1

2
POWER
Introduction To Power Electronics
Uncontrolled Rectifier
1
3

3
4
ELECTRONICS
Controlled Rectifier
Half Wave Three Rectifier
10
22

35
5 DC Chopper
40
6 Inverter
45
7 AC Voltage Controller

NIK ROSLINI BINTI NIK IBRAHIM

Power
1
Electronics
 1
1 Introduction To Power Electronics
3
2 Uncontrolled Rectifier
Second Edition published 2021
3 © Politeknik Rectifier
Controlled Kuala Terengganu 10
22
4 Half Wave Three Rectifier
5 DC All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted
Chopper 35 in
any form or by any means, electronics or mechanical including photocopying,
40
6 Inverter
recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior
7 AC written
Voltage permission from the publisher.
Controller 45

Published by:
Politeknik Kuala Terengganu
Jalan Sultan Ismail,
20200 Kuala Terengganu
Terengganu

Power
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 Table of

CONTENT

1 Introduction To Power Electronics 1

2 Uncontrolled Rectifier 9
1
1 3 Introduction To Power
Controlled Rectifier Electronics 19
3
2 4
Uncontrolled Rectifier
Half Wave Three Rectifier 27
10
3 Controlled Rectifier
5 DC Chopper 22 32
4 Half Wave Three Rectifier
35
5 6 DC Chopper
Inverter 41
40
6 7
Inverter
AC Voltage Controller 49
45
7 AC Voltage Controller
8 References 56

9 Answers 57

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Power Electronics

Suitable for diploma students, this book concise for students to understand
the characteristics of converters in electrical engineering. It contains basic
theory and practical foundations for power electronics such as
uncontrolled rectifiers, controlled rectifiers, three phase rectifiers,
choppers, inverters and voltage regulators. Using PSIM software to
construct the circuit and waveform. Users are guided how to apply and
analyse the techniques.

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Introduction To Power Electronics

1 Introduction To Power Electronics

Power Electronics is the study of switching electronic circuits in order

to control the flow of electrical energy. Its are exciting and challenging
for anyone who has an interest in, and aptitude in applied science and
mathematics. It is concerned to systems that produce, transmit,
control and measure electric power and energy. It can be considered
to be an interdisciplinary technology.

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Introduction To Power Electronics

1.1 Basic Operation of Switch Mode Power Supply

A switch mode power supply (SMPS) is The basic switch mode power
a power converter that utilises supplies (SMPS) are categorized
switching devices such as MOSFETs, based on supply input and output
SCRs, TRIACs and IGBTs that voltage. The main four groups are:
continuously turn on and off at high AC to DC
frequency; and energy storage devices DC to DC
such as the capacitors and inductors to DC to AC
supply power during the non- AC to AC
conduction state of the switching The main components of an SMPS are:
device. • Input rectifier and filter
SMPS provide improved efficiency & • Inverter consisting of a high
space saving over traditional linear frequency signal and switching devices
supplies, but care has to be taken to • Power transformer
ensure noise on the output is low. Its • Output rectifier
widely used in computers and other • Feedback system and circuit control
sensitive electronic equipment.

Figure 1.1 Basic Switched Mode Power Supply block diagram

( Source: https://www.sunpower-uk.com/)

High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)

A HVDC electrical power transmission
system uses direct current for the bulk
transmission of electrical power.
HVDC use converters : AC to DC and DC to
AC, 12 pulse circuits consists of bridges
and transformer.
For long distance transmission, HVDC
systems may be less expensive and suffer
lower electrical losses.
Figure 1.2 Gurun HVDC Converter Station In Malaysia, there has one HVDC
(Source from HVDC Transmission, Gurun) Converter Station at Gurun, Kedah
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Introduction To Power Electronics

1.2 Power Electronics Devices In Industry

In modern systems the conversion is performed with semiconductor switching

devices such as diodes, transistors or thyristors. This power devices are used as
ON/OFF switches in power control circuit.

POWER
POWER
DIODE
TRANSISTOR
POWER DEVICES

DIODES TRANSISTOR THYRISTOR IGBT

General purpose BJT SCRs SCR
High Speed MOSFET GTO
Schottky IGBT RCT
SIT SITH
GATT
MOSFET
LASCR
MCT
TRIAC
TRIAC
Figure 1.3 Power electronics devices SWITCH GATE TURN OFF
THYRISTOR ( GTO)

Figure 1.4 Switching devices

Figure 1.5 Power Generation : efficiency or power density

( Source: Inverter Technology Trends and Market Expectations report, May 2016, Yole Development)

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1.3 I-V Characteristic of Devices

Figure 1.6.1 I-V Characteristic of diode Figure 1.6.2 I-V Characteristics of an N-

channel of MOSFET

Figure 1.6.4 I-V Characteristics of IGBT Figure 1.6.3 I-V Characteristics of GTO-SCR

Figure 1.6.5 V-I Characteristics of SCR Figure 1.6.6 I-V Characteristics of TRIAC

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1.4 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Figure 1.7.1 Symbol of a SCR Figure 1.7.2 The structure of a SCR

Turning ON and Turning OFF SCR

From the characteristics of SCR, it can be seen that two condition must be met to turn-on SCR:
i) Anode voltage should be positive with respect to the cathode.
ii) Gate voltage should be positive with respect to the cathode.

The gate has no control over the SCR once it goes into conduction. Turn –off must be achieved
in the anode- to – cathode circuit such as:
i) Reversing anode to cathode terminal
ii) Forcing current in the anode circuit in the reverse direction
iii) Decrease forward current (IF) lower than holding current (IH) ( Gate –controlled effect)

Regeneration Action of SCR - refer to Figure 1.8.3

i) When the switch is closed, a positive triggered voltage is applied to the gate ( VGT).
The gate current IGT will flow and enough knee voltage, VBE to activate transistor Q1
ii) Collector current, IC1 will flow to the base transistor Q2 (IB2= IC1) and setup the
conditions for generations.
iii) Q2 is activated and act as a closed switch. This conditions will generate more current
in transistor Q1.
iv) Collector current IC2 will flow to the base of transistor Q1 ( IC2 = IB1)
v) The anode current, IA will continue to flow in the SCR even though the positive
triggering voltage, VGT is terminated.

Figure 1.8.3 Two transistor analogy of SCR

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1.5 Difference Wave Between Diode, SCR (Thyristor) and TRIAC

Figure 1.9 show Input and output ( conduction) waveform from selected devices.

Figure 1.9 Conducion waveform of devices

1.6 Matemathics Equations

Input voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,

1 𝑈
𝑉 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = න 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 (1.1)
𝑇 𝐿
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒔 = (1.2)
𝟐
RMS input voltage,
1 𝑈 Figure 1.10 Supply waveform
𝑉 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = න (𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 )2 𝑑𝜔𝑡 (1.3)
𝑇 𝐿 𝑚

1 𝜋
𝑉𝑖 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = න 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 1 𝜋
𝜋 0 𝑚 𝑉𝑖(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = න (𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 )2 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
= න sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0 𝑉𝑚 2 𝜋 1
= ‫( ׬‬1 − cos 2 𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0 2
𝑉𝑚
= − cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜋0 𝑉𝑚 2 1 sin2 𝜔𝑡 ) 𝜋
𝜋 = 𝜔𝑡 −
𝜋 2 2 𝜶
𝑉𝑚
= cos 0 − cos 𝜋
𝜋 1
2𝑉
𝑉𝑖 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 𝜋𝑚 (1.4) = 𝑉𝑚
2𝜋
𝜋−0 − 0

𝑽𝒎
(sin 𝜔𝑡 )2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 (1.5) 𝑽𝒔 = (1.7)
𝟐
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 = 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 (1.6)
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Introduction To Power Electronics

1.7 Output Equations

Figure 1.11 Output waveform

Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,

1 𝑈
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = න 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇 𝐿

1 𝜷
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = න 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇 𝜶 𝑚

𝑉𝑚 𝜷
= න sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇 𝜶
𝑉𝑚 𝜷
= − cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜶
𝑇
𝑉𝑚
= cos 𝜶 − cos 𝜷 (1.8)
𝑇
RMS output voltage,
1 𝑈
𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = න (𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 )2 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇 𝐿 𝑚

1 𝜷
𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = න (𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 )2 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇 𝜶 𝑚

𝑉𝑚 2 𝜷 1
= ‫ 𝜶׬‬2 (1 − cos 2 𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇

𝑉𝑚 2 1 sin2 𝜔𝑡 ) β
= 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑇 2 2 𝜶

1 sin2 𝜷) sin2 𝜶 )
= 𝑉𝑚 2𝑇
𝜷−𝜶 − 2
− 2 (1.9)

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Introduction To Power Electronics

1.8 Types of Power Electronics Circuits

Type of
Function Application
Converter
Uncontrolled An uncontrolled rectifier converts a  DC source for electronic
rectifier single-phase or three phase AC circuits
voltage to a fixed DC voltage.
( AC to DC
Converter ) Diodes are used as the rectifying
elements to provide power
conversion.

