History Form Four Notes Senkolink 0652372705

SENKOLINK.
COM HISTORY FORM FOUR FULL NOTES 23/12/20222
TOPIC ONE
CRISES IN THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM
CRISIS: These are the conflicts and problems, which upset the capitalist production
mainly in Europe and in the colonies especially in Africa and Asia.
Term crisis refers to a time of great danger, difficulty or confusion when problems
must be solved or important decisions must be made or a time when a problem, a
bad situation is at its worst point.
These capitalist crises were
1. The First World War or the Great War (WW I)
2. The Great Economic Depression
3. The Second World War (WW II)
1. THE FIRST WORLD WAR

This was the imperialistic war, which was fought between the two complex military
camps namely triple entente, which consisted of France, Britain and Russia (FBR)
on one hand against triple alliance, which consisted of Germany, Italy and Austria-
Hungary (GIA) on the other hand from Tuesday 28 July 1914 to Monday 11th
November in 1918.
The German philosopher Ernst Haeckel first used the term First World War in
September 1914. It was generally a global war mostly centered in Europe that began
as dated above. It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history paving the way to
major political changes including revolutions in many nations involved. The trigger
for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand the heir to the throne
of Austria- Hungary and his lovely wife Sophie at Sarajevo, the capital city of Bosnia
on Sunday 28th June 1914 by a Serbian member of the terrorist group called the
Black Hand Gavrilo Princip
THE TREND OF THE WAR

The assassination of Ferdinand setoff diplomatic crisis between Austria-Hungary
and Serbia because few days later Austria-Hungary government gave Ultimatum to
Serbia to submit the assassin but Serbia refused.
FOR MORE VIST www.senkolink.com 0652372705 pg. 1

SENKOLINK.COM HISTORY FORM FOUR FULL NOTES 23/12/20222
It is historically recorded that on Sunday 28th June 1914 the Austrian Archduke
Franz Ferdinand visited the Bosnian Capital City-Sarajevo, a group of six assassins
from the nationalist group supplied by the black hand, had gathered on the street
where the Archduke’s motorcade would pass. One of the assassins called Cabrinovic
threw a grenade at the car but missed. Some nearby were badly injured by the blast,
but Franz Ferdinand’s convoy carried on. About an hour later to be exact, when
Franz Ferdinand was returning from a visit at the Sarajevo hospital with those
wounded in the assassination attempt, the convoy took a wrong turn into the street
whereby coincidently Princip stood with a pistol, he shot and killed Franz Ferdinand
and his lovely wife Sophie. Following the assassination, the Austria-Hungary
suspected the Kingdom of Serbia to have been fully engaged in the assassination of
Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. As the result, the Austria-Hungary sent
three main ultimatums to Serbia on 23rd July 1914 and the Serbian Government was
required to respond to the ultimatum within 48 hours. Serbia was required to
1. Offer apologies to Austria-Hungary for the assassination of Archduke Franz
Ferdinand and his wife
2. Provide detailed information on the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
and his wife to the Austrian authorities
3. Allow Austrian officials and judicial institutions to be involved in the
investigation of the assassination in Serbia
4. Discourage and dismantle all the organizations and publications that were against
Austria-Hungary
5. Discharge all Serbian officials who committed the assassination
All the conditions were accepted by Serbia, except the demand of allowing
Austria-Hungary officials to enter into Serbia’s territory to investigate the crime
stating that this would be a violation of the Constitution and of the law of criminal
procedure. Three days later, on July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on
Serbia, beginning the First World War. On 28th July 1914, Austria-Hungary
invaded Bosnia.
On 2nd August Germany invaded Belgium and Luxemburg and on 3 rd August
1914 Germany declared war against France in the fear that France would help
Russia.
On 4th August Britain declared war against Germany.
The USA joined the war on 6th April 1917 to assist the members of the Triple
Entente
The war ended on 11th November 1918 in which Germany was defeated by
victorious powers.
THE CAUSES OF THE WW1

The causes of the WW I can be categorized into two groups, namely short term and
long term causes.
THE LONG TERM CAUSES
These were the causes, which prepared the grounds for the outbreak of the war. They
are in other words called the underlying causes. These factors are as follow.
1. The development of capitalism into the highest stage in 1860’s: This created a
stiff competition amongst capitalist powers such as Germany, France, Britain, Italy
and Austria Hungary. For example, Germany fought a war with France over the issue
of Alsace and Loraine rich region in coal in Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. This
contributed to the formation of Alliances hence the war.
2. Dissatisfaction in territorial division: The partition of colonies in the Berlin
conference of 1884 to1885 was not fair because some European countries such as
Italy was given few colonies compared to other European countries. This created
hatred amongst the super powers thus creating grounds for the war.
3. The rise of military alliances: Germany sought alliance with Austria and signed
the Dual Alliance in 1879 with the condition that they have to help each other during
the war. Italy joined in 1882 to form Triple Alliance. On the other hand, France-
Russia treaty was signed 1890 to form Entente Cordially and Britain joined later to
form Triple Entente (agreement). The rival alliances created weapons such as
bombs, guns, tanks, and created armies, which were ready for the war at any time.
Furthermore, the alliances created the fertile ground for the outbreak of the First
World War in 1914
4. The France desire to regain Alsace and Loraine (the French Revenge
movement): Germany annexed the two provinces of Alsace and Lorraine during the
Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. This created grounds for the revenge amongst
the French men hence preparing the ground for WW I
5. The Balkan crisis (Balkan nationalism): The Balkan nationalism created
conflicts between Austria-Hungary against Serbia and between Austria-Hungary
against Russia. The competition amongst the three powers led to the assassination
of Franz Ferdinand hence the WW1.

6. Moroccan Crisis 1905 and 1911: The conflict was between France against Germany
in which Germany declared independence to Morocco, which was the French
colony. This created the hostility between France against Germany something,
which prepared the ground for the outbreak of the WWI.
7. Arms race and militarism contributed greatly to the outbreak of the First World
War simply because, European powers especially Great Britain and Germany
competed in the production of arms and enlargement of soldiers. Good example is
Germany who increased her armies from 400,000 to 800,000 the same Britain
increased it drastically, such competition made other powers to increase their
military budget for defense, also it caused to the antagonistic relations among
European powers.
THE SHORT TERM CAUSE (THE IMMEDIATE CAUSE)
The immediate cause for the outbreak of the WW I was the assassination of
Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie on 28thJune 1914 in Sarajevo the
capital city of Bosnia. Archduke was the Austrian Prince and the heir to throne. As
he pay a visit in Serbia with his wife, they were shoot dead by a Serbia young boy
called Gavillo Princip, this made Austria Hungary government to give ultimatum (a
statement of terms that must be accepted) the ultimatum had three conditions, these
were: -
Serbian to explain for the assassination and bring / surrender the assassins, second
Serbia to dismiss all officials suspected and lastly Serbia to allow Austria –
Hungary’s soldiers to make investigation. As Serbia responded negative, this caused
for the outbreak of the war. (For more information please read this article).
Generally the outbreak of the First World War was the contributing factors to the
underdevelopment of African continent in a sense that European powers being
economically affected they embarked on massive exploitation by increasing more
taxes, alienating African fertile land and many other related chaos.
THE IMPACTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ON AFRICA
1. All German colonies such as Tanganyika, Burundi, Rwanda, Namibia, Togo and
Cameroon were put under League of Nations as mandatory territories. This led to
the changing of colonial administrative systems, which affected Africans. This was
done following the Versailles Peace Treaty in Paris France in 1919

2. Deaths amongst Africans especially in Germany colonies such as Tanganyika and

Togo because Germany recruited African soldiers to fight on its side.
3. The spread of disease such as flu, which hit the lives of thousands of Africans for
Example in Tanganyika it is approximated about 7000 people, died because of flue.
4. Destruction of properties such as farms, mines and physical infrastructures like
railways were badly destroyed in German colonies.
5. The fall of the external trade between Europe and Tanganyika due to the
destruction of European economies such as banks and industries.
6. There was increasing exploitation in the colonies such as land alienation, low
wages and introduction of agricultural schemes in order to compensate the losses,
which had occurred following the war
7. Fall in the prices of raw materials from African colonies because of the severe
financial crisis that had hit the countries, which participated in the First World War
8. It led to the introduction and development of forced colonial agricultural schemes in
order to generate big qualities and quantities of raw materials geared towards
restructuring the economies of the western capitalist countries, which took part in
the war
9. The First World War led to the reduction in the colonial expenditures in the African
colonies due to the effects of the war
THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION 1929- 1933

The Great Depression was the deepest and longest-lasting economic downturn
(slump) in the history of the Western industrialized world. In the United States, the
Great Depression began soon after the stock market crash on Tuesday 29thOctober
in 1929, the day came to be known as the Black Tuesday, which sent Wall Street
into a panic and wiped out millions of investors. Over the next several years,
consumer spending and investment dropped, causing steep declines in industrial
output and rising levels of unemployment as failing companies laid off workers. By
1933, when the Great Depression reached its nadir (the worst moment of a particular
situation), some 13 to 15 million Americans were unemployed and nearly half of the
country’s banks had failed.
It is historically recorded that the depression started in the US and spread to other
parts of the world. Before the depression, the US economy was very stable and it
was the leading manufacturing country in the world. For instance, when the US
manufactured 4.5 million cars, Germany, Britain and France together produced a
total of 500,000 cars. This is because while other powers were fighting in the WWI,
the US was improving its technology, which had great impact on its industrial
economy.
However, in the same year, the stock exchange market of the US collapsed because
all its shares (stock) lost value and people who tried to sell their shares suffered
losses as the price of shares went down due to the depression of the economy. This
situation marked the beginning of the world economic crisis and it was termed THE
GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION

1. Fall in agricultural and industrial production.
2. Low prices of crops and goods such as in the US the price of wheat declined.
3. Closure of banks in capitalist world for example in the US 5,000 banks were
closed by 1932.
4. Unemployment in the world for example over 30 million people had no jobs in
US by 1932.
5. Collapse (decrease in) the national income.
6. Low wages and salaries, food shortage and poor social services.
7. Starvation and loss of many lives
CAPITALIST PRODUCTION CYCLE

The capitalist production has four major stages.
BOOM STAGE (PEAK)

This is the period when the economy is at the highest level. During this period, the
economy has the following characteristics/features:
1. High level of investment
2. Lowest level of unemployment
3. High standard of living

4. Social and political stability
5. Expansion of trade.
CRISIS
This is the temporary decline in the economic activities and it has the following
challenges
1. Decrease in investment
2. Decrease in employment
3. Decrease in income
4. Decrease in trade
5. Decrease in commodity price
DEPRESSION STAGE
This is the period of total decline in the economy or stagnation of the economy. It has
the following characteristics;
1. Lowest level of investment.
2. Highest level of unemployment.
3. Lowest standards of living
4. Total closure of enterprises and investment
5. Lowest level of income.
RECOVERY STAGE
This is the period when the economy starts to improve and expand, it follows after a
depression or a recession; it has the following characteristics;
1. Income starts increasing
2. Prices start to rise.
3. Standard of living starts to rise.
4. Opening of Banks.
5. Investments start to expand.
THE CAUSES OF THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION

1. The effects of the WW1: The war ruined the economies of almost all European
countries. Due to the collapse of economies, efforts were made to recover economies
by producing as much as possible. This created over production of merchandise

(goods) against under consumption hence, Great Economic Depression.
Furthermore, the WW I destroyed the important economic infrastructures such as
roads, railways and so on
2. High Protective tariffs by the US on the imported goods from Europe. This
appealed European country to put tariffs on the US goods as a result market was
narrowed to both continents hence over-production and great economic depression.
3. Un-equal distribution of income: The difference in incomes between capitalist
and workers in which workers were paid inversely proportional to what they
produced created a gap between production and consumption hence depression.
4. The collapse of the US stock exchange market: This was the immediate cause
of the Great Economic Depression, the New York Stock collapsed on 29 th October
in 1929, the stock was located along the WALL STREET, due to the public rumors
that the boom was about the late and many people were rushing to withdraw their
money from banks and sell their shares at lower prices than before. The values of
the shares fell drastically between September and December in 1929. The collapse
of the New York Stock exchange market led to the collapse of business and
agriculture due to lack of capital
5. The failure of speculators to pay back loans borrowed from banks:
Speculators are people who trade commodities, bonds, equities and currencies, the
failure to repay the loan affected economy hence great depression.
6. Nature of the capitalist economy: Economists believe that depression was
inevitable because any capitalist economy has to pass four phases, which are cyclic.
Boom, Crisis, Depression and Recovery. Therefore, its nature is what driven it to
depression.
Failure of the banking system and bad debts especially the housing banks
EFFECTS OF THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION AFRICA

1. Drastic fall of the prices of raw materials in the African countries; for
example, the price of sisal exported to Europe dropped from 32 pounds per ton to 12
pounds per ton between 1931 to 1932.
2. Fall in worker’s wages; Colonial government reduced the salaries and wages of
workers for example in Kenya the worker’s wages fell from 36/=Kshs to 10/= Kshs
in 1930.
3. Unemployment; the depression caused unemployment in many African countries
because the colonial government retrenched (reduced) some workers and reduced
the size of army.
4. The introduction of agricultural schemes; such as groundnuts schemes in
Gambia and Tanganyika.
5. Intensification of exploitation; post-depression period witnessed the increase of
tax, reduction of worker’s wages, forced labor, low price of cash crops and long
working hours which were introduced by the colonialists so as to compensate their
economies.
6. Intensive exploitation. Colonial governments in Africa increased exploitation of
African resources. Example land alienation was doubled, new taxes were introduced,
forced labor and low wages, and this aimed at compensating the financial crisis that
had affected their economy.
7. Africans were discouraged by the colonial government to grow their
subsistence crops such as millet, sorghum, cassava, yams and maize, instead; they
were forced to grow cash crops on their farms so as to increase the production of
raw materials, which were highly demanded in Europe at that time.
8. Decline in provision of social services. Great depression led to the decline of
provision of social services in Africa whereby the colonial government was no
longer interested in the investment of social services because of severe financial
crisis in Europe.
9. Establishment of processing industries. The establishment of processing industries
likes cotton ginneries, oil refinery as to increase the qualitative and quantitative
output in the metropolitan countries.
10. Regional imbalance. Great depression contributed to the regional imbalance of
transport network whereby railway lines and roads were constructed in areas where
production was high and in places that there was no transport network.
MEASURES TAKEN BY THE COLONIAL POWERS TO ALLEVIATE THE

IMPACT OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION IN THE COLONIES
Several measures were taken by the colonial powers to revamp the impact of the great
depression on the metropolitan economies. This includes the following;
a) Introduction and expansion in consolidating the peasant cooperative societies e.g.

in 1932 the KNCU was formed, the Kagera coffee growers and many others with
the aim to improve the production of cash crops.
b) They initiated more campaign in most African colonies by establishing more

plantations and forced cropping e.g. in Tanganyika all able bodied men were
supposed to work on plantations for 12 hours a day and all shops of wine (pombe)
were supposed to be closed during the day and open in the evening. Some of these
development schemes introduced were like Ulugulu land usage scheme Mialo
rehabilitation scheme Usukuma and Mbulu destocking.
c) They allowing peasants in settlers economy like Kenya and Zimbabwe to

cultivate the prohibited cash crops that had been preserved for the settlers like
tea, coffee, cotton, etc this was aimed at increasing the quantity of cash crop
production as to fill the gap in the metro pole economies.
d) They changed African education syllabus and curriculum as to respond with the
need of the metropolitan, emphasis was put on handcraft agriculture,
and vocational schools as to increase production and exploit African cheap labor
as a solution to solve the great slump
e) The colonial government begun to intervene in agriculture sector by

providing subsidies, the settlers classify peasant, farmers, and provide them
farming implements like hybrid seeds, fertilizers and packaging, to increase the
quality and the quantity of the production.
f) The colonial government also begun to develop transport network like railway,
harbors ,ports, so as to ease the transportation of the highly needed raw
materials in the metro pole.
g) In addition, the colonial government increased the activities in mining of gold

diamond, copper, and exploitation of African cheap labor e.g. in Kenya the
Kipande system was increased from 80 days to 160 per person annually.

h) They intensified labor recruiting bureaus was set to encourage and recruit migrate
labor for stance SILABU in Tanganyika, railways were asset to transport labor
force from labor reserves to plantations.
i) New taxation were introduced in the colonial state to increase colonial
revenues as well as to encourage cheap labor of the Africans new taxes
introduced included Hut tax poll tax, livestock tax among others.
THE SECOND WORLD WAR
The Second World War was nothing but the continuation of the First World War. It
is considered to be the deadliest war that the world had never experienced because
sophiscated and deadly weapons such as nuclear weapons, airplanes, tanks and so
forth were used. It is historically recorded that the war began on Friday 1st of
September in 1939 and ended in 1945. It was fought between the Axis powers,
which consisted of Germany, Italy and Japan against the Allied powers or the
democratic powers namely Britain, the USSR, the USA and France.
The war in Europe ended with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and
the Soviet Union culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops
and the subsequent Germany unconditionally surrendered on 8th May 1945.
Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of
Japan to surrender under its terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively.
With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of additional
atomic bombings, and the Soviet Union's declaration of war on Japan and invasion
of Manchuria, Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945. Thus ended the war in Asia,
cementing the total victory of the Allies
1. Failure of the League of Nations to keep the world peace. Primarily, the
League of Nations was established to assess the impact of the First World War
in 1919. Its Main function was to keep the world peace and security. Yet it
failed to prevent armament and militarism of the aggressive powers such as
Germany and Italy. Some of the reasons, which made it failed in the
maintenance of the world peace, are summarized as follows.
i) It had no army of its own, which could interfere aggressive powers such as
Germany and Italy.

ii) It had no clear charter towards maintenance of the world peace.

iii) It did not exercise or implement the terms or resolutions which were reached
at the Versailles peace Treaty Summit which was held in February in Paris
France.
iv) Many scholars argue that the League of Nations had no teeth (power) to
intervene any aggressive power.
v) Many Nations withdrew from the League and started forming their own
Military wings such as Axis powers as a result; these nations violated the
terms and instructions from the League. Ultimately, the failure of the League
of Nations to disarm and maintain the world peace led to the outbreak of the
Second World War
2. The rise of dictatorship governments in Europe. Fascism in Italy under
Dictator Benito Mussolini in 1922 and Nazism in Germany Under dictator Adolf
Von Hitler in 1933. These dictatorial regimes went in hand with production of
massive and destructive weapons which created aggression, tension and hatred
amongst the world powers for instance after the rise of Nazism in Germany,
Adolf Hitter started the Anti-Jews campaigns which aimed at Killing of all Jews
who were living in Germany. This move was historically referred to as
HOLOCAUST
NB: Fascism originates from an Italian word “Fasces” Which means bundles of rods
and forces symbolizing unity and force Nazism implied extreme totalitarianism
policy, which was based on expansionism, militarism dictatorial, and nationalism
policy by Adolf Hitler.
3. Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935 (Abyssinia Crisis of 1935) This crisis came

following the Italians’ attack against Ethiopian in Africa. The war is referred to
as Italo-Ethiopian crisis whereby Italo means Italy in other words; it is referred
to as Abyssinia crisis for by then, Ethiopia was known as Abyssinia. Italy under
Benito Mussolini had expansionism policy of acquiring areas of influence that is
why she attacked Abyssinia. The Conflict raised much attention in the world as
a result; the Allied powers such as Britain, USSR and US developed hostility
condemning Benito’s decision of attacking Ethiopia. This move prepared the
ground for the outbreak of the Second World War (WWII) in 1939.

4. The effects of the Great economic depression of 1929 – 1933 contributed to

the outbreak of the Second World War. This is due to the fact that, during that
period, many European civilians had experienced much sufferings coupled with
unemployment, low investment, poor living standards (poverty in general) Thus
some leaders like Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini took the advantage of the
situation to get into power during their campaigns, they promised their citizens
bread and honey but once they won the elections they did not fulfill the promises
rather they embarked on militarism and armament which led to the rise of
dictatorship regimes hence the outbreak of the war. Thus, they took the advantage
of the crisis as the stepping-stone into power.
5. Spanish civil war in 1936 – 1939 it was the war, which was sparked of by rebels
against the democratic government. During this, Adolf Hitler tried out his new
weapons on the side of the right wing military rebels in the war. He joined Benito
Mussolini who was also supporting the revolts something, which brought the two.
Hitler and Benito together this move Created hostility against Allied (B.U.U F)
powers, something, which prepared the ground for the outbreak of the Second
World War.
6. Attack of Poland by Germany (Invasion of Poland). This was the immediate

cause for the outbreak of the Second World War. On1st September in 1939,
11:00am. Germany troops entered Poland. Following this aggressive action by
Germany, Britain and France asked Adolf Hitler to withdraw his troops from
Poland immediately but Adolf Hitler gave them a deaf ear that is he did not
respond to, following Germany’s refusal, Britain declared war against Germany
on the very same day France declared war against Germany something which led
to the outbreak of the Second World War.
7. Failure of the appeasement policy this was the policy which was firstly
introduced by the British Prime Minister Chamberlain, in order to avoid the
outbreak of the second world war. Chamberlain initiated this policy on Adolf
Hitler as one of the ways of keeping him happy by giving him loans, pardoning
Germany debts. At the end of the day, the policy did not materialize simply
because Germany under Adolf Hitler went on with militarism and/ or armament,
which prepared the fertile grounds for the outbreak of the Second World War.
8. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, while Germany invaded the Soviet Union,
Japan made a surprise attack on 7th December 1941 on the US navy base at Pearl
Harbor. This forced the US to support Britain and the USSR in fighting against
the Germans with their leader Hitler and his allies namely Italy and Japan.
EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

GENERAL EFFECTS
1. Depopulation was one of the effects of the Second World War in Europe and
elsewhere. This was due to the deaths amongst soldiers and civilians following
the use of the most deadly weapons such as atomic bombs, for example on
Monday 6thAugust in 1945 the city of Hiroshima and atomic bomb was dropped
by the allied powers. Also on Thursday 9th August 1945 in the city of Nagasaki
another atomic bomb was dropped which was basically more destructive than
that of Hiroshima. The bombings claimed lives of many civilians.
2. It led to the establishment of the United Nations Organization on 24 th

October in 1945, which marked the end of the League of Nations of 1919. This
Organization was established in order to keep the world peace so much that the
third world war does not occur.
3. WW II led to the beginning of the cold war following the emergence of the
two super power nations in the world namely the USA (United States of America)
and the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) in 1945
In this, the USA became the leading capitalist super power nation in the world
whereas the USSR became the leading socialistic power in the world something,
which led to the emergence of the cold war between the two, blocks.
NB: Cold war refers to as the ideological war, which emerged between the USSR
against the USA soon after WW II in 1945. In cold war, the parties do not enter
into active warfare but they do not cooperate, there exists mistrust between them.
4. WW II led to the rise of massive nationalism in the world especially in

Africa. Following the roles played by ex-soldiers who fought during the war and

Pan- Africanism movement in the world, African, Asian and Latin America
countries started fighting for their independence, the ex-soldiers or returned
soldiers formed different political parties and associations, which aimed at
liberating their countries.
5. The Second World War led to division of Germany into two antagonistic
parties namely Eastern Germany, which was following the socialistic,
ideology, and Western Germany, which was following the capitalist ideology.
This situation led to the construction of the Berlin wall, which separated the two
parties.
6. The war led to fall of production activities for countries were not settled to
engage in production activities. Additionally, some key economic sectors such
industrial sectors were badly destructed by the war.
7. The war led to lack of peace and security in the world in general
8. It led to social sufferings and outbreak of communicable diseases such as
cholera due to lack of sanitary condition. Other social miseries included famine
among people, which coupled with lack of food security.
EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR (WW II) ON AFRICA
Despite the fact that the Second World War was not fought in Africa. Africa was
both negatively and positively either directly or indirectly affected by the Second
World War (WW II)
1. Depopulation in Africa. This is because many soldiers who fought in the Second
World War on the side of Britain and allied powers in general were recruited
from African colonies; strong energetic men are taken away. Besides a good
number of them died during the war something which led to depopulation in
Africa.
2. The Second World War led to the rise of mass nationalism in Africa,
following the role played by the ex-soldiers or returned soldiers who survived the
war. They had fought for their colonial masters and that when they returned back
home (Africa) they formed different nationalistic political parties which raised

people’s awareness about the evils of colonialism, for example Dedan Kimath
and General China were ex-soldiers from the WW II who led the struggle for
independence in Kenya.
3. The second world war led to intensive colonial exploitation in Africa, which
went along with forced labor, land alienation, low wages and heavy taxation on
Africans. The exploitation meant to generate raw -materials so much that they
could restructure their economies which were badly destroyed during the second
world war.
4. It led to lack of peace and security in Africa: for Africans could no longer settle
and indulge (engage) in production activities due to fear and unrest in the
continent.
5. The war led to separation of families, which was coupled with extreme social
sufferings amongst Africans. Separation of families occurred following
recruitment of soldiers from Africa who were taken to fight in the war leaving
their families behind.
6. The Second World War led to establishment of import substitution

industries (ISI) in Africa in order to reduce cost of importing goods from their
mother countries, which could easily be manufactured in Africa. Consumables
such as cigarettes, beverages, butter, chocolate, meat and so forth were by then
produced in Africa; the aim behind was to reduce expenditure on importation of
goods from abroad.
7. The formation of the United Nations Organization (UNO) on 24th October 1945
two months after the second world war was a blessing to African states because
UNO supported many African states to fight for their freedom that is why many
independent African states joined the UNO.
8. Socialism Ideology started to spread in African states following the USSR

influence on Africa for example the United Republic of Tanzania adopted
socialism and self-reliance ideology in 1967.
9. The Second World War led to grow more cash crops campaigns in African
colonies for example the colonialists introduced different agricultural schemes
such as Sukuma cotton agricultural scheme, Nachingwea groundnuts scheme and

so on. These campaigns went hand in hand with the establishment of master farms
in rural areas. The schemes meant to get money from the colonies in order to
restructure their economies which were badly destroyed by the second world war
(1939-1945).
TOPIC TWO
NATIONALISM AND DECOLONIZATION PROCESS IN AFRICA
A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE TOPIC
The period 1945 to 1970 witnessed the rise of nationalism in Africa in general and
East Africa in particular. In 1957, Ghana led the way by becoming the first African
country to regain her independence. In East Africa, Uganda and Kenya were
colonized by Britain while Tanganyika was colonized by Germany after the First
World War (WW I), Tanganyika became a Mandate territory under the trust of
Britain in 1919. Exposed to colonial evils like taxation, forced labor, low wages,
land alienation, with increased western education, urbanization and experience of
the World war two, African national consciousness was aroused. This was the spirit
of the nationalism that finally led the three (3) states of East Africa to independence
Tanganyika (1961), Uganda (1962) and Kenya (1963) under Nye ere, Milton Obote
and Jomo Kenyatta respectively.
WHAT IS NATIONALISM?
Definitions of Nationalism: Nationalism is the feeling of national consciousness or
awareness by the people that they are members of a nation and desire freedom from
colonial rule. It is the feeling of national hood to belong to a certain country.
AFRICAN NATIONALISM. African nationalism is the desire of African people

to terminate or end all forms of foreign rule. It is/was the political will of Africans
in opposition to foreign domination, it entails African struggle against western
colonialism and imperialism.
Generally, African nationalism was or is the desire of the sons and daughters of
Africa to end/eliminate/terminate all forms of colonial exploitation, oppression,
subjugation and discrimination so much that they could be free economically,
politically and socially. It simply means/meant the struggle for freedom for self-
governing. ALTERNATIVELY, African nationalism was/is the patriotic movement
amongst Africans who were subject to colonial rule to liberate themselves for self-
governance.
THE PROCESS OF DECOLONISATION
The process of decolonization or liberation was paramount (fundamental) in Africa

because it allowed African states to regain their independence, which they had lost
for many years. The rise of African nationalism goes as far back as the period of
colonial conquest and the imposition of colonial rule, but later from 1945, the
colonial exploitation stimulated the rise of the nationalistic struggles, which were
patriotic in nature.
The factors for the rise of mass African nationalism are categorized into two (2) main
categories namely, INTERNAL OR DOMESTIC AND EXTERNAL OR
INTERNATIONAL FACTORS.
INTERNAL FACTORS are those reasons, which emanated within Africa and
raised Africans’ awareness of the evils of colonialism. These factors made them
wage the struggle for freedom; such factors included colonial exploitation through
land alienation, low wages, and forced labor, heavy taxation, as a result they formed
different associations and independent churches movements within Africa, which
catalyzed the spirit of nationalism within Africa.
EXTERNAL FACTORS are in other words referred to as INTERNATIONAL

FACTORS, which emanated outside Africa and led to the rise of African
nationalism.
The rise of African nationalism in Africa had two (2) main phases namely (Early
African Nationalism) or Proto nationalism and mass nationalism or (Proper African
nationalism)
A: EXTERNAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
1. The Impact Of The Second World War (WW II) Of 1939-1945

The war weakened the economic and military strengths of the capitalist powers such
as Germany; Britain, France in general, thus they found that it was not worth
benefiting to keep on colonizing African countries thus some of them decided to
prepare their colonies in Africa for self-governance for example Britain, moreover;
they depended on US loans.
2. The Role Played By Ex-Soldiers Or Returned Soldiers From The Second

World War (WW II) In 1945
The war widened the political understanding of African soldiers who fought on the
side of their colonial masters. The soldiers came to realize the true meaning of
freedom and self-governance, self-determination and democracy. Besides, they had
new fighting techniques and how to organize themselves. Thus when they returned
to Africa, they opposed colonial exploitation. Some of them became active and front
liners in forming nationalistic and patriotic political parties to fight for independence
for example Dedans Kimath in Kenya who was the outspoken and outstanding leader
of MAUMAU uprising in Kenya in the early 1950’s. Jonathan Okwiriri who became
the President of the Young Kavirondo Association other returned soldiers were
General China, Joseph Kagethe just to mention a few.
3. The role played by Pan-Africanism movement.

