❊❙❈❯❊▲❆ ❙❯P❊❘■❖❘ P❖▲■❚➱❈◆■❈❆ ❉❊▲

▲■❚❖❘❆▲
❋❛❝✉❧t❛❞ ❞❡ ❈✐❡♥❝✐❛s ◆❛t✉r❛❧❡s ② ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s
❉❡♣❛rt❛♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s

❆♣✉♥t❡s ❞❡ ❈❧❛s❡s ❞❡ ❈á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❱❛r✐❛s ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❈✉rs♦ ❞✐r✐❣✐❞♦ ❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❊❙P❖▲

❊❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❆▲P❍❆ ❱❡rs✐ó♥ ✶✳✵

❈ré❞✐t♦s ❞❡ ❊❞✐❝✐ó♥✿

Pr♦❢✳ ❙♦✈❡♥② ❙♦r❛②❛ ❙♦❧ís ●❛r❝í❛

❊st✉❞✐❛♥t❡ ❉❛r❧❛ ❇✉r❣♦s

❆❣♦st♦ ❞❡ ✷✵✶✻

●✉❛②❛q✉✐❧✲❊❝✉❛❞♦r
❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧

■♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ✷

✶✳ ●❡♦♠❡trí❛ ❆♥❛❧ít✐❝❛ ❡♥ R3 ✶

✶✳✶✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶
✶✳✷✳ ❊❧ s✐st❡♠❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶
✶✳✸✳ ▲❛ r❡❝t❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸
✶✳✸✳✶✳ ❚✐♣♦s ❞❡ ❘❡❝t❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺
✶✳✹✳ ❊❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻
✶✳✹✳✶✳ ❚✐♣♦s ❞❡ ♣❧❛♥♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼
✶✳✹✳✷✳ ■♥t❡r❝❡♣t♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ❡❥❡s ② tr❛③❛s ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s ✳ ✳ ✽
✶✳✹✳✸✳ ❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ♣❛r❛ ❞❡✜♥✐r ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾
✶✳✺✳ ❉✐st❛♥❝✐❛s ❝♦♥ ♣✉♥t♦s✱ r❡❝t❛s ② ♣❧❛♥♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵
✶✳✻✳ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❡♥ R3 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷
✶✳✻✳✶✳ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❝✉❛❞rát✐❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸
✶✳✻✳✷✳ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❈✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✼
✶✳✻✳✸✳ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❞❡ r❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽
✶✳✼✳ ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❈✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ② ❊s❢ér✐❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✾
✶✳✼✳✶✳ ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✾
✶✳✼✳✷✳ ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❊s❢ér✐❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶

✷✳ ❉✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❱❛r✐❛s ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✸

✷✳✶✳ ◆♦❝✐♦♥❡s ❚♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❡♥ Rn ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✸

✷✳✷✳ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❱❛r✐❛s ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺
✷✳✸✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ② ❉✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✵

✸
❮◆❉■❈❊ ●❊◆❊❘❆▲

✷✳✸✳✶✳ ❘❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❈❛❞❡♥❛ ●❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✺

✷✳✹✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛s s♦❜r❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✻
✷✳✺✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❉❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ■♠♣❧í❝✐t❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✽
✷✳✻✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❖r❞❡♥ ❙✉♣❡r✐♦r ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✵
✷✳✻✳✶✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ❝♦♥ ❘❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❈❛❞❡♥❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷
✷✳✼✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹
✷✳✼✳✶✳ ❆♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✶❡r ❖r❞❡♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹
✷✳✼✳✷✳ ❋ór♠✉❧❛s ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❞❡ ✶❡r ② ❞❡ ✷❞♦ ❖r❞❡♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺
✷✳✼✳✸✳ P❧❛♥♦ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻

✸✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✹✾

✸✳✶✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✷

✹✳ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❱❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ✺✺

✹✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✺

✹✳✶✳✶✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛ ❝✉r✈❛s ❡♥ R2 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✺
✹✳✶✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛ ❝✉r✈❛s ❡♥ R3 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✻
✹✳✶✳✸✳ ▲í♠✐t❡✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ② ❞❡r✐✈❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s
❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✻
✹✳✶✳✹✳ ❱❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞✱ r❛♣✐❞❡③ ② ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✼
✹✳✶✳✺✳ ❱❡❝t♦r t❛♥❣❡♥t❡✱ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ② ❜✐♥♦r♠❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✽
✹✳✶✳✻✳ ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛r❝♦ ② ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✾
✹✳✷✳ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✵

✺✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ▲í♥❡❛ ✻✺

✺✳✶✳ ■♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✻

✺✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✼
✺✳✷✳✶✳ ❈❛♠♣♦s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦s ❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✾
✺✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✵

✻✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥ ▼ú❧t✐♣❧❡ ✼✸

✻✳✶✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞♦❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✹

✻✳✶✳✶✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞♦❜❧❡s ❡♥ r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✺

✹
 ❮◆❉■❈❊ ●❊◆❊❘❆▲

✻✳✶✳✷✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✾
✻✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s tr✐♣❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✾
✻✳✸✳ ❱❛❧♦r ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✷
✻✳✹✳ ❈❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ♠ú❧t✐♣❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✷

✼✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ✽✺
✼✳✶✳ ❆r❡❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✻
✼✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❊s❝❛❧❛r ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✼
✼✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❱❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✼

✽✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❚❡♦rí❛ ❱❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ✾✶

✽✳✶✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●r❡❡♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✶
✽✳✶✳✶✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●r❡❡♥ ❡♥ ❘❡❣✐♦♥❡s ▼ú❧t✐♣❧❡s ❈♦♥❡①❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✷
✽✳✶✳✷✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ♣❧❛♥❛ ✾✷
✽✳✷✳ ❚❡r♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙t♦❦❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✸
✽✳✸✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●❛✉ss ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✸

❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❞❡ ❙í♠❜♦❧♦s ✾✺

❇✐❜❧✐♦❣r❛❢í❛ ✾✼

✺
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶

●❡♦♠❡trí❛ ❆♥❛❧ít✐❝❛ ❡♥ R3

✶✳✶✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥

❊♥ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡s ✐♠♣r❡s❝✐♥❞✐❜❧❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st✉✲

❞✐❛♥t❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡ ❝♦rr❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s
❣rá✜❝❛s ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡♥ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡
✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡st❛r ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❣rá✜❝❛s ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s s❡ ❝♦♥✈✐❡r✲
t❡♥ ❡♥ ❧♦s ❧í♠✐t❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s tr✐♣❧❡s✳ ❊♥tr❡ ♦tr❛s ❝♦s❛s✱ ❧❛ ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❛r
❡♥ tr❡s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❡s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✐♥❣❡♥✐❡r♦✳

❘❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥✱ s❡ ✉s❛rá ✉♥❛ ❧❡tr❛ ♠❛②ús❝✉❧❛ s❡❣✉✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✱

♣❛r❛ ❞❡✜♥✐r ♣✉♥t♦s✿ P (2, 1, 1)❀ ▲❡tr❛s ♠✐♥ús❝✉❧❛s s❡❣✉✐❞❛s ❞❡❧ s✐❣♥♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ ② ❞❡ ❧❛s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ♣❛r❛ ❞❡✜♥✐r ✈❡❝t♦r❡s✿ v = (2, 3, −1) ó v = 2✐ + 3❥ − ❦✳

❉❛❞♦s ❞♦s ♣✉♥t♦s P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ② P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 )✱ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧❧♦s✱ ❝♦♥
♣✉♥t♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ P1 ② ♣✉♥t♦ t❡r♠✐♥❛❧ P2 ✱ ❝♦♠♦✿
−−→
P1 P2 = (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 )✳

✶✳✷✳ ❊❧ s✐st❡♠❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧

▲♦ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r tr❡s r❡❝t❛s

♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛s ❡❥❡s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✳ ❊❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ s❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❛♥ s❡

✶
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s O✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♥✈❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❣r❛✜❝❛r❧♦s ❞❡ t❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛ q✉❡ ❡❧

■ ♦❝t❛♥t❡ s❡❛ ✈✐s✐❜❧❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ✶✳✶✳ ▲♦s ♥♦♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❥❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥
s❡r ❝❛♠❜✐❛❞♦s ♣❡r♦ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY s❡ ❧♦ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣✐s♦ ② ❡❧ ❡❥❡ Z
❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❛❧t✉r❛ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ést❡✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✶

❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ P ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s (x, y, z) ❡s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❣r❛✜❝❛

♣❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡s❞❡ O✱ ❧✉❡❣♦ r❡❝♦rr❡ x ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ❛❧ ❡❥❡ X ✱ ❞❡s❞❡ ❛q✉í r❡❝♦rr❡
y ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ❛❧ ❡❥❡ Y ② ❞❡s❞❡ ❛q✉í r❡❝♦rr❡ z ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ❛❧ ❡❥❡ Z ✳ ❊♥
❡❧ r❡❝♦rr✐❞♦ ❞❡❜❡ r❡s♣❡t❛rs❡ ❡❧ s✐❣♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✳ ❖tr❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❣r❛✜❝❛r ❡❧
♣✉♥t♦ ❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❡s ♣❧❛♥♦s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s ❛ ❧♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✱ ❛sí✿

▲❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ x ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ Y Z ✳

▲❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ y ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XZ ✳

▲❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ z ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY ✳

❉❡ ❛q✉í✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✱
❝✉❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡s ✜❥❛✱ s❡❣ú♥ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❛ ❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❛s♦s ♣r❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡s✳
P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ ❤❛②❛ ✈✐st♦ t♦❞❛✈í❛ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ ❡♥
❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✱ ❡s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s✿

❚♦❞♦ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ X ❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ (x, 0, 0) ② t♦❞❛ r❡❝t❛ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛ ❡st❡
❡❥❡ t✐❡♥❡ ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ (x, y0 , z0 ) ❞♦♥❞❡ y0 ② z0 s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s✳ ❊st❛s
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ ♣❡♥❡tr❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ Y Z ✳

✷
 ✶✳✸✳ ▲❆ ❘❊❈❚❆ ❊◆ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖

❚♦❞♦ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ Y ❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ (0, y, 0) ② t♦❞❛ r❡❝t❛ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛ ❡st❡
❡❥❡ t✐❡♥❡ ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ (x0 , y, z0 ) ❞♦♥❞❡ x0 ② z0 s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s✳ ❊st❛s
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ ♣❡♥❡tr❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XZ ✳

❚♦❞♦ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ Z ❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ (0, 0, z) ② t♦❞❛ r❡❝t❛ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛ ❡st❡ ❡❥❡ t✐❡♥❡
♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ (x0 , y0 , z) ❞♦♥❞❡ x0 ② y0 s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s✳ ❊st❛s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ ♣❡♥❡tr❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY ✳

❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ s✐ r❡q✉❡r✐♠♦s ❡❧ ♦ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞♦♥❞❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❛ ❛ ❧♦s ❡❥❡s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✱ ❧♦ ú♥✐❝♦ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r ❡s r❡❡♠♣❧❛③❛r ✵ ❡♥ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥✲
❞✐❡♥t❡s✳ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r s✐ ❡s ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s ❛ ❧♦s ❡❥❡s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✱ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s
r❡❡♠♣❧❛③❛r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✷✳✶ ●r❛✜q✉❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✿

❛✳ Q = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 /0 ≤ x ≤ 2; 1 ≤ y ≤ 3; z ≥ 0}

❜✳ S = [0, 1] × [0, 1] × [0, 1] ✭❝✉❜♦ ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦✮

✶✳✸✳ ▲❛ r❡❝t❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✸✳✶ ❙❡❛ P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ R3 ② s❡❛ d = (a, b, c) ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦

♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ R3 ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ L q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛ P0 ② ❝♦♥ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛ d✱
−−→
❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦s P (x, y, z) t❛❧❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ P0 P ❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛ d✳ ❊s
❞❡❝✐r✿

L = {P (x, y, z)/(x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = t(a, b, c); t ∈ R}

❉❡ ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛♠étr✐❝❛s ❞❡ L✿


x = x0 + at






L : y = y0 + bt ❀ t ∈ R✳




z = z0 + ct


✸
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✷

❈♦♥ ❡st❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ ❞❛♥❞♦ ❛ t ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r

r❡❛❧ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦✳ ■♥✈❡rs❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥♦❝❡r s✐ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❛❞♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❝✲
t❛✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ s✐ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛♠étr✐❝❛s t✐❡♥❡♥ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ t ∈ R✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✸✳✶ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛♠étr✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧

♣✉♥t♦ P0 (−1, 2, 4) ② ❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r d = (2, 0, −2)✳ ▲✉❡❣♦✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✐ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦

(3, −1, 1) ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛ ❡st❛ r❡❝t❛✳

❯♥❛ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞✐r❡❝t♦r ❡s q✉❡ ❡st❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r r❡❡♠♣❧❛③❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❝✉❛❧✲
q✉✐❡r ♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦ ♥♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❡❧✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ s❡ ♣✉❞♦ ❤❛❜❡r ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r
d = (1, 0, −1) ó d = (−1, 0, 1) ó d = (3, 0, −3)✱ ❡t❝✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s
♣❛rá♠❡tr♦s ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❡❧
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦s ❡s ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦✳

❉❡ ❧♦ ❡①♣✉❡st♦✱ ♣❛r❛ r❡❝t❛s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ❛ ❧♦s ❡❥❡s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✱ ❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥s✐✲

❞❡r❛r ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞✐r❡❝t♦r ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧♦s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s ✐ = (1, 0, 0)✱ ❥ = (0, 1, 0) ② ❦ = (0, 0, 1)✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ r❡❝t❛s q✉❡ s♦♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ❛ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥❛
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ✜❥❛✱ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞✐r❡❝t♦r t✐❡♥❡ ♥✉❧❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❝♦✲
rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡✳

✹
 ✶✳✸✳ ▲❆ ❘❊❈❚❆ ❊◆ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖

❉❡ ❡st♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s s❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉②❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛♠étr✐❝❛s s♦♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡s ❛

t♦❞♦ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ r❡❝t❛✳ ◆♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡✱ ❡①✐st❡♥ ♦tr♦ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ❡♠✲
♣❧❡❛♥ ♣❛r❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛✱ ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛♥ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s s✐♠étr✐❝❛s ✳

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
❊♥ ❡❧ s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡✿ a, b, c 6= 0✱ = = ✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛✲
a b c
❝✐♦♥❡s s✐♠étr✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛❧ ♣✉♥t♦ P0 ② ❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥
d = (a, b, c)✳

❙✐ ❛❧❣✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s a, b, c ❡s ♥✉❧♦ ✭❝❧❛r♦ ❡stá q✉❡ ♥♦ t♦❞♦s ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡③✮✱ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛✲
❝✐♦♥❡s s✐♠étr✐❝❛s s❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛✳ ❖tr❛ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛
❡st❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❡s q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ r❡❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞✐r❡❝t♦r✱ ❡❧ ♥✉♠❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡❜❡ ❡st❛r
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s ✶✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✸✳✷ ❊s❝r✐❜❛ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛♠étr✐❝❛s ② s✐♠étr✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ q✉❡

❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s P (1, 2, 3) ② Q(0, 2, −1)

✶✳✸✳✶✳ ❚✐♣♦s ❞❡ ❘❡❝t❛s

❊♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧❛s r❡❝t❛s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r✿

P❛r❛❧❡❧❛s✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ s✉s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞✐r❡❝t♦r❡s s♦♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s

t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡s ♦ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ♥♦ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡s✳

P❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ s✉s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞✐r❡❝t♦r❡s s♦♥ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s✳

❙❡❝❛♥t❡s✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡♥ ❝♦♠ú♥✳

❆❧❛❜❡❛❞❛s✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ♥♦ s♦♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ♥✐ s❡❝❛♥t❡s✳

▲❛s ❞♦s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛s✱ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞✐r❡❝t♦r❡s
❞❡ ❛♠❜❛s r❡❝t❛s✳ P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡❝t❛s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s✱ ❜❛st❛ t♦♠❛r ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s ② ✈❡r✐✜❝❛r q✉❡ ést❡ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♦tr❛✳

✺
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s❡❝❛♥t❡s✱ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡

♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❛ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡r ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦✳ ❊st♦ ❡s✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦

♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝♦♠ú♥✳

P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛❧❛❜❡❛❞❛s✱ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ②

q✉❡ ♥♦ t❡♥❣❛♥ ♣✉♥t♦s ❡♥ ❝♦♠ú♥❀ ❡st♦ ú❧t✐♠♦ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s

q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛♠étr✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡❝t❛s✱ s❡❛ ✐♥❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✸✳✸ ■❞❡♥t✐✜q✉❡ ❡❧ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ r❡❝t❛s q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦✲
♥❡s✿

x = 1 + 2t




 x−7 y−2 1−z
❛✳ L1 : y = −2 − 3t ❀ t ∈ R❀ L2 : = = ✳

 3 2 2


z = 5 + 4t


 
x = 6t x = 1 + 3u

 


 


 

❜✳ L1 : y = −4 − 4t ❀ t ∈ R❀ L2 : y = 1 − 2u ❀u∈R

 


 

z = 3 − 2t
 z = 1 − u


❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✸✳✹ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡❧ ❜❛r✐❝❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ tr✐á♥❣✉❧♦ ❝✉②♦s ✈ért✐✲
❝❡s s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s (1, 2, 1); (2, 3, 3); (3, −2, 3)✳

✶✳✹✳ ❊❧ ♣❧❛♥♦

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✹✳✶ ❙❡❛ P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ R3 ② s❡❛ n = (a, b, c) ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦

♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ R3 ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ π q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛ P0 ② ❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ n✱
−−→
❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦s P (x, y, z) t❛❧❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ P0 P ❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ n✳

❊s ❞❡❝✐r✿

π = {P (x, y, z)/(x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) · (a, b, c) = 0}

✻
 ✶✳✹✳ ❊▲ P▲❆◆❖

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✸

❉❡ ❛q✉í s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ q✉❡ P ∈π s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0✱

❝♦♥ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛ P0 ② ❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛

❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ n = (a, b, c)✱ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿

ax + by + cz + d = 0❀ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ d s❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❝♦♥ P0 ✳

P❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ s❡ ❞❡❜❡ ❞❛r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦s ❛ ❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r✲

