Introduction to the Mechanical Design Process

1. Define the Problem

The engineering design process starts when you ask the questions below about problems that you
observe:

 What is the problem or need?

 Who has the problem or need?
 Why is it important to solve?

The problem statement presented by a customer or engineering manager may be vague or even
invalid! The following steps may be followed to clarify the detail and validity of the problem
statement:

 Determine the source of the problem

 Enter into a process of consultation with the person presenting the problem
 Draw mind maps to clarify the detail of the problem
 Make a clear list of customer requirements and specifications (Discussed Later)
 Perform a QFD analysis

2. Identify the Design Aim and Develop Design Objectives

The aim of the project is simply what you anticipate to achieve through the design process. The aim
must be decomposed into multiple objectives that may be used to measure how successfully the aim
of the project has been achieved. An objective may be defined as a statement that describes the
specific, tangible outcome that the project will deliver.

A well stated objective will be Specific, Measurable, Attainable/Achievable, Realistic and Time-
bound (SMART). This means that the statement must specifically define what the focus of the
objective is. The objective must be measurable in terms of the degree to which the objective has been
met. It is assumed that the objective is achievable and realistic as the objectives are usually defined
within a limit of logic and human sensibility. The objectives should be time-bound as this gives a time
frame and a deadline by which the objective should be met.

Example
Aim: Design a portable push scooter

Figure 1: Portable Push Scooter

Objectives:

• design a length adjustable steering column;

• design a folding system for the steering column to enable compact storage of the scooter ;
• design a chassis that will support the weight of the rider;
• design the structural elements that connect the wheels to the chassis;
• design a braking mechanism that will allow the speed of the scooter to be safely reduced.

Note: Portability is a Customer Requirement not a Design Objective. The length adjustable steering
and the folding mechanism are objective indicators of portability.

3. Literature Review
3.1 What is a Literature Review?
A literature review is an account of publications on a topic by accredited authors and researchers. To
conduct a literature review for a design project, various recent (past 2-3 years) publications such as
books, articles, journals, papers and web-pages must be located. A literature review aids in increasing
one’s knowledge on a particular topic and it is therefore a key part of the mechanical design process.
It aids a designer in creating a design based on research without having to conduct elaborate
experiments.

3.2 Stages in a Literature Review

A good literature review must be able to provide the reader with information that is relevant,
appropriate and useful. The following steps can be followed when conducting a literature review:

1. Identify all relevant topics related to the design project you are conducting.
2. Collect magazine articles, journal papers, conference papers, web articles and books related to
each topic.
3. Compile a list of references for the material you have found. Decide on a referencing style.
4. Read and summarise significant findings from each source.
5. Create a summary of what is known and what is unknown.
6. Compare relevant concepts and questions between different sources.
7. Identify areas of conflict arising from the compilation of information from different sources.
8. Formulate questions which require further research.

A literature review for a mechanical design should:

9. Address issues of theory and methodology on the design of the product being developed.
10. Assess past designs which are similar you the design.
11. Assess the strengths and weaknesses of past designs.
12. Assess similar products in the market for cost, market share and features.

3.3 What not to report

Not everything you find in your literature review should be included in the final report! In particular,
commonly known theory should be omitted from a design report. For this design course theory that
should NOT be included in the report include: Newton’s Laws, Power Screws, Bolts and Rivets,
Springs, Shafts, Gears, Brakes, Clutches or any other theory covered in class.
A practical report aims to validate a theory or model, therefore the inclusion of that theory is part of a
practical report. A literature review for a design report should not include theory covered in lectures,
only new theory that you might have found to be relevant.

3.4 The Significance of a Market Review

A market review involves the research and analysis of existing designs of the same or similar product
to be designed, in the market. It is a process in which the designers gather information on current
designs. This information includes aspects such as typical end users, general specifications of existing
designs, materials of which current designs are constructed, unique design implementations for a
particular design in the market, functionality of current designs as well as the selling price of current
designs in the market.

