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Biodegradable Polymers for Sustainable Packaging Applications: A Review

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 International Journal of Bionics and Biomaterials
Vol. 2: Issue 2
www.journalspub.com

Biodegradable Polymers for Sustainable Packaging Applications:

A Review
A. Ashok1, C.R. Rejeesh2*, R. Renjith1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal Institute of Science and Technology, India
2
Centre for Sustainable Manufacturing and Renewable Energy, Federal Institute of Science and Technology,
India

ABSTRACT
Stable life offered by the synthetic plastic and their nonrenewable source results in waste
disposal and environmental pollution. Bio degradable plastics can be developed from the
synergic combinations of agricultural biology and micro biology. Starch, cellulose based bio
degradable zero waste plastics can replace with the nonrenewable plastics with comparable
packaging properties. Packaging industries have wide applications and the requirement for
each area is unique. Food packaging industries requires shelf life improving characters
while industrial packaging requires high mechanical properties which can resist mechanical
damaging. This paper reviews suitability factors and emerging techniques for the improving
packaging properties of bio plastics.

Keywords: biodegradability, bioplastic, packaging, starch, sustainability

*
Corresponding Author
E-mail: rejeeshcr@fisat.ac.in

INTRODUCTION
The term packaging also referred to Biopolymers are mainly processed from
product protection, security and improving starch, proteins, cellulose, DNA, RNA and
usability allows with provision for safe peptides. The monomer molecules of bio
handling and use. Commonly used plastics are sugar, nucleotides and amino
packaging materials are wood, paper, glass, acids. Bio based packaging materials
metals, plastic and composites. Plastics are require multistage processes required in
widely used for packaging as it shows designing and manufacturing of bio based
superior properties like of non- packaging materials.[5] Some of the
permeability, inert to environment, preferable properties a good packaging
durability, lightness, stability and material shell possesses include
availability. These properties of plastic permeability (gas and vapour), sealing and
also make them last in the environment resistance to chemicals, UV and light,
forever and accumulate as solid waste, if transparency, mechanical properties,
not recycled properly.[1,2] Additives, machinability. Cost and availability are the
plasticizers and colorants in plastic make key factors in any designing process of bio
serious environmental issues during plastic. Finally, shelf life and disposal
disposal of the same.[1,3] Bioplastics method of the bioplastic should also be
derived from renewable resources (which taken into account.[5–9] Most products
are biodegradable and less pollutant) are leave the production facility with three
thought to be a replacement for synthetic levels of packaging
polymers.[4]  Primary

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Biodegradable Polymers for Sustainable Packaging Applications Ashok et al.

 Secondary toxic. Bio polymers are produced by

 Tertiary biological systems such as plants, animals
and micro-organisms or chemically
Primary packaging is the packaging which synthesized from biological starting
is directly handled by consumer. materials such as sugar, starch, oils, and
Secondary packaging is the packaging for natural fats.[10–18]
the groups of individual units together for
transportation, or for multipacks sold to The renewable bio mass feed stock grown
the end user. Secondary packaging is used for preparing bio plastics helps to absorb
for physical protection of the product. Carbon dioxide and in turn improves the
Secondary package provides easy handling carbon foot print. It is estimated that
during storage or distribution and safety approximately 1 kg of petroleum based
against mechanical damage. Tertiary synthetic plastics generates about 3-6 kg of
packaging is used for pallets, trays, cartons. CO2 whereas bio plastics derived from
The purpose of packaging is to protect the renewable agricultural resources can
product from the mechanical damage and reduce CO2 emissions by 30–80%.
weather conditions.[7,8]
Bioplastics are often designed to
Environmental benefits like, bio biodegrade at the end of their useful life,
degradability, compost ability and aided by fungi, bacteria and enzymes. Bio
renewable feedstock as raw materials degradable bio plastic products can be
alone are not enough to create a market for processed at commercial composting
bio polymers. They must also be cost facilities for disposal but it is found to be
effective, fit for purpose and ideally not effective in smaller residential compost
provide unique benefits in use. piles. The key difference remains with the
temperature where effective composting
MATERIALS AND METHODS requires a significant amount of heat to
Biopolymers are the polymers which assist with the breakdown of molecules,
derived from natural resources. Polymers and this level of heat is usually generated
which derived from bio background are only by commercial composting facilities.
renewable, biodegradable, and mostly non-