❞❡♥❛❞❛s✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❞♦s ❣r❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞✳ P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦

♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ s✉s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ s✉ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✳

◆♦t❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ d = 0 s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✹✳✶ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛❧ ♣✉♥t♦ P0 (3, 1, 1)
② ❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦r✿

❛✳ P1 (3, 1, 4) ② P2 (0, 2, 1)✳

❜✳ ❊❧ ❡❥❡ X ✳

✶✳✹✳✶✳ ❚✐♣♦s ❞❡ ♣❧❛♥♦s

P❛r❛❧❡❧♦s✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ s✉s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s s♦♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s

t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡s ♦ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s ♥♦ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡s✳

P❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ s✉s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s s♦♥ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s✳

✼
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

❙❡❝❛♥t❡s✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ ❡♥ ❝♦♠ú♥✳

❖❜s✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ s✐ ❞♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ♥♦ s♦♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s s♦♥ s❡❝❛♥t❡s✳

▲❛s ❞♦s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛s✱ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s
❞❡ ❛♠❜♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s✳ P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❞♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s ❜❛st❛ ♦❜s❡r✈❛r q✉❡
s✉s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s ✭t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s s♦♥ ♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦s ❡♥tr❡ sí✮✳

P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s❡❝❛♥t❡s✱ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛r q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s ② ❧❛ r❡❝✲

t❛ ❝♦♠ú♥ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ r❡s♦❧✈✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s
❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s✳

❖tr❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞✐r❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ ❝♦♠ú♥ ❡s ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝✲

t♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s✳ P❛r❛ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ s❡ t♦♠❛ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦
❝♦♠ú♥ ❛ ❛♠❜♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s✳

❈✉❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s s♦♥ s❡❝❛♥t❡s✱ ❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ q✉❡
❢♦r♠❛♥ ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ s✉s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s
♥♦r♠❛❧❡s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✹✳✷ ❉❛❞♦s ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s π1 : 2x − y + 3z = 2❀ π2 : x − y − z = 0✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡

s✐ s♦♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s✱ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ♦ s❡❝❛♥t❡s✳ ❊♥ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ s❡r s❡❝❛♥t❡s✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧❛

r❡❝t❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ② ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧❧♦s✳

✶✳✹✳✷✳ ■♥t❡r❝❡♣t♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ❡❥❡s ② tr❛③❛s ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡✲

♥❛❞♦s

❚♦❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣♦s❡❡ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t♦ ♦ ✉♥❛ tr❛③❛ ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❥❡s ♦
♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❊❧ ✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t♦ ♦ ❧❛ tr❛③❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ r❡s✉❧✲
t❛ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❛r ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈♦✳

✽
 ✶✳✹✳ ❊▲ P▲❆◆❖

▲❛ ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❝❛ ❡♥ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❣r❛✜❝❛r rá♣✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧

♣❧❛♥♦ ② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r r❡❣✐♦♥❡s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✹✳✸ ❉❛❞♦ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ 2x + 4y + 6z − 12 = 0✱ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜q✉❡ ✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t♦s ❝♦♥

❧♦s ❡❥❡s ② tr❛③❛s ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❈♦♥ ❡st❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥
r❡❛❧✐❝❡ ✉♥ ❜♦sq✉❡❥♦ ❣rá✜❝♦ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✹✳✹ ■❞❡♥t✐✜q✉❡ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s ② ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s
x + z = 1❀ y + z = 1✳

✶✳✹✳✸✳ ❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ♣❛r❛ ❞❡✜♥✐r ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦

✐ ✳ ❉❛❞♦ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ② ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✳

✐✐ ✳ ❉❛❞♦s tr❡s ♣✉♥t♦s ♥♦ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✳

✐✐✐ ✳ ❉❛❞❛s ❞♦s r❡❝t❛s s❡❝❛♥t❡s ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✳

✐✈ ✳ ❉❛❞❛s ❞♦s r❡❝t❛s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ♥♦ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡s ② ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✳

✈ ✳ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ② ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❡①t❡r♥♦ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛✳

✈✐ ✳ ❉❛❞♦s ❞♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ② ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ❛ ❧❛
❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❧♦s ❞♦s ♣✉♥t♦s✳

❖❜s✳ ❙✐ ❞♦s r❡❝t❛s s♦♥ ❛❧❛❜❡❛❞❛s✱ ♥♦ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❝♦♠ú♥ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥t❡♥❣❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✹✳✺ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡
❛ ❧❛s r❡❝t❛s✿

x = 1 + 2t





 x−7 y−2 1−z
❛✳ L1 : y = −2 − 3t ❀ t ∈ R❀ L2 : = = ✳

 3 2 2


z = 5 + 4t


✾
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

 
x = 6t x = 1 + 3u

 


 

 

❜✳ L1 : y = −4 − 4t ❀ t ∈ R❀ L2 : y = 1 − 2u ❀ u ∈ R✳

 


 

z = 3 − 2t
 z = 1 − u


❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✹✳✻ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡
2x − 1 2−y 4 − 2z
❛ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ L: = = ② ❛❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (1, 1, −1)✳
4 3 2

✶✳✺✳ ❉✐st❛♥❝✐❛s ❝♦♥ ♣✉♥t♦s✱ r❡❝t❛s ② ♣❧❛♥♦s

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✺✳✶ ✭❉✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❛ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦✮ ❙❡❛ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ π ❝♦♥ ❡❝✉❛✲

❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ax + by + cz + d = 0✳ ❙❡❛ P0 ∈ R 3 ✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ P0 ❛ π✱

❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿

| ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d |

d(P0 , π) = √
a2 + b 2 + c 2
❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✿

−−→
❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ Q ∈ π ✱ ❞❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r P0 Q ✭ó s✉ ✐♥✈❡rs♦
−−→
❛❞✐t✐✈♦✮✳ ▲❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ P0 ❛ π ❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ P0 Q
s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ π ✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✹

❆❧❣✉♥❛s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❡st❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛ s♦♥✿

✶✵
 ✶✳✺✳ ❉■❙❚❆◆❈■❆❙ ❈❖◆ P❯◆❚❖❙✱ ❘❊❈❚❆❙ ❨ P▲❆◆❖❙

❉✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s✳ ❙✐ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ♥♦ s♦♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛
♥♦ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧❧♦s✳

❉✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦✳ ❙✐ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ ❡s s❡❝❛♥t❡ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✱

❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ♥♦ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✳

▲✉❣❛r❡s ❣❡♦♠étr✐❝♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✺✳✶ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✱ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s

π1 : 3x − y + 2z − 6 = 0 ② π2 : 6x − 2y + 4z + 4 = 0✳


x = 4 + t





❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✺✳✷ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✱ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ L : y = −6 + 8t ❀




z = 7 − 3t

t ∈ R✱ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ π : −2x + y + 2z + 4 = 0✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✺✳✷ ✭❉✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✮ ❙❡❛ L ✉♥❛

r❡❝t❛ ❞❡ R3 ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞✐r❡❝t♦r d✳ ❙❡❛ P0 ∈ R 3 ✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ P0 ❛ L ❡stá

❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿
−−→
kP0 Q × dk
d(P0 , L) = ❀
kdk
❞♦♥❞❡ Q∈L ❡s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✿
−−→
❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ Q ∈ L✱ ❞❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡♥❧❛❝❡ P0 Q ✭ó s✉ ✐♥✈❡rs♦
❛❞✐t✐✈♦✮✳ ▲❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ P0 ❛ L ❡s ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ h ❞❡❧ ❝❛t❡t♦ ♦♣✉❡st♦ ❛❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ q✉❡
❢♦r♠❛♥ ❡❧ s❡❣♠❡♥t♦ P0 Q ② ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞✐r❡❝t♦r d✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✺

✶✶
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

−−→
❉❡❧ tr✐á♥❣✉❧♦ r❡❝tá♥❣✉❧♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ h = kP0 Qksen(θ)✳ P♦r ❡❧ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛
−−→ −−→
❞❡❧ Pr♦❞✉❝t♦ ❈r✉③ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ kP0 Q × dk = kP0 Qkkdksen(θ)✳ ❉❡ ❛♠❜❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s
s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛✳ ❖tr❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❡s ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s
r❡❝t❛s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳


x = 1 + 2t






❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✺✳✸ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ L : y = −2 − 3t ❀ t∈R ② ❧❛




z = 5 + 4t


r❡❝t❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (2, −1, 4) ② ❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛ L✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✺✳✸ ❙❡❛♥ L1 ② L2 ❞♦s r❡❝t❛s ❛❧❛❜❡❛❞❛s ❞❡ R3 ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞✐r❡❝t♦r❡s d1

② d2 ✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ▲❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧❧❛s ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿

−−→
d(L1 , L2 ) =| proyd1 ×d2 P1 P2 |❀ ❞♦♥❞❡ P1 ∈ L 1 ❀ ② P2 ∈ L2 s♦♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✺✳✹ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s r❡❝t❛s✿

 
x = 4 + 5t x=4+u

 


 


 

L1 : y = 5 + 5t ❀ t∈R ② L2 : y = −6 + 8u ❀ u ∈ R✳

 


 

z = 1 − 4t
 z = 7 − 5u


❖❜s✳ ❙✐ ❞♦s r❡❝t❛s s♦♥ s❡❝❛♥t❡s✱ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧❧❛s ❡s ✵✳

✶✳✻✳ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❡♥ R3
❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ✭✈❛r✐❡❞❛❞ ❜✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✮✿

▲❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❝✉❛❞rát✐❝❛s✳

▲❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s✳

▲❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❞❡ r❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✳

✶✷
 ✶✳✻✳ ❙❯P❊❘❋■❈■❊❙ ❊◆ R3

✶✳✻✳✶✳ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❝✉❛❞rát✐❝❛s

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✻✳✶ ✭❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❈✉❛❞rát✐❝❛✮ ❯♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❝✉❛❞rát✐❝❛ ❞❡ R3 ❡s ❡❧
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦s P (x, y, z) q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛✿
ax2 +by 2 +cz 2 +dxy +exz +f yz +gx+hy +iz +j = 0❀ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s
❞❡ R ② a, b, c ♥♦ t♦❞♦s ♥✉❧♦s✳

▼❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ r♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡❥❡s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧❡s✱ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❞❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱

s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛✿

Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dx + Ey + F z + E = 0✱

❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛ ✭✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦✱ ♣❛r ❞❡ r❡❝t❛s✱ ❝♦♥✲
❥✉♥t♦ ✈❛❝í♦✱ ❡t❝✳✮ ♦ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s✳ ❊♥ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s✱ ❞✐r❡♠♦s
q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝♦rt❡s s♦♥ ♣❧❛♥♦s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s ❛ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s
❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡✳

❊s❢❡r❛✿ (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 + (z − l)2 = R2 ❀ (h, k, l) ❡s ❡❧ ❝❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡s❢❡r❛ ②

R ❡s ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡❧ r❛❞✐♦✳ ▲♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r✿ ❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s✱
♣✉♥t♦s ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✈❛❝í♦s✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✻

✶✸
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

(x − h)2 (y − k)2 (z − l)2

❊❧✐♣s♦✐❞❡✿ + + = 1❀ (h, k, l) ❡s ❡❧ ❝❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❧✐♣s♦✐❞❡
a2 b2 c2
② a, b, c s♦♥ ❧❛s ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s s❡♠✐❡❥❡s✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ▲♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡

♥✐✈❡❧ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r✿ ❡❧✐♣s❡s✱ ♣✉♥t♦s ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✈❛❝í♦s✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✼

(x − h)2 (y − k)2 (z − l)2

❍✐♣❡r❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❤♦ ❥❛✿ + − = 1❀ (h, k, l) ❡s ❡❧ ❝❡♥✲
a2 b2 c2
tr♦ ❞❡❧ ❤✐♣❡r❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ② ❡❧ s✐❣♥♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛❀

a, b, c s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧✿ ❡❧✐♣s❡s ♦ ❤✐♣ér❜♦❧❛s✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✽

✶✹
 ✶✳✻✳ ❙❯P❊❘❋■❈■❊❙ ❊◆ R3

(x − h)2 (y − k)2 (z − l)2

❍✐♣❡r❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❤♦❥❛s✿ − − + = 1❀ (h, k, l) ❡s ❡❧
a2 b2 c2
❝❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❤✐♣❡r❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ② ❡❧ s✐❣♥♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛❀

a, b, c s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧✿ ❡❧✐♣s❡s✱ ❤✐♣ér❜♦❧❛s✱ ♣✉♥t♦s

♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✈❛❝í♦✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✾✿ ❍✐♣❡r❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❤♦ ❥❛s ❝♦♥ ❡❥❡ ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ❛❧ ❡❥❡ X✳

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
P❛r❛❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ❊❧í♣t✐❝♦✿ z−l = + ó
a2 b2
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
z −l = − − ❀ (h, k, l) ❡s ❡❧ ✈ért✐❝❡ ❞❡❧ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ② ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡
a2 b2
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛❀ a, b s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s

❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧✿ ❡❧✐♣s❡s✱ ♣❛rá❜♦❧❛s✱ ♣✉♥t♦s ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✈❛❝í♦✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐❞❛❞

❞❡❧ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ❧♦s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✶✵✿ P❛r❛❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ❊❧í♣t✐❝♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❥❡ ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ❛❧ ❡❥❡ Y✳

✶✺
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
P❛r❛❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ❤✐♣❡r❜ó❧✐❝♦✿ z − l = − ❀ (h, k, l) ❡s ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡
a2 b2
s✐❧❧❛ ❞❡❧ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ ② ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ r❡s♣❛❧❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
s✐❧❧❛❀ a, b s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧✿ ❤✐♣ér❜♦❧❛s✱ ♣❛rá❜♦❧❛s
♦ r❡❝t❛s✳ ❊❧ ❢r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❧❧❛ ❡stá ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝✉❛❞rát✐❝❛ ❝♦♥ s✐❣♥♦
♣♦s✐t✐✈♦✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ✜❣✉r❛ s❡ ♠✉❡str❛ ❧❛ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡ z = y 2 − x2 ✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✶✶
(x − h)2 (y − k)2 (z − l)2
❈♦♥♦ ❡❧í♣t✐❝♦✿ + − = 0❀ (h, k, l) ❡s ❡❧ ✈ért✐❝❡ ❞❡❧
a2 b2 c2
❝♦♥♦ ② ❡❧ s✐❣♥♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛❀ a, b, c s♦♥ ❧♦s
♣❛rá♠❡tr♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧✿ ❡❧✐♣s❡s✱ ❤✐♣ér❜♦❧❛s✱ r❡❝t❛s ♦ ♣✉♥t♦s✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✶✷

✶✻
 ✶✳✻✳ ❙❯P❊❘❋■❈■❊❙ ❊◆ R3

▲❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ r❡❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❡st❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s✱ ❛sí ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s só❧✐❞❛s q✉❡
♣♦❞rí❛♥ ❞❡❧✐♠✐t❛r✱ r❛❞✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ár❡❛s ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ♦ ✈♦❧ú♠❡♥❡s✱
❛sí ❝♦♠♦ ♦tr❛s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ✜❣✉r❛ s❡ ♠✉❡str❛ ❞♦s
❡t❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❊❞✐✜❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❆❝❝❡s♦ ❛❧ P❛rq✉❡ ❖❝❡❛♥♦❣rá✜❝♦ ❞❡ ❱❛❧❡♥❝✐❛✱
❊s♣❛ñ❛✳ ➽◗✉é ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❢✉❡ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ♣❛r❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ❡❧ ♣r❡s✉♣✉❡st♦ ✜♥❛♥❝✐❡r♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥❄

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✶✸

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✻✳✶ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❛ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❧✉❣❛r❡s ❣❡♦♠étr✐❝♦s✳

❛✳ 4x2 + 9y 2 + z 2 − 8x − 36y + 36 = 0

❜✳ 2x2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 − 8x + 6 = 0

❝✳ 4x2 + y 2 − z 2 − 16x − 6y − 16z + 9 = 0

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✻✳✷ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣rá✜❝❛✿

n o
❛✳ Q = (x, y, z) ∈ R3 /2 ≤ z ≤ 2 x2 + y 2 ✳
p

y2 + z2
 
❜✳ S = (x, y, z) ∈ R / − ✳
p
3
1− y2 − z2 ≤x≤1−
3

✶✳✻✳✷✳ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❈✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✻✳✷ ✭❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❈✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s✮ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥❛ ❝✉r✈❛ ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥
♣❧❛♥♦ π ② s❡❛ L ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ s❡❝❛♥t❡ ❛ π ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛ ♦ s✐♠✲
♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦✱ ❝♦♥ ❝✉r✈❛ ❞✐r❡❝tr✐③ C ② r❡❝t❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛tr✐③ L✱ ❛ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s
r❡❝t❛s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ❛ L ② q✉❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❛♥ ❛ C ✳

✶✼
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ q✉❡ π s❡❛ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦ ② L ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ π ✱ ❧❛

❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢♦r♠❛s✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❋ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ q✉❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❛ ❈✿

F (x, y) = 0; C ⊂ XY ; L ⊥ XY

F (x, z) = 0; C ⊂ XZ; L ⊥ XZ

F (y, z) = 0; C ⊂ Y Z; L ⊥ Y Z

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✻✳✸ ●r❛✜q✉❡ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦s✳

❛✳ z = y 2 ❞✳ yz = 1; y > 0

❜✳ z = sen(x); 0 ≤ x ≤ π

❝✳ x2 + y 2 = 4 ❡✳ x + z = 1

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✻✳✹ ●r❛✜q✉❡ ❡❧ só❧✐❞♦ Q = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 /0 ≤ z ≤ 2 − x; x2 + y2 ≤ 1}

✶✳✻✳✸✳ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❞❡ r❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✻✳✸ ✭❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ r❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✮ ❙❡❛ ❢ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♥❛
❝✉r✈❛ s♦❜r❡ ❛❧❣✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡ ❢ ❣✐r❛ ❛❧✲
r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❥❡s ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♣❧❛♥♦✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s s❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡
r❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢♦r♠❛s✿

x2 + y 2 = f 2 (z)❀ s✐ ❡❧ ❣✐r♦ ❡s ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ Z ✳

x2 + z 2 = f 2 (y)❀ s✐ ❡❧ ❣✐r♦ ❡s ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ Y ✳

y 2 + z 2 = f 2 (x)❀ s✐ ❡❧ ❣✐r♦ ❡s ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ X ✳