For designers, the research conducted in a market review is not only used for the purpose of learning,
it is also a critical component needed to make good decisions. A market review does this by giving
designers a picture of what designs are being developed (or likely to be developed) and, consequently,
offers designers with a broader perspective as to what they should be designing. It opens up
alternative choices to either improve on current designs or to design a unique design which is unseen
to the current market. A market review is also important as it alerts designers to current design patents
and this can save them from designing products which are a copy of a current patented design which
can save a designer from incurring possible lawsuits.

A designer may follow the following (non-exhaustive) list of steps when performing a market review:

1. Collect product catalogues and brochures. Visit stores including online stores.
2. Make a note of product features, architectures, variations, cost and performance
specifications.
3. Speak to existing consumers of existing products and make a record of their likes, dislikes
and suggestions.
4. Investigate the end user applications of existing products.
5. Investigate the final disposal or recycling of existing products.
6. Identify any safety or environmental hazards associated with existing products.
7. Create a comparative summary of product strengths and weaknesses.
8. Identify avenues for a unique design or improvements on existing designs.

4. Develop Design Specifications

4.1 What are Design Specifications?
Design specifications are a set of information that guides the project designer through the work of
creating a design. Design requirements state the important characteristics that your solution must meet
in order to satisfy the design aim and objectives. Specifications define how to meet the objectives and
define the functions, behaviour and attributes of the product to be designed. Specifications for a
design project are made up of:

1. Prescriptive specifications.
2. Procedural specifications.
3. Performance specifications.
4. Fabrication specifications
Note: Fabrication specifications are usually specified in a report after the final design sections,
however, thought must be given to manufacturing and assembly procedures as early as the conceptual
design stage.

Design specifications are derived from:

1. The customer: these include prescriptive, procedural and performance specification that are
developed through consultation with the customer.
2. The designer: the designer may develop any of the three types of specifications by:
a. specifying numerical bounds to each design objective,
b. consulting textbooks and journals for recommended procedures,
c. experiential reasoning or liaison with experienced persons.

4.2 Prescriptive Specifications

Prescriptive specifications define certain minimum values of attributes which a successful design
must meet. Prescriptive specifications also extend to prescribed features that the design should
exhibit. The prescriptive specifications can be derived from objectives which are concerned with
recommendations for the product. Prescriptive specifications which define dimensions do not have to
be assigned a specific value but rather, they have a leeway or tolerance to be greater or smaller than a
certain given value.

4.3 Procedural Specifications (Not Always Reported)

Procedural specifications define methods for which attributes or behaviours of the final design must
be calculated. This type of specification is very important as it is concerned with the limits of the
design and the calculations which go into specifying certain dimensions or recommendations of the
design. The specified methods of calculation are usually defined according to a specific safety or
engineering design standard. Procedural specifications can be derived from objectives concerned with
safety requirements and the operability/functionality of the final product. A full set of procedural
specifications can be thought of as a design of the final design process.

The following must be considered when developing procedural specifications:

 Static versus dynamic loading, brittle or ductile material, etc: selection of an appropriate
design method, failure mode analysis and failure theory.
 Tolerances: specification of clearance fit or interference fits
 Specify an appropriate safety or reserve factor

4.4 Performance Specifications

Performance specifications give character to the desired operation/function of the final product. A
functional specification defines how the final design will operate or function however, it is necessary
to define performance specifications in order to determine how well the particular function or
operation is executed. Performance specifications can be derived from objectives concerned with the
minimum required functionality of the product. Additionally, interface performance specifications
must be defined when a system or device is required to work with other systems or devices. These
specifications define how well multiple systems or devices function in relation to each other and can
be derived from objectives which are concerned with minimum required functionality between two or
more systems.
4.5 Fabrication Specifications
Fabrication specifications must be defined to specify how the design is to be made. These are
basically the plans which form a basis on which the designed product will be built. Fabrication
specifications must be clear, well organised, neat and orderly and should not be ambiguous. They
must be fully comprehensive and must define how the design is to be manufactured from start to
finish. They must also be transparent, ie, fully understandable by the manufacturer. Fabrication
specifications need to have the aforementioned characteristics as it is required that someone totally
unconnected to the design process must be able to construct the designed product.

