mistake among name on the list is easier
learners is fossilization (Demirezen & than those in between.
Topal, 2015). When it is not corrected for
the first time, it may lead to habit
formation.
Law of Intensity Exciting, immediate or even dramatic K+12 curriculum immerses
learning within the context of students senior high school students
tremendously facilitate learning. to a short-time real world
application called on-the-
job-training (OJT).
Law of Recency Concepts and skills most recently learned are Foreign language (French)
least forgotten (opposite primacy law). learned minutes ago is
easier to recall than when
learned a month ago.

Thorndike also mentioned that humans tend to show an almost similar response to
an entirely different stimulus, if on recurring instances, that stimulus has slight changes
compared to the previously known one. He coined this as the Principle of Associative
Shifting.

For example, to teach pupils to add a three-digit number, teachers let them master
the adding of one-digit number first. As they solve increasing numbers, pupils will tend to
associate the response to the previously paired S-R.

The transfer occurs when the contexts of learning have identical elements and call
for similar responses which Thorndike called as generalization (Thorndike, 1913). This
implies that not only skills should be taught in one isolated topic, but also that other related
subjects or topics should provide opportunities for students to apply them.

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 In a Social Studies class, it is not enough to teach the students to read maps, but it is
better if they are taught to calculate miles from inches. Later, the skill is reinforced when
they will create maps and map problems to solve.

Journaling has been a perennial writing enhancement strategy. Hight (2013) found
out that students who are engaged continuously in writing journal have improved writing
skills. In Hight’s study, he used the Laws of Exercise and Effect as theoretical bases. He
proved that correct, constant practice coupled with “satisfiers” such as appreciative praises
and good grades could improve learning.
Motivating students before the formal introduction of the lesson is vital in directing
the students to learn. The Law of Readiness is highly noticeable in this situation. If the
students are well-prepared to learn new concepts, learning becomes easier.
In conducting classes, teachers are advised to use activities that are within the
mental and contextual frames of the students. By exposing them into the real world
activities like simulations and immersions, the more they will consider the learning
experience as an intense one, hence the easier they create a strong connection between the
stimulus and the response, the least they forget the concept or skill learned. This is one
application of the Law of Intensity.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise).
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same
action sequence) law of readiness.
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

C. SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING

One of the most popular behavioral theorists of all

time is Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990), an American
psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social
philosopher, who postulated operant conditioning. Classical
conditioning refers to the association of stimuli, whereas
operant conditioning actively involves the subject’s
participation. The subject has a choice to respond. It is the
type of learning where learning occurs as a consequence of
the learner’s behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of
an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response
produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem.
When a particular pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.

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 Skinner made this conclusion after experimenting on animals through his Skinner’s
box, a device that modified the animal’s behavior. In his experiment, he put a rat in a box
with a lever, a bowl and a closed chamber.

If the lever was pushed by the rat, the

food was dispensed. The rat learned that
continuously pushing the lever could open the
food dispenser to the bowl. Skinner termed
the food as the reward.

Skinner Box

Psychologywizard.net

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything

that strengthens the desired response.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response.
An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises to have extra time in the
play area to children who behave well during the lesson. Still other examples include verbal
praises, star stamps, and stickers.
Positive reinforcement applied in the classroom is exemplified by preschool teachers
who stamp three big stars on the hands of pupils who behave well in class, get the highest
score or who is friendly during the academic time. To maximize the use of this type,
teachers should make it clear to pupils why they are stamping three stars and what these
three stars mean. In this way, pupils will be motivated to repeat their pleasant behavior and
can eventually gain the reward (stamp).
By building operant conditioning techniques into lesson plans, it is easily possible to
teach children useful skills as well as good behaviors. By using symbols like smiley faces,
“good work” stamps, stickers and even simple ticks when a child does something correctly,
you are encouraging them to repeat such satisfying work further down the line.