Pan – Africanism was a massive (large) movement of all black people in the world
of African origin to come together as one people against all forms of colonial
exploitation.
NB: Pan means “ALL” thus PAN-AFRICANISM – ALL AFRICANS
MOVEMENTS
Pan-Africanism implanted the spirit oneness, unity, solidarity, dignity and

fraternity amongst Africans towards independence. It encouraged and created
consciousness and awareness amongst Africans about the evils of colonialism. Pan
–Africanists such as William Du Bois and Marcus Garvey as well as Kwame
Nkrumah held different Pan-African congresses. The most successful congress was
the fifth (5th) conference, which took place on 15th October 1945 in Manchester
famously known as the Manchester Pan-African Congress. The congress was
attended by young African students who were pursuing their studies abroad, for
example Dr. Nandi Azikiwe (Nigeria), Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Jomo Kenyatta
(Kenya), Peter Abrahams (South Africa), Kamuzu Banda (Malawi) attended the
congress; the main agenda of the conference was decolonization of Africa, they
initiated various political movements while others formed political parties which led
their countries to independence for example Dr. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana formed
CPP (Convection Peoples’ Party) which led Ghana to independence on Sunday 6 th
March in 1957, Jomo Kenyatta joined KAU later KANU which led Kenya to
independence in 1963.
4. The role played By the Former USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
This goes as far as soon after the Russian Revolution, which took place in 1917.
It was a socialist nation and that it opposed all forms of colonialism and
exploitation. Thus it declared that it would practically support both morally and
practically all that nationalistic movements in Africa and the world at large.
Furthermore, soon after the end of the Second World War (WW II) in 1945 the
USSR as the leading socialist nation in the world by then, supported African
liberation movements. It is historically believed that the war of liberation in
Angola and Mozambique were fundamentally supported by the former USSR
5. The Role Played By the United States (Us)

The US emerged as the leading capitalist nation in the world. It became both
politically and economically strong. It applied/used its “open door policy” to support
decolonization, thus it championed the decolonization process in Africa in order to
spread capitalist ideology in Africa, after the war the US emerged as the strongest
power economically. It used that opportunity through the Marshall Plan of 1947 to
extend loans to all European nations whose economies had been badly destroyed by
the WW II. One of the conditions for such countries to acquire (get) the loans was
that they should grant their colonies independence first.
6. The Role Played By the British Labor Party.

This took over power in 1945. Its socialist policies were against colonialism; its
activities, opinions, campaigns and anti-colonial attitudes greatly encouraged
nationalism in Africa for example the labor party favored Ugandan struggle in
Uganda.
7. The contribution from the Non-Aligned Movement (Nam) and the Bandung
Conference of 1955. The Bandung conference was attended by Egypt, Libya and
Ethiopia from Africa. The conference emphasized on solidarity and black
consciousness amongst the colonized countries.

NB: NAM was/is the organization, which was formed in the early 1961whose
members were under colonialism mostly from Asia, Latin America and Africa. It is
known as non-aligned movement since it did not align to either socialist block, which
was led by USSR, or the capitalist block, which was led by the US. NAM
championed decolonization in all countries from Asia, Africa and Latin America in
the struggle for independence.
8. The role played by the United Nations by then UNO.

The UNO was established on 24th October in 1945 with its headquarters in New
York. It replaced the League of Nations. The charter of the UNO was against
colonialism and all forms of colonial exploitation thus the UNO through its charter,
condemned colonialism. To effect this, the UNO through its trusteeship council was
established which acted as the guardian vested with power to coordinate the
decolonization of African, Asia and Latin American countries.
9. The Contribution of the independence of India and Pakistan.

The independence of the two Asian countries in the late 1940 has awakened
African nations towards the spirit of nationalism and the struggle for
independence. The independence of these countries further raised African
consciousness, awareness and patriotism towards struggle for independence
under the argument that “if it was possible in Indian and Pakistan why it
shouldn’t be impossible in Africa?”
INTERNAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF MASS NATIONALISM
1. Intensive colonial exploitation in Africa

Was the first and foremost factor for the rise of African nationalism. After
establishing colonial economies in Africa, the colonialists introduced different
mechanisms of exploitation in Africa; for example, they used the hated colonial
institutions or apparatus such as the colonial police, SILABU and the court to
force African laborers to work in the colonial mines and plantations i.e. forced
labor. Furthermore, the colonial states introduced forced land alienation,
corporal punishment, heavy taxation and low wages amongst Africans
something which created grievances amongst the majority marginalized Africans
against the colonialists, hence the African waged the struggle against the evils of
colonialism.
2. The role played by the African elites.

The role of the educated Africans who firstly received colonial education was of
paramount importance. The colonial education that they received during
colonialism became the tool and a good 7weapon to end colonialism such elites
include (d) the first President of Kenya (Jomo Kenyatta), President of Tanganyika
(Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere), the first President of Ghana (Dr. Kwame
Nkrumah), the first President of Zimbabwe (Robert Gabriel Mugabe), the first
President of South Africa under majority rule (Nelson Mandela) and many others
just to mention a few. These educated elites played a fundamental role of
educating Africans of the evils of colonialism and that they mobilized their
fellows towards forming political parties which at the end of the day led their
respective countries to independence.
3. The role played by social welfare associations.

Africans established these associations in order to end poor working conditions,
discrimination and colonial exploitation general. These welfare and social
associations mobilized colonial workers in industries, mines and plantations to
go on strikes/boycotts against the colonial exploitation, thus these social and
welfare associations created awareness and consciousness amongst colonial
workers, examples of these included.
• In East Africa, there was the Kikuyu Central Association in Kenya, the Young
Kavirondo in Kenya under Harry Thuku, the Railway African Association
in Tanganyika, the Tanganyika Territory Civil Service Association
(TTCSA) under Martin Kayamba as its founder.
• In Central Africa, there were the Mombera Native Association in Nyasa Land,
industrial and commerce union in Southern Rhodesia.
• In West Africa there were, the People’s Union which was formed in 1908 in
Lagos Nigeria, the Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society with its main
branches in Nigeria and Ghana (Gold coast)
4. The role played by the independent church movements in Africa.

These were the autonomous free and independent churches formed by Africans to
challenge the European church leadership and their teachings. However, the
independent churches did not only preach religious issues but also they addressed
social, political and economic exploitation by the colonialists to Africans. These
churches were also against the European missionaries, white masters and colonial
government officials who were basically the agents of imperialism.
Examples of these independent church movements include (d)

a. The Watch Tower Church Movement which operated mainly in Malawi
from 1906
b. The African National Church and church of God in Tanganyika
c. The Kikuyu Orthodox Church in Kenya
By and large, these independent church movements created and implanted the
spirit of oneness, unity and solidarity, awareness and encouragement amongst
Africans
5. The role played by peasant cooperatives. Peasant cooperatives and

organizations, which were established by farmers in order to fight for good and
fair prices for their farms, produce. These included
a. Kilimanjaro Native cooperative union (KNCU)
b. Usambara Native growers, The Bukoba cooperative union
6. The independence of Ghana on 6th March 1957.

Ghana became the first African British colony to dismantle the colonial chains under
the charismatic leadership of the late Kwame Nkrumah. The independence of Ghana
became the point of reference to many African states, which were still under
colonialism. It created awareness, consciousness and courage to the rest of African
states, which were still under colonialism. To affect this, Ghana under Kwame
Nkrumah led the liberation of other African states something, which steered very
African nationalism.
7. Italo – Ethiopian crisis or conflict

Up to the mind 1930’s, Ethiopia was one of the African states which did not fall
under the chains of colonialism, the attempt to establish colonial domination by the
Italians was militarily crushed in 1896 at the battle of Adowa. The conflict raised
strong emotion throughout Africa, Asia and other black people in Diaspora. Many

African states drew lessons from Ethiopia hence marked the highest time for
Africans to wage mass nationalism.
8. The played by political parties There were different political parties formed in
Africa these includes TANU in Tanganyika, ANC in Kenya, KANU in Kenya
and CCP in Ghana. These political parties contributed to the rise of nationalism
in Africa simply because they specified evils of colonialism to its members they
also resisted colonial exploitation openly
9. The played by colonial social infrastructures also played a big role in

facilitating the spread and the rise of African nationalism that’s why some
historian do say that colonialism sown a seed of its own destruction,
infrastructures like railways roads facilitated the nationalistic activities in rural
and urban centers by spreading the massage of liberations in all parts of Africa.
10.The played by mass media especially newspaper played a big role in spreading
awareness among the population in both rural and urban areas such newspaper
included Sauti ya TAA in Tanganyika The pilot and the comet in Nigeria.
11.Formation of segregated African schools, after realizing that the missionary

and colonial schools taught nothing but European based syllabus some African
societies began their own schools, like among the kikuyu in Kenya Africans were
taught African syllabus .this helped in educating Africans and developing the
spirit of nationalism.
FORMS OF DECOLONISATION PROCESS IN AFRICA
African states employed or waged different means in the struggle for independence.
The methods employed/used/waged depended of course on the nature of the colonial
economy which was practiced in the colony, for example almost all African colonies
which were settler colonies regained their freedom through the barrel of gun because
the settlers had had invested much in the respective colonies thus they were not
willing to grant them independence. The common forms of struggles were:
1. Constitutional/peaceful means

In this method, the colonies used peaceful means such as negotiation, dialogues
diplomacy while demanding for their freedom. Most of the colonies, which attained
their freedom through this means, were under the UNO Trusteeship council. The
respective nationalistic leaders went almost annually to the UNO Trusteeship
council to plead for the freedom of their countries examples of the African countries
which regained their freedom through constitutional means are/were Ghana (1957),
Tanganyika (1961) etc.
2. Armed struggle/guerilla warfare barrel of gun/bloodshed
This was the means employed by some African states to liberate themselves. Most
of these were the ones in which settlers had invested much and that they were not
willing to leave for it was like committing an economic suicide examples of African
states which regained their freedom through this means were Kenya (1963),
Zimbabwe (1980), Congo (1960), Angola (1975) etc.
3. Combinational means
It was a blend of both constitutional and armed struggle. Some countries embarked
on this method following the failure of the peaceful means. A par excellence
example is South Africa which embarked on armed struggle soon after the March
21st 1960 Sharpeville massacre. The ANC leaders being led by Oliver Thambo and
Nelson Mandela formed the fighting wing (Ukhomto we sizwe). (The spear of the
Nation) which led liberation movement.
4. Revolutionary means
A revolution is a complete overthrow of the existing system of governance by a
group, which is subjected to it and is being mistreated, exploited, and discriminated;
oppressed etc. a par excellence example of a colony, which waged this means for its
liberation, is Zanzibar undertook holistic revolution on Sunday 12th January in 1964.
The revolution, which completely overthrew, the Jamshid Abdullah Sultanate
regime
THE CONTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL AND WELFARE ASSOCIATIONS IN

THE DECOLONISATION PROCESS IN AFRICA
The social and welfare associations were very instrumental in the process of
decolonization for they occupied the notable position in raising people’s (Africans)
awareness and consciousness such social and welfare associations included. The
young Kavirondo welfare association, The Kikuyu social and workers’ associations
just to mentioned a few.
ROLES
1. The social welfare associations performed their tasks as trade unions whereby
demanded good working and living conditions for workers as well as better
salaries or wages
2. The social and welfare associations played a great role of providing political
education to African communities in form of political meetings (rallies) by
educating them of the evils of colonialism such as taxation, forced labor, land
alienation and so forth.
3. Some social welfare associations organized protests and demonstrations against
the colonial authorities. They also mobilized their members to raise funds to meet
various financial needs; for example, the Kikuyu central association raised fund
and sent Jomo Kenyatta to London to present their grievances to the colonial
government
4. Some welfare associations in Africa published journals which acted as a
communication channel for reaching out their supporters
5. Some social welfare associations awakened their members on the injustices of
colonialism, for example, Ukambani in Kenya, demonstrations were called
because of the increased awareness.
6. Some welfares’ infrastructure such as offices, came to be used by the nationalist
leaders for example in Tanganyika most of the TAA (Tanganyika African
Association (1929) come to be used by TANU (Tanganyika African National
Union (1954)
7. They also raised Africans awareness and that implanting the spirit of
consciousness and courage in them (Africans)
QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the strengths weakness and contribution of protest and religious
movements during the struggle for independence.
2. Explain the roles and problems experienced by social welfare associations
during the struggle for independence
THE PROBLEMS, WHICH FACED WELFARE ASSOCIATIONS
1. Lack of enough funds

2. Colonial suppression. For example, most of their members were arrested e.g.,
Jomo Kenyatta was arrested.
3. Imprisonment and assassination of their members.
4. Banning of associations e.g. the Kikuyu central association were banning
5. Inadequate infrastructure for example office
6. Disunity among members (lack of unity among members) e.g. Harry Thuku
7. Illiteracy amongst members. Some of the members were not educated they
did not know about their right so it was difficult to mobilize them to struggle
for independence.
THE ROLES OF INDEPENDENT CHURCH MOVEMENTS IN THE

DECOLONISATION PROCESS
The African religious movement was one of the major movements that prevailed in
the early 20th c amongst Africans. This either took the form of indigenous protest
movements or inform of meetings and teachings. The Independent churches which
had broken away from white missionary churches. The breaking away of Africans
from various western missionary churches to independent churches was an
expression of a protest against colonial domination in Africa. The independent
African church movements were against all evils of colonialism. They broke away
from the missionary churches having realized that the white men’s churches did not
intend to civilize Africans nor to spread Christianity in Africa but to smoothen
Africans to accept colonialism. They broke away from the missionary churches
having realized that the white men’s churches did not intend to civilize Africans or
to spread Christianity in Africa but to soften Africans to accept colonialism.
The independent African churches had the following features in common
1. They were led by Africans

2. They were against some aspects of the Western culture
3. They emphasized on in calculating the African culture
4. They worked hand in hand with the African political associations
5. They broke away from Western churches
ROLES
1. They established their own independent schools in which the African children
were taught their culture as well as the evils of colonialism, later on, those
students who received the education in those schools became political activists.
2. They taught Africans that the missionaries were the mere agents of colonialism
and not fully evangelical as they preached.
3. The religious movements and churches instructed Africans not to pay tax. The
protests and religious movements increased the level of consciousness amongst
Africans.
4. They counter-attacked the colonial exploitation and domination.
5. They became a center through which various African nationalistic meetings were
held to reach various plans.
6. They stimulated moral and courage toward fighting for national independence.
For instance, the national church of Nigeria and Cameroon said prayers for
Africans to free themselves from imperialism.
7. Through these movements, the message of freedom was easily conveyed to the
people. This is because during church services Africans were emphasized to hate
colonial affairs in their areas.
8. They emphasized unity for all Africans to fight for their rights. In this case,
Africans became so strong in fighting against European exploitation,
discrimination and oppression.
9. They provided a good forum through which the Africans expressed their strong
ideas and feelings, which were against the evils of colonialism and European
Christianity.
Generally, It can be concluded that, independence church movement played great

role in the struggle against colonialism in Africa. As through these movements,
Africans became active and prepared up to fight against colonialism and all its
manifestation.
PROBLEMS, WHICH FACED INDEPENDENT CHURCHES

MOVEMENTS
a. Conflicts amongst the church leaders, every one demanded leadership

position so brought conflict amongst themselves.
b. Lack of enough trained professionals; most of them were not well trained.
c. Poor managerial skills; they were disorganized
d. Financial problem, they depended on the little amount of money from their
churches
e. Betrayal/renegade

STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN GHANA

Ghana, a British colony, was originally called the Gold Coast. It was the first African
colony South of Sahara to regain her independence. It regained her independence on
6th March 1957 from the British under the abled leadership of its first President the
late Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972) with his nationalistic political party CPP
(Convention People’s Party)
Kwame Nkrumah was the first elite to get colonial education and he was the
strongest believer of Pan-Africanism. He employed different methods to demand for
the independence of Ghana through constitutional means, for instance the use of
boycotts and peaceful demonstrations following the CPP action against the colonial
government in Ghana, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was imprisoned in 1950. In 1951,
elections were held in absence of Kwame Nkrumah but the CPP won 33 seats against
the GGCC, which won 3 seats. Dr. Nkrumah was later released from prison to form
a government after his Party’s landslide victory. Therefore, in 1952 then he became
the Gold Coast Prime Minister. As time went on the CPP’s popularity grew-in the
1956 elections the CPP won 71 seats against thirty-three (33) seats of the opposition
parties. On March 6, Wednesday 1957, the Gold Coast became independent taking
the name of the ancient empire “Ghana”.
In July 1960 Ghana became a republic, which Dr. Kwame Nkrumah became the full
executive President and chief of all armed forces.
WHY WAS GHANA THE FIRST COUNTRY TO REGAIN HER

INDEPENDENCE FROM THE BRITISH IN 1957/MARCH 6?
1. Good strong and charismatic leadership of the late Dr. Kwame Nkrumah.
He was educated and very influential politician of the 20th c in Africa. He was
able to form the nationalist political party CPP in 1949 which led Ghana to
independence.
2. Good and clear policies and slogans of the CPP party which were well understood
by all Ghanaians for example the most popular CPP slogan were “seek first the
political kingdom and all things will be added into to it, self governance now
and independence now”

3. Ghana did not suffer much from the problem of tribalism and ethnicity as
opposed to other African colonies. The presence of few settlers in Ghana made it
possible for it to regain its independence earlier than any African colony.
4. The presence of few settlers in Ghana made it possible for it to regain its
independence earlier than any African colony.
5. The role played by the ex-soldiers in Ghana
The Gold coast was amongst many African colonies that recruited and supplied
soldiers who fought for the colonial administration during the first and the Second
World Wars. The ex-soldiers were promised good jobs and other amenities once
they returned from the wars. Unfortunately, due to high inflation, which was caused
by the WW II, and I the colonial authorities failed to offer the ex-soldiers sufficient
pensions and other benefits that they had promised them earlier. These unfulfilled
promises led to riots
As a result, the ex-soldiers used the experience and exposure they had acquired
during the war to organize and mobilize people to join the CPP towards the struggle
for independence.
6. The CPP got great support from cocoa growers (farmers and peasants) who
subscribed material support such as funds to engineer the struggle in Ghana.
7. Ghana was considerably a small country geographically, besides it had good
transport and communication system, which linked people together.
8. The role played by English language, which united Ghanaians together.
Through this language, it was easy for the people to use this language to
understand policy documents and slogans easily.
9. The role-played by newspapers for example the presence of the Accra
Evening news. Nationalist leaders and writers wrote different articles in it to
government through this, newspaper the CPP messages, policies and slogans
reached the majority poor.
THE INFLUENCE OF GHANA TO AFRICAN NATIONALISM
By its virtue of being the first colony south of Sahara to dismantle the chains of
colonialism, the first President of the independent Ghana, the late Dr. Kwame
Nkrumah uttered. “The independence of Ghana would be meaningless if the rest
of Africa remained in the shackles of colonialism.”

To affect this, Ghana championed the decolonization of other African colonies
1. He (Nkrumah) embraced up the Pan-African movement and conferences. In April

1958, leaders and political activists from Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, Tunisia and
Ghana met in Accra-Ghana. This conference had agenda on how best the
decolonization process could take place. It laid down methods and tactics to be
employed in the liberation process.
2. Ghana campaigned for the invitation of the countries, which were still under
colonialism as they were given methods and plans as to how to paralyze (end)
colonialism in their respective countries.
3. He (Nkrumah) championed the formation of the Organization of African Unity,
which both materially and morally supported the decolonization process in
Africa. Ghana under Nkrumah pled other African countries, which were
independent by 1960’s to form the OAU decolonization committee, which could
work hand in hand with the UNO –Trusteeship council to end colonialism. The
Nkrumah’s dream came into a good fruition on 25th May 1963 when the OAU
was officially founded with its headquarters in Addis Ababa-Ethiopia
4. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah and his independent Ghana provided financial and
inspirited morally to continue with the decolonization process in countries like
Nyasa land (Malawi) and Zaire
5. Ghana under Nkrumah, established an ideological college in Accra named after
his name, which was responsible in teaching Ghanaians and other African
teenagers the socialist Ideology and the struggle for independence. Many African
leaders attended the training for example Robert Gabriel Mugabe attended the
training where he harnessed a well of knowledge and skills on how best to
struggle for the independence of Zimbabwe.
6. Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah strengthened Pan – African movement which
opposed colonialism. In April 1958 all independent states like Libya, Ethiopia,
Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia were invited to meet in Accra. In 1960 there was
another meeting in which the countries laid down plans which could be used to
help other countries get their independence.
7. Ghana became a model to other African countries to emulate (cope). This made
many African countries to go for vigorous campaign against colonialism and get
sovereignty like that of Ghana.

8. It laid a foundation for other African conferences for stance in November 1959
the Cairo conference was led and proposed by Ghana.
9. Ghana became the headquarters of ant colonial groups of Africa following her
independence all issues pertaining independence in Africa were discussed in
Accra Ghana.
10.Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah strengthened Pan – African movement which
opposed colonialism. In April 1958 all independent states like Libya, Ethiopia,
Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia were invited to meet in Accra. In 1960 there was
another meeting in which the countries laid down plans which could be used to
help other countries get their independence.
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN TANGANYIKA
Tanganyika was once a German colony and a British colony at different times. It
regained its independence on Sunday at 12:00 am on 9th December in 1961 under
the abled leadership of its first Prime Minister the late Mwalimu Julius Kambarage
Nyerere with his party the TANU (Tanganyika African National Union)
THE MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE TANU

It was founded on seventh of July in 1954 replacing the T.A.A (Tanganyika African
Association). It had the following objectives;
1. To prepare the people of Tanganyika for self-governance and independence.

2. To dismantle tribalism and ethnicity which were great enemies to unity and the
struggle for freedom as a nation.
3. To struggle for a democratic government and to have representatives in local
district and the central government.
4. To encourage and sensitize workers to join trade and cooperative unions which
could be the right forum for them to air out their grievances such as land
alienation, taxation, poor working conditions together with low wages against
colonialism.
5. To cooperate with other nationalistic political parties in other African countries
towards the struggle for independence. For example, The T.A.N.U under the
leadership of the late Mwalimu Julius Kambarage. Nyerere cooperated fully
with the A.N.C (the African National congress) in South Africa to end apartheid
policy in 1994.
Question: Why did Tanganyika regain her independence earlier than Uganda and
Kenya?
Question: Assess the social, economical and political developments in Tanganyika,
which made it the first East African colony to regain independence
REASONS, WHICH MADE TANGANYIKA TO ATTAIN HER

INDEPENDENCE EARLIER THAN KENYA AND UGANDA
1. Good and charismatic leadership of the Late Mwalimu Julius Kambarage
Nyerere, he was able to organize and structure the T.A.N.U from a mere welfare
oriented to as a strong nationalistic party which led Tanganyika to independence,
he used to travel almost annually to the UNO trusteeship council to plead for the
independence of Tanganyika.
2. Good, clear and understandable policies of the T.A.N.U, which were easily,
understood by both literate and illiterate Tanganyikans both in rural and
urban areas. Examples of the T.A.N.U slogans and policies are/were: UHURU
NA KAZI, TANU YAJENGA NCHI and UHURU NA UMOJA.
3. The role-played by Kiswahili language as a lingua franca, it acted as a

unifying factor; it was spoken throughout the country. It became the corner stone
which spread the T.A.N. U’s policies and slogans.
4. The absence of strong tribalism and ethnicity unlike Uganda and Kenya where
ethnicity acted as a great barrier towards the struggle.
5. Tanganyika had no many settlers as opposed say to Kenya which was

dominated by many settlers, thus in Tanganyika, there were like European
antagonism against Africans.
6. Tanganyika was a mandate territory, which was administered by the British

as a trusteeship on behalf of the League of Nations, and later the U.N.O, Thus
Tanganyika was the trusteeship territory being prepared ready for independence.
Such status hurried the nationalists’ campaigns for the independence of
Tanganyika through the U.N.O forum; as a result, the British did not intensify
their control because it was under protectorate. Thus, Mwalimu Nyerere used to
travel almost annually to the U.N.O trusteeship council to plead for the
independence of Tanganyika simply because it was a protectorate territory. For
example, Nyerere stated in his independence address to the United Nations
General Assembly on 14th December in 1961, that “Because Tanganyika was a
Trust Territory under British administration, this was a great help in my work
to achieve independence for the country, namely peacefully and through
nonviolent methods”.
7. The role played by newspapers such as SAUTI YA TANU

The educated people spread the TANU’s policies and slogans through these
newspapers, they wrote several articles on the newspapers emphasizing the need
for the Tanganyikans to govern them; such messages awakened Tanganyika’s
towards the struggle for the freedom.
8. Support from the last British Governor to Tanganyika that is Sir Richard
Turnbull.
Sir Richard Turnbull became the best friend to Mwalimu Nyerere; he from time
to time supported Mwalimu in his struggle for freedom that is why historians
argue that the appointment of Sir Richard Turnbull in 1958 to be the Governor
in Tanganyika facilitated the movement towards the struggle. He did not want
Tanganyika to experience what happened in Kenya during the MAUMAU
uprisings and when the state of emergence was declared. He thus gave great
support to the TANU leaders because he did not want another MAUMAU in
Tanganyika his support made Tanganyika achieve its independence earlier than
the rest East African countries.
9. The role-played by the T.A.N.U. youth league which was composed of young
energetic people who spread the TANU’s policies and slogans to its supporters
throughout the country. E.g. Christopher Mtikila and Willibrod Slaa and others.