4.6 Specification of Safety Factors

The following guideline may be used for the appropriate specification of safety factors:

1. SF = 1.25 – 1.5 for reliable materials, under controlled conditions and well known loads and
stresses
2. SF = 1.5-2 for well-known materials under reasonably constant environmental conditions and
well known loads and stresses
3. SF = 2 – 2.5 for average materials under normal environmental conditions and well known
loads and stresses
4. SF = 2.5 – 3 for less tried materials and brittle materials under normal environmental
conditions, loads and stresses
5. SF = 3 – 4 for untried materials under normal environmental conditions, loads and stresses
6. SF = 3 – 4 for reliable materials under uncertain loads
7. SF = 1 – 6 under repetitive (high cyclic) loading
8. SF = 3 – 6 for reliable materials under impact loading.

Note the difference between a Safety Factor (SF) and a Reserve Factor (RF):

Example
The following example shows the development of prescribed, procedural and performance
specifications. The development of fabrication specifications is shown later.

Customer Statement: The engineer is required to design a portable push scooter. The scooter must be
designed for transporting children and teenagers from ages 7 to 14 years old. The scooter must be
designed to support a rider of a maximum weight of 80 kg. It may be assumed that the scooter can
reach speeds of up to 40 km/hr. The scooter is expected to be used for at least 5 years at an average of
3 km per day. Due consideration must be given to outdoor conditions, corrosion and fatigue. The
introduction of fluctuating loads from the natural pushing motion of the rider and an uneven riding
surface must be included in the fatigue analysis.
 Table 1: List of Specifications for a Portable Push Scooter

Component Specification Explanation

Wheels Speed Rating: +40 km/hr Performance spec prescribed by customer
Wheels Load Rating: + 80 kg Performance spec prescribed by customer
Steering Adjustable Length Range Derived from looking at height range or 7 – 14 year
Column 1300 mm – 1500 mm old children
Steering Handle Length: 400 mm Ergonomic length for 7-14 year old children
Bar
Floor Board Width 150 mm Derived from looking at shoe sizes of 7 – 14 year old
children
Floor Board Length 800 mm Derived from looking at shoe sizes of 7 – 14 year old
children
Braking 3m Safety consideration accounting for top speed of 40
Distance km/hr and braking force of 200 N (Weight exerted on
one foot of a 40 kg child)
Steering column 90o folding system Derived from design objective
Chassis Aluminium Chassis Requirement for portability

The list shown in Table 1 is a non-exhaustive list of design specifications. By examining customer
requirements as well as exploring the aim, objectives and design considerations for the project one
can easily formulate a list of 20 to 30 specifications that will ensure that the final product is
satisfactory.

The comprehensive set of design specifications will help the engineer to clearly identify the variable
that must be designed for using the methods developed in lectures. Consider Table 2 that specifies
fixed variables (i.e. the design specs), design variable and procedural specifications.

Table 2: Design Variables and Procedures for a Push Scooter

Component Fixed Variable (spec) Design Variable Procedure

Steering Max Length 1500 mm Find hollow tube diameter Cantilever Bending Calculation
Column and wall thickness
Floor Board Length 800 mm Find thickness Finite Element Analysis
Width 150 mm
Material Aluminium
Wheel Axel Load 80 kg Find axel diameter Fatigue analysis by Soderberg
Equation. Reserve factor of 2
Wheel Load 80 kg Find bracket thickness Fatigue analysis using
Brackets Goodman Equation and
Residual Stress Method .
Reserve Factor of 2

Important: The engineering method or procedure must be appropriately matched to the application!
For example, failure for an axel using Tresca’s failure criterion is not appropriate. Axel’s are not
designed for ultimate failure under static loads but they are designed for minimum deflection and
infinite fatigue life.
In conclusion, consider Figure 2, which shows the progression from a customer requirement to a
design calculation. A good design should have a logic thread like this for all critical design variables.