A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a

response when it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, in
fact it is a reward. For instance, a teacher announces that a student who gets an average
grade of 95 for the two grading periods, will no longer take the final examination. The
negative reinforcer is “removing” the final exam, which is a form of reward for working hard
and getting an average grade of 95.
Negative reinforcement is taking away something from a situation that subsequently
increases the occurrence of the response. It is taking away an unpleasant consequence to
cause the behavior to happen again. Some stimuli that often function as negative
reinforcers are loud noise, criticisms, annoying people and low grades, because actions that
remove them tend to be reinforcing.

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 For instance, Ms. Jean wants her Grade 3 pupils to master the multiplication table, so
she gives the pupils a problem set on multiplication. After a set is solved, they would recite
the multiplication table from multiples of 5 to 10. If they master the multiplication table, the
problem set is withdrawn, thus, strengthening the behavior (perfectly reciting the table).

A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because a punishment is a

consequence intended to result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who
always comes late is not allowed to join a group work that has already began (punishment)
and therefore loses points for that activity. The punishment was done to reduce the
response of repeatedly coming to class late.

Schedule of Reinforcements
According to Skinner (1938), as mentioned by Zeiler (1977), schedules refer to when
reinforcement is applied.

Reinforcement Schedules in Skinner’s Experiment

Reinforcement
Description Classroom Application
Schedules
Continuous Given every time the animal Students receive feedback after each
Schedule gives the desired response response concerning the accuracy of
their work.
Intermittent Given irregularly as the animal Students are not called on every time
Schedule gives the desired response they raise hands, not praised after
working each problem, not always
told when behaving appropriately.
Fixed Interval Time interval is constant from Appreciating student’s answer is
Schedules one reinforcement to the next done for the first response made
after 5 minutes
Variable Time interval varies from The first correct response after 5
Interval occasion to occasion around minutes is reinforced but the time
Schedules some average value interval varies (e.g. 2, 3, 7 or 8
minutes.
Ratio Schedule Given depending on the Teacher gives praise to a student
number of correct responses or after reciting the fifth correct answer.
the rate of responding
Fixed Ratio Every nth correct response is Every 10th correct response receives
Schedules reinforced, where n is constant reinforcement.
Variable Every nth correct response is A teacher may give free time
Ratio reinforced, but the value varies periodically around an average of five
Schedules around an average number n completed assignments.

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Punishment
Its main aim is to weaken the response. Punishment does not necessarily eliminate
the behavior, when the threat of punishment is removed, the punished response may recur
(Merrett and Wheldall, 1984).
Skinner believed that positive punishment is an addition of an unpleasant stimulus to
decrease the behavior. Example: Max, a Grade 6 pupil has been neglecting his assignments.
He completely hates washing dishes. To decrease such behavior of neglecting assignments,
his parents assign him to wash the dishes after dinner. After some time, he became more
diligent in doing his assignments. The addition (positive) of the work Max hates (punishment)
decreases the likelihood for the behavior (neglect of assignments) to occur.
Negative punishment is the removal of rewarding stimulus to decrease the behavior.
Example: Jennie, a Grade 3 pupil, is always noisy in a group activity. Her teacher calls her
attention and warns her that she could not participate in the next fun activity if she
continues to behave noisily. Joining in a fun activity is a pleasant stimulus. Withdrawing it
(negative) is believed to reduce noisy behavior (punishment).

Relationship of Reinforcement and Punishment

Type of
Reinforcement Punishment
Reinforcement/
(increasing behavior) (decreasing behavior)
Punishment
Positive Adding something pleasant to Adding something unpleasant to
(adding) increase the behavior decrease the behavior
Negative Subtracting something unpleasant Subtracting something pleasant to
(subtracting) to increase the behavior decrease the behavior

Alternatives to Punishment
Punishment is often applied in schools to address disruptions. Maag (2001)
enumerated some common punishments like loss of privileges, removals from the classroom,
in and out of school suspensions and expulsions. There are several alternatives to
punishment. The primary advantage of this alternative over punishment is that it shows the
student how to behave adaptively.