✶✽
 ✶✳✼✳ ❈❖❖❘❉❊◆❆❉❆❙ ❈■▲❮◆❉❘■❈❆❙ ❨ ❊❙❋➱❘■❈❆❙

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✶✹✿ ❈✉r✈❛ ❡♥ XZ q✉❡ ❣✐r❛ ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ Z ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✻✳✺ ❊s❝r✐❜❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❞❡ r❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✳

1
❛✳ y = ❣✐r❛ ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ Z ✳
z

❜✳ z = ln(x) ❣✐r❛ ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ X ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✻✳✻ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r x2 +3y2 +z 2 = 9 ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡
❞❡ r❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✳

✶✳✼✳ ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❈✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ② ❊s❢ér✐❝❛s

✶✳✼✳✶✳ ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✼✳✶ ✭❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s✮ ❙❡❛ P (x, y, z) ∈ R3 ✳

❙✐ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❳❨ ❡s r❡❡♠♣❧❛③❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣♦❧❛r rθ✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s (r, θ, z) s❡
❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ❞❡ P✳ ❉❡ ❛q✉í s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ s❡❣✲
♠❡♥t♦ OP s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY ❡s ❡❧ r❛❞✐♦ ♣♦❧❛r ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ r ② ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦
q✉❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ X + ❡s θ✳

❆ ✜♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❛ ✉♥❛ ❜✐②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s s✐st❡♠❛s✱ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s
❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ s✉s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s✿

❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s ❛ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s✿

✶✾
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

 y
arctan ; x 6= 0


x



π

; x = 0; y > 0 ❀z = z ✳
p
(x, y, z) 7→ (r, θ, z)/ r = x2 + y 2 ; θ =

 2
 3π


; x = 0; y < 0

2
r ≥ 0❀ 0 ≤ θ < 2π ✭ó ❛❧❣ú♥ ♦tr♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ q✉❡ ❣❛r❛♥t✐❝❡ ❜✐②❡❝❝✐ó♥✮❀ z ∈ R✳

(0, 0, z) 7→ (0, 0, z)✳

❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s✿

(r, θ, z) 7→ (x, y, z); x = rcos(θ); y = rsen(θ); z = z ✳

(0, 0, z) 7→ (0, 0, z)✳

❆sí✱ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥

❞❡ tr❡s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s✿ ✉♥ s❡♠✐♣❧❛♥♦ ✐♥❝❧✐♥❛❞♦ ❛ θ r❛❞✐❛♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XZ ✱ ✉♥ ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦
❝✐r❝✉❧❛r r❡❝t♦ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ r ❝♦♥ ❡❥❡ ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ❡❥❡ Z ② ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ❛ XY
❛ |z| ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ést❡✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✶✺

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✼✳✶ ❊①♣r❡s❡ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s✳

❛✳ x2 + y 2 − 4z 2 = 0 ❜✳ x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2z = 0 ❝✳ y 2 = x

✷✵
 ✶✳✼✳ ❈❖❖❘❉❊◆❆❉❆❙ ❈■▲❮◆❉❘■❈❆❙ ❨ ❊❙❋➱❘■❈❆❙

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✼✳✷ ●r❛✜q✉❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❞❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s✳

π
❛✳ θ = ✳ ❞✳ r = 2sen(θ)✳
4
❜✳ z = r2 cos2 (θ)✳ ❡✳ r2 cos(2θ) + z 2 + 1 = 0✳

❝✳ 2r = z ✳ ❢✳ r = 1 + cos(θ)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✼✳✸ ●r❛✜q✉❡ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝♦✳

n π o
❛✳ S = (r, θ, z)/0 ≤ θ ≤ ; 0 ≤ r ≤ 2; 0 ≤ z ≤ 4 ✳
2
n π πo
❜✳ T = (r, θ, z)/0 ≤ r ≤ a; 0 ≤ z ≤ rcos(θ); − ≤ θ ≤ ; a > 0✳
2 2

✶✳✼✳✷✳ ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❊s❢ér✐❝❛s

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✼✳✷ ✭❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❊s❢ér✐❝❛s✮ ❙❡❛ P ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ R3

❝♦♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s (x, y, z)✳ ❊❧ ♣✉♥t♦ P ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛rs❡ ♣♦r ❧❛ t❡r♥❛ (ρ, θ, ϕ) ❞♦♥❞❡✿

ρ ❡s ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ P ❛❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ (ρ ≥ 0)

θ ❡s ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ♣♦❧❛r ❡♥ XY ✳

ϕ ❡s ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡❧ s❡❣♠❡♥t♦ OP ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ Z ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ (0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π)

❆ ✜♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❛ ✉♥❛ ❜✐②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s s✐st❡♠❛s✱ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡✿

❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s✳

x = ρsen(ϕ)cos(θ)

y = ρsen(ϕ)sen(θ)

z = ρcos(ϕ)✳

❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s ❛ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✳

ρ2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ✳

θ s❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝♦✳

✷✶
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘❮❆ ❆◆❆▲❮❚■❈❆ ❊◆ R3

z
ϕ = arccos p ❀ x2 + y 2 + z 2 6= 0❀
2
x +y +z 2 2

(0, 0, 0) 7→ (0, 0, 0)✳

❆sí✱ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥

❞❡ tr❡s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s✿ ✉♥ s❡♠✐♣❧❛♥♦ ✐♥❝❧✐♥❛❞♦ ❛ θ r❛❞✐❛♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XZ ✱ ✉♥❛ ❡s❢❡r❛
❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ ρ ② ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥♦ ❝♦♥ ✈ért✐❝❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥✱ ❡❥❡ ❞❡
s✐♠❡trí❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ❡❥❡ Z ② r❡❝t❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛tr✐③ ❛ ϕ r❛❞✐❛♥❡s ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ Z ✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✳✶✻

❙✐ k ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❧✉❣❛r❡s ❣❡♦♠étr✐❝♦s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❡s✿

ρ = k > 0✳ θ = k ∈ [0, 2π)✳ ϕ = k ∈ [0, π]✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✼✳✹ ●r❛✜❝❛r ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✳

π
❛✳ 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π ✱ 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ ✱ 0 ≤ ρ ≤ 4sec(ϕ)✳
6
π π π
❜✳ − ≤ θ ≤ 0✱ ≤ ϕ ≤ ✱ 1 ≤ ρ ≤ 2✳
2 4 2

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✼✳✺ ❊①♣r❡s❡ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r z = 1 ② ❡❧ ❤❡♠✐s❢❡r✐♦ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ❞❡

x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2z = 0✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✿

❛✳ ❘❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳ ❜✳ ❈✐❧í♥❞r✐❝♦✳ ❝✳ ❊s❢ér✐❝♦✳

✷✷
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷

❉✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
❱❛r✐❛s ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

✷✳✶✳ ◆♦❝✐♦♥❡s ❚♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❡♥ Rn

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✳✶ ✭❇♦❧❛ ❆❜✐❡rt❛✮ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Rn ② s❡❛ ε > 0✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❜♦❧❛
❛❜✐❡rt❛ ❝♦♥ ❝❡♥tr♦ ❡♥ x0 ② r❛❞✐♦ ε✱ ❞❡♥♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r B(x0 , ε) ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r
B(x0 , ε) = {x ∈ Rn : kx − x0 k < ε}✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✶✳✶ ●r❛✜q✉❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❜♦❧❛s✿

3
B(x0 , ε); x0 = 2; ε =
2

B(x0 , ε); x0 = (−1, 1); ε = 1

1
B(x0 , ε); x0 = (0, 0, 0); ε =
2

◆♦t❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❢✉❡ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❣r❛✜❝❛r ❧❛s ❜♦❧❛s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s
1, 2, 3 r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✳✷ ✭P✉♥t♦ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ② ❞❡ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛✮ ❙❡❛ A ⊂ Rn ② s❡❛

x ∈ Rn ✳

❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ x ❡s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡ A✱ s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❜♦❧❛ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥

x ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ A✳

✷✸
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ x ❡s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ❞❡ A✱ s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❜♦❧❛ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥

x ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ Ac ✳

❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ x ❡s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛ ❞❡ A✱ s✐ t♦❞❛ ❜♦❧❛ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ x

✐♥t❡rs❡❝❛ ❛ A ② ❛ Ac ✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✳✸ ✭P✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛❞❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥✮ ❙❡❛ A ⊂ Rn ② s❡❛

x ∈ Rn ✳

❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ x ❡s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛❞❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ A✱ s✐ t♦❞❛ ❜♦❧❛ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥

x ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❛ ❛ A✳

❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ x ❡s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ A✱ s✐ t♦❞❛ ❜♦❧❛ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥

x ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❛ ❛ A ❡♥ ♣✉♥t♦s ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ❞❡ x✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✳✹ ✭■♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❋r♦♥t❡r❛ ② ❆❞❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛✮ ❙❡❛ A ⊂ Rn ② s❡❛ x ∈

Rn ✳

❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡ A ❞❡♥♦t❛❞♦ ♣♦r Int(A)✱ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s

✐♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ❞❡ A✳

❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛ ❞❡ A ❞❡♥♦t❛❞♦ ♣♦r F r(A)✱ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s

❞❡ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛ ❞❡ A✳

❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛❞❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ A ❞❡♥♦t❛❞♦ ♣♦r Adh(A)✱ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s

♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❛❞❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ A✳

❖❜s✳ Adh(A) t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❝❧❛✉s✉r❛ ❞❡ A ② s✉❡❧❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ A✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✶ ❙❡❛ A ⊂ Rn ✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

Int(A) ⊂ A ⊂ Adh(A)✳

Adh(A) = Int(A) ∪ F r(A)✳

F r(A) = Adh(A) − Int(A)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✶✳✷ ❙❡❛ A = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : 1 6 x2 + y2 < 9} ∪ {(0, 0)}✳

■❞❡♥t✐✜q✉❡ Int(A), F r(A), Adh(A) ② ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ A✳

✷✹
 ✷✳✷✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✳✺ ✭❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ② ❝❡rr❛❞♦s✮ ❙❡❛ A ⊂ Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡✿

❆ ❡s ❛❜✐❡rt♦ s✐ Int(A) = A✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ A s♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✳
❆ ❡s ❝❡rr❛❞♦ s✐ Adh(A) = A✳ ❊q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ Ac ❡s ❛❜✐❡rt♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✶✳✸ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✐ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s s♦♥ ❛❜✐❡rt♦s✱ ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ♦ ♥✐♥✲
❣✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s✳

A = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : 1 6 x2 + y 2 < 9} ∪ {(0, 0)}

B = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : y > x2 ; x > 0}

C = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : x + y + 2z < 4; x, y, z > 0}

D = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : 0 < x ≤ 1; 0 ≤ y ≤ 2; 0 ≤ z ≤ 1}

✷✳✷✳ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❱❛r✐❛s ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✷✳✶ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ω ⊂ Rn ❡♥ Rm ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱

s✐ ❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ Ω✱ ❧❡ ❛s✐❣♥❛ ✉♥ ú♥✐❝♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ Rm ✳ ❉❡♥♦t❛r❡♠♦s ❡st♦
♣♦r f : Ω → Rm t❛❧ q✉❡ f (x) = (f1 (x), f2 (x), ..., fm (x))❀ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s
fi ; 1 6 i 6 m✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s q✉❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐♠❛❣❡♥✳

▲♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ❞❡ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✱ ✐♠❛❣❡♥✱ ✐♥②❡❝t✐✈✐❞❛❞✱ s♦❜r❡②❡❝t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ② ❜✐②❡❝t✐✈✐❞❛❞

s♦♥ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡♠♣❧❡❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✳ ▲❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝✉②♦

r❛♥❣♦ s❡❛ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ R s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ② ♣❛r❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s s✉♣❡r✐♦r❡s

❞❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✷✳✶ ■❞❡♥t✐✜q✉❡ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ② r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✿

❛✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ✳

❜✳ f (x, y) = y − x2 ✳
p

❝✳ f (x, y) = (x − 2y, y 2 )✳

❞✳ f (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = x21 + x22 + ... + x2n ✳

 
1
❡✳ f (x, y, z) = 2 2 2
✳


, xyz, ln 1 − x − y − 2z
x2 + y 2 + z 2

✷✺
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✷✳✷ ❙❡❛ f ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ω ⊂ Rn ❡♥ Rm ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ❣r❛❢♦ ♦ ❣rá✜❝❛

❞❡ f ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ Gr(f ) = {(x, y)/x ∈ Ω ∧ y = f (x)}✳

P❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✱ ❧❛ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝✉r✈❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡
s✐ f ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♥ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❡♥ R2 ✱ s✉ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡♥ ❡❧
❡s♣❛❝✐♦✱ t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛r ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♣r❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡✱ ❧✐t❡r❛❧ a.

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❣rá✜❝❛s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ♠❛②♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡♥ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ♦ r❛♥❣♦
♥♦ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❛r❧❛s✱ s❡ r❡❝✉rr❡ ❛❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ♣❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r
❡❧ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✷✳✸ ❙❡❛ f ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ω ⊂ Rn ❡♥ Rm ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡

♥✐✈❡❧ α ❞❡ f ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ CNα = {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = α}

❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ α ❞❡ f ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ f

♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s ❧❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♥ ❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r α✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✷✳✷ ▲❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❝✐❡rt❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥

❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (x, y, z) ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ T (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 − z 2 ✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s
❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛✿

❛✳ 1 ❜✳ 0 ❝✳ −1

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✷✳✸ ▲❛ ❛❧t✉r❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠♦♥t❛ñ❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ♠♦❞❡❧❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛

✉❜✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (x, y) ❡♥ s✉ ❜❛s❡✱ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ h(x, y) = e−x ✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡
2 −y 2

❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❧t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠♦♥t❛ñ❛ ❡s✿

❛✳ 2 ❜✳ 1 1
❝✳
e

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✷✳✹ ✭▲í♠✐t❡✮ ❙❡❛ f ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ω ⊂ Rn ❡♥ Rm ✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦

❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ω✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❞❡ f ❡♥ x0 ❡s L ∈ Rm ✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐✿
∀ε > 0 ∃δ > 0 ∀x ∈ Ω, x ∈ B(x0 ; δ) − {x0 } ⇒ f (x) ∈ B(L; ε)✳

❊st♦ ❧♦ ❞❡♥♦t❛♠♦s ♣♦r lim f (x) = L✳

x→x0

✷✻
 ✷✳✷✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✶ ❙❡❛ f ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ω ⊂ Rn ❡♥ Rm ✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉✲

❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ω✳ ❙✐ lim f (x) ❡①✐st❡✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡s ú♥✐❝♦✳

x→x0

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✷ ❙❡❛♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s f, g : Ω ⊂ Rn → Rm t❛❧❡s q✉❡ lim f (x) = L

x→x0
②

lim g(x) = M ✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

x→x0

✐✳ lim (f (x) + g(x)) = L + M ✳

x→x0

✐✐✳ lim (αf (x)) = αL❀ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ α ∈ R✳

x→x0

✐✐✐✳ ❙✐ m = 1✱ lim (f (x)g(x)) = LM ✳

x→x0
 
f (x) L
✐✈✳ ❙✐ m = 1✱ lim = ❀ s✐❡♠♣r❡ q✉❡ M 6= 0✳
x→x0 g(x) M

❖tr♦s t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❧í♠✐t❡s s♦❜r❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧ s♦♥ ✈á❧✐❞♦s ♣❛r❛ ❢✉♥✲

❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ s✐❡♠♣r❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ♣✉❡❞❛ s❡r s✉st✐t✉✐❞♦ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛✲

♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ s♦❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✷✳✺ ✭❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞✮ ❙❡❛ f ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ω ⊂ Rn ❡♥ Rm ✳

❙❡❛ x 0 ∈ Ω✳ f ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x0 s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐✿

∀ε > 0 ∃δ > 0 ∀x ∈ Ω, x ∈ B(x0 ; δ) ⇒ f (x) ∈ B(f (x0 ); ε)✳

P❛r❛ x0 ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ω✱ ❡st♦ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ q✉❡ lim f (x) = f (x0 )✳

x→x0

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✸ ❙❡❛♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s f, g ✿ Ω ⊂ Rn ❡♥ Rm ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ x0 ✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

✐✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ αf + βg ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x0 ; α, β ∈ R✳

✐✐✳ ❙✐ m = 1✱ f g ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x0 ✳
 
f
✐✐✐✳ ❙✐ m = 1✱ ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x0 ✱ s✐❡♠♣r❡ q✉❡ g(x0 ) 6= 0✳
g

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✹ ❙❡❛♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s f ✿ Ω ⊂ Rn ❡♥ Rp ✱ g ✿ U ⊂ Rp ❡♥ Rm t❛❧❡s q✉❡

g ♦f ❡①✐st❡✱ f ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x0 ② g ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ f (x0 )✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s g ♦f ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛

❡♥ x0 ✳

❈♦r♦❧❛r✐♦ ✷✳✷✳✶ ▲❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s✿ ♣♦❧✐♥ó♠✐❝❛s✱ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s✱ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠étr✐✲

❝❛s✱ r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ② s✉s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s ✐♥✈❡rs❛s✱ s♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✳

✷✼
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

cos(x)
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✷✳✹ f (x, y, z) = ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ R3 ✳
ey + ez

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✷✳✺ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✐ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ R2 ✳


xy
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)


p
❛✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2

0

; (x, y) = (0, 0)

ysen(xy)


 ; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❜✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

sen(x2 + y 2 )


 ; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❝✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

❯♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r s✐ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ x0 ✱ ② ❝♦♥✲

s❡❝✉❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦ ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♣✉♥t♦✱ ❡s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦s
❡♥ Ω q✉❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❥❛ ❛ x0 ♣❡r♦ ❧❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♠á❣❡♥❡s ♥♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❛ L✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✷✳✻ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ s♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ (0, 0)✳

xy


 ; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❛✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y2

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

xy 2



2 4
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❜✳ f (x, y) = x + y

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

❈♦♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ♣♦❧❛r❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛rs❡ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧

♣✉♥t♦ (0, 0) ♣✉❡s s✐ x → (0, 0) ❡st♦ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ q✉❡ r → 0 ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧
✈❛❧♦r θ✳ ❱❡r✐✜q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ♣♦❧❛r❡s✳