10.The role played by women in the T.A.N. U’s politics made it popular thus; it
gained much support from the public. They played an important role in
mobilizing the masses to support the TANU. They gave vigor and color to the
TANU’s public rallies and demonstrations. A notable example of these women
was Bibi Titi Mohamed, Vicky Nsilo Swai, and Lucy Lameck just to mention
a few.
PROBLEMS FACED TANGANYIKA DURING THE

NATIONALISTIC STRUGGLE
Sample question NECTA 2017. (Explain six problems faced nationalistic struggle in
Tanzania).
INTROCUCTION: Independence is the state of a society to be free and be able to

make its own decisions in its affairs without being interfered by any external
pressure. An independent nation is also said to be a sovereign state. Tanganyika
attained her full political independence in 1961, December 9th with the last British
governor sir Richard Tumbull and the late Mwl. Julius Nyerere who was the prime
minister and became the first president of Tanganyika.
However, in 1964 it united with Zanzibar to form Tanzania. Independence in

Tanganyika was successful achieved under TANU (Tanganyika national unity) was
a political party leadered by Mwl. Nyerere. There is no easy walk to freedom; it
faced various challenges such as discussed below.
Lack of adequate funds to organize and run the activities. During the 1960s still many
people under the colonial rule was extremely poor and depended on wages from
colonial economy, so was the party even its leader Nyerere was a mere teacher thus
the lack of funds made them to lack their accessibility to run the party activities and
visit many places and hence slaved the walk to freedom. They also lacked transport
fees and wages to activists.
They faced strong opposition from colonial government as they were not allowed to
speak in clouds or meet to discuss issues concerning with independence. Some of
the independence activists were assassinated, jailed while some were exiled. This
was purposely to safeguard the colonial interest particularly trade.
Lack of unity among the people, some people saw the freedom fighters as
troublemakers thus; they discouraged and weakened the freedom fighters by high
criticism. Most of these people were those enjoyed the fruits of colonial era
particularly Arab Swahilis also some people joined other parties and thus many
political parties divided many people to different ideologies.
Vastness of the country this was one of challenges that hindered early achieving the
independence of Tanganyika. It has about hundreds kilometers squares of land.
Travelling to all places to meet the people and organize them to struggle for
independence was a very tough challenge. Some places were very remote and others
surrounded by physical barriers such as lakes and mountains just to mention few.
Poor transport facilities was primarily caused by poor advancement of technology

in the sectors of infrastructure. There were impossible roads, seasonal roads and
defective trains as major means for transport. In some areas, there were very dense
wild animated forest and high dangerous mounts that passed as a barrier to transport
vehicle like cars. This in turn slaved (limited) down the nationalists’ activists to excel
well.
Strong opposition from other opposition political parties such as AMNUT (All
Muslim National Union of Tanganyika) and ANC (African National Congress)
posed a very strong opposition to freedom fighters during their struggle to attain
independence thus they supported the colonial government. Good example is cited
in 1958 where Zuberi Mtemvu formed ANC (African Nationalist Congress) which
went against TANU’s policies. In this scenario, the move to attain independence was
indeed minimized.
Generally, it may be concluded that despite tireless attempts posed by the people in
Tanganyika, in the course of time they achieved for their independence in 1961
Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere spearheading the nation and immediately after
the attainment of their political independence it united with Zanzibar to for the
current Tanzania.
REVOLUTIONARY MEANS

A CASE OF ZANZIBAR
A revolution is a complete overthrow of an existing government or a way of life in
any country or state by those who were previously subjected to it. OR. Revolution
is a discontented reaction through violence exercised by the majority of the country’s
population ignored to gain recognition or reform when local and moderate means of
political or social fail. Examples of political revolutions, which had occurred in
Africa, is: The Egyptian revolution led by Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1952 and the
Zanzibar revolution of 1964 led by John Tito Okello from Uganda.
THE CAUSES OF DECOLONIZATION THROUGH REVOLUTION IN

ZANZIBAR.
Since the establishment of Arab administration, clove and coconut plantations in
Zanzibar in 1840 by Sultan Seyyid Said, Africans were regarded as slaves. This
situation created hatred (hostility) between Africans against Arabs.
Zanzibar regained her independence from the British on 10th December in 1963.
However, the independence was for the minority Arabs in Zanzibar for Sultan
Jamshid bin Abdullah kept on holding the reign of Zanzibar as the Sultan. Thus, it
became politically independent after the victory of the ZNP and ZPPP under
Mohamed Shamte as the Prime Minister. However, economically and socially,
Zanzibar was under the control of the Arabs and most of the Zanzibaris were not
happy with the victory of the ZNP and ZPPP. They believed that this victory was for
the minority Arabs alone who were not only exploiting them but also subjecting
them to severe humiliation.
Thus, Zanzibaris believed that peaceful methods could not bring complete
independence to all citizens. As a result, they prepared for a revolution from
Saturday night at 8: 14p.m on 11th January 1964 and by 11:30 am Saturday on
11th January 1964 Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah and his officials had fled from
Zanzibar hence complete revolution which made Zanzibar free from Sultanate
exploitation, humiliation and racialism in Zanzibar. In addition, on 12 th January in
1964, the Revolutionary Council of Zanzibar was established and the Late Sheikh
Abed Amani Karume became its first President with his political Party the Afro-
Shirazi Party (ASP). The ASP was founded on Tuesday 5th February in 1957 after
the coalition of the African Association (AA) and the Shirazi Association (SA)
THE MAIN CAUSES OF THE ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION

1. Zanzibaris were deprived of political rights i.e. Political exploitation by the
rulers that denied the Zanzibaris the right to vote were, a voter could vote if he
was able to speak, read and write in Kiswahili /Arabic or English; A voter had
to be a Zanzibar resident and had lived in his/her constituency for at least one
year; A voter had to be a government employee for at least five years or
possesses a certificate for medal of good performance; A voter had to be above
25 years. Such qualifications limited the majority of Zanzibaris the right to vote.
Hence, they continued to be victims of severe exploitation and oppression on
their own land. However, Zanzibaris did not calm down; they sought the
revolution as a means of setting them free.
2. Land alienation in Zanzibar. The Zanzibaris had no right to own land. Arabs
who grew coconuts and cloves in the island occupied all fertile land. Zanzibaris
were only recruited as labourers while remained poor peasants. This led to the
revolution in Zanzibar.
3. Monopolization of trade by foreigners. Asians of Indo-Pakistan origin

controlled the commercial life of Zanzibar. The Asians were mainly Arabs and
Indians who controlled the commercial sector in Zanzibar while the majority of
Zanzibaris had nothing to own; furthermore, they from time to time set high
prices for goods and services, as a result, the poor Zanzibaris could not afford
something, which created grievances and hostility between the Zanzibaris
against the Arabs in Zanzibar.
4. The question of taxation: The government of Zanzibar under Sultan Jamshid

bin Abdullah introduced various forms of taxes that Africans (Zanzibaris) had
to pay. Furthermore, the taxes were high such that the majority poor who were
mainly the Zanzibaris failed to pay, thus they developed economic grievances
against the sultanate regime in Zanzibar something, which precipitated the
Zanzibar revolution of January 1964.
5. The role played by John Okello: He was a man from northern Uganda who
settled in Zanzibar in 1952 and worked as a painter; additionally, he had attained
revolutionary training in Cuba. He was an official of the A.S.P. (Afro-Shirazi

Party) in Pemba Island. He developed a belief as early as 1961’s of involving
himself in a revolutionary army to overthrow the sultanate regime in Zanzibar.
Okello was a man of determination, a skilled technician who was endowed with
organizational capabilities. He acted as an instrumental and logical organizer
(mastermind) of the revolution.
6. The fall in of the clove price in the world market created many problems in
Zanzibar. The government under Sultan Jamshid Bin Abdullah reduced
government expenditures on social services like health care, education, a
measure, which led to social sufferings, and unemployment in Zanzibar, the
people of Zanzibar came together as one people to overthrow the Sultan from
power hence, Zanzibar revolution.
EFFECTS OF THE ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION

1. The immediate effect of the revolution was that Sultan Jamshid Bin Abdullah
left the island of Zanzibar for Britain with his state officials something,
which granted Zanzibar its full independence following the holy revolution.
Thus, Zanzibar became a revolutionary independent country on 12 th January
1964 and Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume became its first President.
2. Social stratification was dismantled soon after the revolution; stratification

such as religious differences, races and status were well checked by the new
government under Karume.
3. Zanzibar revolution facilitated the establishment of the union of

Tanganyika and Zanzibar on 26th April 1964, the idea which came into effect
on Friday 22nd April 1964 when the two heads of the states signed the articles of
the Union.
4. Zanzibar revolution gave Zanzibar an international recognition as a
sovereign state and that she became a member of both the United Nations
Organization and Commonwealth of Nations.
5. It led to nationalization of all major means of production such as land,

roads, commercial companies and banks which were previously owned by
the few Arabs, Indians who were basically rich. After the nationalization, they
were taken and owned by the new independent revolutionary government on
behalf of the public. Furthermore, the land, which was owned by minority rich
Arabs and Indians, was as squarely and properly re-distributed amongst the
majority of Zanzibaris.
6. Zanzibar revolution guaranteed all Zanzibaris their political rights which
they were denied before as from time to time started holding periodic elections.
THE UNION BETWEEN ZANZIBAR AND TANGANYIKA.

Sample question. Necta 2009 (Private Candidates)
Explain the historical significance for the Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar
in 1964. OR
What were the reasons behind for the 1964 Union between Tanganyika and
Zanzibar? OR
The amalgamation between Tanganyika and Zanzibar was a historical phenomenon.
Discuss.
Introduction. The Union between Zanzibar and Tanganyika was an incidence in

which the leaders of these countries joined together to have one country (Tanzania).
J.K Nyerere of Tanganyika and Abeid Aman Karume of Zanzibar did this. It was
formed from 26th April 1964 where the members (leaders) agreed to share among
other things like defense, police, state of emergence and external affairs. However
the reasons behind the Union can be grouped into internal and external factors in a
sense that there were some forces within and that from outside Africans, these can
be well explained as follows:-
a) Due to the rule played by Pan- Africanism in a since that panafricanism had for
a long period been motivating all Africans to unite in order that they can fight for
colonial injustices, oppression and exploitation in that case Nyerere and Karume
being inspired with this idea of Pan – Africanism, they decided to be the first
African countries unite.
b) Due to the influence of western countries like USA, British and France. This is
because the countries regarded Zanzibar as Cuba because she bought the idea of
communism which was a danger to the western Brock to be free from
communism spread they decided to pressurize the president of Tanganyika to find

the way out by conversing Abeid Aman Karume to Unite
c) Besides the spread of communism also Nyerere and Karume had a very long
historical friend ship in a sense that Nyerere influenced the formation of ASP and
Zanzibar Revolution thus to cement their friendship Union became to be very
important.
d) On the other hand, there was internal opposition within Zanzibar after the
revolution done by a group of radicals who in a sense spread opposed and
challenged Karume as Karume became unsecured it later precipitated for the
Union in order to contain over these radicals.
e) Likewise TANU and ASP as major political parties in this two countries had a
very close relationship due to the fact that they all had common interests to unite
Africans since ZAA and TAA in Zanzibar and Tanganyika respectively in this
case the Union would further their close tie they had.
f) Proximity / closeness of the two countries played significant role to the Union
simply because Zanzibar and Tanganyika geographically are too closer and it is
said that the distance from Dar-es-Salaam to Unguja is shorter than the distance
from Unguja to Pemba this significant that that people used to leave regular
contact in trading activities, therefore Union to them was not a now thing.
g) Zanzibar and Tanganyika experienced same colonialism because they were all
under British rule being under the same rule; they experienced the same burden
and administration this eventually made them to unite together so that they can
keep on adopting same experience they had.
h) Other reasons that drove out for the Union between these countries were close
relationship that the people of Tanganyika and Zanzibar had this are because most
of the people in Zanzibar came from Tanganyika as Arabs took them during the
slave trade. Thus the Union would help people of these countries to enjoy much
with former brothers and sisters whom they separated each other.
Generally, It should be put in mind that the Union between Zanzibar and
Tanganyika brought much benefits to the people concerned because people are free
to move from one place to another they also share many aspects such as social,
political and even economic matters through to some extent there are many changes
resulting from such Union to the extent that other members decide even to pull out
from the Union.
ARMED STRUGGLE /BARREL OF GUN /BLOOD SHED

Most of the African countries, which were massively dominated by settlers, regained
their independence by armed struggle. A good number of these countries adopted
this means following the failure of peaceful means. The presence of many settlers
was one of the most crucial factors, which determined the nature of the struggle.
Examples of the African colonies, which waged armed struggle as a means of
liberating themselves, were Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Kenya
A CASE OF ZIMBABWE
Zimbabwe was a settler-dominated colony and many of its people were divided in
leadership. Zimbabwe was under the British colonialism. It became independent on
Friday 18th April in 1980 under the leadership of its first Prime Minister and
President Mr. Robert Gabriel Mugabe who is still the incumbent President with his
nationalistic political party ZANU – PF (Zimbabwean African National Union-
Patriotic Front. Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia. Being
dominated by settler elements and racial policies carried out by the colonial state,
the settlers never agreed to; any attempt at self-governance was encountered by
strong opposition as a result political parties were banned and most of their leaders
were imprisoned like Joshua Nkomo.
To make matters worse, on Thursday 11th November in 1965, Ian Smith’s regime
declared the Unilateral Declaration for Independence (UDI) independence from
Britain. The independence was consolidated in 1970 by the negotiation made
between settlers and smith’s regime and the British. In these negotiations, the
minority regime promised that African minority rule would be reached in 2035
WHY ARMED STRUGGLE IN SOUTHERN RHODESIA (ZIMBABWE)?

1. Heavy investments in Zimbabwe by settlers. From the so very beginning, the
British settlers who engaged themselves in large-scale agriculture and in mining
activities dominated Zimbabwe. Hence, the settlers were not ready to sacrifice
their investments so easily thus, they were not ready to leave and that they did
not want to grant independence to Southern Rhodesia for they were to stay. This
facilitated the armed struggle.

2. The constitution, which was adopted in 1922 October. This constitution gave
special power to the white minority (settlers) who from time to time and place
to place suppressed Zimbabweans political autonomy. In this constitution, the
settlers granted a responsible government. This made Southern Rhodesia a self-
governing colony. Thus, it had its own parliament, army, and police force. This
measure gave the settlers a lot of power they thus used their newly won power
to consolidate themselves against the Africans.
3. Settlers’ exploitation to Zimbabweans: the settlers exploited Zimbabweans

through forced labor, land alienation, low wages and so on. This is due to the
undoubted fact that the Zimbabweans have had many social and economic
grievances, which were practiced by the settlers. This precipitated armed
struggle in Zimbabwe.
4. Banning of political parties and imprisonment of radical political leaders

intensified the choice of armed struggle as a means towards liberation in
Southern Rhodesia. The banning of the ZANU-PF and imprisonment of leaders
like Joshua Nkomo did not bring to an end the consciousness and need of
Zimbabweans towards independence. The ZANU-PF continued with its
liberation at this time operating from Mozambique, where its leaders received
much support from the Soviet Union id est. USSR.
5. Zimbabweans were not politically united towards the demand for freedom.
The freedom fighters were divided amongst themselves that is why they were
many political parties such as the U.N.C, D.P, ZANU, and ZAPU. All these
political parties had no cooperation and that each party had its own mission. Due
to this division, the white settlers in Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia) were able
to introduce their puppets and policies to suppress the Zimbabweans without
much resistance, this made the prominent nationalistic leaders such as Joshua
Nkomo and Robert Gabriel Mugabe to wage/employ armed struggle to erode
this puppet.
6. Tribalism shown by Shona and Ndebele led the colonialists to foresee the
occurrence of civil and tribal wars if independence was granted without keen
examination/assessment, hence, they delayed the granting of the majority rule in
Zimbabwe under the fake excuse/pretext that they could enter into civil wars. A
move that precipitated armed struggle in Zimbabwe.
7. At first ZANU as a nationalistic party had not attained much support from
Zimbabweans for the puppets from other political parties such as the ZAPU
implanted propaganda amongst the Zimbabweans that ZANU was an
imperialistic and not a nationalistic political party. This propaganda made
ZANU leaders to wage armed struggle as a means of proving to the
Zimbabweans that it was not the imperialistic party as argued before.
8. Lack of representatives in the legislative council. Zimbabweans were not

included in the legislative council and hence Zimbabweans hated this and used
guns to fight for their freedom.
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN KENYA

Kenya is/was one of the British East African colonies to regain its independence via
armed struggle. The Mau Mau movement was the movement relying on nationalist
and violence as the last resort (attempt) for attaining Kenya’s independence from the
British. It began following the banning of the Kenyan African Union (K.A.U) as a
result, from 1945 – 1952, the movement engaged in guerilla warfare in the Mau Mau
mountains and Aberdare forest with its aim of attaining majority rule by pressuring
the colonial government; most of its members were the ex-servicemen, ex-soldiers,
wage laborers, extremist groups etc. the struggle for independence did not end until
12th December 1963 when the KANU led Kenya to independence under the abled
leadership of Jomo Kenyatta.
WHY ARMED STRUGGLE IN KENYA?

1. The first and foremost reason for the armed struggle in Kenya is that Kenya was
a settler colony; settlers flew to Kenya by 1900’s where they established settler
farms. The white settlers in Kenya regarded Kenya as a crown colony and that
they were there to stay. They invested heavily in manufacturing and processing
industries, and in transport and communication networks; this made them
reluctant to grant Kenyans their freedom peacefully something which

necessitated the application (use) of the barrel of the gun in the struggle for
independence.
2. The influence from the ex-soldiers who fought wholeheartedly in the second
world war (WWII) (1939 - 1945) it is estimated that more than 75,000 Kenyans
fought on the side of Britain in the Kings’ African rifles; the white soldiers who
fought in the war were well enumerated, they were given loans with dear
interests, on contrary the lives of the Kenyan soldiers became worse than when
they left for the war, thus developed grievances against the colonial government
in Kenya and that they joined the nationalistic movements in Kenya in their
attempt to wipe away colonialism. A par excellence example was the logical and
strategically organizer of the Mau Mau movements in Kenya who went by the
names Dedan Kimath.
3. Intensive colonial exploitation in Kenya precipitated the armed struggle for the
colonial government intensified land alienation especially in the Kikuyu high
lands, which were fertile, furthermore, the colonial government introduced
notorious taxation in Kenya. For example, the MATITI TAX was introduced
and the Kipande system which increased exploitation in Kenya. Eventually
Kenyans made up their minds and started armed struggle against the colonial
government.
4. Banning of political parties and the imprisonment of radical political leaders

intensified armed struggle in Kenya in the protest against the colonial
government move of banning political activities in Kenya. For example, (KAU)
i.e. Kenyan African Union was banned in 1952. The logical and strategically
organizer of MAUMAU movements in Kenya, General Dedan Kimath was
arrested on 21st October 1956; he was detained and secretly assassinated by the
colonial government officials. All these precipitated and intensified armed
struggle in Kenya.
5. Denial of basic human rights such as freedom of speech and the right of Kenyans
to join in assemblies and associations.

6. Injustices; settlers were favored and were basically provided with better
transport facilities, communication services and other indispensable social
amenities such as better health care, education and of course security. On the
other end of spectrum, Kenyans who were basically the majority in Kenya had
no access to such facilities. The inequalities in these prompted Kenyans to take
up arms and fight for their right whence armed struggle.
7. Kenyans were disturbed by the white’s strict and brutal supervision of the
government schemes. It is historically believed that the colonial government
officials in different colonial government supervised corporal punishment to
those who did not constantly supply their labor power in the schemes. All these
intensified Kenyans’ grievances and hatred against the colonial government
hence armed struggle.
8. A desire to maintain African dignity. The colonialists despised their culture

(Africans) to make matters worse; they abused and despised the educated
Africans. Exempli gratia, Governor Philip Mitchell described educated people
like Jomo Kenyatta as resembling twelve years old children.
In a nutshell, Kenya eventually got her independence in l963 under the leadership
of Jomo Kenyatta of KANU, becoming the last country in East Africa to get her
independence. KANU provided a country with the ruling group of great ability.
Within a year of independence, the opposition party KADU had gone into
voluntary dissolution, its members deciding either to retire from politics or to join
the ruling ranks.
However, it proved impossible to maintain the structure of one party-state. In

O1966 Odinga Odinga after Kenyatta, the most powerful politician broke with
his old associate and formed a new political party the Kenya peoples’ union. He
opposed Kikuyu domination in the politics, him being Luo many his followers
were his tribesmen. He also opposed KANU ideological approach of handling
the Kenyan problems. He favored the radical approach.
In sharp contrast to situation in Tanzania the Kenyan government policy had

encouraged the growth of a class of local capitalists whose new acquired wealthy

contrasted sharply with the poverty of the high growing unemployed urban
population. That was-the starting point of Kenyan income inequality.
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN MOZAMBIQUE.

Mozambique, like any other African countries began the struggle for justice in the
late 1920’s. In 1962, a group of exiled Mozambicans met in Dar-es-salaam and
merged their parties to form one political party called the FRELIMO (Frente de
Libertacao de Mozambique) i.e. Front for the liberation of Mozambique under
their leader Eduardo Mondlane. After the unification of UDENAMO, MANU and
UNAMI, the new party FRELIMO settled for two (2) years to properly organize it.
Most of the nationalistic movements such as organization, mobilization and the
training were done in Dar-es-salaam and the nearby region to Mozambique i.e.
Mtwara in Tanzania despite being banned by the colonial government, by 1964. The
FRELIMO had succeeded in setting up training camps inside Mozambique. By
1968, the FRELIMO had had controlled a reasonable area in Mozambique. In the
same year, the party managed to hold the second congress party inside Mozambique.
As a result, on Monday 3rd February in 1969 the party leader Eduardo Mondlane
was assassinated by a parcel bomb while in Dar-es-salaam where the party’s
headquarters were temporarily located after following the banning of political parties
in Mozambique.
GENERAL FACTORS FOR ARMED STRUGGLE IN PORTUGUESE

COLONIES.
Portugal had three colonies in Africa which included; Angola, Guinea Bissau and
Cape Verde, and Mozambique. These countries attained their independence late as
compared to other African countries; the Portuguese government was therefore
determined not to give independence to these nations because were seen as vital
props to the Portuguese economy. It should however be noted that, the Portuguese
had stayed in the colonies for about 50 years even before the Berlin Conference of
1884 – 1885 more especially along the coastal area, later occupied and colonized the
interior parts.
Also the Africans in the Portuguese colonies were equally determined to win their
independence
thus prolonged guerrilla struggle began throughout the Portuguese colonies the lead
was taken by a smallest colony of Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde, led by Amilcar
Cabral, he founded the (P.I.G.C) Portido Africano, da independence da Guinea Cabo
Verde in 1956 but He was assassinated in January 1976 only two years after the
independence of 1974.
In Angola Agustino Netto led guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese after
founding M.P.L.A (Movemento popular de libertagao de Angola) in December 1956
in Luanda among the working class, and were able to get their independence in 1975.
Eduardo Mondlane led the struggle for Mozambique and his deputy Samora Machel
after founding FRELIMO (Frente de Libertacao de Mozambique) found in 1962 in
the capital of Tanzania Dar- es- salaam they declared war officially in September
1964.
WHY LATE INDEPENDENCE FOR PORTUGUESE COLONIES?

Sample questions, Necta 2005
1. Why did the Portuguese colonies in Africa engage in armed struggle to liberate
themselves?
Approach:
Armed struggle refers to the technique / method adopted by African countries as a
means to literate themselves especially in those colonies where colonial states were
reluctant to grant independence (settler colonies). The case to Portuguese colonies
in Africa like Mozambique, Guinea Bissau and Angola used armed struggle to
liberate themselves because of the following:-
a) Poor/weak economic base of Portugal. She was the poorest country among the
colonialists, she had not Under gone industrial revolution, therefore she regarded
the heavily depended on her colonies for economic prosperity at home that is why
she was very reluctant at granting independence to her colonies, which she
viewed like committing economic suicide.
b) The Portugal colonial policy Portugal regarded her colonies as overseas

provinces since Portugal was a small nation, she was very interested to acquiring
more oversea land whereby they could stay forever and obtains raw materials
exploit market for their goods and settlement of surplus population.

c) Settlers opposed the granting of independence to the Africans because of heavy

investment in the colonies. The numbers of settlers were in big in numbers in
many Portuguese colonies with high investment in agriculture and other
economic ventures in the colonies. They therefore feared economic losses once
the black majority takes over power.
d) The Portuguese exploited the Africa maximally as to support their economy in

the metro pole such as, imposed harsh taxes like dog, tax poll tax, this was great
economically to them that is why they hesitated to grant independence to the
African early like other European nation.
e) Land alienation .All African fertile land was taken and known as crown land, it
was confiscated for the construction of infrastructures, establishment of colonial
economies establishment of white plantation, and this was too precious to them
to give independence to the African easily.
f) Mass illiteracy. Many Portuguese were illiterate and hence conservative and
ignorant of what was taking place outside world .Other European nations had
changed their way of exploitation to neo-colonialism. Since Portuguese were
short sighted, they never dreamt of granting independence to their colonies soon,
such situation prompted the use of armed struggle for the African as a means to
get their independence.
g) Furthermore, burning of political parties in the colonies this event made African
nationalistic decide to have their centers in other independent African countries
like Tanzania so as to mobilize their military struggle.
h) Portugal was a fascist state by natures, with no democracy. This was because
through their dictatorial leadership of Salazar Africans were in turn oppressed,
exploited as well as humiliated, this was followed due to the fact that, Portuguese
believed to have ever lasting civilizing mission to Africans.
i) Due to wrong concept the Portuguese had to Africans of under estimating the
strength of the colonial subjects (Africans) in their nationalist demands and
struggles she expected that being a NATO member her subjects would always be

suppressed and ruled forever, this wrong concept made Africans to be angry over
it.
Generally with all attempts made by Africans through their political parties such
as FRELIMO in Mozambique, UNITA and MPLA in Angola and PAIGC in
Guinea Bissau, Portuguese colonies eventually managed to attain their
independence, this is because Guinea Bissau got its independence in 1974,
whereas Angola and Mozambique in 1975 attained their independence.
NATIONALISM IN SOUTH AFRICA.