Table 1. Origin and examples of bioplastics.[11,18]

Category Origin of extraction of polymer Examples
Polysaccharides
starch, cellulose, potato, maize,
wheat, rice
1 Polymers directly extracted/removed from biomass
Proteins:
Animal: Casein, whey, collagen
Plant: Zein, soya, gluten
Polymers produced by classical chemical synthesis using renewable
2 Polylactic acid, polyacrylate
bio based monomers
Polymers produced by microorganisms or genetically modified
3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates, PHA
bacteria

Types of Bioplastics Suitable for number of carbon atoms. Apart from

Packaging carbon, polysaccharides contain atoms of
Polysaccharides hydrogen, oxygen, small quantities of
Polysaccharides are a class of alkali, alkaline earth and heavy metals.[8]
carbohydrate which can be polymerized They have long chains of monosaccharides
into different forms with varying of linked using glycosidic bonds. Starch,

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 International Journal of Bionics and Biomaterials
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glycogen and cellulose are the important Hydrogen bonds present between
types of polysaccharides where glucose is contiguous glucose units, both within a
the main constituent. Starch and glycogen chain and between adjacent chains, makes
acts as the stores for short-term energy cellulose a tougher fibre than glycogen or
supply in plants and animals, respectively. starch.

Starch Cellulose is linear homo polymer of

Starch is a hydrocolloid polymer, and is glucose which abundantly occurs in plants
usually placed in a class of carbohydrate and it acts as a reinforcement material in
because it contains carbon, hydrogen and bacteria and plants.[12,13] Structure and
oxygen of ratio 6:10:5.[8] It consists of array of hydroxyl group present in
linear chain amylose and branched cellulose tends to form strong hydrogen
amylopectin, the variation of contents of bonded crystal structure. The glucose
these molecules affects the end properties repeat units are linked in the β
of starch. As the amylose content increases configuration by contrast with the α
elongation strength of starch increases. configuration in starch. This allows the
Starch in its native form is hardly usable chains to crystallize in linear conformation
because of its brittleness and low in the form of highly crystalline, high
mechanical property which leads to poor aspect ratio and sub-micron diameter
film forming capacity. These shortcomings micro-fibrils that are aligned along the
are overcoming by plasticization and cellulose fibre known as single fibre
blending with other polymers.[10] Water is (Figure 2).
considered as a primary plasticizer, it
changes the structure of molecular bond of
starch when heated with water. Water
content affects the oxygen permeability of
starch bio plastic film. At low humidity
conditions, films are excellent barriers
against oxygen transmission (Figure 1).[11]

Fig. 2. Structure of cellulose molecules.

Cellulose derivatives can be generated by

dissolving of non-soluble cellulose, the
replacement of hydroxyl group with
radicals and reclamation from solution to
produce films packaging. Common
cellulose derivatives are carboxy methyl
cellulose (CMC), methyl cellulose, ethyl
Fig. 1. Structure of amylopectin molecules. cellulose, hydroxyl ethyl/propyl cellulose
and cellulose acetate.[8]
Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant organic Polylactic Acid
molecule on earth, and is a main PLA is bio poly ester which can be
component in plant cell walls. Wood, separated from fermented plant starch
paper, and cotton are abundant in cellulose. which is 100% renewable and
The glucose in cellulose are linked by β compostable.[8] The presence of – CH3
glycosidic bonds, unlike the α glycosidic group characterize PLA as a hydrophobic
bonds found in glycogen and starch. material. The converted sugar from the

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Biodegradable Polymers for Sustainable Packaging Applications Ashok et al.

starch allows for the fermentation process Linear bio polymers can be produced by
which produces lactic acid monomers, bacterial fermentation of sugar or lipids.
polymerization of lactic acid produce PLA PHA can be either thermoplastic or
(Figure 3). elastomeric materials with melting point
ranging from 40–180°C.[17] Properties of
PHA depend on monomer composition
and microbial fermentation technique.[8,18]