1. Change the discriminative stimuli - move misbehaving student away from other
misbehaving students
2. Allow the unwanted behavior to continue - have the student who misbehaves
stand when he/she should be sitting, until he behaves
3. Extinguish the unwanted behavior - ignore misbehavior so that it is not reinforced
by teacher attention
4. Condition an incompatible behavior - reinforce learning progress which occurs
only when a student is not misbehaving

The use of rewards and punishment in a classroom setting is very noticeable in

everyday situation. For instance, the teacher may use prizes or rewards in exciting
collaborative games to increase student participation. Notably, the K to 12 curriculum

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promotes higher student participation and collaboration. Knowing the appropriate use of
rewards and punishments in teaching may address this pedagogical requirement.
Showing simple ways to reinforce students may somehow build an image of a
supportive teacher. For example, the teacher positively reinforcing a pleasant behavior who
often smiles, praises and shows affectionate patting on the back is a kind and caring teacher.
Classroom management is one of the key areas of concern in teaching. Operant
conditioning an also be applied to ensure a well-organized climate in class. For instance, a
teacher may ignore students who shout out correct answers but may give them the
opportunity to recite when they raise their hands. Using operant conditioning, the teacher
may give immediate feedback toward pleasant or unpleasant behavior. Feedbacking is vital
in diminishing undesirable student behavior.
Reinforcement in teaching has different effects on different learners; therefore, the
use of varied ways for different types of learners should be observed. It is worth extending
continuous reinforcement to enable the learners to acquire new behavior.

D. NEO-BEHAVIORISM

As behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came out to fill the gap between
behaviorism and cognitive learning beliefs. It is called neo-behaviorism. Notable
pyschologists that contributed much to it included Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura.
Neo-behaviorists were more self-consciously trying to formalize the laws of behavior. They
believed that some mediating variables into the stimulus-response theory contribute much
to learning.
Neo behaviorism bridges the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of
learning. Neobehaviorists considered both overt and covert (mental functions) behaviors in
learning.

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism or Sign Learning Theory

Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959), an American

psychologist, insisted that all behavior is directed because of a
purpose or goal. He believed that a behavior is never merely the
result of mindless S-R connections, but that all behaviors are
focused on achieving some goals by cognition, an intervening
variable.
He further believed that mental processes are to be
identified in terms of the behaviors to which they lead. His
intervening variables are tied to observable behaviors.
findagrave.com

Tolman belived that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs
and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge
through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.
In his experiment, two groups of rats were put in mazes for 17 days. The first group
of rats was fed (rewarded) every time they found their way out. The second group of rats
was non-reinforced. The rats did not receive any food from days 1 to 10 even if they have

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seen the end point. Later, it was observed that in the first 10 days, the rats developed a
cognitive map. Hence, from day 11 onward, they were motivated to perform and look for
the end point faster than the first group to find food because they were hungry. Hunger was
the intervening variable.
From this experiment, Tolman concluded that an organism performs a behavior
because it has purpose or goal. It also led to the birth of latent learning, a form of learning
that occurs without any visible reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are
learned. It also means learning that is hidden and comes out when needed.
Latent learning occurs every time an organism sees a reason to perform or show it.
For example, a 4-year old boy observes his father using a TV remote control. When he is left
alone and has the opportunity to turn on the TV using the remote control, he could easily
demonstrate the learning.
Another distinctive feature of purposive behaviorism is the coining of the term
“cognitive map.” According to Tolman, it is the mental illustration of the layout of the
environment. It is believed that everything in our cognitive map influences our interaction
with the environment. Hence, making our cognitive map more detailed and comprehensive
helps facilitate our learning.
For example, when we learn the direction of the house of our friend, we look for
signs so we can find our way. It may be a store, a flag, a marker or monument that helps us
recognize we are in the right direction. We are motivated by the purpose to find our friend’s
house so we learn though the signs, that is why, his theory is also known as sign learning.