Customer Design Variable Method

Scooter for 7-14 Year Old Floor/Chassis Thickness Finite Element Analysis
Weight 80 kg

Literature Review Specification Final Design

Shoe Size 5-10 Floor Board Width 150mm CAD Drawing with all
Length 800 mm, Aluminium dimensions

Figure 2: Relationship between Customer Requirements, Specifications and Final Design

5. Create Alternative Solutions or Conceptual Designs

5.1 The Conceptual Design Process
There are always many good possibilities for solving design problems. If you focus on just one before
looking at the alternatives, it is almost certain that you are overlooking a better solution. Good
designers try to generate as many possible solutions as they can. This is an iterative process in which
many generative and evaluative stages eventually converge on a preferred conceptual solution.
Concepts are defined with more and more detail as progression is made through the stages. This
allows for more accurate evaluation, a higher level of refinement and hence a better final conceptual
design following the full series of iterations.

The three principal elements of the phase are:

1. Information Input - information from the market review, specification definition phases, the
designers and other sources that were used to facilitate concept generation, evaluation and
development,
2. Concept Generation - the generation and development of concepts (total product, sub-
systems, and/or components) to meet the product design specifications.
3. Concept Evaluation - the process of evaluation and refinement of concepts generated in
relation to the product design specifications.

At the end of the evaluation and refinement processes, effort will be concentrated on a single
preferred solution (i.e. the final design). This will normally be presented in the form of a set of CAD
drawings and calculation.
Example
Concept A

Figure 3: Split Board Design of Push Scooter

What are the key features of this design? What are the advantages and disadvantages? Does it satisfy
the design objectives? Does it fit within the specifications? Is it going to deliver what the customer
requires? Is it unnecessarily complicated?

Concept B

Figure Three: Dual Purpose Snow/On Road Push Scooter

What are the key features of this design? What are the advantages and disadvantages? Does it satisfy
the design objectives? Does it fit within the specifications? Is it going to deliver what the customer
requires? Does it have unnecessary functionality?

5.2 Concept Evaluation – The Decision Matrix

A decision matrix is a chart that allows a team or individual to systematically identify, analyse, and
rate the strength of relationships between sets of information. The matrix is especially useful for
looking at large numbers of decision factors and assessing each factor’s relative importance

How to use it:

1. Identify alternatives
 2. Identify decision/selection criteria
3. Assign weights – a significance weighting
4. Design scoring system – 1 to 10 or 1 to 100
5. Rate the alternatives
6. Total the scores - multiply the score for each decision criterion by its weighting factor
7. Analyse the result

Example
Table 3: Example Decision Matrix

6. Clarify Relevant Design Considerations before Final Design

6.1 Safety
Order of design priority for safety:

1. Design to eliminate the hazard and minimise the risk (Most desirable)
2. Incorporate safety devices
3. Provide warning labels and devices
4. Develop and implement safe operating procedures and employee safety training programs
5. Use personal protective equipment (Least desirable)

See lecture notes for more guidelines on design for safety

6.2 Environmental Impact

Strategies to minimise environmental impact through manufacturing, use and disposal of a product:

 Design for replaceable components such that the entire product does not have to be discarded
if a single subsystem malfunctions
 Design for easy recycling: consider the disposal and reuse of the product and its components
  Select materials based on availability in nature, processing requirements, processing pollution
problems and recyclability. Also consider material durability to avoid the necessity for
frequent replacement of parts
 Design for efficient use of material in subtractive manufacturing (e.g. avoid a design that
requires most of the material to be removed from a billet in order to produce the final part)
 Use of additive manufacturing to avoid waste of raw materials
 Avoid manufacturing processes that involve the use of substances that may cause pollution.
Design the product such that it can be manufactured using processes with a less significant
environmental impact.
 Carefully consider the use of chemicals that are used in the product itself: lubricants, fuels
and toxic substances
 Design to minimise friction and wear
 Design for minimal power or fuel consumption, this involves improving the engineering
efficiencies of various systems, not overdesigning a system and also making devices more
“intelligent” by introducing an automatic standby or sleep mode.
 Design to minimise the packaging requirements