Controlled A controlled rectifier converts a  DC motor speed control from

rectifier single-phase or three phase fixed AC an AC source
voltage to a variable DC voltage.  Speed control of portable
( AC to DC power tools
Converter ) SCRs are used as the rectifying  High-voltage DC transmission
elements, providing both power  DC Power Supply
conversion and control.  Battery charger
DC Chopper A DC chopper converts a fixed DC  DC motor speed control from
voltage to a variable DC voltage a DC source
( DC to DC  Switching power supply
Converter )
Inverter An inverter converts a fixed DC  Uninterruptible power supply
voltage to a fixed or variable single- (UPS)
( DC to AC  Speed control of three-phase
phase or three-phase AC voltage and
Converter ) AC motors
frequency.
 Induction heating

AC voltage An AC voltage controller converts a  Light dimmer switch

controller fixed AC voltage to a variable AC  Control of heaters
voltage at the same frequency. There  Speed control of domestic
( AC to AC appliances
are two basic methods used in AC
Converter )  Reactive power control
voltage controllers – on-off control
and phase control.  Smooth starting of induction
motors

Cycloconverter Change and control voltage  Speed control of AC

magnitude and frequency motors
( AC to AC
 Constant frequency source
Converter )
for aircraft
Static switch A power device ( SCR and TRIAC )  Replacement for
can be operated as an AC or DC mechanical and
( AC or DC
switch, thereby replacing electromagnetic switches
Converter )
traditional mechanical and
electromagnetic switches.
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R

2 Uncontrolled Rectifier

Rectification is the process of converting the alternating voltages and

currents to direct currents and the device is known as rectifier.
Uncontrolled rectifier uses only diodes to rectify current. There are
two different types of uncontrolled rectifiers or diode rectifiers, half
wave and full wave rectifiers. Full-wave rectifiers has better
performance than half wave rectifiers. But the main advantage of half
wave rectifier is its need to less number of diodes than full wave
rectifiers.

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Uncontrolled Rectifier

2.1 Overview of Rectifier

There are two different types rectifiers: Uncontrolled rectifier and Controlled
rectifier.

Figure 2.1 Topology of single phase rectifier

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Uncontrolled Rectifier

2.2 Single-Phase Half-wave Uncontrolled Rectifier R load

The source voltage is a sine wave with a maximum

value Vm and period T .

 During positive half-cycle, diode turns on

(anode is positive with respect to cathode),
F
current flow through the load , RL. Thus , the
load voltage Vo follows the positive sine wave.
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅𝐿
 During negative half-cycle, diode turns off
(anode becomes negative with respect to
cathode), no current flow through the load ,
RL.
The half-wave rectifier contain a large ripple,
therefore it has limited practical value of high-
power applications.

Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,

𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝑉𝑚 Τ𝜋 = 0.318 𝑉𝑚 (2.1)
RMS output voltage,
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = (2.2)
2
The rectifier efficiency is defined as the
ratio of DC output power to AC input
𝑃
power: ŋ= 𝑃𝐷𝐶 (2.3)
𝐴𝐶

The AC power input ,

𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 *𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 (2.4)
Figure 2.2 Circuit and Waveform of
half-wave rectifier with R load The output DC power, Pdc = Vdc * Idc (2.5)
The output AC power, Pac = Vrms * Irms (2.6)
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉 2 𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝑉 2 𝑑𝑐 (2.7)
Ripple Factor,
𝑉𝑎𝑐
RF = = 𝐹𝐹 2 − 1 (2.8)
𝑉𝑑𝑐
Example 1:
𝑉𝑚
The rectifier shown in Figure 2.2(a) has a pure 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝜋
resistive load of R . FF = = 𝑉𝑚 = = 1.57
𝑉𝑑𝑐 2
𝜋
Determine:
(a) The efficiency, 𝑉𝑎𝑐
RF = = 𝐹𝐹 2 − 1 = 1.572 − 1 =
(b) Form factor 𝑉𝑑𝑐
(c) Ripple Factor 1.211
(d) Peak Inverse voltage (PIV) of diode D1
It is clear from Fig 2.2(b) that the PIV is 𝑉𝑚
Solution:
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑑𝑐 ∗ 𝐼𝑑𝑐 ∗
𝜋 𝜋𝑅
ɳ = = = 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 = 40.53%
𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∗ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∗
2 2𝑅

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Uncontrolled Rectifier

2.3 Single-Phase Half-wave Uncontrolled Rectifier RL load

Operation:

During positive half cycle:

 Diode D is forward biased, Current flow
through R and L. Energy is stored in the
electromagnetic field surrounding the
inductor.
 Because of inductance, the current Io
keeps on increasing until it reaches
maximum value.
 Output vpltage,Vo = Vs.
 At π , the supply –voltage reverse but
diode does not turn off, because the
inductance does not allow the current to
go zero instantly.

 The energy stored in the load inductance

is supplied to the main supply and the
load itself. The output is negative from π
to π + Ø .
During negative half cycle:

 The energy stored in the load inductance

is supplied to the main supply and the
load itself. The output is negative from π
Figure 2.3 Circuit and Waveform of
to π +Ø o.
half-wave rectifier with  As soon as the current is zero, Diode D
Inductive RL load
reversed biased. The diode remains off
for the rest of the negative cycle.
Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 1 − cos 𝛽 (2.9)
2𝜋

RMS output voltage,

𝑉𝑚 sin2 𝛽 )
𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝛽 − (2.10)
2 𝜋 2

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2.4 Single-Phase Half-wave Uncontrolled Rectifier with

Freewheeling Diode ( FWD)

Operation:

When positive half cycle:

 Diode D1 forward biased, freewheeling diode D2 is

reversed biased
 Vo is same as supply.
 Output current Io increase from zero

When negative half cycle:

(a)  Diode D1 reversed biased, Io tries to go zero, load
inductance does not allowed Io drop to zero
 Diode D2 forced to conduct. Output current flows
through the freewheeling diode
 Since diode D2 allows the inductor current circulate
through L, R and D2 is called freewheeling diode
because the current free-wheels through D2.

Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,

𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝑉𝑚 Τ𝜋 = 0.318 𝑉𝑚
RMS output voltage,

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) =
2

(b)

Figure 2.4 Half-wave rectifier inductive

load with a FWD (a) circuit diagram
(b) waveforms with large inductive load

A single-phase, half wave rectifier is not very practical due to its low average output voltage, poor
efficiency, and high ripple factor. These limitations can be overcome by full-wave rectification. Full-
wave rectififiers are more commonly used than half-wave rectifiers, due to their higher average
voltages and currents, higher efficiency, and reduced ripple factor. The center tapped full wave
rectifier uses a center tapped transformer to convert the input AC voltage into output DC voltage.