South Africa being a settler colony, which was colonized by both Boers from
Holland/Netherlands and the British at, different times, regained its majority rule via
both peaceful and armed struggle means. This is due to the very naked fact that South
Africa had suffered much from the “Apartheid policy” which separated the majority
blacks from the minority whites in South Africa.
The first African nationalist political organization formed in South Africa was
the South African Native National Congress (SANNC) in 1912. However, 13years
later, the S.A.N.N.C changed its name into the African National Congress (A.N.C);
i.e. in 1935. By the early 1940’s the party (A.N.C) received young educated radicals
like Walter Sithulu, Antony Lembele, Oliver Thambo and Nelson Madiba Mandela.
These new men formed the strongest A.N.C Youth League.
In 1955, the A.N.C organized a congress, which produced the freedom charter.
The charter declared that South Africa belonged to all races. Due to this declaration
by the A.N.C, the government arrested the A.N.C leaders charging them with treason
(kesi ya uhaini). By 1961, all of them were released. In 1959, Robert Sobukwe
walked out of the A.N.C and formed Pan African Congress (P.A.C) under the pretext
that the A.N.C leaders were too reluctant to employ armed struggle against the
Apartheid policy in South Africa. However, on 21st March 1960 both the P.AC and
A.N.C supporters made peaceful demonstrations against the Boers’ government as
far as the pass laws were concerned. It is historically recorded that 69 black African
people were bitterly shot to death and wounding 180 by the police in Sharpeville
where the demonstrations were held, thus termed as SHARPEVILLE
MASSACRE

By and large, Apartheid is Afrikaans word, which means “Separate according to

race”, thus Apartheid policy was a color separateness policy between the black
majorities against the white minority in South Africa. It was a color bar between
blacks and whites. It started to mushroom in 1910 when the federal government was
formed in South Africa.
However, the policy was officially declared and institutionalized in South Africa
by the Boer’s President Dr. Malan in 1948. During the course of the Apartheid, the
blacks were oppressed, degraded and discriminated in all spheres of life. They were
the third class citizens in South Africa; they received the worst social amenities
(services) such as health care, education and security.
THE COURSE OF THE POLICY

In 1913, the Native Land Act was passed reserving seventy-eight (78%) percent of
the fertile land and best of South Africa’s land to the whites, black people comprised
of 70% of the population in South Africa and were given (8%) of the unproductive
land. The black people were forced to stay in reserve areas called BANTUSTANTS.
- In 1923, the Native Urban Areas Act was passed whereby Africans’ movements
to urban areas where the whites settled were restricted. This armed at reducing
black political activism in the towns.
- In 1927, the immorality Act was passed which prohibited interracial sexual
intercourse; each race was required to marry within its own race i.e. blacks and
black; whites and whites
- In 1953, the Bantu Education Act was passed whereby Africans were not allowed
to be given education similar to that of the whites.
- Apartheid policy suppressed individual rights and liberty. Blacks in South Africa
were deprived of (Nyimwa) freedom to association, freedom to assembly,
freedom to speech, and freedom to worship. The Boers government heavily taxed
the blacks and the revenue collected was used to improve social services in the
whites’ settlement.
Banning of political parties; blacks were not represented in the government and the
parliament. Thus, the parliament and government were for the whites only. For
example, on 8th April 1960 after 21st March Sharpeville massacres both the ANC
and P.A.C were officially banned.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SHARPEVILLE MASSACRES

1. The Killings of more than 60 black people and many others wounded during the
demonstrations awakened the need for Africans to intensify armed struggle and
that the Sharpeville massacres marked the end of peaceful means towards the
struggle for the majority rule in South Africa.
2. The demonstrations and strikes united the young black Africans and the adult
black Africans to resist the white domination in South Africa.
3. The killings at Sharpeville precipitated an international awakening and
opposition to injustices and racial segregation in South Africa. The international
community became aware of what was going on in South Africa.
4. The O.A.U (Organization of African Unity) pled and persuaded the western
powers not to sell firearms to the South African white racist regime.
5. The Sharpeville massacres led to the formation of the Ukhomto we sizwe (spear
of the nation) by Nelson Mandela as a fighting wing by the A.N.C Youth.
6. In 1964, Nelson Mandela and his colleagues were detained; Mandela was
sentenced to life imprisonment. The leaders who were not imprisoned such as
Oliver Thambo fled into exile and tried to set up an A.N.C (wing in friendly
countries like Tanzania and Zambia. For example, the A.N.C wing was
established in Mazimbu -Morogoro where the A.N.C opened its branch; military
trainings were carried out there, furthermore, other fighters established RADIO
FREEDOM, which was broadcasting from Mazimbu and heard in South Africa.
The radio station aired radio programs, which awakened blacks in South Africa
about the evils of the white racist regime in South Africa. The programs pled
black South Africans to come together as one people against APARTHEID.
Despite the fact that most of the ANC leaders were in prison, the ANC kept on
with the nationalistic movements in and outside South Africa. For example Steve
Biko organized a massive black students’ demonstrations in South Western
Township (SOWETO) on 16th June 1976 in which students were protesting
against the government’s decision of introducing separateness policy in
education where African students were required to be taught in Afrikaans
language as a medium of instruction in black African schools and colleges while

the white students were to be taught in foreign languages such as French, English
etc. as a result, dozens of black African students were shot to death before the
very naked eyes of the police officers while others were badly maimed (injured)
and many others were imprisoned where they were brutally, tortured, the day is
historically commemorated on SOWETO MASSACRES, and it is celebrated on
16th June every year as agreed by the AU by then O.A.U as an African child
day.
METHODS, WHICH WERE EMPLOYED BY THE BLACK MAJORITY IN

SOUTH AFRICA TO END APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA
1. Formation of political parties such as the S.A.N.N.C (1912) later the A.N.C in
1935, despite that some political parties were banned yet; they played a
fundamental role in awakening blacks in South Africa about the evils of
Apartheid. Furthermore, some of the political parties organized peaceful
demonstrations against the Apartheid policy.
2. The use of mass peaceful demonstrations, which pled the Boers’ government to
grant the majority rule in South Africa. Political activists, adult and children came
together demanding for the liquidation of the Apartheid policy in South Africa.
For example, the 21st March 1961 famously termed as Sharpeville
demonstrations against pass laws in South Africa and the 16 th June 1976, which
is historically, recorded as Soweto (South West Township) demonstrations.
These demonstrations made the black people aware of the evils of APARTHEID
POLICY.
3. The use of arts such as poems, novels and songs, which raised the blacks’
awareness and feelings as far as the Apartheid policy, was concerned. For
example, Lucky Dube launched his music album “Together as One” which
mobilized the black and whites in South Africa to come together as brothers and
sisters, other musicians like Bob Marley (Jamaican) and Miriam Makeba played
their distinguished roles in persuading the international community to intervene
what was going on in South Africa. Furthermore, novelists such as Peter

Abrahams published the novel titled Mine Boy, which illustrates the evils that
the blacks were experiencing in mines.
4. Underground organizations. The black radicals and political leaders mobilized

their supporters to secretly join political parties and underground guerilla
movements in order to end the racist white regime in South Africa. For example,
after the formation of Ukhomto women and we sizwe (the spear of the nation)
Many ANC young men joined the movement.
5. The use of mass media such as radios. For example, some A.N.C leaders who
were in exile in Tanzania in collaboration with the government of the United
Republic of Tanzania established RADIO FREEDOM which was heard in
South Africa from Mazimbu – Morogoro, the radio programs which were aired
mobilized the black society in South Africa to join their hands firmly against the
racist regime in South Africa.
6. Religious forums for example the formation of the United Democratic Front
(U.D.F) which was a coalition of about 600 organizations led by Rev. Allan
Boesak and Bishop Desmond Tutu, played a significant role in ending Apartheid
in South Africa.
7. The International communities put international sanctions (Vikwazo vya

Kimataifa) against the South Africa’s racist regime. The O.A.U pled the western
capitalist countries not to sell weapons to South Africa. South Africa was also
denied air-landing rights.
8. Seeking international support from friendly countries within Africa and outside
Africa, e.g. Cuba. Black Nationalist parties such as the A.N.C and P.A.C set up
their bases in foreign countries. For example, the A.N.C set up its base in Dar-
es- Salaam and Morogoro in Tanzania.
9. Strikes, these persuasive means and hunger strikes attracted the international
community, which helped to pressurize the racist government in South Africa to
grant the majority rule in South Africa.

Question:
Why was the struggle to eliminate Apartheid in South Africa difficult and
prolonged?
REASONS FOR THE PROTRACTION/DELAYOF SOUTH AFRICA’S

INDEPENDENCE
1. Some western countries such as the US, France and Britain which had an
economic stake in South Africa supported South African racist regime. The
countries had had heavily invested in mining companies and plantations for
example the B.P (British Petroleum).
2. The banning of all anti-apartheid movements and organizations in South Africa

for example the A.N.C and P.A.C were banned following the 1960/March/21 st
(Sharpeville Massacres). All these hindered the pace towards majority rule in
South Africa.
3. Imprisonment and assassination of radical political leaders. For example, Steve

Biko was brutally tortured before the very naked eyes of the police and secretly
murdered, while other radical leaders such as the late Nelson Rohilallah Tata
Madiba Holisasa Mandela, Walter Sithulu were sentenced to life imprisonment
while a few others like Oliver Thambo were exiled. All these hindered and
complicated the way to majority rule “LONG WALK TO FREEDOM by
Mandela describes how the safari was long and complicated through hills and
thick tribulation and triangulation.
4. South Africa was the country that was recognized by UN to be independent

country from 1980. But the fact was that because both political and economic
power were in the hands of whites ,worse still there was apartheid that did not
able the African excess to economic power the blacks were denied democracy.
5. Lack of unity among the nationalist organization .There were many movements
working independently, they included the Indian National Congress [IAC],
African people organization [APO], Pan African Congress [PAC] UMSA, ANO,
and Inkatha Freedom Movement. These except ANC were less radical they could
not bring any impact but rather weakened the strength of the struggle.
6. Poverty: It made it difficult for Africans to confront whites who were both
militarily and economically strong. Most of the black African were pushed in the
reserves of Bantustan were economic activity were very hard the land was barren
no infrastructures to facilitate the activities of the movement thus it took long to
achieve their independence.
7. Lack of political unity amongst the anti-apartheid political organizations such as

the A.N.C and P.A.C (was a great set back to their liberation.
8. All liberation movements like ANC and PAC were declared illegal and banned
in South Africa by the apartheid regime of the white. The killing of prominent
political activities like mass killing in Sharpeville and the imprisonment of
Nelson Mandela also made the struggle for independence to delay.
9. Methods of struggle were weak initially, until 1960s ANC and PAC were using
non violent based on Mahatma Gandhi philosophy e.g. demonstrations petition
strikes and boycotts .It was until 1960 after the Sharpeville massacre that ANC
formed UMKONTO WE SIZWE meaning the spear of the nation and adopted
violence.
10.The big powers of western Europe feared that an independent south Africa may
fall in the hands of Russia a communist nation this was because Mozambique and
Angola who era geographically near South Africa had the elements of
communism opposed to the situation. Thus, the struggle lacked international
support of the big capitalist countries.
11.On addition to the above, the constant indiscriminant attacks earned out by the
racist white regime of South Africa destabilized the activities of national struggle
of the black Africans, their major purpose was to kill the nationalists of the blacks
and destroy their political parties.
12.The puppets that were implanted by the racist white regime in South Africa. The
puppets betrayed their fellow freedom fighters; these were great obstacles
because whatever the nationalistic leaders secretly and confidentially planned
was no sooner reported than they had started implementing it.
13.The possession of Namibia by South Africa racist regime, which was used by her
as naval base and harbored the American French and British military men,
hindered the military wing of the nationalistic movement.
PROBLEMS, WHICH FACED THE NATIONALISTS IN AFRICA DURING

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
1. Banning of political parties in Africa. The colonial governments in different

colonies employed their oppressive apparatus such as colonial army, police,
courts to suppress African political movements for example the TANU in
Tanganyika was banned in 1955, the A.N.C was banned on 8 th April 1960,
FRELIMO was banned, K.A.U in Kenya was banned.
2. Tribalism and ethnicity. During the nationalism movements, most Africans

were divided along tribal and ethnic trends e.g. In Uganda, the Buganda and
Nyankole did not unite to fight against European colonialism.
3. Illiteracy: Many Africans during the nationalism movements were illiterate and
Europeans never took trouble to educate them. Some Africans did not know how
to either read or write and that it was difficult for them to perceive and understand
policies of the various nationalistic political parties.
4. Imprisonment, detention without trial, exile and assassination of radical

political leaders. For example, Eduardo Mondlane of Mozambique was
assassinated by a parcel bomb in Dar es Salaam on 3rd February 1969, Steve Biko
in South Africa was assassinated after the Soweto massacre in 1976, Dedan
Kimath in Kenya was assassinated on 27th October 1956, and on the other hand,
other nationalistic leaders were imprinted. For example, the late Nelson Mandela
a distinguished political icon in Africa was sentenced to life imprisonment in the
Rivonial Trial in 1964 and he was taken to Robben island prison, others like water
Sithulu were imprisoned, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana was imprisoned, Jomo
Kenyatta was also imprisoned for a couple of years. In Tanganyika, Mwalimu
Nyerere was charged for Treason for the first time in 1955 and was required to

ether serve a six (6) months imprisonment or to pay a sum of money equivalent
to the charge; he got subscription from the TANU members and paid it as a fine.
5. Financial problems (constraints). The economic muscles of the nationalistic

political parties were too weak to sustain the costs of running their political
activities and of course, most of the political parties had no any other source of
income rather than the little subscription obtained from their members as secretly
as possible.
6. Religious differences. For instance, at the time of independence in Uganda, the
Catholics led by Kiwanuka did not like to be dominated by the Protestants led by
Milton Obote in Nigeria northern. Muslims dominated Nigeria. Whereas the
southerners were basically Christians, as a result the Muslims did not want to be
dominated by the Christians, whence the religious differences in both Uganda
and Nigeria did not give a well-ventilated room for them to fight against their
common enemy in colonialism.
7. Poor infrastructure such as roads physical buildings such as offices for the
nationalism political parties. Remoteness of some areas made it difficult for the
nationalistic part leaders to reach their supporters and members, also lack of
physical structures such as offices were a great challenge that these parties faced.
For example, following the banning of political parties in Tanzania by then
Tanganyika the T.A.N.U was holding its meetings secretly in private houses of
their members for instance several TANU meetings were held in Abdul Sykes’
house.
8. The unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence. Some European

nations came in Africa to stay forever and regarded their African colonies as
oversea provinces, thus they were very reluctant to grant independence this was
mostly on Portuguese colonies like Mozambique, Angola.
9. The colonial state apparatus ware very oppressive and coercive to the
nationalistic movements in many Africa nations these included colonial army,
police and judicially/prison which were put in place to facilitate colonial
production, e.g. in 1958 Nyerere was arrested, Kenyatta was also arrested in I954,
Mutesa of Buganda was exiled to Britain.

10.Also there was lack of political structures to mobilize the people to the common
struggle for independence; in rural areas most of the political parties lacked
branches which would have been used as centers to create awareness and
mobilization of the masses most of the nationalistic activities centered in urban
areas.
11.Tribalism also was a problem in for the nationalistic struggle it brought disunity
and weakened the nationalistic struggle for independence. Some tribes did not
participant in national struggle in steady they involved secessionist politics, e.g.
Buganda in Uganda, which demanded for her separate independence at the
expense of the entire nation of Uganda.
12.The low level of education also affected the struggle for independence many
masses in Africa were not educated and lacked political awareness about the
essence of their independence this was a big hindrance in the path of
independence since most of the indigenous did not know the significance of the
struggle.
END OF NATIONALISM TOPIC
WELCOME TOPIC THREE
CHANGES IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC POLICIES

IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Reasons for introduction of ideological, political and administrative changes

1. To look for unity among the Africans in order to bring unity. Many African states
introduced mono-party system.
2. To eliminate social problems especially poverty which was inherited after
independence; when Africans lived in poverty without education, health services,
water and electricity. This needed ideological changes, which require government to
take responsibility of giving service to its people and reduce poverty.
3. To destroy capitalism. Ideological change insisted the need for people to work
together and share the product of their work equally. 4. Administrative changes were

effected in order to organize the government pots and civil service so as to provide
employment to Africans hence to get money to afford basic needs.
5. Administrative changes brought true independence because it eliminated the white
workers who were the product of colonial rule.
6. To address issues such as land alienation, labor, laws, taxation etc.
BACKGROUND: In 1960 many African states began to achieve their political
independence which generally has been referred to as “flag independence” despite
the fact that African got their political independence, still African remained under
indirect penetration of foreign domination, politically, socially, economically and
militarily. The political independence had little impact on the life style of the masses
that is why it has been referred to as “ceremonial independence” or “flag
independence”.
• The political independence was largely characterized with political and social
economic problems legacy of colonialism, i.e. the problems were inherited from
the colonial economy and colonialism, such problems included mass illiteracy of
the masses, poverty, tribalism, poor infrastructures etc.
• The real political legacy of colonial government in Africa was that of an alien
dictatorship, benevolent at times, but always prepared to crush outspoken
opposition. Many of African leaders had suffered periods of detention without
trials for daring to speak out against the unjust and arbitrary nature the
government.
What is flag independence?
Flag independence this refers to the type of Independence that the Africa nations
attained during their struggles in 1960s 70s and 80s from their colonial masters; it
was just ceremonial independence of hoisting the national flags and bringing down
the colonial flags. Still African remained victims of foreign domination in all
spheres of life, Political economical and socially remained dependant to their
former ‘colonial masters, and at times it’s referred to as Neo colonialism..

FEATURES OF FLAG INDEPENDENCE
• It leads dependence syndrome whereby the country will depend largely from their
former colonial masters for any development programmes.
• It leads to the rise of puppet or sycophant leaders in the government who aim at
serving and appeasing the colonial masters, but not to serve the interests of their
people.
Absence of national culture and national identity, where by the foreign culture
largely Influence the culture of people like education dressing and even table
manners.
• The constitution was written by the experts in the colonial government and then
brought in the metropolitan parliament to approve.
• Western model of politics with all ceremony and formality is followed in the
territory like mult-party system democracy was to be included in the national
constitution.
• Absence of real political sovereignty in the sense that most of the political polices
are made by the former colonial masters there is always political interference and
sabotage from foreign countries.
• Weak and small military machinery since most of the military assistance come
from former colonial masters.
• During the period of self-government, the colonial administrators reserved to
themselves control of strategic areas these included the armed forces, finances
and international relations.
THE SITUATION OF AFRICA AT THE POINT OF INDEPENDENCE.
BACKGROUND: Most of the African states immediately after independence

faced numerous problems. The problems that most African nations faced since
independence have, very largely, been the product of their history. The root of
many African current problems in final decades of the twenties century are to be
found in the period of colonial rule of the pervious eighty years or more. That were
generated and inherited from colonial rule. Some of the problems included the
following.

A) Political problems
a) They left a highly centralized administration system whereby the central leader
has got a lot of power in the state in most cases this power was vested in the
traditional leaders or kings in case of British colonies, Such a system of
administration has proved a failure and produced many inefficient leaders,
incompetence, unnecessary bureaucracy and misdirection in administration.
b) They left limited trained African labors to carry out the administration. The
majority of Africans were uneducated or totally illiterates barely 10% were
educated by the time of independence in sub -Saharan Africa that
c) The military structure was organized in the way that it was not separated from
the political administration that is why most of the independent African states
experienced numerous coups de-tat. Where by military juntas took over the
political arena
d) The colonialist planted tribalism among the Africans as to maintain disunity

during colonialism, but this was inherited even in the period of post
independent African, divide and rule policy was given priority. Most of the
Africa nations with multi-party system political parties were based more upon
the personal ethnic or regional origin of a particular politician than upon
differing economic ideologies to guide the country’ s future development.
e) The boundaries left by the colonialist were mostly totally artificial. They had
been created at the whim of European politicians with little regard for Africa’s
multitude of pre-colonial nation state and stateless villages and communities,
divided various ethnic groups into boundaries in other words natural African
borders were abolished and artificial ones were formed. The artificial
boundaries caused a problem of ‘national’ unity after independence.
f) They introduced foreign administration structure where by foreigners especially

the whites ware involved in the running of the colony. In the post independent

African state the most important sectors like finance Military and national
planning remained in the hands of foreigners.
B) Economical and Social Problems
a) The colonial government let Africa with the mounting economic crisis that had
been the end- product of eighty year of colonial is rule. The African economies
had been directed towards exporting cheap agriculture raw materials and
unprocessed minerals to Europe and in return importing relatively expensive
manufactured goods, thus an economic crisis.
b) They left inadequate Social infrastructures especially transport net work schools
medical centers and imbalanced regional development. The infrastructures that
were left were inadequate for the continental internal development, they were
virtually no regional roads or rail links between one region from another which
would promote internal trade most of the railway had been developed around
the turn of the century to ease the export of continent wealthy to Europe. By the
time of independence, the few structures that had been built were badly in need
of repair.
c) African government inherited two particularly repressive economic policies

from their colonial predecessors; poll tax and agricultural marketing boards.
The former was charged on all adults males regardless of their income. The
latter paid fixed low prices to farmers, while selling their products for higher
prices abroad keeping the difference as government revenues. Both repressive
policies were retained by the post independent African nations.
d) Created of economic stratification in the society i.e. the peasants who lived in
rural areas were the majority living in miserable poverty their major economic
activity being agriculture which fetched low prices that made their surviving ore
difficulty by the time of independence around 95% of the population depended
on agriculture for survival and the petty bourgeoisie/working class who lived
towns in good standard of living.

e) They left a highly dependent economy, where by the post independent African
states produced raw material for their former colonial master and consumed
finished goods from the metro pole. This promoted the unfavorable terms of
trade that led to indebt of many post independent African nations.
f) They left Avery small industrial sector by ensuring that Africa remain de-
industrialized and prepare it as potential market for European finished goods.
g) They introduced traditional cash crops in Africa, which were monoculture to

become the source of foreign earner from the metro pole.
h) Created cultural dependence by distorting of African culture and establishment
of foreign culture. Where by African values and culture were destroyed and de-
campaigned by the colonialists. Dress language eating manners religion were
adopted and inferior complex was instilled to the Africa always to despise their
culture and customs This created disunity among the Africans.
PROBLEMS THAT FACED BY AFRICAN NATION AFTER

INDEPENDENCE
After the attainment of independence many African countries faced with many
problems, these can be grouped as political, social and economic problems as
explained here below;
i) Mass poverty many Africans are living below the international poverty line
surviving on less than one dollar a day this mass poverty was caused by
colonialism were by African were denied to participant in meaningful economic
activities apart from providing cheap labor. However, the most important is the
fall in world commodity prices for Africa principle agriculture export in the
mid1960s. Manufactured imports, which Africa had depended on relatively,
became more expensive poverty in post independent Africa has been also
contributed much by African new political masters to do much beyond
enriching themselves, ignoring the majority peasant to live abject poverty.
ii) Mass illiteracy many African are unable to read or to write this was due to
inadequate educational centers provided by the colonialists, the colonial
education was segregate, and it was only children of the chiefs that were
given priority. By the time of independence less than 10 % of Africans were

fully educated most were in rural areas where they could not get access to
proper education.
iii) Tribalism and nepotism are some o the major problems that are facing the
post independent African states these were sown deliberately as a move of
the colonialist to favor some tribes and leave others un developed, as to
divide and rule. Even some political parties were built on the lines of ethnic
groupings. A politician was supported not because he possessed good
national policies but because he belonged to a certain ethnic group.
iv) Lack of political administrators that has witnessed corruption misdirection of

the state and incompetence of some African leaders very few African were
highly educated to provide quality administrative services, most of the
Africans lacked skills of administration and political will to help their
people. Indeed, it has been argued that within some African countries that
the educated elites in the post independent Africa era had in practice done
little more than replace white colonial rulers with ‘black colonial rulers!’
v) Internal disputes that generated due to various political ideologies that made
African nations to go to internal wars this was especially socialism vs.
capitalism. Most African nations begun to abandon capitalism and multi-
partism system of administration they went on one party state as to bring
national unity. But this led to the suppression of opposition, detention
dictatorship that accelerated civil conflict in the states
vi) The colonialist did not consider boundary disputes, the natural boundaries
when partitioning Africa this generated disputes afterwards. The artificial of
national boundaries caused serious problems of National unity after
independence. Various tribes were divided by colonial bounders e.g. Luo in
Kenya and Tanzania the Haya in Uganda and Tanzania.
vii) Lack of enough social infrastructures the colonialists constructed very few
social infrastructures to serve colonial production, according to their needs
in places where there was no colonial production ware ignored.

viii) Foreign interference in internal affairs, the post independent African nations
have not been free or independent as its always portrayed, former colonial
masters have always influenced the state especially through Neo colonialism
were by the former colonial master always tend to influence the political
arena economic and social aspect of African nations.
ix) Foreign debt from outside especially European nations this has been
acquired especially from World bank and IMF with high interest rates, that
makes it impossible to be paid back and to service it.
x) Military coup d’ c-tat this was because the military was not separated from
the political system many African states experienced military rule. Most of
the French speaking countries apart from Senegal Guinea and Cote’ d’ivoire,
went over to military rule during the 1 960s. Togo and Dahomey (renamed
Benin in 1974) suffered frequent military coups and counter-coups. From
November 1965 coup followed coup with frightening regularity taking
Nigeria and Ghana in early 1966. By the early I 970s military rule had
became a serious Africa political option.
It remained the most frequent means for change of government through the
1970s and 1980s.
xi) Corruption has become very rampant in many post independent African
states especially south of the Sahara, the political leaders like, government
ministers, some civil servants and other branches of minority-educated elite
are becoming increasingly wealthier. Through corruption, like
embezzlement of public funds, office abuse, bribes misusing of public funds
etc.
The income gap between the rural based poor and the urban civil servants is
increasing day by day in the post independent African states.
xii) Lack of political awareness and sensitization due to mass illiteracy among
the masses tend not to know their political rights and responsibility. They
have been vulnerable to political manipulation and abuse due to their
ignorance of political responsibility.

xiii) Existence of diseases like Malaria, which kills 2 out of 5 infants and aids,
has proved a problem to the post independent African nations. Many post
independent African nations have failed to come out with political and social
solution to the menace
xiv) Lack of strong economic base agriculture has been dominant as the major
economic activity, but their yield has been always very low and price
fluctuation is too much. Since colonialism, African economies were directed
towards exporting primary goods, which fetched low prices and based on
imported finished European goods that were costly to purchase.
xv) Natural calamities like floods volcano eruption famine storms epidemics etc.
These natural calamities are partly blamed on poor planning and lack of
foresighted political leaders accompanied with political will to serve the
masses
xvi) Religious differences it brought disunity and internal disputes like in Nigeria
and Sudan Muslims fight Christians and many are killed in such crushes.
SAMPLE QUESTION
1. The inherited problems from the colonial past are hindrances to the
development of African societies after the independence. (Necta 2015 Qn. 10).
2. Analyze six problems facing African countries that originated from their
colonial heritage. (Necta, 2012, Qno. 8).
SOLUTIONS OF THE PROBLEMS FACED BY POST INDEPENDENT

AFRICAN STATES.
a) To alleviate poverty in Africa can be solved by, increasing income for every
family/home. This can be solved by increasing employment opportunities to
the masses as to increase their purchasing power, by providing free and
subsidized necessities to reduce the expenditure of the masses, which may
include medical, school fees, and food.

b) To create a government of democracy and transparency whereby corruption

can be checked and lavish government expenditure should be checked and
be stopped.
c) Equal distribution of national cake by stopping nepotism whereby it’s only

few people of one tribe or one region that dominate the government and
enjoy sweet jobs, equal representation should be in place to all regions and
tribes in the government jobs.
d) To elect capable leaders who are patriotic and able to care for their people,
with good economic plans for development of the people.
e) To provide basic education and technical education to the masses so as they

can solve the problem of unemployment and engage into serious economic
ventures/business. This calls for revising national syllabus, which trains job
seekers instead of job Creators.
f) Get rid of neo-colonialism and develop an independent self-sustaining

economy, which would help to solve the problem of Africa without foreign
intervention.
g) To diversify our economy from agricultural based to be both industrial and

agricultural as to create link between these two major sectors .What we
produce can be used as raw materials in industries and industrial product can
be purchase/consume by the agricultural sector. This will increase the
market base and solve the problem of poverty.
h) To promote national unity among the masses through one party system so as
to avoid many party systems that may bring divisions among the masses, and
also national languages should be promoted as to forge unity of the people:
i) Introduction of national education that is based on the environment of Africa

and needs as to avoid the colonial education that produce white collar job
seekers instead of job creators, this definitely will solve the problem of mass
unemployment.
FACTORS (REASONS) THAT HINDERED POLITICAL UNITY IN

AFRICA
Since independence nationalistic leaders (heads of states) of post independent
African countries such as late JK. Nyerere, Kwame Nkrumah, Nandi Azikiwe,
Jomo Kenyatta etc tried their best to bring political unity but there were factors
which hindered political unity in Africa to date as follows.
1. The effects of colonial legacy and influence of capitalist. Africa countries
failed to build political unity because since before and after independence capitalist
countries disunited and divided Africans so as to rule them easily; or capitalist
countries divided African countries so as to rule them easily during colonial period
and after independence.
2. Different political ideologies. Ideologies of African countries are not the same
due to the effect of colonial rule for example some countries in Africa apply
capitalist ideology including Kenya while others socialist ideology hence hinder
political unity.
3. Different political priorities; African countries after independence to date do
not have the same social, political or economic priorities because each country
faced different challenges, for example Tanganyika priority were fighting against
poverty, ignorance , disease, bring development etc.
4. Timing of attainment of independence. African countries attained their
independence differently. Most government achieved their independence in
1960’s, 1980’s, as result fail to share one agenda of building political unity.
5. Poverty; Many African countries still experienced poor economy depended
from external donors as result fail to unite.
6. Political instability; politically many Africans countries are not stable due to
poor political systems, leaderships etc hence hinder after political unity.
7. Civil wars. There were no peace and harmony to many African countries since
government and civilians act one another hence failure of political unity.
8. Tribalism; tribalism in most of Africans countries was still a problem because
Africans separated themselves basing on tribal differences.