Preferable Properties of Bioplastics for

Packaging Application
Gas Barrier Properties
In food packaging industry, specific gas
pressure conditions are required to
Fig. 3. Structure of polylactic acid (PLA) withstand shelf life and to retain quality of
molecules. food during the process of storage. In most
packaging applications, the gas mixture
Depending on the feed stock from which consists of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon di
starch is derived, the crystalline structure oxide or combination of these gases.[19] To
of PLA changes from semi crystalline to withstand certain gas compositions inside
totally amorphous.[8,14] They are resistant the package, materials need gas barrier
to oil based products, and can act as properties. Gas barrier properties of bio
flavour or odour barriers for foodstuffs.[15– plastics are closely related to their
46]
But it shows brittleness and poor permeation capacity (capacity of material
thermal properties, before plasticization to exchange low molecular weight
process as are used to achieve better substances through film).[8]
mechanical properties. Garde et al.[47]
reported that cost effective PLA can be Many bio plastic materials are hydrophilic,
produced from the green juice (a waste and the gas permeability of hydrophilic bio
product from the production process of polymer materials has been observed to
animal feed). increase with increase in humidity. The
use of multi layers gives better barrier
Polyhydroxyalkanoates properties for food packaging materials.
The general structure of the repeating units For producing multi layers various
of polyesters is different depending on the techniques used such as, atomic deposition
type of bacteria and the feed, the most technique, electron beam evaporation,
common repeating structure of a naturally magnetron sputtering and sol/gel method.[8]
occurring PHA is -(CH2)n-CH3. PHB In food packaging industry one of the
poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) is one of the major requirements is, to sustain water and
biodegradable PHA, which is linear, semi- oxygen permeability during the shelf life
crystalline biopolymer (Figure 4). of thermally processed food material.[20,21]

Weber[19] reported that gas barrier

properties of PLA and PLA based
materials are closely depend with humidity.
Guinault et al.[44] studied the influence of
crystallinity on mechanical properties and
gas barrier properties of PLA films for
food packaging. Morillon et al.[48] have
Fig. 4. Structure of polyhydroxyalkanoates investigated on crystalinity of PLA and its
(PHA) molecules. barrier properties. As the crystalinity of

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film increases barrier properties also Bio or bio-based materials are basically
increase, respectively.[10] Baastioli et al.[10] hydrophobic, and this character reduces
have reported that metalized multilayer moisture barrier property of natural
film with N2, CO2 and vacuum conditions polymer.[8,19]
can increase the shelf life of the product.
Undesired effects of water absorbance of
Butler et al.[45] assessed the mechanical packaging materials results moisture
and barrier properties of plasticized edible regain of dry food or surface drying of
film, and observed that the plasticization frozen food, these can be avoid with films
concentration is proportional to the which have good moisture barrier capacity.
mechanical properties with a reduction in Moisture resistant films can be developed
tensile strength [15–30 MPa] and an by external coating of hydrophobic/ water
increase in percentage elongation [25–45%] resistant material such as polyester, wax,
as a function of time. Increased fatty acids and crosslinking of material
plasticization effect increased the with inorganic fillers, blending of material
percentage of solubility in water and with moisture resistant material or
reduced properties like elastic modulus reinforcement with natural fibres such as
and glass transition temperature. jute, coir, sisal.[25–27] Barrier properties
depend upon morphological properties of
Thermal and Mechanical Properties the material such as crystallinity and chain
Good mechanical and thermal properties conformation. As crystallinity of material
ensure the protection of product against increases barrier properties of material also
thermal and/or mechanical damage during increases.[23] Increasing moisture barrier
period of storage.[8] Thermal and increases shelf life of food in food
mechanical properties are critical in which packaging industry.
they determine suitability of bio plastic for
certain application. Food packaging Comparative study on water vapour
industry requires polymers with high gas transmission rate of bio polymer based
barrier properties where as competitive material with conventional petroleum
mechanical properties are required for based material, by Butler et al.[45] and
automobile industry. Various techniques Garde et al.[47] reported that that bio-based
are applied in the processing of bio plastics materials have comparable properties over
like plasticization, blending with polymer, petroleum based material. Baastioli et al.[10]
converting bioplastic to thermoplastic for have studied on the properties of solvent-
improving properties. Plasticization based dispersion coating on successive
process can alter thermal and mechanical layer of bio polymer. The resultant film
properties of bio plastics, by increasing achieved better moisture barrier properties.
thermal degradation temperature of bio Morillon et al.[48] and Callegarin et al.[49]
plastic.[19,22] thoroughly reviewed about the moisture
sensitivity of protein films, barrier towards
Moisture Barrier Property moisture can be increase by effective
Moisture barrier property of bio plastic blending with other bio based material of
refers to the ability of a bio plastic to resist small quantity.
the entry of undesired vapour are
characterised by permeability, diffusivity, Biodegradability
solubility across the barrier, and also the Biodegradable plastics are one of the
affinity of the packaging materials towards ecologically sound materials that have
moisture, which is evaluated by water been developed recently in the packaging
vapour transmission rate (WVTR).[23,24] industry. Biodegradability of a polymer