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Uncontrolled Rectifier

2.5 Single-Phase Full-wave Uncontrolled Rectifier

( Center Tapped)

(a)

Figure 2.5 Center tapped Full-wave rectifier

resistive load with a FWD
(a) circuit diagram (b) waveforms
(b)
During the positive half-cycle
• Diode D1 conducts and D2 is The average diode current :
𝐼𝑚
reverse-biased. Current flows 𝐼𝐷1 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝐷2 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 /2 = 𝜋
through the load, causing a
The average or DC power delivered to
positive drop.
During the negative half-cycle the load is given by:
• Diode D2 conducts and D1 turn 4𝑉𝑚 2 (2.11)
𝑃𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2
off. Current flows through R load, 𝜋 𝑅
maintaining the same polarity for The AC power input is given by
the voltage across the load. 𝑉𝑚 2
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∗ 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = (2.12)
2𝑅
Average and RMS values are similar to
those for the half-wave case: 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
The Form factor: FF =
2 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = = 0.636 𝑉𝑚
𝜋
𝐼𝑚 The ripple factor:
𝐼𝑜𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 2
= 0.707 𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑐
PIV rating for diodes : ≥ 2 𝑉𝑚 RF = = 𝐹𝐹 2 − 1
𝑉𝑑𝑐
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Uncontrolled Rectifier

2.6 Single-Phase Full-wave Uncontrolled Rectifier

( Center Tapped)

During the positive half-cycle,

• Diode D1 conducts and D2 is reverse-
biased. Current flows through the load,
causing a positive drop and energy
were stored in its magnetic fields
During the negative half-cycle,
• Diode D2 conducts and D1 turn off.
Current flows through R load,
maintaining the same polarity for the
voltage across the load.

The equation are similar to center tap

rectifier with a resistive load.
The average value of the load voltage is:
2 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = = 0.636 𝑉𝑚 (2.13)
𝜋

The average value of the load current is:

2 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
Figure 2.6 shows a center tapped 𝐼𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = = 0.636 (2.14)
𝜋𝑅 𝑅
full-wave rectifier with an inductive
load. If the load inductance is sufficiently large,
the load current is nearly constant.
The RMS value of the load current is:
𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔)
𝐼𝑜𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝑅

𝐼𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔) (2.15)
𝐼𝐷(𝑅𝑀𝑆) =
2

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Uncontrolled Rectifier

2.7 Single-Phase Full-wave Uncontrolled Bridge Rectifier

(a) (b)
Figure 2.7 Full-wave bridge rectifier
resistive load Average and RMS values are
(a) circuit diagram (b) waveforms similar to those for the full-wave
During the positive half cycle, center tap case. However, the
• The terminal A becomes positive while waveform of voltage across the
the terminal B becomes negative. This diode for each diode equal to 𝑉𝑚
causes the diodes D1 and D2 forward only.
biased and at the same time, it causes the
2 𝑉𝑚
diodes D3 and D4 reverse biased. 𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = = 0.636 𝑉𝑚 (2.16)
𝜋

During the negative half cycle, 𝐼𝑚

𝐼𝑜𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = 0.707 (2.17)
2
• The terminal B becomes positive while
the terminal A becomes negative. This The average or DC power
causes the diodes D2 and D4 forward delivered to the load is given by:
biased and at the same time, it causes the 𝑃𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗ 𝐼𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔
diodes D1 and D3 reverse biased. 2 𝑉𝑚 2 𝐼𝑚
= ∗
𝜋 𝜋
The current flow direction during the
positive half cycle and negative half cycle is 4𝑉𝑚 ∗𝑉𝑚
=
shown in the figure 2.7 (b) 𝜋2 ∗𝑅
4𝑉 2
𝑃𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜋2𝑚𝑅 (2.18)

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Uncontrolled Rectifier

2.8 PRACTICAL WORK : UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIER

Using PSIM software,

setting the Simulation
Control as Figure 2.8.1 ,
with the guide from
Figure 2.8.2, find the
Vdc and VRMS. Repeat
for Figure 2.8.3 and
Figure 2.8.4
Figure 2.8.1 Simulation Control

Figure 2.8.2 Half wave Uncontrolled Rectifier ( R Load)

Figure 2.8.3 Half wave Uncontrolled Rectifier ( RL Load)

Figure 2.8.3 Half wave Uncontrolled Rectifier

( RL Load with Free wheeling Diode)
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Uncontrolled Rectifier

2.9 Review Questions

1. Describe the differences between an uncontrolled and a controlled rectifier : The

rectifying elemens, DC load voltage, Conduction angle, Required trigger

2. Single phase half wave uncontrolled Rectifier with voltage source 120 sin𝝎t,
Calculate output voltage dc (Vdc), Vrms and output current Irms. Given, resistive
load is 50Ω.

3. (a) Named the circuit in Figure 2.9

(b) Based on the figure 2.9 answer the following;
i. Given VL=120sinωt and Ø=30°, find the value of average output
voltage and rms output voltage.
ii. Sketch the input and output voltage waveform of Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9

4. Referring to Figure 2.10, explain the operation of the circuit.

Figure 2.10

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3 Controlled Rectifier

The simplest controlled rectifier uses a single device, such as

a thyristor, to produce variable voltage DC from fixed voltage a.c
mains.

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3.1 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers

To build a controlled rectifier, the diodes in the rectifier circuit in Chapter 2 are
replaced by SCRs. These circuits produce a variable DC output voltage whose
magnitude is varied by controlling the duration of the conduction period by
varying the point at which a gate signal is applied to the SCR.

Figure 3.1 Topology of single phase controlled rectifier

The simplest controlled rectifier uses a single device, such as a thyristor to

produce variable voltaged.c from fixed voltage a.c. mains.

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3.2 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifiers ( R Load)

Figure 3.2 shows of half-wave rectifier with

Inductive R load

In positive half cycle,

SCR starts conduction at firing angle “α”. Drop
across SCR is small & neglected so output voltage
is equal to supply voltage. Due to 'RL' load, current
through SCR increases slowly.
At 'π', supply voltage is at zero where load current
is in phase with load voltage.
(a) Inductor stores energy & that generates the
voltage.

In negative half cycle,

the voltage developed across inductor, forward
biases SCR & maintains its conduction.
Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,

𝑉𝑚 (1 + cos 𝛼) (3.1)
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) =
2𝜋
RMS output voltage,

𝑉𝑚 𝛼 sin 2𝛼
𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 1−𝜋 + (3.2)
2 2𝜋

Figure 3.2 Circuit and Waveform of half-wave

rectifier with Inductive R load

Example 3.1
A the single phase half-wave controlled rectifier used to control 100 Ω resistive load with α = 300 and
Vs = 200 sin t . Determine the average output voltage

Solution 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ( 1 + cos 𝛼) = ( 1 + cos 30)
2𝜋 2𝜋

200
= 1 + 0.866 = 59.40 𝑉
2𝜋

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3.3 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifiers ( R Load)

Figure 3.3 Circuit and Waveform of half-wave

rectifier with Inductive R load Using
PSIM

3.4 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifiers ( RL Load)

Basically Figure 3.4, with the

property of inductance it opposes
change in current.
Output current & supply current
flows in same loop, so all the time
io=is.
After π the energy of inductor is
given to mains & there is flow of 'io'.
The energy reduces as if gets
consumed by circuit so current also
reduces.
At 'β' energy stored in inductance is
finished, hence 'io' becomes zero &
'T1' turns off.
'io' becomes zero from 'β' to '2π+α'
hence it is discontinuous conduction.
Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,
𝑉𝑚 (cos 𝛼 − cos 𝜷)
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = (3.3)
Figure 3.4 Circuit and Waveform of half-wave 2𝜋
rectifier with Inductive RL load
Using PSIM

RMS output voltage,

𝑉𝑚 1 sin 2𝐵 sin 2𝛼 (3.4)

𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 2 𝜋
𝜷−𝜶 −( 2𝜋
− 2𝜋
)

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3.5 Center-Tapped Controlled Rectifiers

Figure 3.5 (a), In positive half cycle, SCR1 starts conduction at firing angle α and
positive output voltage is produced. In negative half cycle, SCR2 is forward biased,
and start conduct after π + α . Output voltage repeat every half cycle ( T = π )
Refer to Figure 3.5 (b), During the positive half cycle of the source, SCR1 is forward
biased and conducts after the gate is triggered at α. During the interval α to π .
SCR1 are fired at α , hence SCR1 conduct. The output is positive from α to π.
Because of inductance, the current Io keeps on increasing and become maximum at
π. At π the supply –voltage reverse but SCR1 does not turn off. This is because the
inductance does not allow the current to go zero instantly. The energy stored in the
load inductance is supplied to the main supply and the load itself. The output is
negative from π to π + α .
During the interval π + α to 2 π . SCR2 is fired at π + α, hence SCR2 conduct. The
output is positive from π + α to 2 π. Because of inductance, the load curent Io keep
on increasing.
The similar operation repeats.