9. Religious conflict. In some of African countries, there were religious conflicts

between Muslims against Christians hence hindered political unity example
Nigeria Boko haram, in Somalia sasa weed, Somalia.
10. Dictatorship of leaders in government. Since African leaders and
government do not exercise democracy, do corrupt, and do not observe rule of law
and good governance hence hinder political unity for e.g. Liberia, Zimbabwe,
Sudan, and Somalia etc.
11. Poor communication and infrastructure. Many Africans countries had no
good link and interaction of communication due to poor infrastructures such food
road, railways, ports harbors etc. hence hinder political unity.
12. Borders conflicts.
POLITICAL CHANGES IN AFRICA
This was introduction of new political systems that could govern the newly
independent countries.
There were so many political changes but the following were the main ones. These
were;
1. Introduction of single party system 2. Military rule/government
DEVELOPMENT OF ONE (SINGLE) PARTY SYSTEM. [MONO PARTY]
BACKGROUND: During the struggle for independence, many African states had
developed multiparty politics as a system to prepare them for independence; it was
encouraged by the colonial masters as their pass for independence. E.g. in
Tanganyika there was T.A.A and T.A.N.U. in Uganda they were U.P.C, D.P, and
K.Y. However, from 1960-1970s many African states begun to reject multi-party
parliamentary system as unworkable.
They pleaded the particular circumstances of their country’s crying to unite in

order to achieve rapid national development in social and economic. By the late 1
980s only Botswana with its low population of one million people had maintained
unbroken record of multiparty democracy since independence. Nevertheless,
almost all post independent African states had switched to one part system.
FACTORS FOR ONE (SINGLE) PARTY SYSTEM AFTER

INDEPENDENCE.
• To promote unity and solidarity among the Africans under one party system after
having been disunited on political lines by the colonialist, e.g. C.C.M in
Tanzania, U.P.C in Uganda K.A.N.U in Kenya emerged as single party. The
argument in favor of one party system was that parliamentary opposition based
on multi party democracy bases upon ethnic regional interest was destructive
rather than constructive opposition.
• It was introduced to eliminate political parties that showed interest to protect
colonialism during the struggles for independence e.g. U.T.P in Tanganyika
allied with British leaders feared that such parties would overthrow the
government of newly independent nation.
• To avoid civil wars among Africans since they were politically inexperienced
immediately after independence and multi-party politics was viewed as a tool to
divide the masses basing on their ethnic origin that in the long run may result into
civil conflicts, where by every tribe or region struggling to dominant political
power. For example in Rwanda and Burundi were the ethnic Tutsi fight ethnic
Hutu to control political power.
• Greedy for power among few African leaders who wanted to rule for many
years without being taken out of the post by political party.
• To avoid imperialist influence on local politics, through passing in other

political opposition parties. Multi-party politics also was avoided as one of the
method for not allowing foreign influence into local politics especially the
former colonial power who still wanted to control their former colonies through
third party.
• To eradicate poverty, ignorance, and diseases this can be well dealt with less
than one party system, thus promoting national development by avoiding
useless political rivalry of multi-party politics.
• To promote good governance by checking on corruption .and misallocation of
public funds, in some one-party states such as Tanzania and Zambia, election
showed that unpopular government ministers could indeed be voted out of
office. However, the awful lot depended upon the political integrity of the party
leader and his ability to control the enthusiasm of local party member.

However, in some states one party system led to abuse of state power like in
Malawi, Uganda.
WEAKNESS OF THE SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM.

1. Encouraged authoritarianism due to lack of competition in politics i.e. only few
people in the country dominate decision making without allowing any critics.
2. Lack of enough checks and balance on government and so encouraging
management and corruption.
3 Led to abuse of power.
4. Suppress diversity of opinion, which endangers development.
DECLINE OF SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM IN AFRICA

QUESTION: By the early 1990’s single party system in Africa was replaced by
multiparty system, why?
REASONS FOR THE FALL OF MONO-PARTY SYSTEM.
I. People opposed the system of mono-party, which worked against democracy and
human, rights e.g. Right to vote, right of expression and association.
2. The collapse of U.S.S.R (United Soviet Socialist Republic) in 1980’s. The
system could not get support from this super power any longer.
3. Donor countries such as USA, British, and Germany did not support the system.
4. Economic decline in most countries with single party system in 1970s and
1980s.
5. The rise of USA as a sole super power.
POST INDEPENDENT MILITARY COUP D’ÉTAT IN AFRICAN

CONTINENT.
BACKGROUND: Coup d’état refers to the sudden military overthrow of civilian

government by armed force. The post independent African countries were
dominated by military regimes, which were witnessed by military coups, especially
in 1960s up to 1970s.

The first military coup was in Egypt in 1952, this marked the beginning of other
coups in Sudan 1958, 1969, 1971, and later in 1980, in Zaire 1960 whereby
Lumumba was overthrown by Kassa Vumbi, in Togo 1963, in Nigeria, more than
five military coups were conducted, in Algeria in 1971, in Uganda 1971, etc.
FACTORS FOR THE COUP D’ÉTAT IMMEDIATELY AFTER

INDEPENDENCE.
a) Failure of the civilian government to bring development after independence,

coup d’état was always seen as the .only means of overthrowing an incompetent
or unpopular leaders it made the military men to become frustrated and
overthrow the government most of the post independent African leaders were
puppet leaders that tended to serve the interest of imperialist and themselves,
this made the military to over throw the civilian government.
b) Secondly, the cause of coups in the post independent Africa was that the army
inherited at independence had generally and originally been found as part of the
process of initial colonial period had generally been held in reserves for internal
use against potential rebellious subject rather than for defense of the country
against potential hostile neighbors. At independence they had little initial role to
play beyond being part of trappings of an independent nation state.
c) Rigging of election by civilian government also prompted the military

intervention to take over the government e.g. in Nigeria the widespread that
election of 1964-5 had been rigged finally destroyed the credibility of civilian
government that led to the military first coup in Nigeria in January1966
d) The influence of cold war between capitalism and socialism .Many

governments, which advocated one ideology, the opposition, prepared a coup to
replace it with either bloc U.S.A capitalism or Communism of Russia.
e) Corruption and nepotism made the military government to overthrow the
civilian government. In 1 960s military coups were reactions against inefficient
and corrupt civilian regimes, the military were known for being well disciplined
and usually free from corruption, thus won a lot of support from the masses,
and e.g. Milton Obote in Uganda who promoted nepotism with corrupt leaders

was eventually overthrown by Iddi Amin Dada in 1971.
f) Colonial policy of divide and rule, which encouraged differences among ethnic
groups, the colonial government, left fragmented society, which was very
difficult to satisfy, this created political struggle among various ethnic groups.
g) Involving military in politics, most of post independent African nations failed to
separate politics and military as it had been made by the colonialists’ .This
involvement of the military men into politics led to the overthrow of the civilian
government.
h) Regional imbalance and tribalism E.g. in Nigeria, Uganda, this was brought by
colonialism whereby military men came from labor zones which- were
undeveloped, thus the overthrow of the civilian government. In Uganda, the
northern part was dominated in the army, in Burundi it is only the Tutsi who
dominate the army such situations prepared for a military coup.
i) Suppression of opposition .Many post independent African states suppressed

political parties and begun one party system which many people viewed as a
dictatorship, this paved way for military coups e.g. In Nigeria the civilian
government of 1979-83 demonstrated freedom of speech freedom of the press
but within few years personal greedy suppression of the opposition lavish
government spending, were all welcomed by the coup of 1983 as to restore
moral authority and discipline in the public.
j) Mass illiteracy .After independence many African had not attained the basic
education thus they were very easy to be manipulated by any political
opportunities
k) The rise of African elite politicians who had studied in Europe with little
experience about African situation, thus after assuming power they failed to
change the political, economical and social life style of the masses which made
many masses to lose confidence in them and supported military regimes e.g. the
February coup in Ghana in 1966 which led to the over throw of Nkrumah who
was accused of spending most of his energies into being an international
statesman while ignoring his own country mounting problems which led to cut
off military defense budget and the government intervention of day to day
military affairs.
l) Vicious (brutal) poverty in Africa after independence many African

governments failed to meet the standard of living for the army. Many military
men were paid less and lived in miserable conditions. Poor living conditions
they shared a single room with the family the general welfare was declining
every another day. This made them very annoyed and tried to overthrow the
government as a solution to solve the problem.
m) The bag of African problems most of which generated from colonialism,

colonialism emphasized separateness, and fragmented. This has retarded the
force of solving common problems of African unity, and instead promoted
military over throws of civilian government
WHY MULT-PARTY SYSTEM IN 1990?

BACKGROUND: It should be remembered that during independence many
African states began multiparty system, which did not last for so long after the
attainment of independence where by one party system was adopted especially
in 1960s andl97Os. However, in 1990s, one party system began to collapse
especially after the fall of Soviet Union, which was the socialist bloc, and then
many African nations began to adept multiparty system. E.g. in Tanganyika
1995 there was multiparty election, Kenya in 1992, some of the reasons for
multiparty politics was internally motivated while others were externally
motivated as we can expand below;
a) Collapse of U.S.S.R in early 1990s, the leading communist state which used to
offer both ideological and material assistance to those countries that followed
communist ideology, which called for the formation of one party system known
as vanguard party or workers party.

b) The influence of the leading capitalist nations of Europe and U.S.A, also
influenced the African nations to adopt multiparty system if there to be given
aid from IMF and World Bank which USA had strong influence.
c) The influence U.N. under her international organization of I.M.F and World
Bank, which persuaded the African Nations to change from mono-party to
multi-party system.
d) The influence of mass media especially the international mass media like
B.B.C, C.N.N etc which criticized one party system as a dictatorship of
socialism .This made many countries especially in Africa to change their
system.
e) Changes in national ideology. Many African countries adopted multiparty
system after crossing from socialism to capitalism, which calls for many party
systems, as their national ideology.
f) Integration of European Union. In 1956 the integration of European Union also

had an impact to the African countries to adopt multiparty system as to get
assistance from members of European Union.
g) Failure of one party system to bring development contributed to the rise of
many party politics, to check on corruption, nepotism, egoism, and dictatorship.
h) Increase of elites who had acquired their education in western European

nations. During 1990 the elite’ people in Africa increased in number and begun
to criticize the one party system, as type of dictatorship of socialism.
i) More commonly one party politics led to an abuse of state power. In countries
such as Nkrumah Ghana Banda’s Malawi and most of the former French
colonies, the one party was used to give the ruling party dictatorial powers in
suppressing any criticisms of the government thus it became more and more
unpopular among the masses especially the educated elite.
POST INDEPENDENT POLITICAL INSTABILITIES IN AFRICA.

INTRODUCTION: Political instability is a situation where by a country is

currently going through political turmoil. It may also involve the death of people
within that country and in many cases the country detoriates in terms of its
economic progress. The post independent African states were dominated with
political problems that led upheavals like civil wars. The major causes of these of
political instabilities were;
• The rise of dictators to power like Iddi Amin Dada in Uganda, Haile Sellasie in
Ethiopia Kamuzu Banda in Malawi, forced people to use force as means to
overthrow them, thus rise of civil wars.
• Tribalism, regionalism, and religious differences, e.g. in Nigeria Muslim v/s

Christians, in Uganda the central region v/s the northern part, in Burundi Tutsi
v/s Hutu, all these promoted instability and civil wars.
• Weak economic base /poverty .This has been the root cause of civil wars and
instability in Africa. Many Africans have turned against their government
accusing them to segregate them from sharing the national cake.
• Existence of military Regimes like in Nigeria under San Abacha, in Uganda
under Idd Amin. Such military regimes encouraged terror and violence that lead
to political instability as their technique to continue clinging in power.
• Colonial boundaries and inter regional conflict e.g. in Kenya and Somalia,
Ethiopia and Eritrea, Cameroon and Nigeria, Uganda and Tanzania these
boundaries were established by the colonialists, But now they have promoted
political instability in the regions.
• Corruption, Nepotism and lack of transparency in public offices, among the

political leaders of Africa after independence, which have led to embezzlement
of public funds and uneven distribution of national resources. Some people are
segregated from the national cake, this make them to fight against the
domination.
• Violating human rights, like freedom of speech, freedom of marriage, freedom

of movement, freedom of expression heavy punishment, arbitrary arrest, extra

judicial killings, etc.
• Lack of able political and patriotic administrator, who are forecasted leader who
could organize Africans to achieve development. Most of the leaders after
independence in Africa were puppets that were planted by colonialist for their
own interest.
EFFECTS OF POLITICAL INSTABILITY IN AFRICA.

a) It promoted national disunity among the masses, basing on tribal lines and
regional basis e.g. in Rwanda Burundi the Tutsi and the Hutu are highly divided
basing on ethical background.
b) Civil wars caused misery, death, and destruction of properties e.g. in Angola,
Sudan Uganda and Rwanda among others million of civilians have been
internally displaced living in refugee camps were their subjected to all sorts of
suffering and misery, while others were killed in the course of war.
c) It discourages economic development whereby governments spend a lot of

money and time to suppress the insurgency or rebels this may be done at the
expense of other social development, lack of social development like
infrastructure and other social overheads may perpetuate the poverty syndrome
in many countries of Africa that faced civil wars.
d) Occurrence of coup d’état as a result of dissatisfaction among the disgruntled

people and this may increase more political tension among the masses which
may increase the suffering and misery among the people e.g. in Uganda 1971
where Iddi Amin took over the government that made even foreign forces to
intervene.
e) It leads to the outbreak of diseases like small pox, malaria, aids since little
tension is given to healthy sector such diseases happen to increase in numbers
in Southern Sudan as much as the war claimed many lives of innocent women
and children also diseases have claimed a significant number of children and
women in the war zone etc.

f) It leads to internal displacement of people from places of war to safe places this
lead to the discouragement, of agriculture and other economic activities, this
may bring famine, and malnutrition related diseases.
g) It brought foreign intervention into national affairs e.g. United nations may
intervene European Union or USA, and this is very dangerous at times where
by some times such power may not have interest to help or to solve the conflict
but rather to increase it for their own national interest e.g. to guarantee market
for weapons like in Angola and Southern Sudan were civil wars have taken
more than 20 years.
MEASURES/ CHANGES AND PRIORITY OF POST (NEO)

INDEPENDENCE AFRICAN STATES.
(i) Post independent African states (countries) inherited (forced) different social,
political and economic problems/ challenges from colonial government.
(ii) Therefore, after independence African countries focused on solving social
problems, which African had, due to colonial legacy by setting up new
priorities and changes in their social, political and economic systems, which
suit Africans. There were the changes;
(iii) Changes of political legacy of colonial rule. After independence post
independent African states changed brutal military political systems, which
adopted by colonialist by emphasized (advocated) on Portia monetary
democracy.
(iv) Maintaining Sovereignty and security, post-independent African states after
independence they created a new system of sovereignty to avoid
disintegration of people and maintain peace and security of the state.
(v) Building national unity, post independence African countries priorities was to
build national unity among its people who were divided by colonialists based
on ethnicity (tribes) language and religion difference.
(vi) Fight against Tribalism; post independence African countries put also a
pressure of eradicating any forms of tribalism, which was created by
colonialist who favored one tribe and made it superior than the other.

(vii) Fight against regionalization; Post independent African countries also

focused on removing uneven development in the same region in the countries
because colonialist left some part of the country more developed and having
good social service and infrastructure than the other e.g. in northern was much
developed than southern.
(viii) Eradication (removal) of poverty; these was most priority of most independent
African countries because after independence many African countries were
poor as a result all were focused on improving their economies e.g. improving
Agriculture, industries etc.
(ix) To improve peoples’ and national economy; post independent African
countries encouraged their people to involve and improve agriculture
production so as to improve their economies and national economies, for e.g.
in Tanzania agriculture become a backbone of national economy.
PROBLEMS HINDERING DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA AFTER
INDEPENDENCE.
The following were the factors that led to changes in economic development
policies and strategies
(i) Economically, Africans were exploited during colonialism and the
independent governments wanted to address this situation by giving equal
job opportunities to their people.
(ii) Some cash crops were prohibited to grow by the Europeans. For example,
cash crops like coffee and tobacco. Africans were not allowed to grow some
cash crops, which were reserved for Europeans only.
(iii) African countries mainly depended on the export of mineral resources and
cash crops for their foreign exchange.
(iv) Most of African countries were economically dependent on the former
colonial masters especially in the area of trade with few exceptions such as
Republic of Guinea.
(v) Colonialism contributed to massive regional disparities, with European areas
enjoying the best developments, which the African governments also wanted
to reduce. Infrastructure was well developed in European areas but not in
African regions.

Strengths of the economic policies and strategies adopted since

independence
The following are some of the strengths of the economic policies and strategies
adopted since independence.
(i) The African public was trained so that they could take part in development.
Some Africans public servants in various fields.
(ii) The economic strategies and policies led to the expansion of
industrialization in the continent, as careful economic planning was done
with a view to improving the economies.
(iii) There were improved infrastructures such as roads, railways and ports which
were established in many African countries
(iv) Many socialist countries achieved some measures of economic
independence in particular Tanzania under Julius K. Nyerere and Ghana
under Nkrumah advocates self-sufficiency in food production v. Many
African people were mobilized to participate in development for example
The Ujamaa village’s policies were useful in enhancing mobilization.
WEAKNESSES OF ECONOMIC STRATEGIES ADOPTED IN

AFRICA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
(i) Africanization of Public positions was accompanied by corruption. This led
to in efficiency, as the new public officers were not well acquainted with
administrative responsibilities.
(ii) The civil servants fought against the interference with their work by
politicians. For example, there were many instances where unauthorized use
of fund was done for purposes of building political constituencies.
(iii) The implementation of agricultural strategies was hampered by the fact that
some of the settlement schemes were established in marginal land while
other were created away from infrastructure such as roads, railways.

(iv) The bureaucratic administrative machinery was mainly modeled on the

institutions of the metropolis tan countries, and it was expensive to run and
difficult to staff without the assistance of expatriate staff.
The following are some of the contributions of the economic
strategies and policies adopted since independence
(a) Development in infrastructure was experienced, for example in Tanzania; a new
railway line was established that connected the country to Zambia.
(b) Fast economic growth was realized in some countries. Agricultural production
increased due to the need to produce more cash crops for export, industrial raw
materials and food self-sufficiency.
(c) New industries were established, the new industries were established and also
dams were opened for supplying hydroelectric power.
(d) Employment opportunities the foreign investment created more employment
opportunities for the people. Especially in capitalist economies such as Kenya
and Ivory coast
(e) It was easy for individuals to work hard and accumulate wealth in African
countries.
CHANGES IN THE PROVISION OF SOCIAL SERVICES AFTER

INDEPENDENCE
Education after independence
Objectives of Education in Africa after Independence
(a) To promote self-reliance, social justice, national unity, economic
development, equity and scientific literacy.
(b) To promote African cultural values that the colonial education had neglected.
(c) African countries wanted to eradicate racialism in the education sector.
(d) Colonial education was tailored to create a structure that would perpetuate
African dependency upon well- trained non- Africans thus the objectives were
to eradicate dependency on the colonial masters on the all spheres of life.

Features of Education in Africa after independence

(i) Religious organizations and communities continued to sponsor and run the
schools even after independence.
(ii) Local staff as most and post- secondary teaching staff were trained.
Therefore, much effort was made to infuse the African values and local
patterns of life to the education system.
(iii) Many Africans emphasize great effort to acquire academic education as
during colonialism, Africans were usually provided with vocal training due
to the prevailing racial discrimination.
(iv) University education was emphasized, given that there were fewer than one
hundred Tanzanians with University degrees by 1960. After independence in
1961 University of Dar es salaam was started with a view to achieving self-
sufficiency in line with the policy of socialism. In 1963, the University of
Dar es salaam, Makerere University College of Nairobi were merged to form
university of East Africa.
(v) After independence, African countries had to continue using colonial
structure of education since they had to study how to structure their
education system due to the shortage of local skilled personnel, Africans
government concentrated resources on the expansion of Secondary and
higher education. Enrolment in higher education in East Africa increased
Objective of Health services after Independence in Africa
(a) To expand modern health facilities for Africans citizens
(b) To increase living standard of people
(c) To reduce and remove the high infant mortality rate and high material death
rate during child labor.
(d) To remove racial discrimination in the provision of health services through
promoting health to citizens.
Features of Health Services after independence
(a) Through Ujamaa villages, health services were improved a large group of
people were able to receive services from one centre.

(b) The 5- years development plan, ( 1964- 1969) Tanzania’s ambitions to

improve health services in rural areas which benefited many people and
support for preventive rather than curative aspects of health services.
(c) The government recognized the values of medical auxiliaries after Arusha
Declaration. Health services were provided free of charge due to the
introduction of socialism until 1980’s other agencies charged a small amount
for health services.
(d) During 1970’s and the 1980’s Tanzania received a lot of aid towards
promotion of health services. After economic crisis, progress in health care
was undermined by lack of enough financial allocation. As the result, user
charges were introduced in government hospitals.
Strengths of provision of health services in Africa after independence

(a) Provision of free health services; enable many Africans to get health services
they really needed.
(b) None Africans have now been trained to take charge of health sector in their
particular countries medical doctors, nurses and other caregivers were trained.
These enable individual countries to have their own expert therefore reduced
dependency on expatriate personnel.
(c) Provision of vaccines has enabled countries to eradicate many epidemic
diseases existed in Africa for a long time such as polio and measles.
(d) Establishment of health practitioners training institutions including medical
training centers and universities.
(e) Infant mortality has reduced dramatically in most African count vi. Alternative
medicine has now been adopted in a number of African countries to tackle
health
Objectives of provision of water services after independence

1. To improve provision of clean water and reliable to all citizens.
2. To provide clean and reliable water supplies to the citizens so as to improve
the standard of living.
3. To improve sanitation level in the countries.
4. To provide more equitable distribution of infrastructures in the countries.

5. To ensure good health of citizens due to the availability of clean water
Success of provision of water services after independence
Some of the achievements in the provision of water services in Africa after
independence are
a) Establishment of boreholes and dams so as to preserve water.
b) Private companies has been given licenses to provide clean bottled water so
as to avoid it’s citizens to drink unsafe water.
c) Water treatments plans have been established.
d) Infrastructures have been established many countries so as to ensure supply
of water to citizens this includes provision of piped water
Weakness in the provision of health services in after independence

(a) Enough financial resources to provide health services was a problem to most
countries.
(b) Poor planning and lack of resources has affected provision of infrastructure
including clean water and transport.
(c) Due to failure to research on local traditional medicines has led African
governments to spend many resources in buying medicines from other part of
the world.
(d) Number of incurable diseases such as HIV and AID, Diabetes and Cancer also
undermines medical services. Heart ailment has increased in Africa and has
also contributed to the rising costs of providing health and medical services in
the continent.
(e) Lack of enough well-trained personnel as many Africans as man Africans
were neglected to be trained during the colonial period. In some African
countries, a high level of corruption has led to the sale of government-funded
medicines at a throw away to unscrupulosis business people. This caused great
suffering among the population.
(f) International drug manufacturers promoted the Western Approach to
medicines due to their self- interests. Africans were encouraged to use
powdered milk for infants, although they cannot guarantee access to safe
water.
CHANGES IN PROVISION OF WATER SERVICES IN AFRICA
AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Availability of clean water in Africa cannot ignored due to its importance. In order
to improve health care in the world clean water is very important. Good sanitation
cannot be available in the absence of clean and reliable water supply
The objectives of the provision of housing services after independence
The following are some of the objectives of provision of housing services in Africa
after independence.
a) To establish modern housing for Africans. The establishment of modern
housing was due to the promises made by politicians during the struggle for
independence thus helped to promote standards of living.
b) To promote sanitation for the benefit of the citizens. Majority of African citizen
were ensured sanitation.
c) To eradicate racial discrimination, after independence the people of African
were supposed to eradicate racial discrimination.
d) To promote better planning in urban centers in order to enhance development.
e) To provide enough accommodation spaces for the and do away with slums
especially in urban centers.
The pattern of housing distribution after independence
The most of the patterns of housing distribution after independence were;
(i) The best houses have been located in urban centres, urban centers such as
Dar es salaam, Harare, Mombasa as well as Nairobi.
(ii) European and Asian communities own the best houses. Although we got the
political independence in the 1960’s but most of the African communities
occupy the poorly constructed houses.
(iii) There were increased of population in the urban centers, after independence
the population was increased in the cities such as Dar es Salaam, Nairobi.
(iv) They used local materials to construct houses in the village (rural areas).