Tolman’s Key Concepts:

1. Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman asserted that learning is always
purposive and goal-directed. He held the notion that an organism acted or
responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed individuals do more than merely
respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive
toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive, and cognitve.
2. Cognitive maps on rats. In his most famous experiments, the group that had the food in
the same location performed much better than the other group, supposedly
demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of
turns. This tendency to “learn location” signified that rats somehow formed
cognitive maps that help them perform well on the maze. He also found out that
organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.
Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to
school everyday, he acquires a cognitive map of the location of his school. So when
transportation re-routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get to
school the shortest or easiest way.
3. Latent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the
individual until needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once.
According to Tolman, it can exist without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his
rat experiments wherein rats apparently “learned the maze” by forming cognitive 5
needed to.

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 Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate the t.v.
remote control and observes how the t.v. is turned on or how channel is changed,
and volume adjusted. After sometime, the parents are surprised that on the first
time that their daughter holds the remote control, she already knows which buttons
to press for what function. Through latent learning, the child knew the skills
beforehand, even though she has never done them before.

4. The concept of intervening variable. Intervening variables are variables that are not
readily seen but serve as determinants of behavior. Tolman believed that learning is
mediated or is influenced by expectations, perceptions, representations, needs and
other internal or environmental variables. Example, in his experiments with rats, he
found out that hunger was an intervening variable.

5. Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not
essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for performance. In his
studies, he observed that a rate was able to acquire knowledge of the way through a
maze, I.e., to develop a cognitive map, even in the absence of reinforcement.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura (1925-2021), a Canadian-American

psychologist, is considered the leading proponent of this
theory which focuses on learning that occurs within a
social context, that is, people learn from one another,
including such concepts as observational learning,
imitation and modelling. He conducted the Bobo doll
experiment to prove his point.
Under the social learning theory, learning is done
by observing and copying or imitating other’s behavior

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(Akers & Jensen, 2006). Modeling refers to a change in one’s behavior by observing models.
(Rosental & Bandura, 1978). Historically, modeling was equated with imitation, but
modeling is a more inclusive concept (Mussen, 1983).
His theory is also called the social-cognitive theory because of the influence of
cognition on behavior. He is one among few behaviorists who believed that humans process
information through cognition. The term self-efficacy has bridged social learning theory and
cognitive psychology. It is defined as one’s evaluation of his or her own ability to accomplish
or perform an action in a particular context. Those with high self-efficacy see themselves as
capable or useful in dealing with the world and with other people.

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Fundamental Principles of Social Learning Theory
1. One may learn without changing his or her behavior. This is in contrast to what
other behaviorists discussed earlier; for them, a change in behavior is always an
indication of learning. This is similar to Tolman’s latent learning.
2. Learning takes place by imitating a model. That model possesses characteristics
(like intelligence, beauty, popularity, talent, etc.) that a learner finds attractive and
desirable. Admiration plays an essential role in imitating a particular behavior of a
model. This explains why speech teachers recite a crucial sound first, then guide the
learners until they can recite the sound by themselves correctly.
3. An observing person will always react to the one imitated depending on whether
the model is rewarded or punished. If the model receives rewards, the imitator
copies the behavior; if the former is punished, the latter will most likely avoid
copying the behavior.
4. Acquiring and performing behavior are different. Bandura made a demarcation
line between performing and acquiring a behavior. One can acquire the behavior by
observing someone but may opt not to perform it until the context requires so.
5. Interaction is vital for successful social learning. Social learning may occur
successfully when learners interact with their co-learners and models (Mourlam, 2
2013). Learning in isolation may dampen self-efficacy. This means that copying
behavior involves the guiding of one person’s behavior by another person, such as
when an art instructor gives guidance and corrective feedback to a student who is
attempting to draw a picture. With copying behavior, the final copied response is
reinforced and thereby strengthened.
6. Learning is self-regulated. Bandura noted that self-regulation occurs when
individuals observe, assess and judge their behavior against their standards,
subsequently, reward and punish them.
7. Learning may be acquired vicariously. Vicarious learning is acquired from
observing the consequences of others’ behavior. For example, when a model is given
praises and rewards, the observer may likely repeat the copied behavior because he
or she feels the same satisfaction too.
8. Learning may be reinforced by the model or by others. Compliments coming
from the model may strengthen the occurrence of the behavior. Similarly, when a
person is praised by his or her peers because of a change in behavior, he or she may
show an increase in that behavior. The types of model include the live model (actual
person demonstrating the behavior) and the symbolic model (person or action
portrayed in other medium).