(a) (b)
Figure 3.5 Circuit and Waveform of full-wave Center-tapped rectifier
with (a) Resistive Load ( b) Inductive R load using PSIM

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3.6 Bridge Controlled Rectifiers with R Load

Refer to Figure 3.6, During the

interval α to π . SCR1 and SCR4
are fired at α , hence SCR1 and
SCR2 conduct. . The output is
positive from α to π.
At π the supply –voltage
reverse but SCR1 and SCR4
does not turn off.

(a)
During the interval π + α to 2 π .
SCR3 and SCR4 are fired at π +30o,
hence SCR3 and SCR4 are conduct.
The output is positive from π + α to
2π
The similar operation repeats.

(b)
Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) , Figure 3.6 Circuit and Waveform of Bride
𝑉𝑚 (1 + cos 𝛼) rectifier with Resistive load
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = (3.5)
𝜋
RMS output voltage,

1 𝛼 sin 2𝛼 (3.6)
𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑉𝑚 1− +
2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋

Example 3.2
A single phase fullwave controlled bridge rectifier is supply at 120V. The rectifier is triggered at 30o for
highly inductive load. Calculate the average output voltage, Vo(avg) of the rectifier.

Solution
2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = (cos 𝛼) = 108.04 cos 30 = 93.56 V
𝜋

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3.7 Bridge Controlled Rectifiers with RL Load

(a)

During the interval α to π .

SCR1 and SCR4 are fired at α , hence SCR1 and
SCR4 conduct. .
The output is positive from α to π.
Because of inductance, the current Io keeps on
increasing and become maximum at π.
At π the supply –voltage reverse but SCR1 and
SCR4 does not turn off.
This is because the inductance does not allow
the current to go zero instantly.
The energy stored in the load inductance is
supplied to the main supply and the load itself.
The output is negative from π to π +30o.
(b) During the interval π + α to 2 π .
SCR2 and SCR3 are fired at π +30o, hence SCR2
and SCR3 are conduct.
The output is positive from π + α to 2 π
Because of inductance, the load curent Io keep
on increasing.
The similar operation repeats.

Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,

𝑉𝑚 (cos 𝛼 − cos 𝜷)
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝜋

(c) RMS output voltage,

Figure 3.7 Bridge rectifier with Inductive load
(a) Circuit 1 sin 2𝐵 sin 2𝛼
(b) Waveform for 𝛼 < Ø 𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑉𝑚 𝛽−𝛼 −( − )
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
(c) Waveform for 𝛼 > Ø

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3.8 Review Questions

1. A Single phase controlled rectifier half waveshown in Figure 3.8 with R = 10 Ω,

L = 20 mH, and Vs = 220 sin 314t and the firing angle 𝜶 is 30° and β=220°.
Determine the current through the load

Figure 3.8

2 A single phase full wave controlled rectifier with a supply voltage of 230V is used to
control an RL load with advance angle φ= 45o Sketch and calculate the average output
voltage and rms output voltage for each angle if firing angle :
(i) α = 30 o
(ii) α = 60 o

3. A single phase rectifier 240V, 50Hz uses four SCRs to control an inductive load,
with the triggering angle, α = 60 o and the advance angle Ø = 30 o , sketch the
waveform of the input voltage and the output voltage. Next calculate the average
output voltage and the average output current when the resistive and inductive
loads are 10 Ω and 20mH. If an additional diode is connected parallel to the load,
draw the circuit diagram of the rectifier and sketch the input voltage and output
voltage waveform. Calculate the new average output voltage.

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4 Half Wave Three Phase Rectifier

Three phase converters are 3-phase rectifiers which are
used to convert ac input power supply into dc output power
across the load.

Its operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage. They provide

higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power., also
higher output voltage ripple frequency. Requirements are
simplified for smoothing out load voltage and load current

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Half Wave Three Phase Rectifier

4.1 Three Phase Rectifiers

Advantages three phase rectifiers

compared with single phase
rectifier

1. Higher output voltage for a given

input voltage
2. Lower amplitude ripples (although
Figure 4.1 Three-phase rectifier
they never fall to zero) i.e
smoother DC output
3. Higher frequency ripples,
simplifying filtering
4. Higher overall efficiency

4.2 Three Phase Half Bridge Uncontrolled Rectifiers

Figure 4.2 Three-phase half-wave rectifier (a) circuit diagram

(b) output voltage waveform
Table 4.1
ON OFF Diode voltages
Period
diode diodes VD1 VD2 VD3
0 to 30o D3 D1 and D2 VAC VBC 0
30 to 150o D1 D2 and D3 0 VBA VCA
150 to 270o D2 D3 and D1 VAB 0 VCB
270 to 390o D3 D1 and D2 VAC VBC 0
Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,
5𝜋
1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ‫𝜋׬‬6 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 𝑇= 3
= 120°
𝑇
6

3 3
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝑉
2𝜋 𝑚

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4.3 Three Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectifier R Load

Figure 4.2(a) Circuit of three phase controlled rectifier

with resistive load

The 3-phase half wave converter

combines three single phase half wave
controlled rectifiers in one single circuit
feeding a common load. The thyristor S1
in series with one of the supply phase
windings ‘a-n’ acts as one half wave
controlled rectifier. The second thyristor
S2 in series with the supply phase
winding ‘b-n’ acts as the second half
𝜶 = 30 °
wave controlled rectifier. The third
thyristor S3 in series with the supply
phase winding acts as the third half wave
controlled rectifier.
Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,
3 3
𝜶 = 60 ° 𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝑉 cos 𝜶
2𝜋 𝑚

Construct a circuit as Figure 4.2(a) , run

simulation and find Avg and RMS value
then fill in the table 4.2 below
𝜶 = 80 ° Table 4.2
:
VoAvg IoAvg VoRMS IoRMS

60
80
𝜶 = 120 °
120
Figure 4.3(b) Waveform of three phase
controlled rectifier with
resistive load

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4.4 Three Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectifier RL Load

(a) circuit

𝜶 = 80°

𝜶 = 60°

Average output voltage ( or DC voltage ) ,

5𝜋
1
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝑇 ‫𝜋׬‬6 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
6
𝜶 = 120°
3 3 (b) waveform
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝑉
2𝜋 𝑚
Figure 4.3 Three-phase half-wave rectifier (a) circuit diagram
(b) output voltage waveform

Setting the Simulation Control, construct a circuit as

Figure 4.3 (a), find the Avg and RMS value as per
table 4.3
Table 4.3
Firing
Angle, 𝜶 VoAvg IoAvg VoRMS IoRMS
(degree)
60
80
120

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4.5 Review Questions

1. A 3-phase half-wave bridge converter is operated from a three-phase Y-

connection 220V, 60 Hz supply and load resistor R= 10 Ω. Calculate the average
𝜋
output voltage for α = 6

2. A three phase half wave controlled rectifier is connected to 260 V, If the firing
angle, = 20o, explain the circuit operation for the whole cycle (0o to 360o) for
the period stated in Table 4.4. By using appropriate scale, sketch the average
output voltage Vo(avg).. Calculate the Vo(avg); if the load is purely resistive.