6.3 Material Selection

Materials are selected based on the following considerations:

1. Cost and availability

2. Strength and hardness
3. Ductility or elasticity
4. Density
5. Corrosion resistance
6. Machinability
7. Weldability
8. Recyclability and environmental impact
9. Fatigue characteristics
10. Wear characteristics
11. Friction characteristics
12. Vibration damping characteristics, etc.

6.4 Design for Manufacturability

Design for manufacturability (DFM) is the process of designing a product such that the production
costs and/or time to market is kept at a minimum while maintaining an appropriate level of quality.
The importance of maintaining an appropriate level of quality must be stressed in DFM as without it,
DFM merely becomes a process of minimizing costs.

Steps to follow for easy manufacturability:

1. Estimate the manufacturing costs for various design alternatives.
2. Design for modularity.
3. Avoid complex geometries and intricate features.
4. Avoid internal features (e.g. an additional feature machined in a bored hole).
5. Use as many standard components as possible.
6. Reduce the cost of components by using stock material that is as close to the desired
dimensions as possible.
7. Minimize material removal from components by avoiding protrusions from surfaces.
 8. Consider the cutting tools used in a process when designing corners and radii.
9. Avoid extremely hard or brittle materials.
10. Reduce the number of components that the product contains.
11. Ensure that components are made with easily available and inexpensive manufacturing
processes.
12. Avoid cast, forged or injection molded components except in circumstances where the
product will be produced in high volumes.
13. Avoid designing components that have to be manufactured with high temperature processes.
14. Avoid designing components that require extremely high precision or surface finishes in order
to function.
15. Wherever possible add small inexpensive features to parts that could assist with easy
handling, clamping, alignment, etc.

6.5 Design for Assembly

Design for assembly (DFA) is the process of designing a product so that all the elements of the design
can easily be put together to function as a complete product. Assembly is defined as the way in which
all the parts, components and sub-systems are put together (joined/grouped) in order to form the final
product. Typical approaches to applying DFA:

1. Keep the number of components to a minimum

2. Make use of standard fasteners; making use of standard fasteners allows for standard
assembly routines to be automation.
3. Reducing the number of fasteners
4. Design the product to have a base component onto which other components can be located
5. Design for assembly to proceed with as minimal movement of the base component. This gives
assemblers a fixed reference point in the assembly process thereby reducing the number of
times and the need to reset reference points.
6. Design the product to allow for assembly proceed without the need for reorientation of parts
7. Design the product with components that maximize accessibility during manufacture for easy
placement or removal of fasteners.
8. Use snap fits and other joining techniques that are quick and simple
9. Create component alignment features in your design.
10. Consider the assembly sequence of parts – draw an assembly precedence diagram to ensure
that there are no conflicts (See Figure 4)

6.6 Further Reading

 Examples of bad designs:
http://www.baddesigns.com/examples.html
 Introduction to axiomatic design principles:
http://moodle.stoa.usp.br/file.php/1359/Chapter02NamSuh.pdf
 Design for X:
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/wmg/ftmsc/modules/modulelist/peuss/designforx/design_f
or_x_notes_section_5.pdf
Example Assembly Precedence Diagram for an Electric Power Train

Figure 4: Assembly Precedence Diagram

Examples of Good and Bad DFM and DFA

Figure 5: DFM of Drilled Holes

Figure 6: DFA alignment Features

 Figure 7: DFM reduce part count

Figure 8: DFA difficult and easy orientation

Figure 9: DFA Difficult and easy accessibility to components

Figure 9: DFA Difficult and easy accessibility to components (Spacing for use of tools)
7 Perform the Final Design

7.1 Stages in the final design process

Once conceptual design is complete and the best design has been selected, the designers can then
proceed to engage in the processes listed below:

1) Perform a detailed decomposition of the entire system into subsystems and individual
components.
2) Determine what type of transmission forces will be present in the design and perform
appropriate calculations.
3) Select appropriate materials for the design.
4) Determine the allowable stress.
5) Define suitable dimensions for each machine element.
6) Make scale drawings.