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur:

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can
successfully model the behavior of someone else. These four conditions vary among
individuals, so different people will reproduce the same behavior in different ways.

1. Attention. The person must first pay attention to the model. The characteristics
of the model and the observer influence one’s attention to models. This explains
why teachers make use of bright colors or large fonts in their instructional aids for
modeling to get the attention of learners.

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 2. Retention. The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed using techniques like rehearsal. Paying attention to something should
result in retention that requires cognitively organizing, rehearsing, coding and
transforming modeled information for storage in memory. In a dance class for
example, an observer counts 1-2-3-4 and 5 with corresponding steps to store
the dance steps in memory. Rehearsal without coding and coding without
rehearsal are less effective.

3. Production or Motor reproduction. The third condition is the ability to replicate

the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. To strengthen learning
through observation, one needs to translate the visual and symbolic conceptions
into observable behavior. Production of this behavior indicates an increase in
learning. Bandura noted that observers refine their skills with practice, corrective
feedback and reteaching. A child may have a basic understanding on how to tie
shoelaces but is not able to translate that knowledge into behavior. Teachers who
suspect that students are having trouble demonstrating what they have learned
may need to test students in different ways.

4. Motivation. Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.

Influencing observational learning is motivation. Individuals perform actions they
believe will result in rewarding outcomes and avoid acting in ways they think will
be responded to negatively (Schunk, 1987). Persons also act based on their values,
performing activities they value and avoiding those they find unsatisfying,
regardless of the consequence to themselves or others. Motivation is a critical
process of observational learning that teachers promote in various ways, including
making learning interesting, relating material to student interests, having students
set goals and monitor goal progress, providing feedback indicating increasing
competence and stressing the value of learning.

Tolman advanced that learning is goal-directed. This goal is specific, but for some
children it is distant and may be viewed as complicated. To ensure that all students achieve
the overall goal, as a prospective teacher, you may set short-term goals each day by saying
“Today, we are going to work on these five words. By the end of class time, I know that you
will be able to spell these five words.”
Children should view their daily goals as easier to attain than the weekly goal. To
further ensure goal attainment, you will make sure that the 15 words selected for mastery
by Friday, challenge the students but are not overly burdensome.
Self-efficacy and learning through observation are from Bandura’s social-cognitive
theory. We can merge these principles and apply them to teaching. For instance, you may
select certain students to solve math problems on the board. When they are successful, the
peer models help evaluate observer’s self-efficacy for performing well. Students in the class
are more likely to perceive themselves as similar in terms of competence to at least one of
the models.

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 Using demonstration models or demo teaching is an effective way to facilitate
student-centered learning. For example, if you were a TLE teacher, you could teach your
students how to insert a sleeve into a garment through modeled demonstrations. You might
begin by describing the process and then use visual aids to portray the procedure. You could
end the presentation by demonstrating the process at a sewing machine.
Compliments in the form of feedback can increase self-efficacy while learning
through modeling. If you were a drama teacher, you could model various performance skills
while working with students as they practice a play. You might demonstrate desired voice
inflections, mood, volume and body movements for each character in the play. As the
students perform their parts, you may highlight their strengths or give them a pat on their
shoulders or a thumbs-up sign before telling them their points for improvement.

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