Table 4.4.

Duration S1 S2 S3 Vout
period
1 0o – 20o
2 20o – 30o
3 30o – 120o
4 120o – 140o
5 140o – 150o
6 150o – 240o
7 240o – 160o
8 260o – 170o
9 270o – 360o

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5 DC Chopper
Dc-dc converters are power electronic circuits that convert a dc
voltage to a different dc voltage level, often providing a regulated
output. For a good DC-to-DC converter may have an inductor, a
capacitor, and a freewheeling diode, and an electronic switch.

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5.1 Introduction To DC Chopper

DC to DC converter (khown as DC Chopper) is is used to convert a fixed DC

voltage into a variable DC voltage , refer to Figure 5.1

Figure 5.1 Block diagram of DC Chopper

There are three types of basic DC choppers

topologies, Figure 5.2 :

𝑻𝑶𝑵
d= (5.1)
𝑻
where d is duty cycle
Figure 5.2 DC choppers topologies Figure 5.3 Basic switching converter

The DC output voltage of the chopper can be varied by varying the duty cycle. The average
output voltage can be varied in one of the following ways:

1. Pulse-width modulation (PWM). In this method , the pulse width 𝑇𝑂𝑁 is varied while the
overall switching period 𝑇 is kept constant.
2. Pulse-frequency modulation (PFM). In this method 𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 is kept constant while
the period

Figure 5.4 Output voltage waveforms with switching frequency (a) PWM (b) PFM

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5.2 Buck ( or Step-Down) Chopper

The buck chopper is a DC to DC converter

Figure 5.4 uses a battery as a DC source.
The cicuit consist of switching component,
free wheeling diode and loads. The output
voltage is less than the input voltage.
𝐕𝟎 = 𝐃𝐕𝐢 (5.2) Figure 5.2(a) Buck choppers

Mode 1: when switch is closed Mode 2: when switch is opened

(ON-state) (OFF-state)

Figure 5.2(b) ON State Buck Chopper Figure 5.2(c) OFF State Buck Chopper

1. Switch S is closed, FWD D reversed 1. Switch S is opened,

biased, D OFF 2. Current through inductor L starts
𝑻
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑶𝑵 𝑽𝒊 (5.3) decaying to zero (not change
𝑻
instantaneously)
1. Current flows through inductor L
3. This causes an induced voltage with
and the Load (R).
opposite polarity across the inductor.
2. Vo = Vi
4. Diode D forward biased.
3. Switch S ON for a time TON
5. The current flowing freewheels through D
and R
The average value of the
6. The energy in L is delivered to the load.
inductor current:
𝑽𝒐
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 ∆𝒊𝒐 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭 (5.8)
(5.4) 𝑳
𝑰𝑳 =
𝟐 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐
𝑽𝒐 𝟐 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐 + 𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭 (5.9)
(5.5) 𝑹 𝑳
𝑰 𝑳 = 𝑰𝒐 = Maximum and minimum current:
𝑹
𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐 (5.6) 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = + 𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭 (5.10)
𝑹 𝑹 𝟐𝑳
𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐
The voltage across the inductor: 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = - 𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭
𝑹 𝟐𝑳 (5.11)
𝒅𝒊
𝑽 𝑳 = 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑳 𝒅𝒕𝒐 (5.7) Peak to peak ripple current:
𝑰𝒑−𝒑 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 (5.12)
𝑽𝒐
𝑰𝒑−𝒑 = 𝑻 (5.13)
𝑳 𝑶𝑭𝑭
The output voltage and output current of buck chopper :
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑂 (5.14)
FWD D reversed
𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖 =biased,
𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 (5.15)
Type equation 𝐼𝟎 =here.
𝐼
𝒅
𝑖
(5.16)
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5.3 Practical of Buck Chopper

Setting the Simulation Control, construct a buck chopper as

Figure 5.5, find the voltage output with the duty cycle as
Table 5.1 by setting the gating block.

Figure 5.5 Buck choppers

Table 5.1

Duty cycle Waveform Voltage input and output

D=0.5 Vdc =
0 90 180 270 Vs =
Vout =

D=0.25 Vdc =
0 45 180 225 Vs =
Vout =

Example 5.1
A buck converter is supplied from a 100 V iii. The output power
battery source. Given L =100 mH,, R=10 Ω,
fs=1 kHz and the on time is 0.5 ms . If the 𝑷𝟎 = 𝑽𝑶 𝑰𝑶 = (50V) (2A) = 100W
average source current is 1A, Calculate;
i. The average load voltage iii. The minimum value of required
𝑻 = 𝟏/𝒇𝒔 = 1/1000 = 1ms 𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭 = 𝑻 − 𝑻𝑶𝑵 = 0.5 ms
𝑻𝑶𝑵 𝟎.𝟓
D= 𝑻
= 𝟏
= 0.5 or 50%
𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭 𝑹
𝑽𝟎 = 𝒅𝑽𝒊 = (0.5) (100) = 50V 𝑳= 𝟐
ii. The output current
𝑰𝟎 =
𝑰𝒊 𝟏
= 𝟎.𝟓 = 2A (0.5x10−𝟑 )(𝟏𝟎)
𝒅
= = 2.5 mH
𝟐

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5.4 Boost Chopper

In the step-up (boost

chopper) circuit, the output
voltage can be varied several
times from the source
voltage. The basic circuit is
shown in Figure 5.4. Figure 5.4 Buck chopper

Mode 1: when switch is closed Mode 2: when switch is opened

(ON-state) (OFF-state)

Figure 5.4.1 ON state of Buck chopper Figure 5.4.2 OFF state of Buck chopper

When switch ON, the inductor connect to When switch OFF, current collapses and the
supply, Current through inductor,increase energy stored in the inductor is transferred to
linearly and stores energy in the magnetic the capacitor through diode D.
field. The induced voltage VL across the inductor
The voltage across the inductor: reversed, and the inductor voltage adds to the
source voltage to increased the output voltage,
𝒅𝒊𝒐
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝒔 = 𝑳 (5.17) the energy stored in the inductor is released to
𝒅𝒕 the load.
𝒅𝒊𝒐 𝑽𝒐
= (5.18) Energy transferred by inductance during TOFF
𝒅𝒕 𝑳 must equal the energy gained by it during the
period TON

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑊𝑂𝑁 = 𝑊𝑂𝐹𝐹 (5.22)

𝑰𝑳 = (5.19)
𝟐 𝑻𝑶𝑵
Now 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒊 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 (5.23)
𝑻𝑶𝐹𝐹
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑻
= 𝑰𝒊 = 𝑉𝑖 (1 + 𝑻 𝑶𝑵 ) (5.24)
𝟐 𝑶𝐹𝐹

1
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 2𝑰𝒊 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 (1 − 𝑻 )
𝑶𝑵
𝑇

Voltage across Inductor:

𝒅𝒊𝒐 1
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑖 = 𝑳 (5.20) 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 (1 − 𝑑 ), (5.26)
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒊𝑖 𝑽𝒊
= (5.21)
𝒅𝒕 𝑳

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5.5 Boost Chopper

With the switch open (𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭 )

𝑽𝒊 (5.26)
∆𝒊𝒊 = ∆𝒕
𝑳

𝑽𝒐
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑻 (5.27)
𝑳 𝑶𝑭𝑭
𝑽𝑖
𝟐 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐𝑰𝒊 + 𝑻𝑂𝑁 (5.28)
𝑳
𝑽𝑖
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑰𝒊 + 𝑻𝑂𝑁 (5.29)
2𝑳
𝑉𝑖 𝑽𝑖
= + 𝑻𝑂𝑁
1 −𝑑 2𝑅 2𝑳
1 𝑻𝑂𝑁 (5.30)
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 =𝑉𝑖 +
1 −𝑑 2𝑅 2𝑳
1 𝑻𝑂𝑁
𝑰𝑚𝑖𝑛 =𝑉𝑖 − (5.31)
1 −𝑑 2𝑅 2𝑳
The peak to peak current:
𝑽𝑖
𝑰𝒑−𝒑 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑻𝑂𝑁 (5.32)
𝑳