❆❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✱ s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❡s ❡✈✐t❛❜❧❡

❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ s✐ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡①✐st❡ ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♣✉♥t♦✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ♥♦ ❡①✐st❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛
❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❡s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♦ ✐♥❡✈✐t❛❜❧❡✳

✷✽
 ✷✳✷✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✷✳✼ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ A ∈ R t❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

s❡❛♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ t♦❞♦ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✳

sen(5(x2 + y 2 ))


 ; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❛✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2

A ; (x, y) = (0, 0)
 2 2
 1 − ex +y

 ; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❜✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2

A
 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

p
 4 − x2 − y 2 ; x2 + y 2 < 4

❝✳ f (x, y) =
A ; x2 + y 2 > 4


  
1
xcos ; y 6= 0


❞✳ f (x, y) = y

A
 ;y = 0

xy 2



2 4
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❡✳ f (x, y) = x + y

A ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

2x
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)


p
❢✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2

A

; (x, y) = (0, 0)

P❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s✱ s❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r

② ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡①✐st❡ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r t✐❡♥❡ ❧í♠✐t❡✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ s❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✺ ❯♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ f ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x0 s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡

s✉s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x0 ✳

❉❡ ❛q✉í✱ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ② ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ Rn ✱ s❡

r❡❞✉❝❡ ❛❧ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✷✳✽ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✐ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✿

❛✳ f (t) = (1 − 2t, et , cos(t)); t ∈ R

✷✾
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❜✳ f (x, y, z) = (2xy, x2 + z 2 , y + ln(z 2 + 1)); (x, y, z) ∈ R3

 p !
xy sen x 2 + y2
, p ; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)


 p
❝✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2


(0, 1) ; (x, y) = (0, 0)
 !
x
,1 ; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)


 p
❞✳ f (x, y) = x 2 + y2


 (0, 1) ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

✷✳✸✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ② ❉✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✸✳✶ ✭❉❡r✐✈❛❞❛ P❛r❝✐❛❧✮ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f ✿ Ω ⊂ Rn → R✱ ❞♦♥❞❡

Ω ❡s ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Ω✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ♣❛r❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ f r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛
∂f
j−és✐♠❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ x0 ✱ ❞❡♥♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r (x0 )✱ ❝♦♠♦✿
∂xj
∂f f (x0 + tej ) − f (x0 )
(x0 ) = lim ✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡①✐st❡✳
∂xj t→0 t

❖❜s✳ ej ❞❡♥♦t❛ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝♦ ❡♥ Rn ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ j ✲és✐♠❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✶ ❊♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧í♠✐t❡✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s

❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ x0 ❞❛❞♦✳

❛✳ f (x, y) = 4 − x2 − y 2 ; x0 = (1, −2)✳


xy 2
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)


p
❜✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ❀ x0 = (0, 0)✳

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)



xy 2



2 4
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❝✳ f (x, y) = x + y ❀ x0 = (0, 0)✳

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

❞✳ f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ; x0 = (0, 0, 0)✳

p

◆♦t❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s✱ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡①✐st❡ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛

❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ② ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s✳

✸✵
 ✷✳✸✳ ❉❊❘■❱❆❇■▲■❉❆❉ ❨ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❇■▲■❉❆❉

❖tr❛ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ a. ❡s q✉❡ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s s❡

r❡❞✉❝❡♥ ❛❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✜❥❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡st❛♥t❡s✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱
❝♦♥s✐❞❡rá♥❞♦❧❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s✳

❈♦r♦❧❛r✐♦ ✷✳✸✳✶ ▲❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ② ❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡r✐✲
✈❛❜❧❡s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s♦♥ ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✱ ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦
❧♦s t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✷ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛✲
❧❛r❡s ② ❡s♣❡❝✐✜q✉❡ ❡♥ q✉é ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ s♦♥ ✈á❧✐❞❛s ❞✐❝❤❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s✳

❛✳ f (x, y) = sen(x + y) − exy ; (x, y) ∈ R2

❜✳ f (x, y, z) = xyz 2 +
p
x2 + y 2 + z 2 ; (x, y, z) ∈ R3

❝✳ f (x, y) = x1/3 y 1/3 ; (x, y) ∈ R2


xy 2
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)


p
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✸ P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y) = x 2 + y2
✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)


∂f ∂f
❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❡♥ R2 ✳
∂x ∂y

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✸✳✷ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ f ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ Ω ♦ ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1

❡♥ Ω✱ s✐ t♦❞❛s s✉s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s s♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ Ω✳ P❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐r❡♠♦s
q✉❡ f ❡s ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥ x0 ✱ s✐ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s s♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ✈❡❝✐♥❞❛❞
❞❡ x0 ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✹ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✐ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♣r❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡s✱ s♦♥ ❞❡
❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✸✳✸ ✭▼❛tr✐③ ❉❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ♦ ❏❛❝♦❜✐❛♥❛✮ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

f ✿ Ω ⊂ Rn → Rm ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ Ω ❡s ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Ω✳❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③
❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ♦❧❛ ❥❛❝♦❜✐❛♥❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ x0 ✱ ❞❡♥♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r Df (x0 )✱ ❛ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿

∂fi
(x0 ) ; 1 6 i 6 m; 1 6 j 6 n✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❡①✐st❡✳
∂xj ij

✸✶
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✺ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ Df (x0 ) s✐✿

❛✳ f (x, y) = (2xy, x2 − 2y, x + ey ); (x, y) ∈ R2 ; x0 = (2, 1)✳

xy 2



2 4
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❜✳ f (x, y) = x + y ❀ x0 = (0, 0)✳

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

❝✳ f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ; (x, y) ∈ R3 ; x0 = (0, 0, 0)✳

p

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✸✳✹ ✭❉❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❉✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧✮ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f ✿ Ω ⊂ Rn → R✱ ❞♦♥✲

❞❡ Ω ❡s ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Ω ② s❡❛ v ∈ Rn ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♥ k v k= 1✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡
❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ f r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ v ✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ x0 ✱ ❞❡♥♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r
∂f
(x0 )✱ ❝♦♠♦✿
∂v
∂f f (x0 + tv) − f (x0 )
(x0 ) = lim ✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡①✐st❡✳
∂v t→0 t

❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ f ❡s ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 s✐ ❡①✐st❡♥ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥

x0 ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✻ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ f (x, y) = 4 − x2 − 3y ❡♥

x0 = (1, 2)✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ 2i − 3j ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ 
✷✳✸✳✼ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❞❡✿
xy 2


2 4
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
f (x, y) = x + y ❀ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ x0 = (0, 0)✳

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✸✳✺ ✭❉✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✮ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f ✿ Ω ⊂ Rn → Rm ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡

Ω ❡s ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ∈ Ω✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐✿
k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) − Df (x0 )h k
lim = 0❀
h→0 khk
❞♦♥❞❡ h ❡s ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r h = x − x0 ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✽ ❊♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✐ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥

❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❛❞♦✳

❛✳ f (x, y) = 1 − x2 + xy; x0 = (1, −1)✳

✸✷
 ✷✳✸✳ ❉❊❘■❱❆❇■▲■❉❆❉ ❨ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❇■▲■❉❆❉


xy 2
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)


p
❜✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ❀ x0 = (0, 0)✳

0

; (x, y) = (0, 0)

xy 2



2 4
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❝✳ f (x, y) = x + y ❀ x0 = (0, 0)✳

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)

❈♦r♦❧❛r✐♦ ✷✳✸✳✷ ▲❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ② ❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞✐❢❡✲

r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡s✱ s♦♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✳

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y) = cos(xy) + x2 y 3 ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ R2 ✳

❊♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ♥♦t❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ (x, y) 6= (0, 0) s♦♥ ❞✐❢❡✲
r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡s ♣♦r s❡r ❡❧ ❝♦❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡♥
❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡❜❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛rs❡ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧í♠✐t❡✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✸✳✶ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R m ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ Ω ❡s ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳

❙❡❛ x 0 ∈ Ω✳ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ f ❡s

❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ✳

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y) = (xsen(y), y 2 ex , x + y) ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ R2

♣♦rq✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♥ ❧♦ ❡s✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✸✳✷ ✭❉❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❈♦♠♣✉❡st❛✮ ❙❡❛♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R p ✱ g : U ⊂ Rp → Rm t❛❧❡s q✉❡ gof ❡①✐st❡✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥

x0 ② g ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ f (x0 )✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s gof ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ② ❧❛ ❏❛❝♦❜✐❛♥❛

D(gof )(x0 ) = Dg(f (x0 ))Df (x0 )✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✿

k (gof )(x0 + h) − (gof )(x0 ) − Dg(f (x0 ))Df (x0 )h k

▼♦str❛r❡♠♦s q✉❡ lim = 0✳
h→0 khk

(gof )(x0 + h) − (gof )(x0 ) − Dg(f (x0 ))Df (x0 )h =

✸✸
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

Dg(f (x0 )) [f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) − Df (x0 )h] +

g(f (x0 + h)) − g(f (x0 )) − Dg(f (x0 ))(f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) k
k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) k

❉✐✈✐❞✐♠♦s ♣❛r❛ k h k ❛♠❜♦s ♠✐❡♠❜r♦s✿

(gof )(x0 + h) − (gof )(x0 ) − Dg(f (x0 ))Df (x0 )h

=
khk

Dg(f (x0 )) [f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) − Df (x0 )h]

+
khk

k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) k g(f (x0 + h)) − g(f (x0 )) − Dg(f (x0 ))(f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ))
✳
khk k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) k

P♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s✱ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ② g ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ g(x0 )✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡

❧❛s ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s t✐❡♥❞❡♥ ❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥✉❧♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ h → 0✳

k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) k
❆✜r♠❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡stá ❛❝♦t❛❞♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ h → 0✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱
khk
k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) k=k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) − Df (x0 )h + Df (x0 )h k
≤k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) − Df (x0 )h k + k Df (x0 )h k✳

❊s ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ A ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ m × n ② h ∈ Rn ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ C > 0

t❛❧ q✉❡ k Ah k≤ C k h k ✭❚❛r❡❛✮✳

▲✉❡❣♦✱ k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) k≤k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) − Df (x0 )h k +C k h k✳

❉✐✈✐❞✐❡♥❞♦ ♣❛r❛ k h k ② ❞❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ q✉❡ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ✱ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡

k f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) k
❡stá ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r C ❝✉❛♥❞♦ h → 0✳
khk

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✾ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s g(x, y) = (x2 + 1, y 2 ); (x, y) ∈ R2 ②

f (u, v) = (u + v, u − v, v 2 ); (u, v) ∈ R2 ✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ D(f og) ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (1, 1) ❡♠✲

♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ❞♦s ❢♦r♠❛s ❞✐st✐♥t❛s✳

✸✹
 ✷✳✸✳ ❉❊❘■❱❆❇■▲■❉❆❉ ❨ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❇■▲■❉❆❉

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❯♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛✳

▲❛ ♦tr❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡s ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❧✉❡❣♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❏❛❝♦❜✐❛♥❛ ❡♥

tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ (x, y)✿
(f og)(x, y) = (x2 + 1 + y 2 , x2 + 1 − y 2 , y 4 )✳ ▲❛ ❏❛❝♦❜✐❛♥❛ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s
❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ x ② ❛ y ✱ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ ❡✈❛❧✉❛♥❞♦
❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (1, 1)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✶✵ ❉❛❞❛s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s f (u, v, w) = (u2 + v 2 , cos(u − v), uv 5 )❀

2 +y 2
(u, v, w) ∈ R3 ② g(x, y, z) = (ex , x2 +3z 4 ); (x, y, z) ∈ R3 ✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡
D(gof ) ❡♥ (1, 1, 3)✳

✷✳✸✳✶✳ ❘❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❈❛❞❡♥❛ ●❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛

❙✐ f ❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) ∈ Rn ② ❝❛❞❛ xi

❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s (u1 , u2 , ..., um ) ∈ Rm ❀ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s f ❡s
∂f ∂f ∂x1 ∂f ∂x2 ∂f ∂xn
❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ (u1 , u2 , ..., um ) ② = + + ... + ❀ ♣❛r❛
∂uj ∂x1 ∂uj ∂x2 ∂uj ∂xn ∂uj
❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ j ≤ m ✭✯✮✳
▲❛ ❞❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❘❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❈❛❞❡♥❛✱
♥♦t❡♠♦s q✉❡ f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ (u1 , u2 , ..., um )✳
P♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐r g : Rm → Rn ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r g(u1 , u2 , ..., um ) = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) ② ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡
r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡s ❧❛ ❏❛❝♦❜✐❛♥❛ ❞❡ f og ♣❛r❛ ♠♦str❛r ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✯✮✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✶✶ ❙❡❛ f ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ (x, y) ∈ R2 ✳ x = r cos(θ) ❀ y = r sen(θ)❀

❙✐
∂f
❞♦♥❞❡ (r, θ) s♦♥ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ♣♦❧❛r✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ②
∂r
∂f
♦tr❛ ♣❛r❛ ✳
∂θ

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✶✷ ❙❡❛ z = f (x2 + y 2 , x2 − y 2 ) ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ R2 ✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ✉♥❛

∂z ∂z
❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ y +x ✳
∂x ∂y

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳✶✸ ❚r❛♥s❢♦r♠❛r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧✿

" 2  2 #
∂f ∂f 1
+ = ❀ (x, y) ∈ R2 ❛❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ♣♦❧❛r✳
∂x ∂y (1 + x2 + y 2 )2

✸✺
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

✷✳✹✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛s s♦❜r❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✹✳✶ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f : Ω ⊂ R n → Rm ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ Ω ❡s ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳

❙❡❛ x 0 ∈ Ω✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s f ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x0 ② t♦❞❛s ❧❛s

❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❞❡ f ❡①✐st❡♥ ❡♥ x0 ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹✳✶ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y) = (xcos(y), ex−y , x + y) ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ R2 ✱

♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ② ❡①✐st❡♥ t♦❞❛s s✉s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥ t♦❞♦ x 0 ∈ R2 ✳

❊st❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❡s ✉♥✐❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧ t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳

xy 2



2 2
; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹✳✷ ❉❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y) = x + y ✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡

0 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)
q✉❡ ❡st❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ (0, 0) ② q✉❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❡①✐st❡♥

❡♥ ❡st❡ ♣✉♥t♦✱ ♣❡r♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♣✉♥t♦✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✹✳✷ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f : Ω ⊂ R n → Rm ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ Ω ❡s ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳

❙❡❛ x 0 ∈ Ω✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C1 ❡♥ x0 ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹✳✸ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y) = (xcos(y), ex−y , x + y) ❡s ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C1 ❡♥ R2 ✱

♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ t♦❞♦ x 0 ∈ R2 ✳

❊st❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛ t❛♠❜✐❡♥ ❡s ✉♥✐❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧ t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳


1
(x2 + y 2 )sen p ; x2 + y 2 6= 0


❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹✳✹ ❉❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ✳
 2 2
0

;x + y = 0
❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ (0, 0)✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❡s ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C1 ❡♥ ❡st❡

♣✉♥t♦✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✹✳✸ ✭❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧✮ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R ❝♦♥ Ω ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Ω✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ②

∂f
v ∈ Rn ❡s ✉♥❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✉♥✐t❛r✐❛✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s (x0 ) = Df (x0 )v ✳
∂v

✸✻
 ✷✳✹✳ ❚❊❖❘❊▼❆❙ ❙❖❇❘❊ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❇■▲■❉❆❉

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✿

∂f f (x0 + tv) − f (x0 )

P♦r ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✱ (x0 ) = lim ✳
∂v t→0 t

◆♦t❡♠♦s q✉❡ f (x0 + tv) − f (x0 ) = f (x0 + tv) − f (x0 ) − Df (x0 )(tv) + Df (x0 )(tv)✳

❉✐✈✐❞✐♠♦s ♣❛r❛ t 6= 0 ② s❡♣❛r❛♠♦s s✉♠❛♥❞♦s✿

f (x0 + tv) − f (x0 ) f (x0 + tv) − f (x0 ) − Df (x0 )(tv) Df (x0 )(tv)
= +
t t t

f (x0 + tv) − f (x0 ) − Df (x0 )(tv)

= + Df (x0 )(v)✳
tkvk

❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❧í♠✐t❡ t → 0 ② ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 s❡ s✐❣✉❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹✳✺ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ f (x, y) = 4−x2 −3y ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦

x0 = (1, 2)✱ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ 2✐ − 3❥✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹✳✻ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❧❛s ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❞♦♥❞❡ f (x, y) = 2−x2 −3y2 ✱
t✐❡♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♥✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (−1, 1)✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✹✳✶ ✭●r❛❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✮ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r

f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R ❝♦♥ Ω ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Ω✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡
f ❡♥ x0 ❝♦♠♦✿
 
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f (x0 ) = (x0 ); (x0 ); ...; (x0 ) ❀ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❡①✐st❡✳
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn

∂f
❈♦♥ ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✱ s✐ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ✱ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ (x0 ) = ∇f (x0 ) · v ✳
∂v

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✹✳✹ ✭❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠á①✐♠❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✮ ❙❡❛

❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R ❝♦♥ Ω ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Ω✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡✲
r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ♠á①✐♠❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ f ❡♥ x0 ❛♣✉♥t❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
∇f (x0 ) ② ❞✐❝❤❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s k ∇f (x0 ) k✳

✸✼
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹✳✼ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛ ♠á①✐♠❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝❛♠♣♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s

❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❛❞♦ ② ❡s♣❡❝✐✜q✉❡ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦❝✉rr❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥✳

❛✳ f (x, y) = 1 − 2x2 − y 2 ❀ (x, y) ∈ R2 ❀ x0 = (2, 1)✳

❜✳ f (x, y, z) = x2 + 3y 2 + cos(πz)❀ (x, y, z) ∈ R3 ❀ x0 = (1, −1, 1)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹✳✽ P❛r❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞♦♥❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡
❧❛ ♠í♥✐♠❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ f ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❛❞♦✳

✷✳✺✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❉❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ■♠♣❧í❝✐t❛

❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❧í❝✐t❛ s✉r❣❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ F (x, z) = 0✱