(v) The tall buildings mark the main urban centers such as the cities of sky’s
carpers
THE STEPS TAKEN TO CHANGE THE COLONIAL PATTERN OF
DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSING AFTER INDEPENDENCE IN TANZANIA.
The following are some of the steps taken to change the colonial pattern of
distribution of housing after independence
(a) The government controlled land allocation in the country. All free, hold land
reverted to government ownership and previous owner were expected to pay
rent to the government.
(b) The government used the control of building and land strategy so as to alleviate
pressure on urban housing and community services. The government
established the National Housing Corporation (NHC) whose mission was to
provide housing needs through financing as well as other associated services in
the country.
(c) The government of Tanzania did not have a systematic policy on how to deal
with the challenges of urban growth. The African population in the urban
centers growing rapidly rather than at the villages.
(d) The government of Tanzania emphasized on the need to make use of low –cost
materials for construction purposes so as to provide housing for more people,
rather than following international standards blindly
Challenges facing the provision of housing services after independence
There are some challenges facing the provision of housing services after
independence such as;
(i) Lack of adequate human resources for instances there were few number of
qualified town planners in the country who could help to plan and
implement the desired programmes in most countries.
(ii) The increase in squatter settlements in most countries like Kenya and
Tanzania after independence. This was mainly due to the fast rise in
population expansion especially among the youth.
(iii) There was corruption and bias in funds allocation consequently, more
taxpayer’s money was used to fund establishment of better housing for the
middle class in society and less funds were allocated for the housing of
the poor.
(iv) Most beneficiaries of the new housing schemes were unable to pay their
rents to the NHC there by under mining its efficiency in both Tanzania
and Kenya.
(v) The bias in the implementation of the projects. This leading to the low
income earners getting disadvantages at the project implementation stage
by giving priority to the middle-income earners.
NEO-COLONIALISM.
Background: Neo-Colonialism, Refers to the indirect control of the African nation

by their former colonial masters socially, politically, and economically. This came
about following the attainment of flag independence from the colonial masters.
The colonial administrators took steps to ensure that the transfer of power would
not jeopardize their economic interest.
One of the methods was to prepare ground for the creation of puppet leaders by
involving leaders of national movement into colonial government. This ensured
that emerging leaders were groomed to up hold the existing exploitative relations.
Secondly the process of handing over power ensured that neo colonial relation
would follow independence as to grantee the economic interest of the former
colonial master, the constitution was made and approved by the colonialists, they
made sure that the western model of political authority was followed in the
independent country, The strategic sectors were preserved to the colonial masters
like Finance, and International relation. In fact, even in those fields that African
was given responsibility the colonial did not vacant.
FORMS OF NEO-COLONIALISM.
Neo-colonialism has got four forms and it’s through these forms African
countries are controlled and exploited by their former colonial masters and
other capitalist countries, like USA. In other words how neo colonialism
operates, as to meet the interest of the imperialists.
ECONOMIC FORM
• Through massive investment by imperialist multi-corporations companies, as

a way to exploit market area for investment and cheap labor of Africa e.g.
such corporations include. Coca-Cola, Barclays Banks, Shell mining

companies etc.
• Through controlling the World market by fixing price of African cash crops
by keeping the prices low so that African remain dependant to their aid.
• To make Africa a damping place for cheap European manufactured goods, so

that Africa remain dc-industrialize, and depend on them for consumer goods.
• Monopolizing technology by preventing Africans to engage into new

technologies,
e.g. EEC - ACP relation signed in 1976 between European Economic
Community and African Caribbean and Pacific, prohibiting African nation to
produce sensitive commodities that are produced by European nations.
• Through giving loans and grants under World Bank and IMF to Africans with
very high interest rate and unrealistic conditions, this proves hard for African
nations to pay back, that result into debt burden.
• Sending of European ‘expatriates’ to work in African countries for interests of
their countries and then are given higher standard of living than the local
people like high wages expensive accommodation, luxurious cars, which
makes all the funds given as aid to be spent to the foreigner expatriates.
• Through international financial organs like IMF, W.B, IBRD, EU, GATT etc
to make policies that enable them to continue exploiting the third World
countries e.g. S.A.P.
POLITICAL FORMS.
• Through establishing relation with a ruling class and create a puppet leader, so
that can be influenced according to their interest (the imperialist).
• Through political influence and ideology following the imperialist
democracies like parliamentary system election and multi party system, under
the influence of UN.
• Through propaganda of mass media making Africans to listen their radios like
BBC, CNN, VOA, and D.W.

• Through planting and supporting puppet leaders who serve their interests e.g.
Yoweri Museveni in Uganda J. Rawlings in Ghana.
• Over throwing communist oriented government and putting capitalist based
government e.g. Zaire in case of Lumumba in l96O and Ghana in case of
Nkrumah
IDEOLOGICAL METHODS.
• Through influence of films, books, and education syllabus where by the
curriculum is developed by the agents of colonialist that it is European based
to a big extent.
• Provision of scholarships to Africans to study abroad, in their countries.
• Brainwashing Africans’ mind through ideological indoctrination.
MILITARY METHODS.
• Establishment of military bases e.g. USA has got 234 military base in 44
countries of Africa.
• To provide military assistance like weapons and instructors to train African
military men.
• By conducting coup d’état in the case of stubborn leaders who are against
their economic interests.
HOW AFRICAN COUNTRIES SHOULD DISENGAGE FROM NEO-

COLONIALISM.
African countries can disengage from Ne-colonialism by doing the following;
a) By developing self-sustainable and self-reliance economies which may reduce

the problem of dependence to the metro pole.
b) African should develop science and technology of their own, by encouraging

science subjects in school and higher institutions, research must be conducted
often to come out with new ideas, instead of depending foreign on technology.
c) African should encourage and strengthen the regional integration, which may
increase their economic power and political dominance. E.g. EAC, SADC,
ECO WAS, etc.
d) African countries should diversify their economies from monoculture to both

industrial and agricultural sector, this will reduce over dependence of one
sector, so that incase of the collapse of prices of one sector should not heavily
affect the national economy
e) African should socialize and nationalize productive forces to reduce

individual monopolies in economic and political power.
f) African should form democracy, transparence accountability in public offices

to reduce the danger of corruption nepotism and embezzlement
g) To reject western interference in the political, economic and social affairs of
African issues so as we develop an independent decisions and independent
mind.
h) African should reject western standards like culture dressing foods etc because
they only create market for European goods and make African damping place.
This discourages the development of infant industries in the continent.
i) Avoid civil war and conflicts that bring about economic backwardness and
concentrate on political solution to iron out internal dispute instead of
applying
.....................................................................................................................................
...
TOPIC FOUR
AFRICA IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
CONTINENTAL COOPERATION: African countries worked together to solve

political, social and economic problems which faced the continent after
independence.
Origins of continental cooperation the origin of continental cooperation in Africa
could be traced back to the pan- African movement, which refer to the unity of all
people of African origin or descent. The word “pan” means ‘together’ or ‘all’
Africans refers to people, implying the unity of all people of black color
OBJECTIVES OF ESTABLISHMENT OF CONTINENTAL

COOPERATION
Some of the objectives of establishing continental cooperation in Africa include
- To preserve political independence and freedom
- To fight against economic exploitation such as land alienations, poor wages and
force labor.
- To unite all people of African origin in the struggle against polities oppression
- To challenge the ideology of European supremacy which undermines African
political independence, economic stability and cultural civilization
- To protect African dignity
- To preserve African culture from destruction
African co-operation existed through the formation of various organization as
shown below;
THE ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (O.A.U)
The organization of African unity was founded on 25’ May 1963 in Addis
Ababa Ethiopia by thirty- two heads of state of the independent African states
the first chairman was Emperor Haile Sellasie of Ethiopia. This was inspired by
pan- Africanist sentiment of bringing all people of African origin in both the
Diaspora and Africa under a single organization, to fight and protect their
rights.
Nkrumah one of the pioneers of African union and the founding father of Ghana
was greatly influenced by his education in USA. he believed that the only way
to achieve complete economic as well as political freedom from European
domination was to create a powerful new ‘United states of Africa’ then through
continental wide cooperation, Africa would really take place on the world
economic and political stage on terms o equality. In unity, Nkrumah saw
strength, but in practical terms, his dream proved illusory.
OBJECTIVES OF O.A.U

• The primary aim of OAU was to promote African unity and solidarity as the only
way forward to achieve complete economic as well as political freedom from
other countries of the world, because unity and solidarity would make Africa a
superpower among other countries.
• To co-ordinate and intensify the cooperation and the efforts of African states to
achieve a better living of people of Africa and to help the speeding up of the
decolonization in the rest of Africa.
• To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African
states, one of the OAU principle states the acceptance of the principle of non-
interference in internal affairs of member state.
• To eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa and acts of slavery in the entire
continent of Africa by promoting freedom and human rights to be given first
priority.
• To promote international cooperation in accordance of the United Nations
Organization and the universal declaration of human rights.
PRINCIPLES OF O.A.U
These were the guidelines, which had to be followed by the member states in
order to achieve their goals and objectives;
(a) Non-interference in these domestic matters of this member states.
(b) The use of peaceful ways in finding out the solutions to conflicts and disputes
between member states.
(c) To accept the movement of Non- Alignment of Afro Asian states.
(d) Respect the rights of status to exist as independent countries.
(e) Sovereign equality of all member states had to be respected by all members’
countries.
(f) Condemn all political assassination and encouragement of people to oppose
domestic dictatorship government
ACHIEVEMENTS OF O.A.U
a) It achieved to unite the diverse countries of Africa; this has been attained despite
discrepancies in political ideology, levels of economic development, language
colonial experience and vast geographical differences. There was of course
disagreement between states and groups of states but its main aim was unity and
OAU survived its first three decades with no permanent sprit.
b) It has achieved in providing a forum for discussing common problems of African
states and offering solution like discrimination or apartheid, diseases and civil
wars among others. Which to a big extent have been dealt with.
c) The regular meetings of ministers and heads of state have helped to generate
greater awareness of other countries problem
d) OAU has also achieved in Liberation’ of Africa from colonialism e.g. Zimbabwe,
Angola, and Namibia, through the provision of moral and material support to .the
nationalistic movements in various nations.
e) The African development bank, which grew out of the OAU in 1967, became an
invaluable tool for mobilizing world finance for Africa development projects.
The idea of coordinating and mobilizing international capital for the benefit of
Africa was of particular value during the 1 970s and early 1 980s.
f) O.A.U has provided many African refugees with jobs and education, who came
as a result of internal conflicts in various African nations
g) The organization has taken measures to improve agriculture, industry, transport
and communication trade and education cooperation in various countries.
h) The meeting of heads of states each year to discuss the problems and achievement
of the continent is one of the achievements.
i) Many conflicts have been solved by the organization in the continent e.g. the
war between Tanzania and Uganda 1978, Mali and Burkina Faso 1985, Kenya
and Somalia 1970 etc.
j) OAU has encouraged Regional integration among is member states, such as
ECOWAS 1975, SADC 1980, COMESA 1993, has its roots from O.AU.
k) OAU has achieved in acting as chief mediator between various African states to
avoid the occurrence of bloodshed e.g. between Ethiopia and Eritrea.
PROBLEMS OF O. A. U
1. A member state decides individually and voluntarily to be the member of the
organization and it could withdraw its membership at any time that it fills to do
so, this weakens the strength of the organization e.g. Morocco is not a member.
2. Another big problem that faced OAU was that it had no legal sanction to
enforce its resolutions. Member state could decide to refuse or ignore to
implement the organizations decisions, that is why it has always been blamed
for being little more than ‘a talking-shop’ with no serious implementation of her
resolutions.
3. Lack of adequate funds it largely based on the annual contributions of member
states Most of the member states delayed to pay or defaulted to pay their
contributions, this made the organization to fail to run its activities.
4. Unequal development of the members of the organization caused by poverty,
illiteracy, and unequal distribution o resources.
5. There are many refugees in Africa, which is the result of civil wars in many
areas of the continent such as Burundi, D.RC, Sudan, Somalia, etc.
6. The continent is still poor depending on debts and loans from World Bank and
I.M.F, with difficult conditionality to fulfill.
7. Differences in languages and religion, some societies are proud of their mother
tongue; other countries are using English, others Arabic, French etc every
state/tribe wants to use the language of her interest. There is tension between
fundamentalist Muslims who want to apply Sharia law while Christians wants
western system of democracy.
8. African countries are affected by natural disasters such as drought, floods,
earthquake, A.I.D.S, etc these affects the welfare of the people.
9. Difference in ideology of the member states, head of states are unable to come
together to discuss their problems.
10.Lack of a single currency to be used by all member states since it is not decided
on to be used; this hinders trade activities in the continent.
11.Weak economic base of many of the member states most of the member state
just had their independence from European imperialist nations; all are based on
production of primary goods of agriculture products and minerals that fetched
little prices.
12.Civil wars in the member states such as Sudan, Somalia and Sierra Leone killed
many people in the member countries in 1990’s.
13. Assassination of head of states in many countries for example Melchior
Ndadaye of Burundi in 1993.
Through O.A.U succeeded, it had also failures, which include
(a) O.A.U failed to bring better and good standard of living among the Africans
(b) It failed to eradicate neo-colonial exploitation, which was practiced by the
countries in Western European countries. After its formation Africa export

to European markets continued to suffer from lower prices determined by

big powers.
(c) It failed to solve political conflicts which normally led to this rise of civil
war and overthrow the elected government for example Ghana when Dr.
Kwame. Nkrumah in 1966.
(d) It failed prevent inter-state conflicts. There were conflicts over boundaries
and eventually there were wars for example Tanzania and Uganda in 1978
and Kenya and Somalia in190’s
Generally, despite its failures O.A.U existed for almost thirty-seven years. In
the late 1990’s Mr. Mwammar Ghadafi, Libyan head of state proposed to other
member head of states to create a new organization, which could take necessary
steps to eliminate problems, which were not solved by O.A.U. His proposal was
taken positively and the members accepted to form A.U (African Union)
THE FORMATION OF AU (AFRICAN UNION)
AU is the organization of African countries which originally started by the

declaration to the heads of states and Government of the O.A.U. to establish
African Union on 9/9/1999. The Constitutive Act of the African Union was
adopted and entered into force in 2000 at the Lome summit in Togo.
In 2001 the African countries putdown the plan for the implementation of the
Union in Lusaka while in 2002 they held the first Assembly of the Heads of states
of AU in Durban where Thabo Mbeki of South Africa became the 1st chairman. Its
headquarters are in Addis-Ababa, Ethiopia
THE REASON WHICH LED TO THE RISE OF AU
The fulfillment of the basic O.A.U objectives led to the formation of AU. Formerly
O.A.U. had succeeded to achieve such objectives like eradication of colonialism in
Mozambique, Angola, Zimbabwe, and destruction of apartheid in South Africa.
Then, the leaders realized that there was a need to create a new organization, which
dealt with the social, economic and political problems in the rapid changing world
in 1990’s. During this time, Africa faced economic decline, unfavorable economic
relationship with the developed nation and the rise of new political systems.

There was a need to make an organization to unite Africans against the problems
from the situation, which prevailed at the moment.
Objectives /Goals of AU
African Union has so many objectives:
• To achieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries and the
people themselves.
• To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of members.
• To accelerate or increase the political and socio-economic integration (unity) of
the continent.
• To promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the
continent and its people.
• To encourage international co-operation in line with the Charter of the United
Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
• To promote peace, security and stability in Africa.
• To promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and
goods governance.
• To promote and protect human and peoples’ rights in line with the African
charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and other relevant human rights
instruments.
• To establish the necessary conditions which enable Africa to play its rightful
role in the global or world economy through international negotiations.
• To promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels
as well as the integration of economies.
• To promote co-operation in all fields of human activity to raise the living
standard of African peoples.
• To coordinate and harmonize the policies between the existing and future
Regional Economic communities and the gradual achievement o the objectives
of AU.
• To enhance the development of the continent promoting research in all the
fields especially Science and technology.
• To work with relevant international partners in the elimination of preventable
disease and the promotion of health on the continent.

The Organs of the African Union

A.U has about 10 organs, which included:
(1) The Assembly- It is a supreme organ of the Union. It is composed of heads

of states and Government. It has to meet at least once a year in ordinary
session, at the request of any member state and on approval by a two-thirds
majority of member states. It is headed by a chairman for a period of one
year.
(2) Its functions are:-
• Determine the common policies of the Union.
• Receive, consider and take decision on reports and recommendations from the
other organs of the Union.
• Consider requests for membership of the Union.
• Establish any organ of the Union.
• Monitor the implementation of policies and decisions of the Union as well as
ensure compliance by all members.
• Adopt the budget of the Union.
• Give directives to the Executive council on the management of conflict war and
restoration of peace.
• Appoint and terminate appointments of judges of the court of justice
• Appoint the Chairman of the commission and his or her deputy and the
commissioners as well as determining their functions and terms of office.
(2) The Executive Council - It is composed by the ministers of Foreign Affairs or
such other
Ministers as decided by Member states. The Executive Council meets twice a year
in ordinary session. It also has to meet in extra ordinary session at the request of
any member states and upon approval of 2/3 of all members.
3) The Pan - African Parliament - It is established in order to provide a chance
for full participation of African people in the development and economic
integration of the continent. The first speaker has been Gertrude Mongella from
Tanzania since 2004. Many officials will succeed the post from the members in
future.
(4) The African court of Justice- when it is fully established the union will give

its functions and -composition.

(5) The commission - It is the secretariat of the union. It is composed of the
chairman, his deputies and the commissioners together with other staff. The
Assembly is responsible to provide the functions and regulations of the
commission. The current chairman of the commission is H.E. Alpha Oumar
Konare of Mali.
(6) The Permanent Representative Committee - It is charged with the
responsibility of preparing the work of Executive council. Facts also on the
instructions of Executive council. It may set up sub-committee or groups as it sees
necessary
(7) The Specialized Technical Committees - it includes:
• The committee on Rural Economy and Agricultural matters.

• The committee on Monetary and Financial Affairs.
• The committee on Trade, Customs and Immigration Matters.
• The committee on Industry, Science and Technology, Energy Natural
Resources and
• Environment.
• The committee on Transport, Communications and Tourism.
• The committee on Labor, Health and Social Affairs.
• The committee on Education, Culture and Human resources. -
The Assembly has to restructure the existing committees and establish others.
Ministers compose the body with competence of respective areas.
The functions of the committees are:
a) To prepare projects and programmes of the Union and submit it to the

Executive council.
b) Ensure the supervision, follow-up and the evaluation of the implementation of
decisions taken by organization of the union.
c) Coordinate the projects and programmes of the Union.
d) Submit reports and recommendations on the implementations of the Act of the
Union to the Executive council.
e) Carry out other functions as assigned to any of the committees.

f) (8) The Economic Social and Cultural Council -This is an advisory organ
which is made of professional groups of the member states. All its functions
have to be given out by the Assembly.
(9) The Peace and Security Council -It is a body, which will deal with
peacekeeping and conflicts settlements in the member states.
(10) The Financial Institutions -The Union intends to have the African central
Bank, the Africa monetary fund and the African Investment Bank to provide
financial help to its members.
PROBLEMS WHICH THREATEN FUTURE SUCCESS OF AU

a) Lack of fund —most of its member are poor nations. It does not get enough
money to run its activities.
b) Civil war in countries such as Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Sudan, and Northern
Uganda seem to keep these countries far from the goals of AU.
c) Corruption such as mismanagement of public money by the leader like former
president of Zambia, Mr. Chiluba discourages good governance, which is one
of the interests of AU.
d) Poor infrastructure such as roads, railways and waterways continued to weaken

smooth transport of raw materials from productive areas to industries as well as
transport of products from towns to the rural areas.
e) Epidemics such as HIV/AIDs kill skilled labor, which would have been used by
AU to develop many sectors like agriculture, industries, fishing and tourism.
f) Unfavorable economic relationship between African countries and developed
nations still makes African countries fall behind than what is required in
economic and social development. They export products to world market and
sell them at lower price, which in turn could not develop the AU members. All
these problems threaten future success of AU.
THE BENEFITS OF AU TO TANZANIA
There are so many benefits, which will be acquired by Tanzania from being a
member of AU. The benefits include:

i. Tanzania would get an opportunity to unite with other African countries to

solve political conflicts peacefully in several African states and the country
will use AU to discuss for the presence of good relationship between Africa,
Europe and U.S.A.
ii. Tanzania will make friendship with other African countries through the joint
activities and programmes in social and economic sectors. This condition
would reduce the number of countries, which might have intended to act as
enemies of Tanzania on the continent.
iii. Tanzania will get new ideas and information that will be used to solve many
problems, which exist in agriculture, industry and the 1ea4Th sectors. They
will be obtained from various meetings and workshops attended by the
leaders of the government.
iv. The financial institutions such as the African central bank and the African
investment bank obviously would provide money as loans and grants to
Tanzania. The money would be used by the country to develop agricultural
production, science and technology, transport and education.
v. Tanzania gains territorial dignity through participation in the military
operations
AFRICAN REGIONAL COOPERATION

The need for regional cooperation in Africa, like elsewhere in the world arose from
the need to tackle political, social and economic needs of the people.
This regional approach was found more beneficial given that this people in one
region are likely to work more closely together due to geographical, historical and
cultural advantages. Among the regional grouping existing in Africa, include the
east African community (EAC) COMESA, ECOWAS and SADC.
EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (E.A.C)
BACKGROUND. It was founded on 6th June 1967; the government of

Tanganyika, Kenya and, Uganda signed a treaty in Kampala Uganda. Its history
goes back to 1923 when the governor of Tanganyika, Kenya, and Uganda formed
the East African Governors Conference to facilitate the cooperation. In 1948 it
changed to East Africa high Commission, in 1961 the East Africa common
services organization was established. Arusha became the head quarters in the

community in Tanzania.
AIMS OF THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY

• To promote free trade in goods and services produced among the members.
• To provide common services such as railways, harbors, posts and
telecommunication.
• To provide wider and more secure market for industrial and agricultural goods
• To allow free movement of people in the region for trade recreation and other
social activities.
• To achieve technological innovation and advancement.
• To conduct research activities in agriculture, population, medicine and mining
for its development.
• It aims at solving region problems jointly by the heads of the member states
• PROBLEMS OF E.A.C
The problem of the distribution of different services, the distribution was more
beneficial to Kenya than Uganda and Tanzania.
a) Border conflicts e.g. between Tanzania and Uganda during ldd Amin.
b) The ideological disparity between the three countries, Tanzania self-reliance
and socialism, Kenya capitalist ideology, Uganda during Idd Amin fascism.
c) Uneven distribution of the community cake, Kenya took a lion share at the
expense of Uganda and Tanzania.
d) The organization had its roots from colonial period nothing changed
fundamentally that Britain went on benefiting through Kenya.
e) The East African Bank failed a balance development of industries in the three
countries Kenya benefited more than Tanzania and Uganda in income tax and
custom duties.
f) Currency differences the governments’ restricted free transfer and exchange of
currency. This discourages interstate transactions in goods.
g) The community experienced great losses and debts.

h) The failure of the member country to contribute the agreed annual fees
Achievements of EAC The first East African Community had the following
achievement:
(i) It put the East African countries on a course of cooperation when these
countries worked together on areas like post, telecommunication and
railways.
(ii) It provided a chance for political leaders to discuss economic and political
issues of their region.
(iii) Free movement of people, for example Kenyans and Ugandans could move
easily to Tanzania.
(iv) Provision of funds to the members of state. This was possible through the
East African Bank, which was made by the EAC. For example, Tanzania
managed to produce aluminium sheet, assemble radio and make motor
vehicles tyres and tubes. - Uganda managed to manufacture bicycles and
nitrogenous fertilizers. - Kenya made electric bulbs from the capital given by
the bank
The collapse of EAC
(a) The East African Community existed for a period of ten years. It collapsed in
1977 and revived in 2000 there were several reasons to its collapse, they
includes.
(b) Difference in ideologies. Tanzania used socialism and self-reliance in which
the government controlled all means of production in the national economy
while Kenya and Uganda were mainly based on capitalism, which allowed the
existence of private owned economy, hence they could not work together.
(c) Higher growth of Kenyan economy over Tanzania and Uganda, Kenya had
many industries and business companies, either member felt they could be
exploited.
(d) Absence of common currency. It made it difficultly for people to fully not buy
good and serves in Uganda and Kenya because their currency was not accepted.
(e) Misunderstanding between the late presidents for example Julius K. Nyerere
and Idd Amin of Uganda. Nyerere did not like to work with Amin after
overthrowing Milton Obote in 1971.
(f) Shortage of fund among the East African government. The member states were
less development National which could not have financial requirements for
community programmes.
(g) All these reasons contributed to the collapse of the first EAC in 1977. Today the
new EAC might not grow stronger because of similar ideological practices
among the countries. It is implemented on 7th, July 2000.
THE PRINCIPLES OF THE NEW EAC

The principles of the New EAC are guidelines, which must be followed by the
community members in realizing their goals or objectives. They include-
(a) Mutual trust between the people of EAC states
(b) Peaceful co-existence and good neighborliness
(c) Peaceful settlement of disputes
(d) Good governance, acceptance of principles of democracy, rule of law and
respect for social justice
(e) Co- operation for equal mutual benefit among the member states.
The goals/objective of the new EAC

The objective refers to the desire ends, which will be achieved by the members.
The objectives includes;
(a) Establishment of a monetary union
(b) Establishment of a common market in which there services and information
technology
(c) Formation of the East African Federation
(d) To promote peace, Security and stability within the region and good
neighborliness
(e) To develop policies and programmes aimed at wide ring co-operation in
polities, economic social defense and judicial matter for the benefit of the
postures state
(f) To promote sustainable and balanced growth and development among the
members
(g) To promote the role of women in socio-economic development

(h) Achieve equitable economic development and higher standard of living for the
people of Africa.
THE SOUTHERN ARICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY -
S.A.D.C.
It was formed as the replacement of Southern African Development coordination

Conference-SADCC formed in April I980. It was in 1993 when it was changed to
SADC, with headquarters in Gaborone, Botswana. Currently SADC has a total of
15 members. The member states include Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic
of Congo, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mozambique and Tanzania. Other members are
Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, Mauritius, Swaziland, South Africa, Zambia and
Zimbabwe.
OBJECTIVES SADC
. To harness resources in the region for the benefit of all member states
2. To promote economic growth and standards of living of the member states
3. To promote environmental protection and utilization of resources
4. To promote peace and security among member states
5. To promote sustainable development through cooperation among the member
states
6. To consolidate the age-old social, cultural and historical sites existing among the
region
7. To enhance economic development by promoting transport and communications
in the region.
PROBLEMS/ CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED BY SADC MEMBER

STATES.
• Weak financial base, members rely on foreign aid and loan.
• Members produce similar agricultural goods such as coffee, sisal, tobacco
which compete for market.