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Biodegradable Polymers for Sustainable Packaging Applications Ashok et al.

means that a material (e.g. a ALD. Atomic layer deposition is layer by

constituent/substance, finished product or layer self-limiting gas solid reaction
waste) is capable of being broken down deposition technique and is used for the
into smaller compounds by the action of production of inorganic barrier coatings
naturally occurring microorganisms like (Al2O3, SiO2, ZnO). It can employee at
bacteria, fungi or algae in the environment relatively low deposition temperature and
where biodegradation is occurring.[14,20,28] develop thin film in a controlled manner.
The process of biodegradation is Gas barrier property of porous materials
influenced by the environmental can dramatically improve by Atomic layer
conditions (e.g. temperature, moisture, deposition technique.
available nutrients and pH) that the
material and microbes are exposed to ref.[8] Atomic layer deposition is an advanced
Bio degradation as process can be version of chemical vapour deposition
explained in two steps. First step (CVD), and it rectifies the shortcomings of
characterized as degradation or de CVD such as high operating temperature
fragmentation, which is initiated by heat, requirements which exceed the melting
moisture, microbial enzymes. Second step point of the polymer. Atomic layer
is bio degradation, which transforms deposition enables control over the thin
longer molecular substance into smaller film formation and precursor gases control.
compounds, initiated by naturally ALD coatings are generally produced with
occurring enzymes, and acids. slow batch processes.

Once the molecules are reduced to a Edible Film Coatings

suitable size, the substance can be Edible coatings are considered as green
absorbed through the organism’s cell walls and novel food packaging application,
where they are metabolized for energy.[23] which can formed directly in the food
This biodegradation process produces surface by immersion of the food product
carbon dioxide or methane. Polymer in the coating solution. The coating will
degradation may occur either due to photo become a part of the food product and then
degradation, microbial action or by directly consumed or removed before
chemical action. Oxo-degradation is a type consumption.[30,31] The coatings are
of degradation which makes use of characterized as nontoxic, non-allergic,
oxidation and additive technology to and exhibits good structural stability
accelerate bio degradability of a polymer. during transportation and handling. It
Additives control degradation process in a provides smooth surface and good
predictable manner, bio degradation is adhesion on food surface and also exhibits
usually initiated either by light, heat or adequate moisture and gas barrier
microorganisms.[29] properties.

Film and Coating Techniques Technologies like compression moulding,

Atomic Layer Deposition extrusion process and novel electro
It is a thin-film layer deposition technique spinning process are used for the
that enables the production of high-quality commercial production of edible film.[30–33]
coatings on a range of materials.[3,4] Layer- Coating functionalities of edible films can
by-layer growth assures precise control of be improved by natural extracts, nano
film thickness even at relatively low composites, and modified polymers. For
temperatures. It is difficult to obtain mild example, edible film coating of rice starch
deposition conditions and high film quality based film with coconut oil and tea leaf
combined with low thickness with other extracts improve surface integrity and
thin film deposition techniques other than stability.[34] Rice starch based film on