Figure 5.5 Minimum and maximum current of choppers

The output current of boost chopper :

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑂 (5.33)
2
𝑉𝑂
𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖 = (5.34)
𝑅
From (5.26) 𝑉𝑖 (5.35)
𝐼𝑖 =
1 −𝑑 2𝑅

𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 (1-d) (5.36)
𝑇
For continuous current condition, the minimum
value of inductance required is obtained by setting
1 𝑻𝑂𝑁
𝑰𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑖 − = 0,
1 −𝑑 2𝑅 2𝑳 (5.37)

1 𝑻𝑂𝑁
= , (5.31)
1 −𝑑 2𝑅 2𝑳

𝑻𝑂𝑁
solve for L = 1 − 𝑑 2𝑅 (5.31)
2
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DC Chopper

5.6 Practical of Boost Chopper

Figure 5. 6 Boost choppers

Setting the Simulation Control, construct a circuit as Figure 5.6, find the
voltage output with the duty cycle as Table 5.2 by setting the gating block.

Table 5.2
Duty cycle Waveform Voltage input
and output
D=0.5 Vi =
90 180 270 360 Vout =

D=0.25 Vi =
135 180 315 360 Vout =

Example 5.1
A boost converter is supplied by a 12 V DC Solution:
source and the output voltage is 30 V. The 𝑉𝑖
circuit is connected to a load with i. D=1- = ( 1 -12/30) = 0.6
𝑽𝑶
resistance of 50 Ω and the operating
switching frequency is 25 kHz. Determine;
i. The duty cycle of the converter 𝑻𝑂𝑁
ii. The minimum value of inductance to ii. L= 2
1 − 𝑑 2 𝑅 = 96 μH
ensure continuous conduction mode of
operation
iii. The minimum and maximum values of
iii.
inductor current if the inductor used 1 𝑻
have a value of 120 μH. 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 =𝑉𝑖 + 𝑂𝑁 = 1.508A
1 − 𝑑 2𝑅 2𝑳

1 𝑻𝑂𝑁
𝑰𝑚𝑖𝑛 =𝑉𝑖 1 −𝑑 2𝑅 − 2𝑳
= 1.500 A

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 DC Chopper

5.7 Reflexion

Buck Chopper Boost Chopper

Circuit

average load 𝑻𝑶𝑵 𝑇 𝑇

𝑉0 = 𝑽𝒊 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 ( 𝑻 ) = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑻 − 𝑻 )
voltage , 𝑉0 𝑻 𝑶𝐹𝐹 𝑶𝑵
1
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 (1 − 𝑑 )
𝑉0 = 𝑑 𝑉𝑖

Duty cycle, d 𝑉0 𝑉0 −𝑽𝒊 𝑉

D= 𝑽𝒊
D= = 1 − 𝑽𝑖
𝑽𝑜 𝑜

Inductor , 𝑻𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑅 L=
𝑻𝑂𝑁
1 − 𝑑 2𝑅
L= 2
L 2

Max 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐 1 𝑻𝑂𝑁
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = + 𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 =𝑉𝑖 +
Current, 𝑹 𝟐𝑳 1 −𝑑 2𝑅 2𝑳

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
Minimum 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐 1 𝑻𝑂𝑁
𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = - 𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭 𝑰𝑚𝑖𝑛 =𝑉𝑖 −
Current, 𝑹 𝟐𝑳 1 −𝑑 2𝑅 2𝑳

𝑰𝒎𝑖𝑛
𝑰𝒑−𝒑 𝑰𝒑−𝒑 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝒑−𝒑 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝒐 𝑽
= 𝑖 𝑻𝑂𝑁
= 𝑻 𝑳
𝑳 𝑶𝑭𝑭

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DC Chopper

5.8 Review Questions

1. In a buck chopper, the source voltage is 220V DC. The resistive load is 20Ω , L is
400 μF and duty cycle is 0.4. If the chopper is operating at a frequency of 20kHz,
calculate the average load voltage, and the maximum and minimum inductor
current.

2. Refer to Figure 5.2(a) , the switching frequency is 25 Hz and TON = 3 ms. If the
average value of the output current is 40 A, determine the average source
current.

3. A step up chopper has an input voltage of 150V.The voltage output needed is

450V. Given that the thyristor has a conducting time of 150S.

4. A DC Buck chopper operates at frequency of 1 KHz from a 100 V DC source

supplying a 10  resistive load. The inductive component of the load is 50 mH. If
the average output is 50 V, find

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6 Inverter
Inverters are used in a wide range of applications, from small
switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility
applications that transport bulk power.
Switching devices in inverter circuits such as SCRs, BJTs, GTOs,
IGBTs and MOSFETs. There are many technique can be used to
controlling the output voltage such as Pulse width modulation,
Single Pulse Width modulation, Multiple Pulse width modulation.

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Inverter

6.1 Introduction to Inverter

Definition of inverter is to convert a fixed DC supply voltage source to AC

output voltage at fixed or variable frequencies and magnitudes. It can be a
single phase or a three phase voltage system.

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
1. DC Power Utilization 6. Electric vehicle drives
2. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) 7. In refrigeration compressor
3. Induction heating 8. Use in power generation
systems such as electric utility
4. High voltage direct current (HVDC) companies or solar generating
power transmission systems to convert DC power to
5. Variable-speed ac motor drives AC power

INVERTER

Figure 6.1 Inverter

Figure 6.2 One-line diagram of HVDC interconnection between

Malaysia and Thailand
(Source from HVDC Transmission, Gurun)
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Inverter

6.2 Classes of Inverter

a. Voltage source inverter (VSI) b. Current source inverter (CSI)

Figure 6.3 Voltage source inverter keeps Figure 6.4 Current source inverter
the voltage constant keeps the current constant

Figure 6.5 Switching sequence in the Figure 6.6 Switching sequence in the H-
Half bridge inverter ( square bridge inverter ( step-wave /
wave output) quasi-square wave output)

Figure 6.7 Sinosoidal PWM

signal

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6.3 Half Bridge Inverter

It has two identical dc voltage sources The RMS value of the output voltage is:
connected in series, two static switches,
and two diodes. 𝑉𝑜(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 2𝑑𝑉𝑠 (6.2)
If switches S1 and S2 are each closed
for an interval TON, the half-wave The average power absorbed by the load is:
average output voltage is 𝑉𝑜(𝑅𝑀𝑆) 2 𝑉𝑠 2
𝑃𝐿 = = 2𝑑 (6.3)
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 2𝑑𝑉𝑠 (6.1)

using MOSFET using IGBT

Figure 6.8 Half bridge inverter

6.4 Practical of Half Bridge Inverter

Construct a half bridge inverter circuit and setting the simulation control as
Figure 6.9, simulate and get the voltage output at the load.