• All members depend on agriculture rather than industries, when the price of
agricultural commodities fluctuates which leads to low earnings.
• Lack of qualified and skilled labor to run the organization, they depend on
foreign experts.
• Unequal distribution of the benefits of the association discourages other states.
• Every member tries to cater her national interest first rather than those of SADC
• South Africa is seen as domineering over other member states due to her strong
economy this causes a lot of anxiety to some countries.
• Political instability some of the member states experienced political instability,
which has interfered with the organization operations e.g. Democratic Republic
Congo.
• Differences in political ideology- e.g. Tanzania and Angola capitalism, others
capitalism
Achievements of the SADC

The achievements of the SADC are:-
1. Enhancement of security in the region. For example establishment of Ecomog
in the Western part of Africa.
2. Promotion of democracy and rule of law among the member states
3. SADC has facilitated the development of infrastructure among the members
states, for example roads, harbor, railways etc
4. Promotion of agriculture among the member states agreed in a treaty signed in
1995
5. Member state were able to consult on matters that affect the region using SADC
as the main forum
6. Sharing of water resources in the region. This was agreed in a treaty signed in
1995.
THE COMMON MARKET FOR EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA

(COMESA)
Before 1993 COMESA was known as the Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and
Southern Africa- P.T.A. The heads of member states met in Kampala Uganda on

61h November 1993 and signed a treaty, which created COMESA. A member of
COMESA includes Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi,
Zimbabwe, Lesotho Botswana, Swaziland, Mauritius, Comoro, Djibouti, Ethiopia
Somalia and South Africa.
OBJECTIVES OF COMESA
• Promoting and facilitating cooperation among member countries in trade, trade,

transport and communication.
• Harmonizing and coordinating development strategies, policies and plans
within the region,
it encourages cooperation in monetary and financial affairs in order to facilitate
sub regional integration.
• It aims at establishing joint industrial and agricultural institution to raise the
production capacity.
• It aims at reducing and eventually eliminating tariffs among members in order
to facilitate trade
• It encourages economic independence of the region by establishing strong
economic base
• ACHIVEMENT OF COMESA
Member states have become more cooperative in the field of trade of trade,
industry and agriculture.
The organization has also established a bank known as the trade and
development bank situated in Bujumbura Burundi, which finances trade and
development projects.
PROBLEMS OF COMESA
• Different levels of development of member states

• Poor transport shipping facilities and communication links
• Existence of too many currencies in the region
• Weak economic base of member states i.e. dependency economies
• Civil wars, natural calamities and neo colonialism
The Reasons, Which Made Tanzania, Withdraw From COMESA:

➢ As shown earlier Tanzania withdrew from COMESA in 2002. There are various
reasons, which made this country move out of the organization.
➢ Firstly, Tanzania was discouraged by political conflicts in Zimbabwe and Civil
war in Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia. She realized there could not be effective
economic co-operation with the members, which had these problems now.
➢ Secondly, the country wanted to maximize her efforts in some organizations
like East African Community, which was formed in early 2000s’. The
government could not be able to unite fully with other EAC if she was still a
member in many other organizations.
➢ Thirdly, Tanzania withdrew from COMESA because she was avoiding
duplication of regional co-operation. The country learnt that there were no new
benefits the people could get from COMESA. Most of the benefits were similar
with those, which were gained, from SADC and EAC.
➢ Fourthly, financial contributions to various economic organizations became a
burden on the government expenditure. The country could not be able to collect
and spend money in many organizations like SADC, EAC, AU and COMESA.
Withdrawal from COMESA was a way to reduce financial cost on regional co-
operation
➢ Fifthly, Tanzania moved out of COMESA as a way to protect its industrial
development from other COMESA members such as Kenya, South Africa and
Zimbabwe. This country still lagged behind in industries. She feared that those
countries could use many opportunities in regional co-operation to export
manufactured goods, which could compete against the products from Tanzania
industries. Thus, she withdrew to protect domestic industries and their markets.
All the points given above could explain the possible reasons, which made
Tanzania, move out of COMESA in 2002
THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES

(ECOWAS)
ECOWAS is an organization, which was formed by English, French and
Portuguese speaking countries West Africa under the Treaty of Lome on 28th May
1975 to bring unity for economic development in fields such as industries,
transport, telecommunication, energy, agriculture monetary and commerce
Its members.
It has about 16 members such as Burkinafaso, Benin, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Ghana,
Cape Verde, Nigeria, and Guinea cannonry, Senegal, Guinea Bissau, Togo, Mali,
Liberia, Sierra Leone, Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon
AIMS OF ECOWAS.
(i) ECOWAS aimed at removing barriers and allowing free movement of people
services and capital for the development of the member states.
(ii) It aims at developing industries, agriculture and mining by using good and
applicable policies.
(iii) To remove custom duties between the members states to as to make West
Africa a free trade area
ACHIEVEMENTS OF ECOWAS
(a) It brought unity among West African states by printing conditions in which two
different countries could carry out joint projects such as food and transport
cooperation between Nigeria and Niger after 1975.
(b) ECOWAS formed a military force known as ECOMO the force helped to defeat
a military regime which over the forced helped to defeat a military regime
which over the force helped to defeat a military regime which over the force
helped to defeat a military regime which over thrown civilian government in
Sierra Leone in 1990’s
(c) It set up a fund in 1986 by getting loan from financial institutions in Western
Europe and America. The fund improved agriculture, industries, transport and
telecommunication in 1929.
(d) It made the movement of people between the member states easier since 1979.
The member states agreed to eliminate obstacles, which prevented people from
moving for various activities in the summit held in dalcar, Senegal.
(e) It provided a winder market for the member states commodities.
(f) The organization has managed to set energy resource development fund for oil
mining industry in the region.
(g) There have been agriculture and communication development of the whole part
of the region this has been through special fund to develop the projects and
through joint ventures between members.

a) PROBLEMS OF ECOWAS.
i) Each member wants to benefit more than the other members of the community
according to their interests do.
ii) Political instability affects member states, there have been civil wars and
coup d’état in ‘the region e.g. Nigeria, Sierra Leon, Liberia, Ivory Coast etc.
iii) Poor communication network system in many parts of the region hinders
organization activities to all places
iv) Language differences, other members are using English others French, this
causes communication barrier between members.
v) Lack of a single currency creates the problem of the rate of exchange
between the member states.
vi) The problem of members to have a membership in more than one
organization, all the organization have demands in terms of contributions i.e.
it is difficult to contribute membership to all the organizations due to
poverty.
vii) Poor infrastructure such as roads still exists in many West African States.
This situation hinders easy movement of goods, services and labor.
viii) . Bilateral and triple cooperation, which began before the formulation of
ECOWAS, appear as obstacle to the realization of its objectives. For
example Liberia and Sierra Leone had mano River project in 1973 to work
in joint economic development, Senegal, Mali and Mauritania started the
organization for the Development of the Senegal river to construct dams
since 1973
ix) Some of the member states failed to remit contributions to the organization
as required, and this make the running of the organization very difficult
x) Some of the smaller economics among the member states find the immerse
military and economic power of major economies such as Nigeria
overwhelming.
xi) Ideological differences especially between the capitalist countries and
socialist countries. For example cote d’ivore under Felix Houphout –
Boigny-capitalist and Burkinafaso under under Thomas Sankara- socialist
xii) Border quarrels for example Nigeria and Cameroon had to go to
international court in the Hague for arbitration over the ownership of the
Bakazi Region.
xiii) x. Foreign interference in the affairs of the member state. For instance, the
stationing of French troops in Cote d’ivoire since the 1960’s which made the
neighboring states including Guinea very uncompromising.
xiv) xi. The vast geographic region makes it difficult for affairs of the
organization to be coordinated well.
AFRICA IN THE WORLD INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

The world international organizations are referred as co-operation between the
countries, which exist in the world between various continents. This sub-topic
intends to examine the origin objectives and the way African countries have joined
and benefited from the world international organizations popularly mentioned as
the United Nations, Common wealth of Nations, the French Community and Non
—Aligned Movement (NAM).
Most of African states gained political independence in the 1960’s long after, most
of the global organizations like United Nations had been established, thus
nevertheless played an important role in Global affairs.
OBJECTIVES OF PARTICIPATING IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIR
The following are some of the objectives of Africa participating in international
affairs
(a) To show solidarity with other states of the world especially during
emergencies
(b) To give the continent a forum through which thus could discuss the
continental affairs
(c) Increased participation in the United Nations General Assembly meant that
Africans would henceforth receive more international attention than was the
case before.
(d) To demonstrate their sovereignty through participation in global affairs
(e) To enhance Africa’s development for example the participation in the
common wealth of Nations intended to develop Africa though English –
speaking states that are more developed.

(f) African participation in Non-Aligned Movement was to put the continent in

a strategic situation in the struggle for between the Eastern and the Western
block during the cold War.
Similarly, the French community was meant to coordinate cooperation of the
francophone and their former colonial masters
UNITED NATIONS (UN)

United Nation (UN) is an organization of the world independent countries, which
was formed to promote and maintain international peace and security after the
failure of the League of Nations in the prevention of the rise of the Second World
War of 1939-1945.
The representatives of 50 countries in San Francisco USA on 26th June - 1945,

originally drew the charter of the formation of UN. However, the representatives
made the charter based on the ideas and proposal given out by the delegates from
China, USSR, UK and U.S.A in 1944. After its formation, Poland immediately
signed the charter and became one of the original 51 member states of the UN.
The UN officially came into existence on 24th October —1945 when the charter
was formally approved by China, France, the Soviet Union (USSR) UK (Britain)
and USA and by a majority of other countries. Its headquarters today are in New
York USA and the United Nations day is always celebrated on 24thOctober each
year.
Objectives of United Nations
Objectives of UN are all the desired ends, which UN intends to achieve as the
members work together as world independent states. Objectives are:
❖ Maintain peace and security internationally.
❖ Develop friendly relations among nations.
❖ Encourage international co-operation in solving economic, social, political and
humanitarian problems.
❖ Promote international respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
❖ UN becomes a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in attainment the
objectives

The Principles of UN
The principles are guidelines of UN as it works to achieve its goals. The
principles are:
➢ All its member states are sovereign and equal.

➢ All its members have to fulfill in good faith the charter obligations
➢ All its member countries have to solve international conflicts peacefully
without jeopardizing peace, security and justice.
➢ Members must avoid the threat or use of force against other states.
➢ Members should provide any help in the action it takes.
➢ Members should not give help to any nation being under punitive measures.
➢ Non-members have to act according to these principles in order to maintain
world peace and security.
➢ UN should not interfere in internal matters of any nation:
The Organs of UN
There are important organs through which UN performs its duties such organs
include.
(f) The UN General Assembly: - This is an organ made by all member states. All
member states always have one vote regardless of size and powers. Decisions
on issues require two thirds of members’ votes. It functions are: Recommends
on the world peace, security, disarmament and regulation of armament discuss
any matter, which endangers peace and security. Elects non-Permanent
members of Security Council and Judge of International court of justice jointly
with the Security Council. The latest UN General Assembly took place in
September, 2004, in New York, U.S.A
b) Secretariat — it is an organ, which is headquartered in New York, USA. It
contains international civil servants under the leadership of the General
Secretary who is appointed by the General Assembly based on
recommendations by the Security Council.

There have been several General Secretaries since the creation of this organ. These
officials by their names included:
• Trygve Lief of Norway from 1946-1952.

• Dag Hammarskjold of Sweden from 1953-1 961.
• UThantMyanmar (Burma) 1961-1971.
• Kurt Waldheim of Austria from 1972-1981.
• Javier de Perez de Cuellar of Peru from 1982-1991.
• Boutros Boutros -Ghali of Egypt from 1992-1996.
• Kofi Anan of Ghana from 1997-2006
• Ban Ki-Moon of South Korea from 2007 to the present until the appointment of
new secretary.
The Secretariat carries out important functions such as:

• It administers peacekeeping operations in many countries, which have wars and
conflicts.
• It implements the decisions of the General Assembly and the Security Council.
• Informs the world’s communications media about the work of United Nations.
• It mediates international disputes.
• Interprets speeches and translate documents into the UN’s official languages.
• It draws annual budget of the UN
b) The Security - It an organ, which makes decisions that, bind all other UN
members. Before 1963 the council had only eleven members of which 6
members were elected by the General Assembly for two years terms and there
are also five permanent members.
After 1963 the number of members increased to fifteen including the permanent
members such as Britain, USA, France, USSR and China and Ten Non-
Permanent members continued to be elected for two years terms.
The UN Secretary Council has a veto vote in which all the decisions cannot be
passed unless all five permanent members approve the decisions. When any
permanent member casts a “No” vote the decision automatically, get blocked.
This situation creates dissatisfaction among other members; today they demand
more enlargement of the permanent membership seat so as to include many
countries from Africa, Asia, and Latin America in deciding matters of the UN.
They also recommend the elimination of veto, which is used to defend the
interests of few people.
The functions of UN Security Council are:
• Maintain international peace and security in line with the principles and
purposes of the United Nations.
• To investigate any conflict or situation which can lead to international war
• To formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armament.
• To persuade members of UN to fix sanctions on the aggressive states.
• Takes military actions against the aggressors.
• Recommends the admission of new members.
• Recommends the appointment of the secretary - General to the UN General
Assembly.
• Works with the General Assembly to elect the judges of International court of
Justice.
c) International court of Justice- This is a court of 15 judges who are elected by
the General Assembly and Security Council. It has headquarters at Hague,
Netherlands. Its judges are elected for 9 years. The court normally deals with all
matters of the UN charter. However, the decisions only advise the General
Assembly and the Security Council.
d) Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) - It is an organ which works
through UN specialized agencies and other autonomous bodies in the UN
system. It promotes high standard of living, economic and social development
as well as respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
There are several UN specialized agencies under ECOSOC. Some of those
institutions include:
1. FAQ - (Food and Agriculture organization) was founded in Quebec, Canada on

16th October, 1945
2. ILO- (International Labor organization) - It was firstly formed under the Treaty
of Versailles in 1919. It allied with UN as specialized agency to rise up the
living standard of the workers.
3. UNESCO - (The UN International Children and Education Fund). It was
founded in December1946 to provide care for children.

4. WHO - (The World Health organization). It was founded on seventh –April-

1947 as autonomous organization to improve health for all people in the world.
Its head office is in Paris, France. It has worked under ECOSOC to eliminate
health problems in the world.
5. UNHCR - (The UN High Commission for Refugees). It started in 1951 to help
people who are forcefully shifting their nations as refugees.
6. UNCTAD - (The Conference on Trade and Development). It began on 20th
December, 1994 to promote international trade
7. UNDP - (The UN Development Programme it was formed in 1965
8. UNIDO - (The UN Industrial Development Organization) it was made in 1967
to promote industries.
9. GATT - (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) it was made in order to
make the developed world fix lower tariffs and fair prices of products from
developing countries.
10. Trusteeship Council -It was an organ, which was formed in 1945 to supervise
the administration of the Trust territories .taken from the Mandate status of the
League of Nations .The aim of the trusteeship council, was to prepare the trust
territories such as Tanganyika, Rwanda Burundi and Namibia for their self-
government and independence. The council was allowed to examine and
discuss the reports from the administering authority on the political, social and
economic progress of people in the territories. The members of the council
were, all. Five permanent members of the Security Council such as China,
France, Russia, United Kingdom and U.S.A. The council suspended its duties
on 1st, November 1994 when Palau, the last remaining trust territory achieved
independence on 1St November-1994.
The Achievements of UN
Since the creation of UN there have been several achievement reached by this
organization. They included:
a) UN has assisted many countries in the struggle for independence. Many

countries, which are members of UN, were helped by the organization in the
elimination of colonialism. UN worked tirelessly in ending apartheid in South
Africa. It put economic sanctions, arms embargo to the white regime. The
United Nations General Assembly even called apartheid a crime against

humanity. All these efforts led to the elections in April 1994 in which African
people got a chance to participate on equal terms with the whites and followed
by the formation of a majority government.
b) Though UN has proved failure in maintaining peace in many parts of the world,
it has attempted to make peace by negotiating many peaceful settlements, which
ended regional disputes. For example, the UN succeeded to end Iran - Iraq war,
the withdrawal of soviet from Afghanistan and an end of civil war in El
Salvador.
c) UN has tried to promote development of people in the member states. For

instance, the United Nations Development programmes (UNDP) and other
agencies of UN carries out projects for agriculture, industry, education and
environment. It is said that UNDP supports more than 5000 projects with a
budget of $ 1.3 billion. UNICEF spends more than $.800 million a year on
immunization, health care, nutrition and basic education in 138 countries. In
areas where these projects exist, they lower poverty levels.
d) The United Nations has been able to provide humanitarian aid to the victims of
conflict in Sudan, Somalia and other states. There so many refugees who
receive aid from the UN High commissioner for Refugees since 1951. It
eliminates scourges of war or conflicts from the Africans.
PROBLEMS FACING THE UNITED NATIONS
United Nations faces many problems in its daily activities. The most significant
problems include:
a) Non-compliance of UN decisions is a problem. Some members especially

developed countries like USA and Britain sometimes do not comply with the
decisions, which prevent these countries from taking action against the other
states. For instance, UN disapproved US invasion of Iraq but the USA and
Britain could not respect the decisions. They invaded Iraq in 2003.
b) UN’s veto among the five permanent members of the Security Council hinders
just decisions and course of action. When one of its members cast a veto vote,

all the decisions get blocked. This has been used by the big powers to serve
their own interests as opposed to the general interests of the members.
c) There have been inter-states and civil wars among the members. For example,
the war between Tanzania and Uganda in 1979 destroyed many properties.
Civil wars have occurred in Rwanda in 1994, Liberia in 1997 and Southern
Sudan for a long period. Many people have lost their life.
d) Though the UN give humanitarian aid to improve the living standards of
people, the organization still has mainly third world countries, which suffer
from poverty, which endangers peace and security in the world.
BENEFITS OF UNITED NATIONS TO AFRICAN STATES

1. African states benefit from being members of the United Nations. The benefits,
which can be, shown below are:
2. Many African states, which do not have enough food for their people in some
parts of their countries, receive food aid from the World Food Programme
(WFP) of the UN. This assistance has been given to the people in Somalia and
Sudan.
3. African states normally attempt to improve health standards of their people
through vaccination services, which are conducted by the World Health
Organization under the United Nations. In the present UNAIDS gives fund to
fight against HIV/AIDS in African states.
4. African states receive financial help from UNDP to invest in sectors of

education and water services.
5. The UN Security Council always sends forces to keep peace, order and end
violence in areas, which have civil wars. For example, UN peacekeeping forces
have been sent to Liberia and Democratic Republic of Congo to keep peace in
these countries between 1995 and 2005.
6. UNO provides a platform to African states to air out their grievances against the
mistreatments, which are done over the people by the developed world. It can
be used to influence policies of big powers to Africa.

Conclusion: The United Nations is very important organization for the countries in
the world. However, it provides aid to African states and other countries outside
Africa many member states complain against the UN. They see it as an
organization, which mainly works in favor of USA and European countries. UN
has been found to take very slow action to solve problems in Africa. It neglected
the civil war in Rwanda where about 800 000 people were killed by the rebels in
1994. Even the General Secretary, Kofi Anan admitted that UN had no active
measures to end civil war in Rwanda.
It normally carries out quick actions to end the crises in European countries. It
cannot be effective organization unless the UN treats all its members equally and
conducts its functions fairly in all its organs.
COMMON WEALTH OF NATIONS
Common Wealth of Nations is a voluntary association of independent sovereign

states mostly formed by the UK (Britain) and its former colonies. The members of
common wealth recognize Queen Elizabeth II as the head of the common wealth.
It’s Origin. The Common wealth originated from the Imperial Conference of the
late 1920’s which recognized the colonies, which had self-government within the
British Empire. Such colonies were Canada, Australia and New Zealand. They
were considered as equal in status with Britain. In 1931, Britain made a statute of
West Minster to establish Common wealth as an association of free and equal
states and membership based on common allegiance to the British Crown. Many
countries joined after Independence though many think it is after British
imperialism.
Its Principles
• The principles were given out by the Declaration of Commonwealth in the

summit held in Singapore in 1972.The principles are:
• They believe and accept that peace and order are essential to the security and
success of humankind.
• They put beliefs in liberty of individuals and equal rights for all people.
• Recognize discrimination as an evil in the member countries.
• Oppose all forms of colonial exploitation and discrimination in the members.

• They believe absence of equality in wealth create social tensions. Therefore,

they are committed to development and improve the living standard.
• Attain free flow of international trade for all countries.
• Promote international co-operation and tolerance.
• Maintain the security of each member from foreign aggression.
• Promote the exchange of knowledge, ideas on education, culture, economic and
legal matters.
It’s Organs. Common Wealth has 4 organs including:

a) The Secretariat- It was made in 1965. It has been based in London. Secretary
General elected by heads of the government heads it. Since it started, secretaries
such as have headed it: Arnold Smith, Shadrack Raphael, Emeka Anyaouku
from Nigeria and Don Mackinnon, from New Zealand in 2004.
The secretariat is the main body far the exchange of information among the
members and solving various problems. It functions through several branches
such as:
International Affairs —, which deals with matters like democratic practices in
many countries.
Economic Affairs Division - which is concerned with trade, finance, and
industrializing the members.
Science and technology -It tries to promote rural technology and energy.
Food production and rural development.
Export market Development — helps less developed nations to secure markets
and improve their goods.
Arts and sports—deals with regular performance of the dancers from all
members of Common Wealth in London. It also organizes all Common wealth
Games.
Education - members co-operate in areas like teacher training and book

production.
The common Wealth fund for technical co-operation provides fund to train
personnel in sectors like agriculture and transport.
Others are Youth, Health, Law and Information.

b) Common wealth heads of Government Meeting — it contains presidents or

prime ministers. They meet for a week after every two years to discuss political
problems and economic affairs. Then establish consensus on various matters.
c) Ministerial Meeting- It is composed of ministers of member states. They meet
to consult on issues. The foreign ministers meet before heads of state. Ministers
of Finance meet annually. Ministers of Education Health and law also meet to
discuss matters of co-operation.
d) High Commissioners-they work as ambassadors to countries they are posted.
Members of common wealth
Many ex-British colonies are members with exception of Mozambique which was
ruled by the Portuguese but joined Common wealth in 1995. Zimbabwe was firstly
suspended in 2002 over concerns with unfair elections and land reform policies of
Robert Mugabe’s ZANU — PF. The Government of Zimbabwe left completely in
2003 after Britain Australia and other members condemned its policies. United
States,
Egypt and Israel do not show interest in joining the common wealth in spite of
being ex-British colonies.
Most of the members share similar culture such as the use of English language, the
common law system and wigged judges in courts. British system of administration
and driving on the left side of the roads. Currently there are 59 members in the
world.
The Benefits of Common Wealth to Tanzania
a) Tanzania expands markets and sources of foreign currency because normally

members charge low tariff on the export from common wealth.
b) It provides a chance to Tanzania to join international forums for discussion
of social, economic and political problems.
c) Tanzania gets aid and services of the division of the secretariat of Common
wealth. For example economic affairs division deals with industrial
problems in Tanzania while common wealth Youth programmes help to
train some youth leaders and officials in Community development.
d) Tanzania sportsmen, women, and those who participate in different games
get a chance to promote their talents by participating in common wealth

games. They can also get some money for their own life.
Problems in the Common Wealth
• Some problems are facing common wealth countries. These problems include:
• Civil war in Sierra Leone in 2000 led to the loss of lives. The war still made it
impossible for Sierra Leone to unite with others against political, social and
economic problems.
• Poverty especially in African and Asian states create situations in which
majority the people cannot get adequate income education, water and health
services.
• Britain’s domination over other members has prevailed since the creation of
Common Wealth. Britain has had much power in making decision and
determining major actions by the members. All the members conduct their ways
of life according to the British culture; former colonial master.
• Poor leadership has existed in many member countries. Many leaders especially
in Africa tend to mismanage the economy of their nations by using the national
income for their private personal gains. An example of such leaders is Mr.
Chiluba the ex-president of Zambia was accused of the misuse of money during
his rule.
• Multiple memberships among the member states such as Tanzania have
membership in SADC, EAC and AU. Members like Tanzania can stressfully
participate in this organization.
NON - ALIGNED MOVEMENT (NAM): It was a movement, which was mainly

formed by Afro-Asian states and Yugoslavia in order to protect themselves against
any exploitation, oppression and pressure from either the capitalist camp led by
USA or socialist camp led by USSR during the cold war and any other imperialist
nations after 1945. NAM officially started under Tito to as the chairperson in 1961
in Belgrade, Yugoslavia after efforts, which had been made in Bandung, Indonesia
in 1955 expressing the need for unity between Afro -Asian states.
Its Objectives or Goals
• Promote economic balance between developed and developing nations.

• Oppose any policy, which violates human rights and self-awareness of all over
the world.
• Oppose segregation or discrimination based on race.

• Solve conflicts peacefully between nations.
• Oppose military alliances and pacts such as NATO and Warsaw Pact led by
U.S.S.R
• Oppose establishments of foreign military base in the third world countries.
In September 1998, NAM members had XII summit in Durban, South Africa.
In this summit, they seem to have added new objectives to the original
objectives. They introduced those objectives because they experienced new
problems such as terrorism, famine, AIDS, poverty, environmental destruction,
changing world from two to single super power and globalization in which the
rich countries require the weak nations to open boundaries for foreign
investments.
The new objectives included:
• Emancipation of women and respect for the rights of people such as children,
Elders and disable persons.
• Creation of jobs and increase of education, health and water for the people.
• Eliminate corruption, and promote good governance in member countries.
• Co-operate in order to remove the burden of debts on developing countries.
• Maintain peace in the members and oppose terrorism in the world.
The Principles of NAM

• Attain solidarity and oppose all actions, which endanger independence.
• All members have the right to participate in international relations on equal
basis.
• Members have to give support to the efforts of disarmament.
• Work together with regional organizations such as SADC, COMESA, and
ECOWAS.
Problems of NAM
• It had members, which still abused human rights for example in Uganda under
ldd Amin in 1970’s many people was killed.
• Poor economy among the members still exists to the present.

• Civil war in many countries such as Pakistan and Indian weakened unity
between the members.
• Un-equal terms of trade between the members and the developed nations in the
world market. Developing nations normally sell their products at low prices.
Benefits of NAM to the Members
• They secure larger markets for products from agriculture and industries.
• They were able to make neutral decisions, which were not imposed by U.S.A.
or USSR.
• It helped the members to reduce dependence on western capitalist nations.
• It united the developing nations in the struggle against any mistreatment from
powerful nations during the period of world war.
• It helped some nations such as Namibia to get her independence from the
Boers.
Conclusion: Though NAM was formed by the states to protect themselves against
the super powers and other imperialist nations, the movement is still needed at this
moment where the U.S.A acts as a super power of the world. The states face many
problems such as unequal terms of trade with big countries, poverty, low level of
technology and production in agriculture. They have to unite ad press for equal
terms of trade and assist each other in technology, industries and bring social
services to the people in their countries. Changes which can be made in the
organization is the name ‘Non-Aligned Movement because in the matter of fact its
members today are aligned with the policies of U.S.A. and western European
countries.
Even the period before the late 1980’s many of the NAM members were allied to
the socialist camp at the same time tried to practice non-alliance. However, the
situation today is worse because all members are openly linked with USA-policies.
They do not have to call themselves Non-Aligned countries.
SAMPLE QUESTION
1. Examine eight challenges of Non Aligned Movement (Necta, 2011, Q no. 8)
HOW TO ANSWER HISTORY ESSAY QUESTIONS

When answering history essay type questions you should adhere to the following
procedures;
1. Read the asked questions thoroughly so that you can detect what exactly the said
questions demand. In order to know exactly what the demand of the question try
to observe the terminologies used in the question.
2. Make a recall on the points necessary in answering the given questions.
3. Start writing your essay by providing introduction: Normally, an introduction
should clearly define the key words, giving periodisation, as well as other
relevant issues based on the asked questions.
4. Then, create a coherent (linking) words/statement in order to draw attention to
the one who will be reading your essay.
5. Put your points at the beginning of every paragraph; never hide your points by
putting it at the middle of your paragraph. Normally the given point has to be
well explained followed by relevant and plausible examples basing on the asked
question.
6. Create a relevant conclusion, when concluding avoids making repetition of the
given points, you should give your general comment/judgment. Most of the
students fail to score in this part since they provide conclusion, which do not
qualify in academic writing.
7. Make sure that you maintain tidiness and cleanliness by having good
handwriting, using simple and well grammatical English so that your work can
be more attractive to anyone who sees it.
8. Be precise in choosing the right question. Sometimes a question carries two sides
for example, a candidate may be asked to discuss the causes and effects of First
World War. In this regard, the allocation of marks will base on causes and effects
thus do not put much focus on only one side rather both. Alternatively, if there
are other questions that you may opt it is potential to skip a question that has two
sides and instead attempt a question that direct ask a candidate to produce only
points basing on one side example, Explain the roles of agents of colonialism to
the colonization of Africa.
To enable your competences in writing good and scholarly essays, read the given
sample essays to guide you.
1. Analyze six characteristic features of first non-exploitative mode of

production
Communalism refers to as the first mode of production, which was non-exploitative in

nature. It implied the communal ownership of major means of production by all
members. Each specific group was assigned communal works to perform according to
their age, size and capabilities. It was mainly practiced by societies like Tindiga,
Hadzabe and Dorobo. The following are the characteristics of the communal mode of
production.
It was characterized by communal ownership of major means of production. This is
because all major means of production in terms of land and labor were owned and
controlled by the whole society, additionally, there was no private ownership of major
means of production and the products obtained were equally divided to all members in
society.
Production relations was based on cooperation as there was no exploitation of man by
many people cooperated during production without allocating specific task to individual
person and the product obtained especially out from the harvest or hunting exercise was
further equally shared by all members.
It was characterized by low level of development of productive forces such as tools (hoe
and axes) developed to be used in production was so poor (crude), this forced them to
perform subsistence agriculture in which production is only meant for food source and
surplus if present is sold.
It was characterized by low level of development of political institutions such as political
institution by this time like armies were hardly developed, there was no any army or
court that was prepared but for the case of emergency the whole clan or communal area
would have to go into war to their interests.
Societies lived in small kingship according to the blood relations. This was seen through
clan expansion in a small area as people lived basing on the relationship existed.
Generally, communalism did not last for long time because of the social changes that
occurred, the increased in population and need for surplus production was few factor to
mention that spearheaded the need to change mode of production to slavery mode of
production, which was indeed exploitative in nature.