❞♦♥❞❡ x ❡s ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ② z ❡s ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡✳ P♦r ❞✐✈❡rs❛s ❝✐r❝✉♥s✲

t❛♥❝✐❛s✱ ❡st❛ ❡s ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ❡♥tr❡ x ② z✱ ❛❞❡♠ás ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r (x0 , z0 ) q✉❡

s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❡ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ F✳ ❙❡ ❡s♣❡r❛ q✉❡ ❜❛❥♦ ❝✐❡rt❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❡①✐st❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛ φ t❛❧ q✉❡ z = φ(x) ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ✈❡❝✐♥❞❛❞ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ V ❞❡ x0 ② q✉❡

❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ φ ♣✉❡❞❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛rs❡ ❡♥ x0 ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ F✳

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❡♠♣❧❡❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ DFz ② DFx ♣❛r❛ ✐♥❞✐❝❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛

♠❛tr✐③ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ F r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r z ② ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛

s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ F r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r x✳ ▼✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛
r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛ z ❡s ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ② x ❡s ❡❧ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡✱ ❡♥ F ♥♦ ❡①✐st❡

t❛❧ ❞✐st✐♥❝✐ó♥ ② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ F ❡s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ (x, z)✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s

✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s s♦♥ tr❛t❛❞❛s ❝♦♠♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥ F✳


2x21 + x32 z1 + z2 x3 = 0

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✺✳✶ ❙❡❛ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❀
 x1 x2 + x1 z 2 − z 1 z 2 + x3 = 0


❞♦♥❞❡ (z1 , z2 ) ❡s ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ (x1 , x2 , x3 )✳ ■❞❡♥t✐✜q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❧í❝✐t❛ F ② ❡s❝r✐❜❛

❧❛s ♠❛tr✐❝❡s DFz ② DFx ✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❈♦♥str✉✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

✸✽
 ✷✳✺✳ ❚❊❖❘❊▼❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❉❊❘■❱❆❉❆ ■▼P▲❮❈■❚❆

F (x1 , x2 , x3 , z1 , z2 ) = (2x21 + x32 z1 + z2 x3 , x1 x2 + x1 z2 − z1 z2 + x3 ) = (F1 , F2 ) = (0, 0)✳

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ F ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✐♥❝♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✭❞♦s ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡

❧❛s ♦tr❛s tr❡s✮ ❝♦♥ ❞♦s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♥✱ F1 ② F2 ✳

P♦r ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❛❞❛✱ DFx ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ 2×3 ② DFz ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ 2 × 2✱
q✉❡ s❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❏❛❝♦❜✐❛♥❛✿

∂F1 ∂F1 ∂F1

 
 
 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3  2
  4x1 3x2 z1 z2
DFx =  = 
x2 + z 2 x1 1
 
 ∂F ∂F2 ∂F2 
2
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂F1 ∂F1
 
 
 ∂z1 ∂z2 
  x32 x3
DFz =  = 
−z2 x1 − z1
 
 ∂F ∂F2 
2
∂z1 ∂z2

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✺✳✷ ❯♥ ❝❛s♦ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❧í❝✐t❛ ❡s ❝✉❛♥❞♦ F ❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② z

t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ (x1 , x2 , ..., xn )✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ F (x1 , x2 , ..., xn , z) ❡s
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ n+1 ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s❀ DFx ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ 1×n ② DFz ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ 1×1✳
P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s✉♣♦♥❣❛ q✉❡ x2 + xyz 2 − sen(yz) − 1 = 0 ② q✉❡ z ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ (x, y)✳ ❙❡
♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r F (x, y, z) = x2 + xyz 2 − sen(yz) − 1 = 0✱ F ❡s ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ tr❡s
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ② ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ z t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r✳ ❯♥ ♣✉♥t♦ q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛
∂z ∂z
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s (1, 3, 0)✳ ❯♥ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés ❡s s✐ ❡①✐st❡♥ ② ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♣✉♥t♦✳
∂x ∂y
❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛r❡♠♦s ② ❛♣❧✐❝❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥ t❡♦r❡♠❛ q✉❡ ❜❛❥♦ ❝✐❡rt❛s ❤✐♣ót❡✲

s✐s✱ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ z ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ x0 ✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ ❝♦♥♦③❝❛ ❧❛

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❡st❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✺✳✶ ❙❡❛♥ Ω ⊂ Rn ② U ⊂ Rm ❛❜✐❡rt♦s✳ ❙❡❛ F : Ω×U → Rm ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥ Ω × U ✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ (x0 , z0 ) ∈ Ω × U ❡s t❛❧ q✉❡ F (x0 , z0 ) = 0 ②
q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ m × m DFz (x0 , z0 ) ❡s ✐♥✈❡rt✐❜❧❡✳

✸✾
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡①✐st❡♥ ✉♥ ❛❜✐❡rt♦ V ⊂ Ω t❛❧ q✉❡ x0 ∈ V ② ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ φ : V → U

❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥ V t❛❧ q✉❡ F (x, φ(x)) = 0 ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ∈ V ✳

❆❞❡♠ás✱ Dφ(x0 ) = −(DFz (x0 , z0 ))−1 DFx (x0 , z0 )✳


2x + y + 2z + u − v − 1 = 0






❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✺✳✸ Pr♦❜❛r q✉❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s xy + z − u + 2v − 1 = 0 ❞❡✜♥❡♥



yz + xz + u2 − v = 0



❝❡r❝❛ ❞❡ (u, v, x, y, z) = (1, 1, −1, 1, 1) ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ φ(u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v))✳
▲✉❡❣♦✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ Dφ(1, 1)

x2 y − x5 ty + 3(t2 − 1) = 0

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✺✳✹ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✱
x3 y 2 − 4xt2 y + 3t5 = 0


❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ (x, y) ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦
t✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 1 ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❡s (1, 1)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✺✳✺ ❙❡❛ f (x1 , x2 , ..., xn , z) = 0 t❛❧ q✉❡ z ❡s ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ (x1 , x2 , ..., xn )✳
∂z
❇❛❥♦ ❧❛s ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❞❡❧ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♣❛r❛ ❀
∂xj
1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (x0 , z0 )✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✺✳✻ ❯t✐❧✐❝❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✱ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♦❜t❡♥✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♣r❡✲
∂z ∂z
❝❡❞❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ✱ ✱ s✐ s❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡ q✉❡ x2 + xyz 2 − sen(yz) − 1 = 0 ② (1, 3, 0)
∂x ∂y
s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✺✳✼ ❙❡❛ u = f (x, y, z) t❛❧ q✉❡ exyzu − tan(x2 + y 2 ) + zu3 = 9✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡
❧❛ ♠á①✐♠❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ f ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (0, 0, 1)✳

✷✳✻✳ ❉❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❖r❞❡♥ ❙✉♣❡r✐♦r

P❛r❛ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r f ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ Ω ⊂ Rn ✱ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥

s✉♣❡r✐♦r k ✱ ❝♦♥ k ≥ 2✱ ❛ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s✿

✹✵
 ✷✳✻✳ ❉❊❘■❱❆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ❖❘❉❊◆ ❙❯P❊❘■❖❘

!
∂kf ∂ ∂ k−1 f
■t❡r❛❞❛s ♦ s✉❝❡s✐✈❛s r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ xj : k =
∂xj ∂xj ∂xk−1
j

∂ nf ∂ n−1 f
 
∂
▼✐①t❛s ♦ ❝r✉③❛❞❛s r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✿ =
∂xn ...∂x2 ∂x1 ∂xn ∂xn−1 ...∂x2 ∂x1

❈✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛ ♣❡r♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s

 ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱
∂kf ∂ k−1 f

∂
k−3 2
= 2
✱ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ór❞❡♥❡s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛
∂xn ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂xn ∂xk−4
n ∂x2 ∂x1
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ k ✳

P❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝✉②❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s s✉❝❡s✐✈❛s s✐❣✉❡♥ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱

s❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥ ❧♦s t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✳ ❊♥ ♣✉♥t♦s ❞♦♥❞❡ s❡ r❡q✉✐❡r❛ ❡♠♣❧❡❛r ❧❛
❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧í♠✐t❡✱ s❡ ❞❡❜❡rá ❝♦♥t❛r ❝♦♥ ❧❛ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ♣r❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛
❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ② ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ✈❡❝✐♥❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✻✳✶ ❉❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

2
f (x, y) = exy + sen(y); (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r✿

∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
❛✳ ❜✳ ❝✳ ❞✳
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂y∂x ∂x∂y
 3
x y − y3x

 ; (x, y) 6= (0, 0) ∂ 2f
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✻✳✷ ❉❛❞❛ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r (0, 0)❀

0 ∂x2
; (x, y) = (0, 0)
2
∂ f
(0, 0)✳
∂y∂x

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✻✳✶ ❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R ❡s k−✈❡❝❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥✲

❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ Ω ♦ ❡s ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ Ck ❡♥ Ω✱ s✐ t♦❞❛s s✉s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ k s♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s

❡♥ Ω✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ f ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ Ck ❡♥ Ω✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✻✳✶ ❙❡❛ f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ ❝♦♥ Ω ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳ ❙❡❛

x 0 ∈ Ω✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ Cn ✭♥ ✈❡❝❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡✮ ❡♥ x0 ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♠✐①t❛s ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ n s♦♥ t♦❞❛s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥ x0 ✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱

∂ nf ∂ nf ∂ nf
(x0 ) = (x0 ) = ... = (x0 )✳
∂xn ...∂x2 ∂x1 ∂xn ...∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ...∂xn−1 ∂xn

❖❜s✳ ✶ ❊①✐st❡♥ n! ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♠✐①t❛s ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ n✳

✹✶
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❖❜s✳ ✷ ▲❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛ s❡ ❜❛s❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ② ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥

r❡✐t❡r❛❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❈❧❛✐r❛✉t ✭❚❛r❡❛✮✳

❖❜s✳ ✸ P❛r❛ n=2 ❡st❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛ s❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛r③ ✭❍❡r♠❛♥♥

❆♠❛♥❞✉s ❙❝❤✇❛r③✮✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✻✳✷ ✭▼❛tr✐③ ❍❡ss✐❛♥❛✮ ❙❡❛ f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ ❝♦♥

Ω ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❍❡ss✐❛♥❛ ❞❡ f ❡♥ x0 ✱ ❞❡♥♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r Hf (x0 )✱ ❛
❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿

∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
 
...

 ∂x21 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂xn ∂x1 

 
 
∂2 ∂ 2f 2
 
 ∂ f 
Hf (x0 ) =  ... 
 ∂x ∂x
 1 2 ∂x22 ∂xn ∂x2 

: : ... :
 
 
2 2 2
 
 ∂ f ∂ f ∂ f 
...
∂x1 ∂xn ∂x2 ∂xn ∂x2n |x0

s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❡①✐st❡✳

❖❜s✳ P♦r ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ♣r❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡✱ s✐ f ∈ C2 ❡♥ x0 ✱ Hf (x0 ) ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✻✳✸ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❍❡ss✐❛♥❛ ❞❡ f (x, y, z) = x2 y + exyz − z 2 ❡♥ ❡❧

♣✉♥t♦ (1, 0, 1)✳

✷✳✻✳✶✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ❝♦♥ ❘❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❈❛❞❡♥❛

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✻✳✹ ❙❡❛♥ f, g ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 2 ❡♥ R2 ✳ ❙✐ z = f (x, αy) + g(x, −αy)✱

∂ 2z 1 ∂ 2z
❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❜❛❥♦ ❝✐❡rt❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ = ; α 6= 0✳
∂x2 α2 ∂y 2

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✻✳✺ ❙❡❛ z = f (x2 +y2 , x2 −y2 ) ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ R2 ✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛
∂ 2z ∂ 2z
✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ + ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ s✉st✐t✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛s✳
∂x2 ∂y 2

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✻✳✻ ❙✐ f ❡s ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 2 ❡♥ t♦❞♦ (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❡

∂ 2f ∂ 2f
+ ❛❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ♣♦❧❛r❡s✳
∂x2 ∂y 2

✹✷
 ✷✳✻✳ ❉❊❘■❱❆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ❖❘❉❊◆ ❙❯P❊❘■❖❘

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿ ❙❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ x = rcos(θ)❀ y = rsen(θ)✳ P♦r r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛❞❡♥❛✱

∂f ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y ∂f ∂f
= + = cosθ + senθ
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂x ∂y

∂f ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y ∂f ∂f
= + = (−rsenθ) + (rcosθ)
∂θ ∂x ∂θ ∂y ∂θ ∂x ∂y

P♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ❝♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ r✱

∂ 2f
       
∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f ∂f ∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f
2
= = cosθ + senθ = cosθ + senθ
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂x ∂y ∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y

∂ 2 f ∂x ∂ 2 f ∂y
 2
∂ 2 f ∂x
  
∂ f ∂y
= + cosθ + + senθ
∂x2 ∂r ∂y∂x ∂r ∂y 2 ∂r ∂x∂y ∂r

∂ 2f ∂ 2f
 2
∂ 2f
  
∂ f
= cosθ + senθ cosθ + senθ + cosθ senθ
∂x2 ∂y∂x ∂y 2 ∂x∂y

∂ 2f 2 ∂ 2f ∂ 2f 2 ∂ 2f
= cos θ + senθcosθ + sen θ + cosθsenθ
∂x2 ∂y∂x ∂y 2 ∂x∂y

∂ 2f 2 ∂ 2f 2 ∂ 2f
= cos θ + sen θ + 2 senθcosθ✳ ✭✯✮
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂y∂x

❈♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ θ✱

∂ 2f
       
∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f ∂f ∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f
2
= = − rsenθ + rcosθ = −r senθ +r cosθ
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ ∂θ ∂x ∂y ∂θ ∂x ∂θ ∂y
   
∂ ∂f ∂f ∂ ∂f ∂f
= −r senθ − rcosθ + r cosθ + r (−senθ)
∂θ ∂x ∂x ∂θ ∂y ∂y

∂ 2 f ∂x ∂ 2 f ∂y
 2
∂ f ∂x ∂ 2 f ∂y
    
∂f ∂f
=− + rsenθ+ + 2 rcosθ−r cosθ + senθ
∂x2 ∂θ ∂y∂x ∂θ ∂x∂y ∂θ ∂y ∂θ ∂x ∂y

∂ 2f ∂ 2f
 2
∂ 2f
  
∂ f
=− (−rsenθ) + rcosθ rsenθ + (−rsenθ) + 2 rcosθ rcosθ
∂x2 ∂y∂x ∂x∂y ∂y

∂f
−r
∂r

∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
   
2 2 2 2 ∂f
=r 2
sen θ − cosθsenθ + r − senθcosθ + 2 cos θ − r
∂x ∂y∂x ∂x∂y ∂y ∂r

✹✸
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

2 2 2
2∂f 2∂ f 2 ∂ f ∂f
=r 2
2
sen θ + r 2
2
cos θ − 2r cosθsenθ − r ✳ ✭✯✯✮
∂x ∂y ∂y∂x ∂r

∂ 2f ∂ 2f 2
2∂ f
2
2∂ f ∂f
❉❡ ✭✯✮ ② ✭✯✯✮ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ r2 + = r + r − r ✳
∂r2 ∂θ2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂r

∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f 1 ∂ 2f 1 ∂f
P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ + = + + ✳
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂r2 r2 ∂θ2 r ∂r

✷✳✼✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s

✷✳✼✳✶✳ ❆♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✶❡r ❖r❞❡♥

P❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f : Ω ⊂ Rn → Rm ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ∈ Ω✱ s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛ q✉❡

f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + Df (x0 )h + R1 (h)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ R1 (h) = f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) − Df (x0 )h
k R (h) k
s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ lim 1 = 0✳
h→0 khk

❙✐ h = x − x0 t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r f (x) = f (x0 ) + Df (x0 )(x − x0 ) + R1 (x)✳

❆ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ Df (x0 )h s❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ♣r✐♠❡r ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ f ❡♥

x0 ② ♣❛r❛ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦s ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t♦s (h → 0 ♦ x → x0 )✱ s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛ q✉❡
f (x0 + h) ≈ f (x0 ) + Df (x0 )h ② t❛♠❜✐é♥ q✉❡ f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) ≈ Df (x0 )h✱ ❡st♦
❡s✱ Df (x0 )h ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛ ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ f (x0 +h)−f (x0 )✱ s✐♠✐❧❛r q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✳

▲❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ g(x) = f (x0 ) + Df (x0 )h s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❢í♥ ❞❡ f ❡♥

❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ x0 ✳ ❊s ❞❡ r❡❝♦r❞❛r q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✐♠♣❧í❝✐t❛s✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❛
❧♦ ♠♦str❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ■♠♣❧í❝✐t❛✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s
♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ f ❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ✐♠♣❧í❝✐t❛ ♣❛r❛ ❝♦♥❢♦r♠❛r Df (x0 )✳

❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ s✐ f ❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ Df (x0 )h = ∇f (x0 ) · h ② ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡

❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❢í♥ ❧❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦ g(x) = f (x0 ) + ∇f (x0 ) · h✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✼✳✶ ❆♣r♦①✐♠❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝❛❥❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❞✐✲

♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s 5✱ 7✱ 12cm✱ s✐ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ② s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛♥ ❡♥ 3 ② 2mm✱

✹✹
 ✷✳✼✳ ❆P▲■❈❆❈■❖◆❊❙

r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s ❧❛ t❡r❝❡r❛ ❞✐s♠✐♥✉②❡ ❡♥ 1mm✳ ▲✉❡❣♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡①❛❝✲

t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ❛♠❜♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✼✳✷ ❉❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡rr♦r r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s

❡s ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡rr♦r❡s r❡❧❛t✐✈♦s ❞❡ s✉s ❢❛❝t♦r❡s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✼✳✸ ❈♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r✐♠❡r ♦r❞❡♥✱ ❡st✐♠❡ 0,983,01 ✳

✷✳✼✳✷✳ ❋ór♠✉❧❛s ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❞❡ ✶❡r ② ❞❡ ✷❞♦ ❖r❞❡♥

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✷✳✼✳✶ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C m (Ω)✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Ω ② s❡❛

h ∈ Rn t❛❧ q✉❡ x0 + h ∈ Ω✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s f ❛❞♠✐t❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣❛♥s✐ó♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐❛❧✿