7.2 Detailed Decomposition

Draw a detailed subsystem decomposition diagram to help you identify all components that are
required to make the product work. This diagram does not have to be included in your design report.
The diagram can help you identify :

 which components can be bought and those that require a detailed design,
 which component are safety critical or dangerous,
 the components that will represent the greatest cost in the design.

Figure 10: Example subsystem decomposition diagram for a lathe

7.3 Load Analysis

A mechanical product design is made up of various components on which various forces are applied.
Firstly, it must be determined as to what type of loading each of these components will be undergoing.
Each component will either be under static loading or dynamic loading. Depending on the type of
loading, a component will experience a different type of force. These forces could either be axial
forces, shear stress, torsion or bending among others. Depending on the type of loading and the
associated force, the forces acting on each of component and the energy transmitted by them must be
calculated.
7.4 Select appropriate materials:
After performing the calculations of forces and associated energy transmission for each component, it
is now possible to start making material selections. Materials should be selected for each component
such that they can sustain all the forces and at the same time they have least possible cost. Another
factor to consider when making material selections is whether the material being selected for a
particular component will need to be processed. If a particular material will have to be processed to
make a component, designers must consider how the material will be processed. This is important as
by choosing a material that is easily worked and that can be processed cheaply, costs and time to
market can be reduced.

7.5 Determining the allowable stress:

All the components of a design will be subject to stress, whether small or large. Considering the
various forces acting on each component, the material of their construction and other factors which
affect the strength of the product, the allowable/design stress for the components must be calculated.

7.6 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)

The FMEA methodology is an inductive approach to analysis. The analyst must determine how every
possible failure mode of every system component affects the system operation. The procedure
consists of:

1. Identifying all failure modes for each component

2. Determining the effect of the failure for each failure mode, both for the particular
component and the overall system being analyzed
3. Classification of the failure by its effects on the system operation
4. Determining the probability of the failure occurrence
5. Identifying how the failure mode can be detected
6. Identifying any compensations or possible changes to design so as to mitigate the failure
effects

7.7 Defining suitable dimensions for each of the machine components:

Taking into consideration the transmission forces of each component, its material and its
allowable/design stress, appropriate dimensions must be defined for each component. The dimensions
should be such that the component will be able to withstand the allowable stress and maximum
transmission forces which it will be placed under during operation of the final product. The
components should not distort or break when subjected to loading. Another important consideration
when defining dimensions for the components is the effective usage of space. This must go hand in
hand with considerations for accessibility to the component for which specifications are being
defined, as well as to components which will surround it. Defining suitable component dimensions is
very important as it forms a key part of DFM and DFA.

7.8 Make engineering drawings

Once the final design is completed, the designer needs to present it in a form which the
assemblers/manufacturers can understand so that they can make the product. Detailed engineering
scale drawings of each of the components must be made as well as an assembly drawing showing how
all the components are to be assembled to construct the final design. All dimensions must clearly be
specified for each of the components as well as the assembly drawing. Together with this, the total
number required of each part, the material of which they are composed and their method of
production must also be included in the drawing. For the assembly drawing, a fully detailed bill of
materials with a listing of each of the parts with further information on them must be included. The
designer should also specify the accuracy (allowable design tolerances), surface finish and other
important and/or related parameters for the components.