2. Elaborate six techniques used by colonialists to obtain laborers during the

colonial period
Colonial labor refers to the labor that was employed (used) by the colonialists in various
colonial sectors for instance in mining, agriculture, industries and even in the whole
process of building/ construction of infra structures like, roads, railways, and office
work. The colonialists made use of African laborer deliberately as it was difficult and
expensive to get labor from Europe in thus colonialists had to think on how they could
meet this challenge African laborers became a solution to this phenomena as colonialists
exploited heavily their energy by paying them how wages. The notable techniques used
by colonialists to get laborers during colonial period were as follows;
They imposed different taxes to the Africans; this was because colonial government
imposed poll, cattle and head taxes to Africans. The introduced taxes were to be paid in
cash and it was difficult for the Africans to get cash needed to meet the introduced taxes
Africans were eventually forced to sell their laborer power to the white settlers’
plantations and mines order get cash for paying tax.
Colonialists passed legislation (laws) that aimed to force Africans work for them. Good
example in 1920’s the British colonial government passed Master servant land act
popularly known as Kipande system in Kenya in which Africans in Kenya were forced to
work in settlers’ farms for a certain agreed number of days (90 -180 days) per year and
there was a special identification card (Kipande) which mark the a completion of
assigned task.
Colonialists Introduced foreign goods especially luxurious items in terms of clothes, food
staffs and ornaments. Africans being made a market for European manufactured goods
from Europe made up from African raw materials it later motivated them to provide their
labor power so that they can have access to possess these finished European goods.
Colonialists introduced land alienation and this was manifested with Master ordinance
land act of 1915 especially in Kenya in which the British colonial government forced

Africans to surrender all best land to the white settlers and who ever went against this
law could be severely punished by being sentenced to prison, in course of time Africans
remained landless. This act brought much consequence to Africans having been removed
from their area, which were fertile, and being squeezed into unfertile (marginalized)
area, they started living by depending on their labor power especially by working to the
whites to earn a living. (for survive).
Colonialists created labor reserves centers (regionalism). This was because some area
were made to act as a source of their labor for instance Kigoma, Ruvuma, Rukwa and
Dodoma were made to produce labor where as Morogoro, Tanga and parts of
Kilimanjaro were for plantations, similarly, in Uganda especially northern region was
made to provide their labor. This enabled the colonialists to have access in getting
needed laborers who would in turn work in their farms.
They destroyed the Africans economies such as industries and replaced with European
imported goods. In so doing African self-sufficient economy like barter trade that in a
sense enabled them to have equal exchange of goods among Africans particularly for
their immediate consumption (demands) like food later European destroyed it and
introduced system of money economies forced all transactions (buying of goods) to be
done through cash bases this forced Africans work in colonial plantations as a solution
of getting money.
Briefly, African laborers were extremely undermined by the colonialists as seen on how
African laborers were poorly fed, accommodated and lowly paid. Besides, the act of
utilizing African laborers during colonial period can be counted as the root cause for the
underdevelopment of African continent because Africans economies lacked needed
laborers to work for them.
3. Elaborate six roles of agents of colonialism to the colonization of African

continent.
Colonialism refers to the process whereby one powerful nation dominates the weaker
nations in all aspects of life that is socially, politically as well as economically. This was
very much common due to the imperialist nations like Britain, France, Belgium and Italy
dominating the African colonies during the 19th C. Colonialism was facilitated by the
agents of colonialism of which were the ones of whom persuaded/penetrated the rise of
colonization in the African continent. This involved the explorers like David Livingstone,
John Speke, Mungo Park, and Missionaries like Dr. Living Stone, Ludwing Kraft and
John Rebman. Also the Merchants like William Mackinnon under IBEACO (Imperial
British East African Company), Cecil Rhodes under BSAC (British South African
Company), and George Goldie under Royal Niger Company, all with the aim of causing
colonization.
The following were the contributions of the agents of colonialism to the colonization of
Africa.
They abolished slave trade (1873); this was the strategy of the imperialist nations due the
industrial revolution in their nations. In this way, missionaries were sent to African
continent to remove the slavery and slave trade. In addition, some of the British
abolitionists like Moresby (1822), Harmeton (1845) and also Barrle feere (1873). This
was to concertize their interests of coming in Africa and colonizing it easily by the
imperialists.
They signed bogus treaties; this involved the work done by the explorers and some of the
traders/merchants in many parts of Africa. This was to encourage the officialization of
the resources like land from the chiefs, for example, Karlpeeters of GEACO (Germany
East African Company) made a bogus treaty with sultan Mangungo of Msowero, and
Cecil Rhodes of BSACO (British South African Company) made a bogus treaty with chief
Lubengula of Ndebele in Southern Rhodesia.
They exposed the hinterland of (interior) to the external world; this involved the
collection of the various information from the African continent towards their mother
countries. Explorers of whom they sent sensitive information of land scenery mainly did
this. For example, John Speke went back in his mother country with the information about
source of river Nile of which was Lake Victoria, David Living Stone discovered the
Victoria Falls (Zambia).
They spread Christianity, this was the role played by the missionaries in the African
colonies so as to allow the prevention of colonialism. It was through the civilization of
the Africans towards imperialists’ colonization for example, Dr. Ludwing Kraph formed
the Crus at Rabai mpya at Mombasa in 1844. In addition, there were several church
societies like the Holy Ghost fathers, London Missionary society, UMOA and white
fathers.
They introduced cash crop production; the missionaries in the African colonies mainly
did this by putting more emphasis on cash crop production like the coffee, cocoa, sisal,
tea and tobacco, these were the raw materials for the imperialists, as they would come to
the African areas to colonize for imperialistic interests. For example, the missionaries in
Ghana motivated much on the cocoa production as the raw materials.
They sent important information to their mother countries this involved the sending
information of the strategic areas towards the imperialists. The explorers did this and
also some traders from companies for example, De Braze of Congo of whom was working
for King Leopold II of Belgium, Cecil Rhodes in Southern Rhodesia under B.S.A.Co,
George Goldie of Royal Niger Company in the Niger Delta potentiality.
Generally, the agents of colonialism led to the occupation of African continent towards
the imperialists during the 19th C. this is whereby it was after the Berlin conference of
1884-1885. The evils of colonialism were the effective exploitation of the African
resources, destruction of the African culture and also the inferior of African race.
4. Examine any six reasons as to why Mandika resistance took long time than
any other resistance in Africa.
Colonialism refers to the situation whereby developed nations like France, Britain and
France control or rule another weak country in social, economic and political affairs.
Colonialism started during the 19th C due to the development of capitalism in its
monopoly stage. On the other hand, Mandika resistance was a type of African resistance
against the establishment of French rule in Guinea. Samoure Toure led the movement
from 1891 to 1898. The following are the reasons as to why Mandika resistance took long
time;
They had strong army called “sofa” that were well drilled and disciplined, so, they
developed their efforts to fight against the French encroachment from 1891-1898.
They had an efficient system of calling up the reserves who then calves underwent annual
military training. Each time the number of soldiers could be decreased in the battle while
others would be called to fill the gap and confront the French.
They already had an efficient trade network of getting fire ours from the coast, even from
French trades. He used such weapons to fight against the French. Samoure Toure also
opened up his Owen armories, which not only repaired his weapons but also
manufactured effective copies of them.

They used good military technique that is scorched earth policy. As the army fought the
soldiers burnt all the crops on the way of the French they could not have food for their
troops. This eventually weakened French soldiers since they faced with hunger and
starvation.
The Mandika people had a very efficient administration of his empire so that when he
was defeated in the battle he could move the headquarters without too much destruction
for example; he moved his whole empire eastwards to a completely new area in the face
of French successes. The French could not capture Samoure Toure easily. He held off
French advances while he rebuilt his empire.
The use of guerilla was tactics helped Samoure Toure and his people so much. His
soldiers did not only confront the soldiers in open battle but also crushed them bunch
which his troops known much better that the French army.
Generally, the French army defeated Samoure Toure and his people since they used the
modern weapons than that of Mandika people, the emergence of natural disaster, which
affected the Mandika people, and other weaknesses that faced Mandika people fueled to
their defeat.
5. Inherited problems from colonial past are major hindrances to the

development of African countries. Justify this statement.
Development is a gradual change from low to higher stage. Imperialists mostly colonized
African countries for quite long. The colonialists only aimed at exploiting African wealth
such as minerals and raw materials such as ivory, gold, iron, cotton and wax. In this way,
the colonialists left Africans with number of problems that now become hindrances to
African development. The following are some inherited problems from colonial legacy.
Poverty and unstable among African countries is among the challenges facing most
African countries right from the attainment of independence in a sense that colonialists
heavily exploited Africans to the point of remaining extremely poor and thus live in bad
conditions. In addition to that, Africans still live by depending on foreign countries led by
Britain, USA and the like. This has become an obstacle to the development of the continent
because Africans cannot decide on their own matters, majority also still living under
dollar they cannot afford meeting a balanced diet and other social demands.

Poor social service is another challenge mostly encountered African countries right from
the independence. This is because during the colonial era colonialists posed it purposely
and unevenly depending on the site of colonial economy like plantations and mines,
however, these services were poorly provided. The education given to Africans meant to
train few Africans who could serve for the colonial interests as messengers, clerks and
teachers. This situation made it difficult to get well-trained African personnel who would
work for their favor. Besides, the health services provided by then were poor.
This trend still facing many African countries despite the attainment of their
independence because transport system is indeed poor, hospitals still lack experts worse
still Africans’ education still of European curricular.
Gender imbalance is another problem facing African countries to development. This has
its roots right from colonial social services where education was provided basing on
gender lines. Equally important, after independence women still remaining in
backwardness as they are less regarded and majority regard them terrible comparing to
men.
In Tanzania for example, many women are only responsible for family taking care rather
than contributing in national building. Imbalances in gender have been acting as a barrier
to development of a given nation in Africa.
Ignorance and illiteracy is among the stumbling factor to the development of African
continent. This is because most people in Africa are un educated and the root cause of
this phenomena emanated from colonial era where few especially sons of chiefs had
access to education. This trend has in turn created a big gap among Africans where the
educated among Africans exploit no-educated class causing chaos and mistrust among
them.
New-colonialism as a situation in which an independent country becomes less free in
deciding her own matter in terms of resources (both human and materials) utilization is
a critical problem that hinders the development of African countries because mostly,
Africans still depending on donors from developed countries through being granted aids
and grants this in turn creates the exploitation our valuable resources particularly
minerals and raw materials due to the fact that the prices for our produce are determined
by foreigners, also the exchange of money is un fair and unevenly to Africans. More than
those African leaders are being remote by foreigners in leading their countries. In this
case whatever decided by African leaders aim at meeting foreign interests.
To bring to a close the above discussion it may be concluded that African countries have
been employing several accounts aiming to mitigate the problems that impinge them
particularly the declaration policies like Ujamaa and self-reliance in Tanzania. Others
decide to establish campaign for national buildings like Harambee in Kenya as well as
humanism in Zambia are few examples to mention in this regard. In addition, they have
keenly involved in regional groupings like COMESA, ECOWAS, SADC, EAC and the
likes. All these have been aiming at maintaining African development.
6. Appraise six roles played by the colonial state to support Settler

agriculture in Kenya
Settler agriculture was a type of colonial agriculture established by Europeans who came
to settle in Africa and later they engaged in production of raw materials. It was much
developed in Kenya and Zimbabwe where it was characterized by land alienation,
existence of taxation, forced labor, low wages as well as existence of monoculture.
The following are the central arguments on the roles played by the colonial state to
support settler agriculture in Kenya.
The settlers were given improved social services like education, health services and water
supply. This was done as the way to motivate the white settlers to engage in production of
raw materials like cotton, sisal, rubber which were indeed needed as raw materials in
capitalist’s industries from Europe.
The colonial government ensured constant supply of labors to the setter farms. To this,
accomplish this, the colonial government introduced land alienation, forced labor and
taxation. For instance, Kipande system, low wages were put in place in order to encourage
the natives to provide labor in their farms.

The colonial government exempted (excluded) the white settler from paying taxes. This
was to encourage settler production where setter was not allowed to pay any kind of tax.
This was deliberately reserved to Africans who were forceful to pay it.
The colonial government did not allow the natives to grow cash crops. This was because
the colonial government wanted to avoid market cooperation between Africans and white
settlers. In addition, they wanted to ensure availability of labor in settler farms.
The colonial government provided subsides during drastic climatic change. The white’s
settlers were given soft loans, fertilizers and pesticide so as to encourage them to engage
in production of raw-materials such as cotton, sisal and coffee which were highly needed
so as to solve the industrial needs in Europe.
The colonial government introduced and improved the introduction of modern

infrastructures such as railways and roads, which passed through the white settler farms.
The whites later on used these infrastructures as a means to transport their crops to the
coast ready for export of raw materials and labor.
To sum up the settler agriculture in Kenya has both positive and negative impact in Kenya.
This is because, issues like introduction and improvement of modern infrastructures like
railways, improvement in provision of social services, intensive exploitation forced labor
and low wages.
7. Examine six contributions of welfare associations to the rise of nationalism in

Africa.
African nationalism refers to the political desire of Africans to unite as the nation
so as to eliminate the foreign rule with the intention of ruling themselves in social,
political and economic affairs. The movement gained momentum after the Second World
War due to the internal pressure such as the role played by African elites like Nelson
Mandela who championed for the decolonization of African country, intensive colonial
exploitation. Apart from internal influence, there were external factors as supported by
the role played by ex-soldiers, the role-played United Nations Organization (U.N.O.
Welfare associations were the workers associations which formed by the African who
were employed in various colonial economic sectors like mining industries and

plantations. Examples of welfare association formed by Africans were Tanganyika

African Association (TAA) and Kenya African Association (KAA).
The role played by welfare associations to the rise of nationalism in Africa were as
follows;
They opposed racial discrimination, which was practiced by Europeans. The formation
of welfare associations such as Tanganyika African Association started to oppose the
racial discrimination hence this action raised self-awareness to Africans, thus they
started to demand for their lost independence from the colonial government.
They created foundation for education. This was because the formation of welfare
associations demanded the Africans to get access to education so as to oppose the use of
African chiefs as the puppets during the system of indirect rule. They wanted their posts
to be run by elected Africans hence it raised African nationalism so as to demand their
lost independence.
They showed the evils of colonialism to their fellow Africans such as force labor, raised
discrimination, low wages and land alienation. These factors created the rise of self-
awareness to Africans and they saw the need of uniting so as to oppose the colonial
government. from the point is where the Africans started to demand for their lost
independence from the colonial government.
They facilitated the formation of political parties. This was as the way of uniting all
Africans regardless of their job, religion or color in order to achieve this situation is
where most of this welfare associations changed to political parties for instance, the
Tanganyika African Association changed to Tanganyika Africans Nationalist Union
(TANU), which enabled the attainment of independence on 9th December 1961.
They exposed Africans political feelings to the colonialist. Through this way is where
colonialist discovered the needs of Africans towards achieving their major roles. Again,
these factors created self-awareness to Africans hence they started to force various as the
way to demand for their majority rule.
Most of welfare associations opposed colonial intensive exploitation. For example,

peasant co-operatives disliked low prices of cash crops, the workers associations
demanded high salaries and opposed low wages.

Generally, welfare associations contributed greatly to the attainment of African

independence after the change of these associations to political parties for instance the
change from Tanganyika African Association (TAA) to Tanganyika African National
Union (TANU) a political party that spearheaded the attainment of the independence in
Tanganyika due to its effort to cement a solid unity among the Africans.
8. Why did Ethiopians managed to defeat foreign encroachment and give any six
(6) reasons for the success of Ethiopia.
Answers:
Ethiopia resistance was a type of African resistance against the establishment of

colonial rule in Ethiopia. Menelik II led the resistance from 1986 over the Italians. The
Ethiopian leader was able to unite his people by encouraging strong unity and solidarity
so as to fight against the Italian in order to preserve their culture and protect their trading
interest. They aimed at promoting social political and economic development of their
country.
The following are the central arguments as to why Ethiopians managed to defeat foreign
encroachment and access their resistance;
The geographical advantage. This factors influenced greatly to the success of Ethiopian
resistance since the country consists of mountainous great valleys, semi desert which
hindered penetration of Italians.
The existence of strong unity and solidarity motivated the success of Ethiopian resistance
since it enables them to have the common goal to fight against the Italians. The strong
unity and solidarity was influenced by the spread of Christian religion to many
Ethiopians hence, they were able to fight against the Italians.
The emergence of strong and outstanding leadership of Menelik II. The presence of strong
leadership motivated the success of Ethiopian’s resistance since he was able to
encourage strong unity and solidarity also he could encourage the people to fight against
the Italians. He was also able to organize his people on their way to fight the Italians.
The existence of strong standing army, which contributed to the success of Ethiopian
resistance since it, managed to defeat the Italian’s army.

Italy was still poor and weak nations, this factor motivated the success of Ethiopians
resistance since they were not capable to fight against the Ethiopians because of being
economically weak. This in turn made them to have poor organization to defeat the
Africans.
Menelik II adopted military weapons and fighting tactics from other European nations
such as Britain, Russia and Portugal who in turn encouraged and motivated the
Ethiopians to fight against the Italians.
Generally it may be concluded that, although Ethiopians were succeeded to defeat the
Italians encroachment still they were badly affected by the war taking into account that
they faced economic stagnation, death, massive destruction of social and physical
infrastructure like roads and health services.
9. Account for the challenges that were faced by the traders in the Trans-Saharan
trade.
Trans-Saharan trade was the trade, which was conducted across the Saharan desert
between the people of North Africa and West Africa. It also includes the people around
Mediterranean Sea Arabs from Asia. The trade started during the 8 th century and
developed in 10th century after introduction of camels.
In connection to the main body, the following are the central argument on the challenges
that were faced by the traders in the Trans-Saharan trade.
The introduction of Christian religion in West Africa societies. The introduction of

direction religion led to the emergence of religions conflict among the Muslims and
Christians. The situation resulted into the emergence of political unrest among the West
Africa societies, which resulted into the decline of Trans-Saharan trade.
The introduction of slave trade by the European. Slave traders. This factor caused the
transportation of slave who was taken to America to work in mines and plantation such
as sisal and coffee. This situation caused the emergence of depopulation to the decline of
Trans-Saharan Trade.
The introduction of European manufactured goods. The introduction such as clothes,

beads and alcohol discouraged market for Trans-Saharan Trade as their products lacked

market. In addition, it created fear and insecurity to trade. This was much influenced by
the coming of European traders who were capturing the African traders hence the Trans-
Saharan trade was no longer developed.
Fall of Western Sudanic States like Mali, Ghana and Songhai. These were trading centers
for Trans-Saharan Trade and the source of market for the commodities from North Africa.
Hence the trade was no longer developed.
The introduction of Triangular Slave Trade, this was because, the Triangular trade
changed its direction of trade routes instead of going to North Africa the trade route
changed to European, this made Trans-Saharan trade to collapse.
Despite its decline, Trans-Saharan Trade contributed greatly to the availability of strong
armies due to the presence of guns from the Arabs. However, more importantly, cities like
Gao, Timbuktu grew steadily because of high population, which acted as a catalyst for
the state formation.
10.Why did centralized states developed in interlacustrine region and not in arid
areas?
A state means the political unit with the centralize power to provide necessary services
like security needed by the people as well as collecting taxes. Interlacustrine regions
fares to the areas around Lake Victoria. Basically, in interlacustrine region there was
for motion of centralized states like Karagwe, Buganda and Bunyoro, which were
influenced by geographical setting to the area. The formation of these states was due to
the influence of pre-colonial societies to create social, political and economic
development.
The following are the central arguments on the reasons as to why centralized states
developed in interlacustrine region and not in arid areas.
Development of agricultural activities like bananas, maize. This was the one of the factor
that facilitated the formation of centralized state in intercustrine regions since the
agriculture was developed as these areas received high amount of rainfall throughout
the year compared to semi arid areas, which has a tendency of receiving low amount of
rainfall in this case arid areas did not support agricultural development.

The emergency of large population influenced agriculture, which went hand in hand with
the emergence of surplus population. The emergence of large population facilitated the
emergence of centralized states in interlacustrine region since the population provided
labor in production activities as well as acted as market contrary to arid areas, which
tend to have low population due to poor production.
The emergence and development of trade especially long-distance trade. This was a
contributing factor for the development of centralized states in intercustrine region since
the trade facilitated the growth of population, which is contrary to semi arid region where
the trade was not developed.
The emergence of good geographical location especially equatorial region. The regions
around Lake Victoria had a tendency of receiving high amount of rainfall throughout the
year, which is unlike to semi- arid region. Due to this reason, it contributed greatly to the
emergence of centralized states to the intercustrine region since the geographical
location encouraged population growth, which in a sense promoted the development of
agriculture as well as development of of trade within these regions.
The presence of strong leadership like Rumanyika. The emergence of strong leaders like
Rumanyika, Kabaka Mutesa motivated the formation of centralized states since they were
able to encourage unity and solidarity among the people, which is contrary to semi-arid
region.
Generally, the emergence and development of centralized states in intercustrine region

verify (signifies) the development of political system in pre-colonial African societies as
the European claimed that there was no development of any kind before the advent of
colonialism which is not historically fact.
SECTION C (60 Marks) (NECTA 2015)
Answer three (3) questions from this section.

5. Explain six characteristics of the first nonexploitative mode of production.

6.
Elaborate six techniques used by colonialists to obtain labourers during the coloni
al period.
7.
Analyse the problems experienced during the struggle for independence in Tangan
yika.
8.
Discuss six contributions of the agents of colonialism to the colonization of Africa.
9. With examples show how the establishment of colonial economy affected the
African societies.
(Give six points).
10. Inherited problems from colonial past are major hindrances to the development
of Africa after independence. Justify this statement by giving six points.
SECTION C (60 Marks) NECTA 2014
Answer three (3) questions from this section.
1. Explain six effects of the pre-colonial contacts between the people of Africa
and Asia.
2. Elaborate six reasons, which made the Boers to escape to escape the Southern
African Cape between1830 and 1850.
3. Analyze six methods that were used by the imperialists in imposing colonial
rule in Africa.
4. How did the First World War affect the East African colonies? Give six points
to support
your answer.
5. Examine six factors, which enabled Tanganyika to attain her independence
earlier than Kenya.
6. “Migrant laborers were very useful to the capitalists during colonial economy
in Africa.” Substantiate this statement by giving six points.


History Form Four Notes Senkolink 0652372705

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

History Form Four Notes Senkolink 0652372705

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

History Form Four Notes Senkolink 0652372705

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SENKOLINK.

COM HISTORY FORM FOUR FULL NOTES 23/12/20222

CRISES IN THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM

1. THE FIRST WORLD WAR

THE TREND OF THE WAR

FOR MORE VIST www.senkolink.com 0652372705 pg. 1

THE CAUSES OF THE WW1

FOR MORE VIST www.senkolink.com 0652372705 pg. 3

FOR MORE VIST www.senkolink.com 0652372705 pg. 4

2. Deaths amongst Africans especially in Germany colonies such as Tanganyika and

THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION 1929- 1933

CHARACTERISTICS OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION

CAPITALIST PRODUCTION CYCLE

BOOM STAGE (PEAK)

3. High standard of living

THE CAUSES OF THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION

by producing as much as possible. This created over production of merchandise

EFFECTS OF THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION AFRICA

MEASURES TAKEN BY THE COLONIAL POWERS TO ALLEVIATE THE

a) Introduction and expansion in consolidating the peasant cooperative societies e.g.

b) They initiated more campaign in most African colonies by establishing more

c) They allowing peasants in settlers economy like Kenya and Zimbabwe to

e) The colonial government begun to intervene in agriculture sector by

g) In addition, the colonial government increased the activities in mining of gold

FOR MORE VIST www.senkolink.com 0652372705 pg. 10

THE SECOND WORLD WAR

FOR MORE VIST www.senkolink.com 0652372705 pg. 11

ii) It had no clear charter towards maintenance of the world peace.

3. Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935 (Abyssinia Crisis of 1935) This crisis came

FOR MORE VIST www.senkolink.com 0652372705 pg. 12

4. The effects of the Great economic depression of 1929 – 1933 contributed to

6. Attack of Poland by Germany (Invasion of Poland). This was the immediate

EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

2. It led to the establishment of the United Nations Organization on 24 th

4. WW II led to the rise of massive nationalism in the world especially in

FOR MORE VIST www.senkolink.com 0652372705 pg. 14

EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR (WW II) ON AFRICA

FOR MORE VIST www.senkolink.com 0652372705 pg. 15

6. The Second World War led to establishment of import substitution

8. Socialism Ideology started to spread in African states following the USSR

such as Sukuma cotton agricultural scheme, Nachingwea groundnuts scheme and

NATIONALISM AND DECOLONIZATION PROCESS IN AFRICA

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE TOPIC

AFRICAN NATIONALISM. African nationalism is the desire of African people

THE PROCESS OF DECOLONISATION

The process of decolonization or liberation was paramount (fundamental) in Africa

EXTERNAL FACTORS are in other words referred to as INTERNATIONAL

A: EXTERNAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM

1. The Impact Of The Second World War (WW II) Of 1939-1945

2. The Role Played By Ex-Soldiers Or Returned Soldiers From The Second

3. The role played by Pan-Africanism movement.

Pan-Africanism implanted the spirit oneness, unity, solidarity, dignity and

5. The Role Played By the United States (Us)

6. The Role Played By the British Labor Party.

FOR MORE VIST www.senkolink.com 0652372705 pg. 20

8. The role played by the United Nations by then UNO.

9. The Contribution of the independence of India and Pakistan.

INTERNAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF MASS NATIONALISM

1. Intensive colonial exploitation in Africa

2. The role played by the African elites.