Figure 6.9 Circuit of Half bridge inverter

and simulation control

Figure 6.10 Circuit and waveform of Half

bridge inverter using PSIM
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6.5 Full Bridge Inverter

The output voltage as shown Figure 6.10

will have harmonics components in addition
to the fundamental components.
The square wave output voltage having a
significant low-order of harmonic
Figure 6.9 Equivalent circuit for component as shown in the frequency
square-wave inverter spectrum

i) When diode D1 and D4 conducted, ii) When switch Q1 and Q4 operated,

iii) When diode D2 and D3 conducted, iv) When switch Q2 and Q3 operated,

v) The output of FW inverter with

square wave switching scheme
Figure 6.9 Switching Schemes Topology for Square Wave (SW) Output

Example 6.1
A single phase full bridge inverter, produces a Solution
step wave output, as shown, across a resistive
load. E = 200 V, d = 50% and load resistance R
= 2 Ω, Find
a) the average load current
b) the average switch current
c) the power delivered to the load
d) the average source current

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6.6 Three Phase Inverter

A three-phase inverter circuit changes DC

input voltage to a three-phase variable
frequency variable-voltage output. The
basic circuit is shown in Figure 6.10. It can
be seen in the output graphs of both 120º
and 180º switching cases that we have
achieved an alternating three-phase
voltage at the three output terminals.
Figure 6.10 Basic circuit 3-phase inverter
A three phase inverter is classified on the basic of conduction period
of a switch:
a) 120° Conduction Mode
b) 180° Conduction Mode

THREEPHASE INVERTER –120° Conduction Mode

Table 6.1 120° Conduction Mode

Figure 6.11 Output phase voltage

Figure 6.12 Output line voltage

Figure 6.13 120° Conduction Equivalent

circuit for 0o – 60o
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6.7 Three Phase Inverter

A three-phase inverter circuit

changes DC input voltage to a
three-phase variable frequency
variable-voltage output. The basic
circuit is shown in Figure 6.10

Figure 6.14 Basic circuit 3-phase inverter

THREEPHASE INVERTER –180° Conduction Mode

Table 6.2 180° Conduction Mode

Figure 6.15 Output phase voltage Figure 6.16 Output line voltage

Figure 6.17 180° Conduction Equivalent Figure 6.18 180° Conduction Equivalent
circuit for 0o – 60o circuit for 60o – 120o
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6.8 Review Questions

1. By using transistors, draw a Single Phase Half Bridge DC-AC Inverter with R load
circuit. Explain the operation of switching sequence and draw the waveform
input voltage Vin and output voltage Vo and output current Io. Calculate the rms
output Voltage Vo (rms), if the Single Phase Half Bridge Inverter has DC input, Vin=
100V, and the load resistance value is 20 Ω.

2. A single phase full bridge inverter in Figure 6.10 has an RL load with R=100Ω.
The inverter frequency is 60Hz and DC input voltage Vs=220V. Calculate the RMS
output current.

Figure 6.10

3. Sketch a circuit diagram of a three phase bridge inverter with resistive Ioad from
a star connected source. Then cornplete fhe conduction table given in Table 18 a
and sketch the output line voltage waveforms on the assumption that each
thyristor conducts for 180o.

Table 6.1
Duration Switch VAN VBN VCN VAB VBC VCA
mode
0o – 60o S5,S6,S1 𝑉𝑠 −2𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
3 3 3
60o – 120o S6,S1, S2 2𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑠
3 3 3
120o – S1, S2, S3 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 −2𝑉𝑠
180o 3 3 3
180o – S2, S3, S4 −𝑉𝑠 2𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑠
240o 3 3 3
240o – S3, S4, S5 −2𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
300o 3 3 3
300o – S4, S5, S6 −𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑠 2𝑉𝑠
360o 3 3 3

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7 AC Voltage Controller

AC/AC converters connect an AC source to AC loads by

controlling amount of power supplied to the load. This converter
converts the AC voltage at one level to the other by varying its
magnitude as well as frequency of the supply voltage
These are used in different types of applications including
uninterrupted power supplies, high power AC to AC
transmission, adjustable speed drives, renewable energy
conversion systems and aircraft converter systems.

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7.1 Introduction to AC Voltage Controller

AC to AC converter is used to obtain a variable AC output voltage from a fixed AC

voltage. It is used to change the AC voltage from one level to another. The AC to
AC converter is also called as AC regulator or AC voltage controller

The SCRs cannot conduct simultaneously.

The load voltage is the same as the
source voltage when either SCR is on. The
load voltage is zero when both SCRs are
off.
S1 conducts if a gate signal is applied
during the positive half cycle of the so-
Figure 7.1 Single phase bidirectional controller urce, r A gate signal is applied to S2 during
the negative halfcycle of the source,
providing a path for negative load
current.

There are two different types of switching control techniques used in practice to
control the AC output voltage:
a) Phase angle control
b) Integral-cyclecontrol(ON-OFFcontrol)

Each type of controller subdivided into:

a) Uni-directional or half wave AC voltage controller
b) Bi-directional or full wave AC voltage controller

7.2 Common applications of AC voltage controller

• Lighting control • Static VAR generator

• AC magnet control • UPS
• Domestic and industrial heating • Microwave heating
• On-load transformer tap changing • Electronic ballast
• Starting three phase induction motors • Flexible AC Transmission line
• Speed control of ( fan, pump ) • Variable speed drives

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7.3 Type of AC voltage controller

Integral-cycle control Phase angle control

Figure 7.2 Integral-cycle(ON-OFF) control Figure 7.3 Phase angle control

• Suitable for systems with a large • Suitable for systems with a short time
time constant constant
• The average power to the load can • The voltage at the load can be varied by
be controlled from 0% - 100% altering the firing angle for each half-
• Such as temperature control cycle of a period
system • if α = 0, the output voltage is maximum
• If the input voltage is connected to (vo = vi)
load for ‘n’cycles and disconnected • if α = π, the output voltage is minimum
for ‘m’cycles, (vo = 0)
• Such as lighting control & motor speed
control
By controlling the phase angle or the trigger
delay angle ‘⍺’ (firing angle), the AC
output voltage across the load can be
The RMS value of output voltage controlled.

𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚2 𝑇
=𝑉𝑠
𝑇
= 𝑉𝑠𝑖 𝐷
(7.1) 1 sin 2𝛼 (7.2)
𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑉𝑠 𝜋
𝜋−𝛼 +( 2
)
Average load power
2
𝑉𝑠 2 2 (7.4)
𝑃𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑠𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 𝑅
𝐷= 𝑃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷 𝑃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑅𝑠
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆 2
(7.3) 𝑃𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑅

Power factor , PF = 𝐷 (7.5)

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜 𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆)

PF = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉 =
𝑠 ×𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑠 (7.6)

1 sin 2𝛼
PF = 𝜋−𝛼 +( )
𝜋 2

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7.4 Practical of Phase Angle Control

Build a phase angle control circuit as Figure 7.4, simulate and find the
voltage output and current output at the load.

Figure 7.4 Circuit of phase angle control and and simulation control

Figure 7.5 Waveform of phase angle

control and and simulation
control

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Example 7.1
A single-phase 120 V AC source controls power to a 5 Ω resistive load using integral cycle control. Find
a) the average value of output current
b) the maximum switch current
c) the maximum power produced
d) the duty cycle and the value of TON to produce 1 kW power
e) the power factor for part (d)

Solution:

a) the average value of output current over any number of complete conduction cycles is 0

b) the maximum switch current

120
𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅𝑠 = =24 A
5
𝐼𝑚 = 2 𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 2 (24) = 33.9 A
c) the maximum power will be produced when the switch is always on
𝑃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑠 x 𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = (120)(24) = 2880W
d) the duty cycle and the value of TON to produce 1 kW power
for 𝑃𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 1000W,
𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝑃𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔) 1000
𝑑= = = = 0.35
𝑇 𝑃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2880
e) the power factor for part (d)
PF = 𝑑 = 0.35 = 0.59

Example 7.2
A single-phase 120 V AC source controls power to a 5 Ω resistive load using integral cycle control. If
𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 2 cycles and 𝑇 = 4 cycles Find
a) the output power
b) the delay angle required if the phase control method is used to produce the same power
c) the output power , if the load is always connected to the source

Solution:

a) the average output power

2 120 2 (2)
𝑃𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑖𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑁 = = 1440W
5 (4)

b) the delay angle required if the phase control method is used to produce the same power
2 1 sin 2𝛼
𝑃𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑅𝑠 { 𝜋−𝛼 +( ) }= 1440W
𝜋 2
1 sin 2𝛼
𝜋−𝛼 +( ) = 0.5
𝜋 2
𝜋
𝛼 = = 90°
2
c) the output power , if the load is always connected to the source
𝑉𝑠 2 120 2
𝑃𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 2880 W
𝑅 5

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7.5 Cycloconverter

Refer to Figure 7.5, during positive half cycle of the input voltage, positive
converter (bridge-1) is turned ON and it supplies the load current. During negative
half cycle of the input, negative bridge is turned ON and it supplies load current.
Both converters should not conduct together that cause short circuit at the input.