8. Specification of Manufacturing and Assembly Processes

8.1 Significance of Specifying Manufacturing and Assembly Processes

It is often necessary that the designer specify the manufacture and assembly processes to ensure the
correct functioning of the final product. The manufacturing process has the following influences:

1. the final cost,

2. the surface finish,
3. friction, wear and fatigue life,
4. dimensional tolerances, etc.

The assembly process has the following influences:

1. unwanted loosening of components

2. strength and durability of the final product,
3. cost of the finished product, etc.

8.2 Common Manufacturing and Assembly Processes

Table 4: Common Manufacturing Processes
8.3 Specification of Manufacturing Processes
The manufacturing process for a part can be specified formally in two ways. The first method is the
development of a process plan. A process plan will list:

 the sequence and types of manufacturing operations,

 the machine to be used for the operation,
 the setup and tooling on the machine (optional for 2nd and 3rd year design reports)
 the processing time per operation (optional)

Table 5: Example Process Plan for a Spline Shaft

The second method of specifying the manufacturing operations for a part is on the CAD drawing. This
method does not specify the sequence of operations. If the machining method is not explicitly
specified a technician may be able to select an appropriate manufacturing method through a tolerance
shown on a drawing. Information on average surface roughness (Ra) can also assist a technician select
appropriate machining and finishing processes.
 Figure 10: Specification of Machining Method and Surface Finish

8.4 Specification of Assembly Sequence

The sequence of operations required for the assembly of a product can be specified using the
assembly precedence diagram, as shown in Figure 4. Assembly information can also be specified on
CAD drawings such as the one shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Exploded Assembly Drawing with Bill of Materials (BOM)

8.5 Specification of Assembly by Welding
All assembly processes by welding must be shown on CAD drawings by an appropriate welding
symbol.

Figure 12: Elements of a Welding Symbol on CAD Drawings

9. Design Report Writing Tips
The following tips are for design reports only. They do not satisfy the requirements of research and
practical reports.

9.1 Writing an Abstract/Executive Summary

1. Identify the purpose of the design.
2. What is the problem to be solved?
3. Who requires the problem to be solved?
4. Briefly mention a few design alternatives that were considered.
5. Briefly describe the final design making special note of architectural features.
6. Mention any unique features or innovations.
7. State a few performance results.

9.2. Writing an Introduction

The introduction can only be written after the body of your design report is complete, however the
aims and objectives of the design project must be clearly defined before the design process begins.
This is what the introduction should be like:

 it must gain the reader’s interest (place the design problem in context),
 it must present the design problem and make a problem statement (after refinement),
 it must explain the aim of the project (derived from the problem statement),
 it must state the objectives of the project,
 it must indicate the scope and direction of the design solution,
 it must mention a few key/unique features of the design,
 it must act as a navigation guide to its reader.

9.3 Presenting a Literature Review

1. Do not include theory covered in class
2. Any relevant equations can be presented with the calculations in the appendix of the report
3. Any new theory and equations (Not covered in class) may be included in the literature review
4. Be sure to present a comparison of previous and commercial design

9.4 Presenting Conceptual Designs

Conceptual designs must be presented with sketches. Sketches can be done in Microsoft Word, Paint
or any other suitable software application. All Sketches must be labelled as shown in Figure 13 below.
The sketch must be followed by a brief explanation of the important features of that concept,
including its advantages and disadvantages. After all concepts are presented a selection matrix may be
used to select the concept that will be used in the final design.
 Figure 13: Labelled Conceptual Design Sketch

9.5 Presenting a Final Design

1. Present each major component or subassembly in its own subsection
2. Discuss material selection and relevant design considerations (DFM, DFA, Safety, etc)
3. Highlight and novelty or innovation
4. Make reference to the drawings in the appendix to discuss architectural features
5. If possible show a 3D solid model
6. Make reference to calculations in the appendix to discuss loading and performance
7. Discuss design methods that were employed
8. It is beneficial to have a table of results when there are many calculations results to
summarise

9.6 Manufacturing and Assembly

The presentation of a brief process plan for each component and an assembly precedence diagram will
provide most of the necessary information required for this section. It may also be useful to make
reference to assembly drawings in the appendix at this point. A brief discussion should be presented,
explaining how the specified manufacturing and assembly procedures contribute towards satisfying
the aim and objectives of this project. Key words that appear in your discussion should include cost,
dimensional tolerances, surface finish, etc.