❉❡ ♣r✐♠❡r ♦r❞❡♥✿ f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + ∇f (x0 ) · h + R1 (h)✱ s✐ m = 1✳

1
❉❡ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♦r❞❡♥✿ f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + ∇f (x0 ) · h + Hf (x0 )h · h + R2 (h)✱ s✐
2
m = 2✳

k R1 (h) k k R2 (h) k
❆❞❡♠ás R1 (h) ② R2 (h) s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ lim = 0❀ lim = 0 ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱
h→0 khk h→0 k h k2
♣❛r❛ h → 0✱ s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛ q✉❡

f (x0 + h) ≈ f (x0 ) + ∇f (x0 ) · h

1
f (x0 + h) ≈ f (x0 ) + ∇f (x0 ) · h + Hf (x0 )h · h
2

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✼✳✹ ❊st✐♠❡ 0,983,01 ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❞❡ ♣r✐♠❡r ② ❞❡

s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♦r❞❡♥✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✼✳✺ ❊s❝r✐❜❛ ❧❛ ❋ór♠✉❧❛ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❞❡ 2do ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r
f (x, y, z) = x2 y +zcos(y) ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (1; 0; −1) ② ✉t✐❧✐❝❡ ❡st❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ♣❛r❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛r
f (0, 97; 0, 02; −0,95)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✼✳✻ ❉❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ x2 + xyz 2 − sen(yz) − 1 = 0✱ ✈❡r✐✜q✉❡ q✉❡ ❡❧

♣✉♥t♦ (1, 3, 0) ❧❛ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ② q✉❡ z ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡
(x, y) ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ✈❡❝✐♥❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱
❡s❝r✐❜❛ ❧❛ ❋ór♠✉❧❛ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❞❡ 1er ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ z ❡♥ (1, 3)✳

✹✺
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❉■❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

✷✳✼✳✸✳ P❧❛♥♦ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡

❉❡ ❧♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r♠❡♥t❡✱ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ s✐ f ❡s ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❞♦s
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❛❧❣ú♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r (x0 , y0 ) ❞❡ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✱ f ❛❞♠✐t❡ ✉♥❛
❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❢í♥ ❡♥ (x0 , y0 )✱ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛✿

f (x, y) ≈ g(x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ) + ∇f (x0 , y0 ) · (x − x0 , y − y0 )✳

P❛r❛ ❡st❡ ♠✐s♠♦ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ s✉ ❣rá✜❝♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦s
{(x, y, z) ∈ R3 /(x, y) ∈ domf ∧ z = f (x, y)}✳

❙❡❛ z = g(x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ) + ∇f (x0 , y0 ) · (x − x0 , y − y0 )

∂f ∂f
= f (x0 , y0 ) + (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 )✳
∂x ∂y

P♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 ) − (z − f (x0 , y0 )) = 0✳

◆♦t❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡st♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧
n = (fx (x0 , y0 ), fy (x0 , y0 ), −1) q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛❧ ♣✉♥t♦ P0 (x0 , y0 , f (x0 , y0 ))✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱
✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ q✉❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❛ ❧❛ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡ f ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♣✉♥t♦✳

P♦r ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ f ❡♥ (x0 , y0 )✱ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ ❡st❡ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛ ❛ f ❡♥

✉♥❛ ✈❡❝✐♥❞❛❞ ❝❡r❝❛♥❛ ❛ (x0 , y0 )✳ ❆❞❡♠ás ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡ f ❡s s✉❛✈❡ ❡♥
P0 ✳ ❉❡ ❛q✉í s✉r❣❡♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✼✳✶ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r f : Ω ⊂ R2 → R ❝♦♥ Ω ❛❜✐❡rt♦✳ ❙❡❛

x0 ∈ Ω✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡ f ❡♥
❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ P0 (x0 , y0 , f (x0 , y0 ))✱ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ (fx (x0 , y0 ), fy (x0 , y0 ), −1) ②
q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ P0 ✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✼✳✷ ▲❛ r❡❝t❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡ f ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ P0 ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛

❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞✐r❡❝t♦r (fx (x0 , y0 ), fy (x0 , y0 ), −1) ② q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛ P0

✹✻
 ✷✳✼✳ ❆P▲■❈❆❈■❖◆❊❙

❊❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❞♦s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s s✉❛✈❡s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝♦♠ú♥ P0 ✱ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡

❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛s s✉s ❞♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s t❛♥❣❡♥t❡s ❡♥ P0 ✳

P❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ♦ ❣rá✜❝❛s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ✐♠♣❧í✲

❝✐t❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ F (x, y, z) = 0✱ q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ❧❛s ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❧í✜❝❛✱ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞❛ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r
♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡✳

n = (Fx (x0 , y0 , z0 ), Fy (x0 , y0 , z0 ), Fz (x0 , y0 , z0 ))❀ ❞♦♥❞❡ z0 = f (x0 , y0 )✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✼✳✼ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❣rá✜❝❛
❞❡ f (x, y) = 4 − x2 − y 2 ; (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (1, 1, 2)✳

sen(x2 + y 2 )


 ; (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✼✳✽ ❉❛❞❛ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r

1 ; (x, y) = (0, 0)
♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❛ s✉ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (0, 0)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✼✳✾ ❉❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y, z) = x2 + 2y 2 + 3z 2 ; (x, y, z) ∈ R3 ✳ ❈♦♥

r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❞❡ f, k = 12✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✿

❛✳ ▲♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦

x − 2y + 3z = 12✳

❜✳ ▲♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❡s ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ x − 2y + 3z = 12✳

❝✳ ▲♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛❧ ❡❥❡ Z ✳

✹✼
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸

❖♣t✐♠✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s

❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✵✳✶ ✭❊①tr❡♠♦s ❘❡❧❛t✐✈♦s ♦ ▲♦❝❛❧❡s✮ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r

f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Int(Ω)✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ x0 ❡s ♠á①✐♠♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ f ✱ s✐ ② só❧♦
s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❜♦❧❛ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ B(x0 ; δ) t❛❧ q✉❡ f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ∈ B(x0 ; δ)✳
❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ x0 ❡s ♠í♥✐♠♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ f ✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❜♦❧❛
❛❜✐❡rt❛ B(x0 ; δ) t❛❧ q✉❡ f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ∈ B(x0 ; δ)✳

❙✐ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❧♦❝❛❧❡s ❧❛s ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s s♦♥ ❡str✐❝t❛s ♣❛r❛ x 6= x0 ✱

s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s s♦♥ ❡str✐❝t♦s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✵✳✷ ✭P✉♥t♦ ❝rít✐❝♦✮ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R✳ ❙❡❛

x0 ∈ Int(Ω)✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ x0 ❡s ♣✉♥t♦ ❝rít✐❝♦ ❞❡ f ✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ f ♥♦ ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡
❡♥ x0 ó s✐ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ② ∇f (x0 ) = 0✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❝❛s♦ ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡
x0 ❡s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✵✳✸ ✭P✉♥t♦ ❞❡ s✐❧❧❛✮ ❊❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ x0 q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ♠í♥✐♠♦

❧♦❝❛❧ ♥✐ ♠á①✐♠♦ ❧♦❝❛❧✱ s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ s✐❧❧❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✵✳✶ ▲❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s t✐❡♥❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝rít✐❝♦ (x0 , y0 ) ❞❛❞♦✳
❛✳ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ; (x, y) ∈ R2 ❀ (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0)✳
p

❜✳ f (x, y) = 1 − (x − 1)2 − y 2 ; (x, y) ∈ R2 ❀ (x0 , y0 ) = (1, 0)✳

✹✾
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❖P❚■▼■❩❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙
❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❆❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✱ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❝rít✐❝♦s s♦♥ ❝❛♥❞✐❞❛t♦s ❛
❝♦♥✈❡rt✐rs❡ ❡♥ ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❧♦❝❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ✐♥t❡rés s♦♥ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s
❞♦♥❞❡ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ② s✉ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡ s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛✱ ♣♦r ❝✉❛♥t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥❞✐✲
❝✐ó♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ❞❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✸✳✵✳✶ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R ❝♦♥ Ω ❛❜✐❡rt♦✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Ω

✉♥ ❡①tr❡♠♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ f✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ∇f (x0 ) = 0✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ✭❈❛s♦ ♠í♥✐♠♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦✮✿

P♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s✱ f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❜♦❧❛ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ B(x0 ; δ)✳

∂f f (x0 + tej ) − f (x0 )

P♦r ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✱ (x0 ) = lim ✳
∂xj t→0 t

❚♦♠❡♠♦s t ∈ (−δ, δ)✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ k x0 + tej − x0 k=| t |< δ ✳ P♦r
t❛♥t♦ (x0 + tej ) ∈ B(x0 , δ)✳ ❊st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡✿

f (x0 + tej ) − f (x0 )

≥ 0✱ s✐ 0 < t < δ ✳
t
f (x0 + tej ) − f (x0 )
≤ 0✱ s✐ −δ < t < 0✳
t

❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ t → 0+ ② t → 0− ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛s♦✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐❣✉❡

∂f ∂f
q✉❡ (x0 )+ ≥ 0 ② (x0 )− ≤ 0✳
∂xj ∂xj

∂f
P❡r♦ ♣♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s f ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ x0 ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s (x0 ) = 0✳ ❊st♦ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞♦
∂xj
♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ∇f (x0 ) = 0✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ s✐❣✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♠á①✐♠♦ ❧♦❝❛❧✳

✺✵
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✸✳✵✳✷ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r f : Ω ⊂ Rn → R ❝♦♥ Ω ❛❜✐❡rt♦✳ ❙❡❛ x0 ∈ Ω
✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝rít✐❝♦ ❞❡ f ✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 2 ❡♥ x0 ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

✐ ✳ ❙✐ Hf (x0 ) t✐❡♥❡ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s✱ x0 ❡s ✉♥ ♠í♥✐♠♦ ❧♦❝❛❧

❡str✐❝t♦ ❞❡ f ✳

✐✐ ✳ ❙✐ Hf (x0 ) t✐❡♥❡ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦s✱ x0 ❡s ✉♥ ♠á①✐♠♦ ❧♦❝❛❧

❡str✐❝t♦ ❞❡ f ✳

✐✐✐ ✳ ❙✐ Hf (x0 ) t✐❡♥❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ♥♦ ♥✉❧♦s✱ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦s ② ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s✱ x0 ❡s ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦

❞❡ s✐❧❧❛ ❞❡ f ✳

✐✈ ✳ ❙✐ Hf (x0 ) t✐❡♥❡ ❛❧❣ú♥ ✈❛❧♦r ♣r♦♣✐♦ ♥✉❧♦✱ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ♥♦ ❡s ❝♦♥❝❧✉②❡♥t❡✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✵✳✷ P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✉s
♣✉♥t♦s ❝rít✐❝♦s ② ❝❛❧✐❢íq✉❡❧♦s ❝♦♠♦ ♠á①✐♠♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦✱ ♠í♥✐♠♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ♦ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ s✐❧❧❛✳

❛✳ f (x, y) = 4 − x2 + 2x − y 2 − 6y; (x, y) ∈ R2

❜✳ f (x, y) = log(x2 + y 2 + 1); (x, y) ∈ R2

❝✳ f (x, y) = x2 − y 2 ; (x, y) ∈ R2

❞✳ f (x, y) = x2 + 2xy + y 2 − x3 + y 3 ; (x, y) ∈ R2

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✵✳✸ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f : Ω → R ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦r

f (x, y) = sen(x) + sen(y) + cos(x + y) ❝♦♥ Ω = (0, π) × (0, π)✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✉s ♣✉♥t♦s
❝rít✐❝♦s ② ❡✈❛❧ú❡❧♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❡①tr❡♠♦s r❡❧❛t✐✈♦s ♦ ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ s✐❧❧❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✵✳✹ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f : Ω → R ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦r f (x, y, z) = x2 + y + z 2 ❝♦♥

Ω = R3 ✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✉s ♣✉♥t♦s ❝rít✐❝♦s ② ❡✈❛❧ú❡❧♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❡①tr❡♠♦s r❡❧❛t✐✈♦s ♦ ♣✉♥t♦s
❞❡ s✐❧❧❛✳

❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✐ f (x, y) = 1 − (x2 + y 2 ) 3 ; (x, y) ∈ R2 t✐❡♥❡ ❡①tr❡♠♦s

1
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✵✳✺

❧♦❝❛❧❡s✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✸✳✵✳✸ ✭❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ❱❛❧♦r ❊①tr❡♠♦✮ ❙❡❛ f : D ⊂ Rn → R✳ ❙✐ f ❡s

❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ D ② D ❡s ❝♦♠♣❛❝t♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s f ❛❧❝❛♥③❛ s✉ ✈❛❧♦r ♠á①✐♠♦ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ②
♠í♥✐♠♦ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❡♥ D✳

✺✶
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❖P❚■▼■❩❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙
❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

Pr♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♣❛r❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦s✿

✶✳ ■❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛r ❧♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❧♦❝❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ Int(D)✳

✷✳ ■❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛r ❧♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ F r(D)✳

✸✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r❛r r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ② s❡❧❡❝❝✐♦♥❛r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ó♣t✐♠♦s ❡♥ D✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✵✳✻ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦s ❞❡ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 − x − y + 1

❡♥ D = {(x, y) ∈ R2 /x2 + y 2 ≤ 1}✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✵✳✼ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛❥❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ♠á①✐♠♦ ✈♦❧✉✲

♠❡♥ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r 6x + 4y + 3z = 24 ② ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s

❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✳

✸✳✶✳ ❖♣t✐♠✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✸✳✶✳✶ ✭▼ét♦❞♦ ❞❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡✮ ❙❡❛♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s f, g : Ω ⊂ Rp → R

❝♦♥ Ω ❛❜✐❡rt♦✳ ❙❡❛♥ f ② g ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C1 ❡♥ Ω✳ ❙❡❛ c ∈ Ω✳

❙✐ c ❡s ✉♥ ❡①tr❡♠♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ f r❡str✐♥❣✐❞♦ ❛ g✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ✈❡❝✐♥❞❛❞ V

❞❡ c t❛❧ q✉❡ f (c) ≤ f (x)(f (c) ≥ f (x))✱ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x∈V ❝♦♥ g(x) = 0✱ ② Dg(c) 6= 0✱
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡①✐st❡ λ∈R t❛❧ q✉❡ Df (c) = λDg(c)✳

m
X
P❛r❛ gi r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s❀ 1 ≤ i ≤ m❀ ❡①✐st❡♥ λi ∈ R t❛❧ q✉❡ Df (c) = λi Dgi (c)✳
i=1

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✳✶ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❞❡ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 − x − y + 1 s✉❥❡t❛ ❛ ❧❛

r❡str✐❝❝✐ó♥ x 2 + y 2 = 1✳

❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡st❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❢✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛❞❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r s✉s ❡①tr❡✲
♠♦s ❆❇❙❖▲❯❚❖❙ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝ír❝✉❧♦ x2 + y 2 ≤ 1✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ s❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❛❧✐③ó ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛
✭❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✮ s❡ ♦❜t✉✈✐❡r♦♥ ❧♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦s ❡♥ ❡❧❧❛✳ ◆♦t❡♠♦s q✉❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥✲
❣❡ ♥♦s ❡♥tr❡❣❛ ❧♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s r❡❧❛t✐✈♦s ❞❡ f ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛ ❞❡❧ ❝ír❝✉❧♦✱ ♣❡r♦ ♣♦r ❧❛
❝♦♠♣❛❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛ s❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉②❡ q✉❡ ❞✐❝❤♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s s♦♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦s✳

✺✷
 ✸✳✶✳ ❖P❚■▼■❩❆❈■Ó◆ ❈❖◆ ❘❊❙❚❘■❈❈■❖◆❊❙

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✳✷ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ 2x + 3y − z = 5 ♠ás ❝❡r❝❛♥♦s ❛❧

♦r✐❣❡♥✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✳✸ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛❥❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ♠á①✐♠♦ ✈♦❧✉✲

♠❡♥ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r 6x + 4y + 3z = 24 ② ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✳✹ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r

f (x, y, z) = x − y − z s✉❥❡t♦ ❛ ❧❛s r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s x2 + 2y 2 = 1 ② 3x − 4z = 0

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✳✺ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❞❡ f (x, y, z) = xy + z ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

❧❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 ② x + y + z = 0✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❡s f ② ❧❧❛♠❡♠♦s ❛ ❧❛s r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s

g1 (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 1(= 0)❀ g2 (x, y, z) = x + y + z(= 0)✳

▲♦s ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈♦s s♦♥✿

∇f (x, y, z) = (y, x, 1)
∇g1 = (2x, 2y, 2z)
∇g2 = (1, 1, 1)

P♦r ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ s✐❣✉❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞✿

(y, x, 1) = λ(2x, 2y, 2z) + µ(1, 1, 1)


(1) y = 2xλ + µ







(2) x = 2yλ + µ






⇒ (3) 1 = 2zλ + µ



(4) x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1








(5) x + y + z = 0


❉❡ (1)
(2)✿ y − x = 2λ(x − y) = −2λ(y − x)
②

1
⇒ (y − x)(1 + 2λ) = 0 ⇒ y = x ∨ λ = − ✳
2

✺✸
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❖P❚■▼■❩❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❙
❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊❙

❙✐ y = x✱ r❡❡♠♣❧❛③❛♠♦s ❡♥ (4) ② (5)✿

2x2 + z 2 = 1
2x + z = 0 ⇒ z = −2x
1
⇒ 2x2 + 4x2 = 1 ⇒ 6x2 = 1 ⇒ x = ± √ ✳
6

❯t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s (1) ② (3) ó (2) ② (3)✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ λ
② µ❡♥ R✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱
 ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦
 ♥♦s ❞❛ ❞♦s ♣✉♥t♦s
 s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✿
1 1 2 1 1 2
P1 √ , √ , −√ ∧ P2 − √ , − √ , √
6 6 6 6 6 6

1
❙✐ λ = − ✱ r❡❡♠♣❧❛③❛♠♦s ❡♥ (1)✱ (2) ② (3)✿
2
y = −x + µ ⇒ y + x = µ
x = −y + µ ⇒ y + x = µ
1 = −z + µ ⇒ z = µ − 1