Figure 7.5 Basic Circuit of cycloconverter

Figure 7.6 Waveform of cycloconverter

To avoid this, triggering to thyristors of bridge-2 is inhibited during positive half

cycle of load current, while triggering is applied to the thyristors of bridge-1 at
their gates. During negative half cycle of load current, triggering to positive
bridge is inhibited while applying triggering to negative bridge.

By controlling the switching period of thyristors, time periods of both positive

and negative half cycles are changed and hence the frequency. This frequency of
fundamental output voltage can be easily reduced in steps, i.e., 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 and
so on.

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7.6 Review Questions

1. An AC voltage controller has a resistive load of R = 30Ω and rms input voltage
of Vs=200V, 50Hz. The thyristor switch on time is 15 cycles and off time is 15
cycles. Calculate:
i. Duty cycle, d
ii. The rms output voltage, Vorms, and the rms output current, Iorms

2. A resistive load of 5Ω is fed through a single phase full wave AC voltage

controller from 230V, 50 Hz source. If firing angle of thyristor is π/2 calculate:
i. The RMS output voltage, V0RMS
ii. The RMS output current, I0RMS
iii. The load power, Po

3. A single-phase Uni-directional AC voltage controller has a resistive load of R=50

ohm and the input voltage is Vs=240V, 50Hz. The delay angle of thyristor is 𝜶=
30° . Determine ;
i. The RMS value of output voltage
ii. The output power
iii. The RMS load current

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 References

Bird, J. (2014). Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology Fifth edition.

New York: Routledge.

Hart, D. W. (2010). Power Electronics. New York,: McGraw-Hill.

Khanna, R. C. (2002). Power Electronics. Delhi: Khanna Publishers.

SEN, D. P. (2013 ). Principles Of Electric Machines And Power

Electronics Third Edition. Kingston, Ontario, Canada: John Wiley &
Sons.

1
1 Introduction To Power Electronics
3
2 Uncontrolled Rectifier
10
3 Controlled Rectifier
22
4 Half Wave Three Rectifier
35
5 DC Chopper
40
6 Inverter
45
7 AC Voltage Controller

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 ANSWERS
Chapter 2 𝑉𝑚 2 sin2 𝛽) sin2 𝛼 )
Uncontrolled Controlled rectifier
Vo(RMS) = − −
2 2𝜋 2𝜋
1 rectifier
The only diodes Are SCRs
rectifying 11 1
(220 )2 𝜋− 𝜋 sin2(220) sin2(30 )
elemens = 9 6 − −
DC load a fixed DC A variable DC output
2 𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
voltage
Conduction The conduction Varied from 0o to = 158.4 V
angle angle is 180o or π 180o
radians, each diode Vo(RMS)
Io(RMS) = = 13.42 A
conducts for a 𝑍

duration of one
half-cycle 2
Required Not required Required trigger for
trigger firing SCR
𝑉𝑚 120
2 Vdc = = = 38.2 𝑉
𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝑚 120
Vrms = = = 84.853 𝑣
2 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 84.853 𝑣
Irms = = = 1.7 𝐴𝑚𝑝
𝑅 50 𝛺

3 (a) Single phase half wave uncontrolled Rectifier

1
1 Introduction To Power Electronics
with inductive load o
5𝜋 𝜋
(b)(i)Vo avg=1 2π0π+βVm sinωt dωt ii. 𝛽 = = 225 = 4 rad , α =60o
3 =
2 Uncontrolled
=Vm 2 π-cosωt0π+β Rectifier 3

o o o 𝑉𝑚 (cos 𝛼− cos 𝛽)
π+β= 180 + 30 = 210 Vo avg = ==10
124.97 𝑉
3 Controlled
=1202 π-cosωt0210 Rectifier
𝜋

=1202π-(cos(210) -cos0)) 22
4 Half Wave
=1202π1+ cos30 Three Rectifier Vo rms =
𝑉𝑚 2
2
𝛽−𝛼
𝜋
−
sin2 𝛽)
2𝜋
−
sin2 𝛼 )
2𝜋
=1202π1+ 0.866 35
5 DC Chopper
=35.63 V
= 307.89 V
(ii) 40
6 Inverter
45
7 AC Voltage Controller
4 The bridge rectifier is constructed by using 4
diodes.
During the positive half cycle
the diodes D1 and D3 are in forward biased. 3
And the diodes D2 & D4 will not conduct.
And vice versa during the negative half cycle of
secondary input

Chapter 3
1 𝑍= 102 + (314 × 20 × 10−3)2 = 11.8 Ω

1
𝜶 =30° , α = 𝜋 rad
6

11
𝛽 , 220° 𝛽 = 𝜋 rad
9

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 ANSWERS
Chapter 4 2
1

Chapter 5
1

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 ANSWERS
Chapter 6 Chapter 7
1 • The operation and switching sequence of DC – 1 i. Duty cycle,
AC inverters
d = 15/(15+15)= 50%
• The current entering node a is considered to be
positive ii. The rms output voltage, Vorms,
• The switches Q1 and Q2 are unidirectional, i.e. 𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑑 = 200 0.50 = 141.4 V
they conduct current in one direction.
and the rms output current, Iorms
• The current through Q1 is denoted as i1 and the
current through Q2 is i2. 𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = 4.71 A
𝑅
• Switch Q1 is on for the time duration 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤
𝑻𝟏 and the switch Q1 is on for the time
duration T1 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻𝟐 . When switch Q1 is 2 i.The RMS output voltage
turned on, the instantenous voltage across the
load is Vo = Vs/2 1 sin2 𝜋) sin2 𝛼 )
𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑉𝑚 𝜋−𝛼 − −
• When switch Q2 is turned on, the voltage across 2𝜋 2 2
the load is Vo =- Vs/2
• For a resistive load, the current io = Vo/R 1
𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑉𝑚 π/2
2𝜋

1
= 𝑉𝑚 𝜋 − π/2 − 0 − 0
2𝜋

ii.The RMS output current

Vout = Vin/2 = 120/2 = 60V 𝛼 sin2 𝛼 ) 1

𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑉𝑚 1 − + = 𝑉𝑚 1 − +0
𝜋 2 2
Iout = Vo/R = 60 /25 = 2.4 A
= 𝑉𝑚 0.5 = 169.7 V
2 1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = ‫׬‬ 𝑉𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠
2𝜋 𝛼 𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆)
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = = 6.788 A
𝑅
𝑉𝑠 220
𝐼𝑜(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = = = 1.1 𝐴 iii. The load power, Po = 𝑉𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) x 𝐼𝑜 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 1.152 kW
2𝑅 2(100)

3 i. The RMS value of output voltage

3
VAN VBN VCN
𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜶
+Vs/3 -2Vs/3 +Vs/3 𝑉0(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑉𝑠 𝟐𝝅 − 𝜶 +
𝟐𝝅 𝟐
2Vs/3 - Vs/3 - Vs/3
+Vs/3 +Vs/3 -2Vs/3 𝟏 𝜋 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐(30)
= 240 𝟐𝝅 − +
- Vs/3 +2Vs/3 - Vs/3 𝟐𝝅 6 𝟐

-2Vs/3 +Vs/3 +Vs/3 = 240 0.9167 + 0.0689

- Vs/3 - Vs/3 +2Vs/3
𝑉0(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 240 0.993 = 238.27 V

ii. The output power

2 2
𝑃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑅𝑜 = 238.27
50
= 1.135 kW

iii. The RMS load current

𝑉𝑂(𝑅𝑀𝑆) 238.27
𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑅
= 50
= 4.77A

Power 59
Power
Electronicsii
Electronics
Power
64
Electronics