9.7 Presenting Results

For designs that have been built and tested:

1. Sketch of your experimental set up. Clearly identify each device and the values of the
elements used, so that someone else could easily replicate the experiment.
2. Present all results in tabular and graphical format.
3. Present results for each subsystem in a logical sequence.
4. Do practical results correlate with theoretical design calculations?
5. Do the results indicate if the necessary specifications have been met?
6. Does the design perform as expected? Are there any concerns?

For paper designs:

1. Present all calculation results that relate to the predicted performance of the product.
2. Do the calculation results predict acceptable performance of the product?
3. Are there any concerns or potential deficiencies in the product?
4. Discuss potential methods of practically verifying calculated results.
9.8 Writing a Discussion
The discussion is meant to provide a logical and constructive argument as to how:

 Appropriate design decisions have yielded acceptable results.

 Results have met specifications.
 Specifications have matched design objectives.
 Design objectives satisfy the aim of the report.

The discussion is an argument that you may use to validate your design and is therefore an extremely
important section if a design report! If the results show deficiencies in the design discuss the source of
these deficiencies and how they may be corrected. Other matters that you may include in your
discussion include:

 important features of your design,

 novelties and innovation,
 suggestions for improvement, etc.

9.9 Conclusion
Please do not include any of the following emotive and opinionated statements in your conclusion:
 We have learned a lot from the design process
 The design was very difficult
 Given more time the design could be improved
 The design did not perform well because of a low budget, etc

The entire design report, including the introduction and conclusion must be factual and not include
personal comments or opinions. Instead your conclusion should include the following:
1. Summarize the main points you made in your introduction and review of the literature
2. Review (very briefly) the methods and design you employed.
3. Repeat a few important results.
4. Discuss very briefly the implications of the results.
5. Mention a few limitations or weaknesses of your design
6. Offer suggestions for future improvements to the design.

9.10 Calculations (Appendix)

Normally design calculations should have:

1. a general introduction, including the assumptions and simplifications you have made, failure
criterion, design factor chosen
2. a labelled diagram showing the external forces and moments acting on the system
3. an explanation of why certain components are to be analysed and designed in detail and
others will not
4. labelled sketches of each component that is to be analysed to clarify the context
5. labelled free body diagrams of every component that is to be analysed
6. equations describing the equilibrium or the motion of each component
7. the calculations, with units and
8. conclusions, e.g. what is the 'next' preferred size
9.11 Drawings (Appendix)
The checklist below helps to ensure that a drawing has satisfied all of the necessary

General

Has the correct orthographic projection been used and correct accompanying symbol included? □

Have centre-lines been included for all cylindrical features? □

Are the scale of the drawing and location of the views reasonable? □

Has the title block been filled out completely (in capitals)? □

Is the assembly drawing accompanying for context? □

Dimensioning

Have all dimensions for the manufacturing of the part been included? □

Have all radii and diameters been included? □

Are there enough dimensions to give the location of all features relative to reference edges? □

Have symmetries been identified in order to reduce the number of dimensions required? □

Has datum dimensioning been prioritized over chain dimensioning to ensure accuracy? □

Circles

For drawings which include pitch circles

Has the pitch circle diameter been dimensioned? □

Have the locations of hole positions been indicated by spacing’s? □

Assembly Drawing

Does the drawing include item identification “balloons” (aligned vertically or horizontally? □

Is the bill of materials fully complete with:

All item numbers? □

Part descriptions? □

Part numbers (as per detailed drawings)? □

Welding

Have welding symbols been included? □

Have dimensions for relative placement for welding purposes been included? □