❘❡❡♠♣❧❛③❛♠♦s ❡st❛s ú❧t✐♠❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ (5)✿

1 1 1
µ+µ−1=0⇒µ= ⇒z =− ∧y = −x
2 2 2

❘❡❡♠♣❧❛③❛♠♦s ❡st❛s ♥✉❡✈❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ (4)✿

  2
1 1 1 1 1
2
x + −x = 1 ⇒ x2 + − x + x2 + = 1 ⇒ 2x2 − x − = 0
+
2 4 √4 4 √ 2
2 ± 4 + 16 2 ± 2 1 + 4
⇒ 4x2 − 2x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ⇒x=
√ √ 2×4 2×4
1± 5 1∓ 5
⇒x= ∧y =
4 4

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱
√
❡st❡ ❝❛s♦
√
♥♦s ❞❛
! ❞♦s ♣✉♥t♦s√s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥√❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s✿
!
1+ 5 1− 5 1 1− 5 1+ 5 1
P3 , ,− ∧ P4 , ,−
4 4 2 4 4 2

❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦

❝♦♠♣❛❝t♦ ② f ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛ s✉s ❡①tr❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦✳ ❆❤♦r❛✱
❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r f ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❛tr♦ ♣✉♥t♦s ❤❛❧❧❛❞♦s ② ❡s❝♦❣❡r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠á①✐♠♦ ②
♠í♥✐♠♦ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

✺✹
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✹

❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❱❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❞❡✜♥✐r❡♠♦s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ❧♦s

❝❛♠♣♦s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s✳ ❊st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s❡rá♥ ❡♠♣❧❡❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦s ♣♦st❡r✐♦r❡s ♣❛r❛
r❡❛❧✐③❛r ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❛ ♥✐✈❡❧ ✐♥str✉♠❡♥t❛❧✱ t❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♦✿ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦✱
❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✢✉❥♦✱ ❡♥tr❡ ♦tr❛s✳

✹✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✶ ❙❡❛♥ f1 , f2 , · · · , fn n ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❛❧❣ú♥

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ I ⊂ R✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ r : I → Rn ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r r(t) = (f1 (t), f2 (t), · · · , fn (t)) ❝♦♠♦
✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r t✳

P❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ n = 2 ② n = 3 ♣❛r❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❝✉r✈❛s ❡♥

❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ② ❝✉r✈❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

✹✳✶✳✶✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛ ❝✉r✈❛s ❡♥ R2

❈✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❝❡♥tr♦ ❡♥ (h, k) ② r❛❞✐♦ R ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❛♥t✐r❡❧♦❥ ✭✰✮✳

r(t) = (Rcos(t) + h, Rsen(t) + k)❀ 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π ✳

❊❧✐♣s❡ ❝♦♥ ❝❡♥tr♦ ❡♥ (h, k) ② s❡♠✐❡❥❡s a, b ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❛♥t✐r❡❧♦❥ ✭✰✮✳

r(t) = (acos(t) + h, bsen(t) + k)❀ 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π ✳

❙❡❣♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ r❡❝t❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (a1 , b1 ) ❤❛st❛ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (a2 , b2 )✳

r(t) = (a1 + (a2 − a1 )t, b1 + (b2 − b1 )t)❀ 0 ≤ t ≤ 1✳

✺✺
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙

❍✐♣♦❝✐❝❧♦❞❡ ❞❡ ✹ ♣✉♥t❛s ✭❛str♦✐❞❡✮✳

r(t) = (a cos3 (t), a sen3 (t))❀ 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π ✳

✹✳✶✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛ ❝✉r✈❛s ❡♥ R3

❍é❧✐❝❡ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛r ❝♦♥ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦s a, b > 0✳

r(t) = (acos(t), asen(t), bt)❀ t ≥ 0✳

❈ú❜✐❝❛ ❛❧❛❜❡❛❞❛✳
r(t) = (t, t2 , t3 )❀ t ≥ 0✳

❙❡❣♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ r❡❝t❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (a1 , b1 , c1 ) ❤❛st❛ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (a2 , b2 , c2 )✳

r(t) = (a1 + (a2 − a1 )t, b1 + (b2 − b1 )t, c1 + (c2 − c1 )t)❀ 0 ≤ t ≤ 1✳

❚r❛③❛s ❡♥tr❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s✳

❍❛② ❝✉r✈❛s q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦ tr❛③❛s ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✳✶ ▲❛ tr❛③❛ ❞❡❧ ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦ x2 + y2 = 4 ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ x + y + 2z = 6

❛❞♠✐t❡ ❧❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐ó♥ r(t) = (2cos(t), 2sen(t), 3 − cos(t) − sen(t))❀
0 ≤ t ≤ 2π ✳

✹✳✶✳✸✳ ▲í♠✐t❡✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ② ❞❡r✐✈❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r

P❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ② ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ② t❡♦r❡♠❛s ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱
❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡①✐st❡ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧í♠✐t❡ ② ❞✐r❡♠♦s
q✉❡ ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❧♦ ❡s✳ P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❡♠♣❧❡❛♠♦s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✷ ❙❡❛ r(t) = (f1 (t), f2 (t), · · · , fn (t))✳ ❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ r ❡s ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡ ❡♥
t s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ fi ❡s ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ t❀ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✳
❊♥ ❡s❡ ❝❛s♦✱ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ r′ (t) = (f1′ (t), f2′ (t), · · · , fn′ (t))✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✳✷ ❙❡❛ r(t) = (2t + 3, 1 − t3 , cos(t2 ))❀ t ≥ 0✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ r′ (t) ② r′′ (t)✳

✺✻
 ✹✳✶✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✳✶ ✭Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❉❡r✐✈❛❞❛✮ ❙❡❛♥ r ② µ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦✲

r✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ t✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

✐ ✮ (r(t) + µ(t))′ = r′ (t) + µ′ (t)✳

✐✐ ✮ (αr(t))′ = αr′ (t)❀ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ α ∈ R✳

✐✐✐ ✮ (r(t) · µ(t))′ = r′ (t) · µ(t) + r(t) · µ′ (t)✳

✐✈ ✮ (r(t) × µ(t))′ = r′ (t) × µ(t) + r(t) × µ′ (t)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✳✸ ❉❡♠♦str❛r ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s I ② III ✳

❉❡ ❛q✉í ❡♥ ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r❡♠♦s ♣♦r ❝❛♠✐♥♦ ♦ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛✱ ❛ t♦❞❛ ❝✉r✈❛ ❞❛❞❛

♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ r ❡♥ I ⊂ R✳

✹✳✶✳✹✳ ❱❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞✱ r❛♣✐❞❡③ ② ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✸ ❙✐ ❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ♠♦❞❡❧❛❞♦ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛

tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ r ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ t✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ r′ ② r′′ ❡①✐st❡♥✱ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧
✐♥st❛♥t❡ t✿

▲❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❝♦♠♦ v(t) = r′ (t)✳

▲❛ r❛♣✐❞❡③ ❞❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❝♦♠♦ kr′ (t)k✳

▲❛ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❝♦♠♦ a(t) = r′′ (t)✳

■♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥✿ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ✐♥st❛♥tá♥❡❛ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡

r(t + ∆t) − r(t)

v ′ (t) = lim ✳
∆t→0 ∆t

❈♦♠♦ r ❡s ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡✱ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧í♠✐t❡ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ q✉❡ v(t) = r′ (t)✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ v(t)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✳✹ ❯♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ r❡♣♦s♦ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (1, 2, −1)✳ ❙✐ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡
❝♦♥ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥ a(t) = (t, 2t2 , 3t3 )❀ t ≥ 0✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳

✺✼
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✳✺ ❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ C : r(t) = (t2 , cos(t), 3)❀
t ≥ 0✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 2 s❛❧❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ ② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❝♦♥ ▼✳❘✳❯✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡
❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 5✳

✹✳✶✳✺✳ ❱❡❝t♦r t❛♥❣❡♥t❡✱ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ② ❜✐♥♦r♠❛❧

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✹ ✭❈❛♠✐♥♦ s✉❛✈❡✮ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r r : [a, b] → Rn ✳ ❙❡

❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ C ❡s s✉❛✈❡ s✐ r ❡s ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ② r′ (t) 6= ✵ ❡♥ (a, b)✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✺ ✭❱❡❝t♦r ❚❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❯♥✐t❛r✐♦✮ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r
r✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t✱ ❝♦♠♦✿

r′ (t)
T (t) = ′ ✳
kr (t)k

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✳✷ ✭❱❡❝t♦r ◆♦r♠❛❧ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❛❧✮ ❙✐ C ❡s ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r

r ② T ′ ❡①✐st❡✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s T ′ ❡s ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ C ✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✿ P♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s T (t) · T (t) = 1✳

❉❡r✐✈❛♥❞♦ ❛♠❜♦s ♠✐❡♠❜r♦s ② ♣♦r ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛✿

T ′ (t)·T (t)+T (t)·T ′ (t) = 0✳ ▲✉❡❣♦✱ 2T ′ (t)·T (t) = 0✳ ❊st♦ ♣r✉❡❜❛ q✉❡ T ′ ❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧

❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❞❡ C ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✻ ✭❱❡❝t♦r ◆♦r♠❛❧ ❯♥✐t❛r✐♦✮ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r
r t❛❧ q✉❡ T ′ ❡s ♥♦ ♥✉❧♦✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t✱ ❝♦♠♦✿

T ′ (t)
N (t) = ✳
kT ′ (t)k

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✼ ✭❱❡❝t♦r ❇✐♥♦r♠❛❧ ❯♥✐t❛r✐♦✮ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ s✉❛✈❡ ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝✲
t♦r❡s t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ② ♥♦r♠❛❧ ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❜✐♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t✱
❝♦♠♦✿

B(t) = T (t) × N (t)✳

✺✽
 ✹✳✶✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘

❖❜s ✶✳ ❊❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❜✐♥♦r♠❛❧ só❧♦ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛♠✐♥♦s ❡♥ R3 ✳

❖❜s ✷✳ P♦r ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❜✐♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦✳

❖❜s ✸✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✱ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ② ♥♦r♠❛❧ ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡
♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t✱ s✐♠✐❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❜✐♥♦r♠❛❧✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✽ ✭❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥✮ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ s✉❛✈❡ ❝♦♥

✈❡❝t♦r❡s t❛♥❣❡♥t❡✱ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ② ❜✐♥♦r♠❛❧✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥✿

❚❛♥❣❡♥❝✐❛❧✿ aT (t) = proyT (t) a(t)✳

◆♦r♠❛❧✿ aN (t) = proyN (t) a(t)✳

❇✐♥♦r♠❛❧✿ aB (t) = proyB(t) a(t)✳

❖❜s ✶✳ ❚♦❞❛s ❡st❛s ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s✳

❖❜s ✷✳ a(t) = aT + aN ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ② a(t) = aT + aN + aB ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✳✻ ❉❛❞❛ ❧❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ r(t) = (3t, 2t2 )❀ t ≥ 0✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦✲
♥❡♥t❡s t❛♥❣❡♥❝✐❛❧ ② ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✳✼ ❉❛❞❛ ❧❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ r(t) = (acos(t), asen(t), bt)❀ t ≥ 0✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡

❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s t❛♥❣❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ② ❜✐♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥✳

✹✳✶✳✻✳ ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛r❝♦ ② ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❛

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✾ ✭▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛r❝♦✮ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r

r : [a, b] → Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛r❝♦ ❞❡ C ✱ ❞❡s❞❡ r(a) ❤❛st❛ r(b) ❝♦♠♦✿
ˆ b
s= kr′ (t)kdt✳
a

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✶✵ ✭❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛r❝♦✮ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞♦

♣♦r r : [a, b] → Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛r❝♦ ❞❡ C ✱ ❝♦♠♦✿
ˆ t
s(t) = kr′ (µ)kdµ✳
a

✺✾
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙

ds
❖❜s✳ P♦r ❡❧ Pr✐♠❡r ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❈á❧❝✉❧♦✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ = kr′ (t)k✱
dt
❡st♦ ❡s✱ ds = kr′ (t)kdt✳ ❆❞❡♠ás s ❡s ♠♦♥ót♦♥❛ ❝r❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ❡s ✐♥②❡❝t✐✈❛✳

❉❡ ❡st❛ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ q✉❡ ❧♦❝❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥✈❡rt✐r s ② ❡①♣r❡s❛r t ❡s

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦ ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛r❝♦✳ ❊st♦ ❞❛ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❛ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳✶✶ ✭❈✉r✈❛t✉r❛✮ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ r❡♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❞❛ ♣♦r r ❡♥

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦ ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛r❝♦ s✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❛ ❞❡ C ❝♦♠♦✿
r′ (s)
K = kT ′ (s)k✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ T (s) = ✳
kr′ (s)k

❖❜s✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ r s❡ r❡♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✱ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ kr′ (s)k = 1✱ ♣♦r

❧♦ q✉❡ K = kr′′ (s)k✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✳✽ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛ ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❤é❧✐❝❡ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛r r(t) = (acos(t), asen(t), bt)❀
t ≥ 0✳ ❈♦♥str✉②❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛r❝♦ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛ ② ❛♣❧✐q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❝✉r✈❛t✉r❛ r❡♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛♥❞♦ r ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✳✾ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛ ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛s✿

❛✳ ❈✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ R ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✳

❜✳ ❘❡❝t❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳

❖tr❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧❛ ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❛ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t s♦♥✿

kT ′ (t)k kr′ (t) × r′′ (t)k

✭✐✮ K = ✳ ✭✐✐✮ K = ✳
kr′ (t)k kr′ (t)k3

✹✳✷✳ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✷✳✶ ✭❈❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✮ ❙❡❛♥ M, N, P tr❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❞❡

✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ (x, y, z)✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❛❧❣ú♥ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ Q ⊂ R3 ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ F (x, y, z) = M ✐ + N ❥ + P ❦ ❡♥ Q ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ R3 ✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ F (x, y) = M i + N j ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ R2 ✳

✻✵
 ✹✳✷✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✷✳✷ ✭❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✮ ❙❡❛ F ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝✲

t♦r✐❛❧ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ R3 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r F (x, y, z) = M ✐ + N ❥ + P ❦✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ s✉ ❞✐✈❡r✲
❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♠♦✿
∂M ∂N ∂P
divF = ∇ · F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

P❛r❛ ❝❛♠♣♦s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ R2 ✱ s✉ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿

∂M ∂N
divF = ∇ · F = +
∂x ∂y

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✷✳✸ ✭❘♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✮ ❙❡❛ F ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦✲

r✐❛❧ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ R3 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r F (x, y, z) = M ✐ + N ❥ + P ❦✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ s✉ r♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧
❝♦♠♦✿

✐ ❥ ❦
∂ ∂ ∂
rotF = ∇ × F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
M N P
     
∂P ∂N ∂P ∂M ∂N ∂M
= − ✐− − ❥+ − ❦
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✷✳✹ ✭❈❛♠♣♦ ❱❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❈♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦✮ ❙❡❛ F ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧

❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ Q ⊂ Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ F ❡s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ f ❡♥ Q t❛❧ q✉❡ ∇f = F ✳

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ f ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ F ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✳✶ ❙❡❛ F (x, y) = 2x✐ + y❥❀ (x, y) ∈ R2 ✳ ❱❡r✐✜q✉❡ q✉❡ F ❡s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦
1
❝♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ✳
2

P❛r❛ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛r s✐ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❡s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦✱ ❡♠♣❧❡❛♠♦s ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s

t❡♦r❡♠❛s✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✹✳✷✳✶ ✭❈❛♠♣♦s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✮ ❙❡❛ F (x, y) = M ✐ + N ❥ ✉♥

❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❜♦❧❛ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ ❞❡ R2 ✳ F ❡s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦ s✐ ② só❧♦
∂N ∂M
s✐ = ✳
∂x ∂y

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✳✷ ❱❡r✐✜q✉❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♣r❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡✳

✻✶
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✹✳✷✳✷ ✭❈❛♠♣♦s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✮ ❙❡❛

F (x, y, z) = M ✐ + N ❥ + P ❦ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❜♦❧❛ ❛❜✐❡rt❛
❞❡ R3 ✳ F ❡s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ rotF = ✵✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✳✸ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❝✉á❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝❛♠♣♦s s♦♥ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦s ❡♥ R3 ✳

✶✳ F (x, y, z) = x2 y ✐ + z ❥ + xyz ❦✳

✷✳ F (x, y, z) = 2xy ✐ + (x2 + z 2 )❥ + 2yz ❦✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✷✳✺ ✭❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ▲❛♣❧❛❝❡✮ ❙❡❛ f ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞♦s ✈❡❝❡s ❞✐✲
❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❛❧❣ú♥ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ Q ⊂ Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ▲❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ f ❝♦♠♦✿
∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
∇2 f = ∇ · ∇f = + + · · · + ✳
∂x21 ∂x22 ∂x2n

❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ f ❡s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛ s✐ ∇2 f = 0✳

1
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✳✹ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ f (x, y, z) = p ❀ (x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0)✱ ❡s
x2 + y2 + z2
❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✹✳✷✳✸ ✭Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ◆❛❜❧❛✮ ❙❡❛♥ F, G ❞♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s ✈❡❝✲
t♦r✐❛❧❡s ② s❡❛♥ f, g ❞♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❝♦♠ú♥ Q t❛❧ q✉❡
s❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

✐ ✳ div(F + G) = divF + divG

✐✐ ✳ div(f F ) = f divF + F · ∇f

✐✐✐ ✳ div(F × G) = G · rotF − F · rotG

✐✈ ✳ div(rotF ) = 0

✈ ✳ ∇2 (f g) = f ∇2 g + g∇2 f + 2(∇f · ∇g)

✈✐ ✳ div(∇f × ∇g) = 0

✈✐✐ ✳ div(f ∇g − g∇f ) = f ∇2 g − g∇2 f

✈✐✐✐ ✳ rot(F + G) = rotF + rotG

✻✷
 ✹✳✷✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

✐①✳ rot(f F ) = f rotF + ∇f × F

①✳ rot(∇f ) = 0

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✳✺ ❉❡♠♦str❛r ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ii)✱ iv)✱ ix) ② x)✳

✻✸
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✺

■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ▲í♥❡❛

❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❞♦s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛✿