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 International Journal of Bionics and Biomaterials
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tomatoes reduces weight loss and extend properties along with inherent
storage film.[31,35] biodegradability and other unique
properties of polymer. Bio-based plastics
Products Made of Bioplastics finds wide applications in the field of
One of the main advantages of bio plastic paper coatings, service waste, disposable
products are the biodegradability which materials, single use short life packaging
makes it suitable for disposable products materials.[8,19,33] Packaging materials made
especially in packaging sector like, fruit or from bioplastics with barrier properties,
vegetable containers/trays, egg cartons, impenetrable to odours and with good
bottling for soft drinks and dairy products. performance on the machines are
Ongoing researches will lead to attainable and will promote consistent
productions of nondisposable items too development in this arena.
from sustainable resources, attempts to
develop electro active bio plastics that can Blown Films (Barrier Films)
carry electric current has also been Bio plastics can be blown as film or
reported. multilayer film, or extruded as flat film.
They can be thermoformed and are able to
Medical implants made of polylactic acid be printed, glued and converted into
(PLA), can dissolve in the human body packaging components in numerous ways.
which again saves time and money and Established packaging applications for bio
offers a sustainable solution. Pure starch plastics are shopping bags, which also
absorbs humidity, and is a suitable have a secondary use as a bag to collect
material for production of drug capsules in compostable kitchen and garden waste.
the pharmaceutical industry. Compostable
mulch films made of starch polymers can Oil derived polymer exhibits high
be extensively used in agricultural mechanical and barrier properties as well
purposes. Such films need not have to be as transparency. Blown films can be cast
collected back from farm land since they as a monolayer, laminated layer and
degrade. multilayer according to the applications.
Food packaging and industrial application
Improvement of mechanical, chemical and require optical transparency for the
physical properties of bio plastics can be identification easiness. Renewable
achieved by polymer–polymer blending, blowing films developed based on PLA
Nano reinforcement and additional based films shows good transparency and
chemical functionality which results in bio cellophane like mechanical properties.[19]
based materials with properties similar to
nondegradable plastics. The fundamental In food packaging industry gas pressure
molecular arrangement of molecules in inside the package depends closely on the
synthetic plastics are similar to the bio shelf life of food product, so gas barrier is
based plastic units, for example, ester the important consideration to a food
functionality of polylactic acid is similar to packaging material. These blowing films
polyesters, peptide functionality of protein can be made by co extrusion of different
is similar to synthetic poly amides. polymers together meet the requirement.
Thermoplastic film could act as a blown
For developing different shape and types film by co-extrusion process with PLA or
of bio-based packaging materials, the same PHB/V act as coating materials. This can
processing technique used for synthetic replace costly polyamides with low cost
plastics can be adopted. The resultant starch based bio materials.[34]
bioplastics give products with greater Reinforcement of nano materials (Ex.

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Biodegradable Polymers for Sustainable Packaging Applications Ashok et al.

silica SiOx particles) increases water as resistance. Paper based materials have
well as gas barrier properties. good mechanical properties but gas
permeability is high and also water
Foamed Products sensitive. For improving water and gas
Foamed products are stable, light weight, barrier properties thin synthetic plastic
ecological good material which is coating is used.[41,42] In a renewable point
extensively used in packaging industry. of view, bio based material coating acts as
Starch based bio plastics can be made into an excellent anti gas and water permeable
foam which shows insulating properties layer and also provides unique character
and densities. Starch based foams are like degradability.[43,28]
water sensitive, and brittle so number of
procedures required for the suitability of CONCLUSION
material to cold or hot liquid With the growing awareness of depletion
environment.[36–38] of non-renewable resources, it has become
essential to find alternative materials
Thermoformed Containers derived from renewable resources and
Containers which obtained through showing comparable properties to that of
thermoforming process are known as conventional plastics. Competitive bio
thermoformed containers. It can be plastics can be derived from natural
manufactured by thorough heating of feedstock, microbial actions of
plastic sheet to a pliable forming microorganisms or chemical synthetic
temperature in a mould, trimming process methods. Suitability of packaging
creates specific shape product. materials depends on the mechanical and
thermal properties of bio plastic.
Thermoformed inserts are used for Mechanical and barrier and properties of
manufacturing chocolate boxes, trays for bio plastics can be modified with
fruit, vegetables, meat and eggs (also plasticization effect, blending of polymers
foamed), tubs for dairy produce, margarine and reinforcement of nano-material
and sandwich spread, bottles, nets or altogether brings out suitable packaging
pouches for fruit and vegetables. Blister materials for industrial use.
packs, where the film is closely formed to
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