■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ▲í♥❡❛ ❱❡❝t♦r✐❛❧

■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ▲í♥❡❛ ❊s❝❛❧❛r

▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦ q✉❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❞❡ ❢✉❡r③❛s ❛❧ ♠♦✈❡r

✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ C ② ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❛r❝♦
❝♦♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r C ✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❡♠♣❧❡❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s
❡st✉❞✐❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❛❞❡♠ás ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✺✳✵✳✶ ✭❈❛♠✐♥♦ s✐♠♣❧❡ ② ❝❛♠✐♥♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦✮ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥❛ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ ❞❛❞♦
♣♦r r : [a, b] → Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ C ❡s s✐♠♣❧❡ s✐ r ❡s ✐♥②❡❝t✐✈❛ ❡♥ (a, b) ② ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡
C ❡s ❝❡rr❛❞♦ s✐ r(a) = r(b)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✵✳✶ ❯♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ r❡❝t❛ ♦ ✉♥❛ ❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ s♦♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦s s✐♠♣❧❡s✳ ❊❧

s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s ❡s ❛❞❡♠ás ❝❡rr❛❞♦✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✺✳✵✳✷ ✭❈❛♠✐♥♦ s✉❛✈❡ ❛ tr♦③♦s✮ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ C ❡s s✉❛✈❡ ❛

tr♦③♦s s✐ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉❛✈✐❞❛❞ ♣♦r tr❛♠♦s ♦ s✉❜✲✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✵✳✷ ▲❛ ❛str♦✐❞❡ ❡s ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ s✉❛✈❡ ❛ tr♦③♦s✳ ❊❧ ✈❡❝t♦r t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦

π 3π
♥♦ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣✉♥t❛s ❞♦♥❞❡ t ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ , π, ✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❆❞❡♠ás
2 2
❡s s✐♠♣❧❡ ② ❝❡rr❛❞♦✳

✻✺
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❮◆❊❆

✺✳✶✳ ■♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛

✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧

❙✐♥ ♣ér❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐❞❛❞ s❡ ❤❛rá ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❜✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✳

❙❡❛ F (x, y) = M ✐ + N ❥ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❞❡ ❢✉❡r③❛s✱ q✉❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ✉♥ ♦❜ ❥❡t♦ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡

✉♥❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ s✉❛✈❡ ② s✐♠♣❧❡ C ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r r(t) = (x(t), y(t))❀ a ≤ t ≤ b✳ ❙❡❛

P = {a = t0 , t1 , t2 , · · · , tn = b} ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [a, b]✳ P♦r ❧❛ s✉❛✈✐❞❛❞ ❞❡

r✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ i−és✐♠♦ s✉❜✲✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❡①✐st❡♥ ti , ti t❛❧❡s q✉❡ x(ti ) − x(ti−1 ) = x′ (ti )(ti − ti−1 )
② y(ti ) − y(ti−1 ) = y ′ (ti )(ti − ti−1 )✳

❊❧ tr❛❜❛ ❥♦ q✉❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ F ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ C ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ s✉♠❛✿

n
X
F (x(ti ), y(ti )) · (r(ti ) − r(ti−1 )) =
i=1
n
X
M (x(ti ), y(ti ))(x(ti ) − x(ti−1 )) + N (x(ti ), y(ti ))(y(ti ) − y(ti−1 ))❀ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♠❛

i=1
s❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ P✳

❙❡❛♥ φ 1 = M♦ r ② φ 2 = N♦ r ✳ ❆♠❜❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ [a, b]✳

P♦r ❧♦ t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦✿
n
X
φ1 (ti )x′ (ti )∆ti + φ2 (ti )y ′ (ti )∆ti ✳
i=1

n
X ˆ b
′ ′
❆❤♦r❛ ♠♦str❛♠♦s q✉❡ lim φ1 (ti )x (ti )∆ti +φ2 (ti )y (ti )∆ti = F♦ r·r′ (t)dt✳
kP k→0 a
i=1

ˆ b ˆ b
′
❊st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ φ1 (t)x (t)dt + φ2 (t)y ′ (t)dt✳ ◆♦t❛r q✉❡ ❡❧
a a
❧í♠✐t❡ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❡s ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❧í♠✐t❡

t❡♥❡♠♦s✿

n
X ˆ b
′
φ2 (ti )y (ti )∆ti − φ2 (t)y ′ (t)dt
i=1 a
n
X ˆ b
′
= (φ2 (ti ) − φ2 (ti ) + φ2 (ti ))y (ti )∆ti − φ2 (t)y ′ (t)dt
i=1 a

✻✻
 ✺✳✷✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❮◆❊❆ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

n n ˆ b
φ2 (t)y ′ (t)dt ✳
X X
′ ′
= (φ2 (ti ) − φ2 (ti ))y (ti )∆ti + φ2 (ti ))y (ti )∆ti −
i=1 i=1 a

n n ˆ b
φ2 (t)y ′ (t)dt ✳ ✭✯✮
X X
′ ′
≤ |φ2 (ti ) − φ2 (ti )| |y (ti )|∆ti + φ2 (ti ))y (ti )∆ti −
i=1 i=1 a

ˆ b
❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ y ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ [a, b]✱
′
|y ′ |(t)dt ❡①✐st❡✳ ❉✐❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡ M > 0
a
n
t❛❧ q✉❡ |y ′ (ti )|∆ti < M ✳ P♦r ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡ ❞❡ φ2 ❡♥ [a, b] ❡①✐st❡ δ > 0
X

i=1
ε
t❛❧ q✉❡ |φ2 (ti ) − φ2 (ti )| < ✳
2M

❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛ Q t❛❧ q✉❡ kQk ≤ δ ✱ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ ✭✯✮ < ε✳

❊st♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ˆ b❧❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ♣♦r ˆ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ F ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦
❞❡ C ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ F♦ r · r′ (t)dt✱ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ s❡rá ❞❡♥♦t❛❞♦ ♣♦r F · dr✳ ❊st♦ ❞❛ ❧✉❣❛r ❛
a C
❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✳

✺✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✺✳✷✳✶ ❙❡❛ F ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ Rn ✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ s✉❛✈❡ ② s✐♠♣❧❡ C ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r r : [a, b] → Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛
✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ F ❡♥ ❧❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ C ✱ ❝♦♠♦✿
ˆ ˆ b
F · dr = (F ◦ r) · r′ (t)dt✳
C a

❆❧❣✉♥❛s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐♦♥❡s r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ s♦♥✿

✶✳ P♦r ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ F ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ C ② ♣♦r ❧❛ s✉❛✈✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ C ✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

❡①✐st❡✳

✷✳ ❯♥❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♣❛r❛ n ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✷ ♦ ✸✱ ❡s ❡❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦ q✉❡

r❡❛❧✐③❛ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❞❡ ❢✉❡r③❛s F ❛❧ ♠♦✈❡r ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ C ✳

✸✳ ▲❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝♦❣✐❞❛ ♣❛r❛ C ♥♦ ✐♥✢✉②❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳

✻✼
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❮◆❊❆

ˆ
✹✳ ❖tr❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❡s M dx+N dy ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦
ˆ C

♦ M dx + N dy + P dz ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳
C

1 1
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✷✳✶ ❉❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ F (x, y) = xy ✐ + x2 ❥ ❡♥ R2 ✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❡❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦
2 4
q✉❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ ❛❧ ♠♦✈❡r ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ q✉❡ ✈❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (0, 0)
❤❛st❛ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (1, 1)✱ s✐ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ ❡s✿

❛✳ ❯♥ tr❛♠♦ r❡❝t♦✳ ❜✳ ❯♥ ❛r❝♦ ❝ú❜✐❝♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✷✳✷
ˆ ❙❡❛ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ F (x, y) = (2x − y)✐ + (x2 − 1)❥✳ ❊✈❛❧ú❡
F · dr s✐ C ❡s ❧❛ s❡♠✐❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r✱ ❝♦♥ ❝❡♥tr♦ ❡♥ (0, 0) ② r❛❞✐♦ a✱
C
♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✺✳✷✳✶ ✭Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ▲í♥❡❛✮ P❛r❛ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦s ❝♦♥ ✐♥✲
t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛s r❡s✉❧t❛♥ út✐❧❡s ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✿

❛✳ ❙❡❛ F ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ˆ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ˆC1 ② C2 ✱

❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r r1 ❡♥ [a, b] ② r2 ❡♥ [b, c]✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❙✐ F · dr1 ② F · dr2
ˆ ˆ C1 ˆ C2

❡①✐st❡♥ ② C = C1 ∪ C2 ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s F · dr = F · dr1 + F · dr2 ❀ ❞♦♥❞❡

 C C1 C2

r1 (t)

;a ≤ t ≤ b
r(t) = ✳
r2 (t)

;b ≤ t ≤ c

❜✳ ❙❡❛ F ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ C ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r r

❡♥ [a, b]✳ ❙❡❛ −C : µ(t) ✉♥❛ˆ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦
ˆ C ❡♥ [a, b]✱ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦
ˆ ❡♥
s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦ ❞❡ C ✳ ❙✐ F · dr ❡①✐st❡✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s F · dµ = − F · dr✳
C −C C

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✿

▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s s❡ ❞❡♠✉❡str❛ t♦♠❛♥❞♦ ♣❛rt✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [a, c] q✉❡ ✐♥❝❧✉✲

②❛♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ b✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝❛❞❛ s✉❜♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❞✉❝❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❡♥ [a, b] ② ❡♥

[b, c] r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❛❧ t♦♠❛r ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s

✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ♣♦r s❡♣❛r❛❞♦ ❡①✐st❡♥✱ s❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉②❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ C ❡①✐st❡✳

✻✽
 ✺✳✷✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❮◆❊❆ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

❊♥ ❡st❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ♣♦r s❡♣❛r❛❞♦ ❝❛❞❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ t♦♠❛♥❞♦
❧❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ tr❛♠♦ q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❡ ♠ás ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡✳

P❛r❛ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛✱ s❡❛ τ (t) = a + b − t❀ a ≤ t ≤ b✳ ❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s µ(t) = (r ◦ τ )(t)✳ ◆♦✲

t❡♠♦s q✉❡ µ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ −C ♣✉❡s µ(a) = r(b) ② µ(b) = r(a)✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱

ˆ ˆ b ˆ a ˆ a
′ ′ ′
F · dµ = (F ◦ µ) · µ (t)dt = F ◦ r(τ ) · r (τ )τ dt = F ◦ r(τ ) · r′ (τ )dτ
−C a b b
ˆ b ˆ
=− F ◦ r(τ ) · r (τ )dτ = − F · dr✳
′
a C


ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✷✳✸ ❙❡❛ F (x, y) = (xy − y 2 )✐ + (x2 − 1)❥; (x, y) ∈ R2 ✳ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ F · dr✱
C
❞♦♥❞❡ C ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡❧ tr✐á♥❣✉❧♦ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧♦s ❡❥❡s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s ② ❧❛ r❡❝t❛
x + 2y = 4✱ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

Pr✐♠❡r♦ r❡❛❧✐❝❡ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❡♥ s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❧✉❡❣♦ t♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❡❧

♠✐s♠♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❞❡ t ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ tr❛♠♦✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r❡ ❛♠❜♦s ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s✳
ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✷✳✹ ❙❡❛ F (x, y) = 2x✐ + (3y − x)❥; (x, y) ∈ R ✳ ❊✈❛❧ú❡
2
F · dr✱ ❞♦♥❞❡
C
C ❡s ❡❧ ❛r❝♦ ♣❛r❛❜ó❧✐❝♦ y = x2 ✿

❛✳ ❉❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (0, 0) ❤❛st❛ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (1, 1)✳

❜✳ ❉❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (1, 1) ❤❛st❛ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (0, 0)

ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✷✳✺ ❙❡❛ F (x, y, z) = y ✐ + x ❥ + 2xz ❦; (x, y, z) ∈ R ✳ ❊✈❛❧ú❡
2 3
F · dr✱
C
❞♦♥❞❡ C ❡s ❧❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛✿

❛✳ r(t) = (t, t2 , t3 ); 0 ≤ t ≤ 1✳

❜✳ ■♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ x2 + y 2 = 2x ❝♦♥ x + 2y + z = 6✳

✺✳✷✳✶✳ ❈❛♠♣♦s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦s ❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✺✳✷✳✷ ❙❡❛ F ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜♦❧❛ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ B ❞❡

R2 (R3 )✳ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥❛ ❝✉r✈❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ② s✉❛✈❡ ❛ tr♦③♦s ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ B ✳ ▲❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s
❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s✿

✻✾
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❮◆❊❆

✐ ✳ F ❡s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦ ❡♥ B ✳
ˆ
✐✐ ✳ P❛r❛ t♦❞❛ C ✱ F · dr = f (r(b)) − f (r(a))❀ ❞♦♥❞❡ ∇f = F ✱ r(a) ❡s ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦
C
✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ C ② r(b) ❡s ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ✜♥❛❧✳
ˆ
✐✐✐ ✳ P❛r❛ t♦❞❛ ❝✉r✈❛ C ❝❡rr❛❞❛✱ F · dr = 0✳
C

❖❜s ✶✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❡s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❡❧ ✉s♦ ❞❡❧ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r

✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧✱ ♣♦r ❝✉❛♥t♦ ❤❛② ❝❛♠♣♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❝✐❡rt❛s ❝✉r✈❛s ❝❡rr❛❞❛s s✉ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡s ❝❡r♦✱
♣❡r♦ ❡s♦ ♥♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ s❡❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦✳

❖❜s ✷✳ P❛r❛ ❝✉r✈❛s s✉❛✈❡s ❛ tr♦③♦s s❡ ❡✈❛❧ú❛ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ tr❛♠♦ ② ❧✉❡❣♦ s❡ s✉♠❛✳

1
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✷✳✻ ❱❡r✐✜q✉❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ F (x, y, z) = x✐ − y2 ❥ + 2z ❦❀
2
(x, y, z) ∈ R3 ✱ ❛❧ ♠♦✈❡r ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ C : r(t) = (cos(t), sen(t), t)❀
π ≤ t ≤ 3π

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✷✳✼ ❙❡❛ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ F (x, y, z) = ex cos(y)✐ − ex sen(y)❥ + 2❦❀ (x, y, z) ∈ R3 ✳

❛✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ F ❡s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈♦✳

❜✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦ q✉❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ F ❛❧ ♠♦✈❡r ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡❧ s❡❣♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡
 π 
r❡❝t❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ 0, , 1 ❤❛st❛ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (1, π, 3)✳
2

❝✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦ q✉❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ F ❛❧ ♠♦✈❡r ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣♦r C : r(t) = (t, t2 , t3 );
0 ≤ t ≤ 1✳

❞✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦ q✉❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ F ❛❧ ♠♦✈❡r ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡❧ tr✐á♥✲
❣✉❧♦ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s ② ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ x + 2y + 3z = 6✳

✺✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛r

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✺✳✸✳✶ ❙❡❛ f ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ Rn ✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ s✉❛✈❡ ② s✐♠♣❧❡ C ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r r : [a, b] → Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛
❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ f ❡♥ ❧❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ C ✱ ❝♦♠♦✿

✼✵
 ✺✳✸✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❮◆❊❆ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘

ˆ ˆ b
f ds = (f ◦ r) k r′ (t) k dt✳
C a

❆❧❣✉♥❛s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐♦♥❡s r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ s♦♥✿

✶✳ P♦r ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ f ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ C ② ♣♦r ❧❛ s✉❛✈✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ C ✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

❡①✐st❡✳

✷✳ ❯♥❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡s ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡❧ ❛r❝♦ C ❝♦♥ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞
❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r f ✳

✸✳ ❊♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ♥♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛ ❧❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❣✐❞❛ ♣❛r❛ C ✳

ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✸✳✶ ❙❡❛ f (x, y) = x✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ f ds ❞♦♥❞❡ C ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r
C
❡❧ ❛r❝♦ ♣❛r❛❜ó❧✐❝♦ y = x2 ✱ ❞❡s❞❡ (0, 0) ❤❛st❛ (1, 1)✳ ❱❡r✐✜q✉❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦
✐♥✢✉②❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳✸✳✷ ❙❡❛ C ❡❧ ✜❧❛♠❡♥t♦ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r x = tcos(t); y = tsen(t); z = t;

0 ≤ t ≤ π ✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ✜❧❛♠❡♥t♦ s✐ s✉ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛ ❡s
❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY ✳

❖tr❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ❡♥ R2 ❡s ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛

s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠✉r❛❧❧❛ ❝✉②❛ ❜❛s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ˆ ❝✉r✈❛ C ② ❧❛ ❛❧t✉r❛ ❡♥
❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝✉r✈❛ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r h = f (x, y)✳ ❆sí✱ f (x, y) ds r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❡❧
C
ár❡❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✉r❛❧❧❛✳

◆♦t❛r q✉❡ s✐ h ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ h ♣♦r ❧❛

❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ C ✳

✼✶
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✻

■♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥ ▼ú❧t✐♣❧❡

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❡①t❡♥❞❡r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❈♦♠❡♥③❛r❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡st❛ s✉♠❛ ♣❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
❞♦s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ② ❧✉❡❣♦ s❡ ❛❞❛♣t❛rá♥ ❡st❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ tr❡s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✻✳✵✳✶ ✭■♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ ❡♥ Rn ✮ ❙❡❛♥ [ak , bk ] ; 1 ≤ k ≤ n, n ✐♥t❡r✈❛✲

❧♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❡♥ R✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ [a1 , b1 ] × [a2 , b2 ] × · · · × [an , bn ] ❡s ✉♥
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ ❡♥ Rn ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✵✳✶ ▲♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❣rá✜❝❛♠❡♥✲

t❡✳

[1, 2] ❡s ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ ❡♥ R✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ r❡❝t❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛

r❡❝t❛ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✳

[0, 2] × [−1, 1] ❡s ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ ❡♥ R2 ✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ r❡❝tá♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥ ❡❧

♣❧❛♥♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛❞♦s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s ❛ ❧♦s ❡❥❡s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✳

[0, 2] × [1, 4] × [2, 3] ❡s ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ ❡♥ R3 ✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥❛ ❝❛❥❛ ❡♥ ❡❧

❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❝♦♥ ❝❛r❛s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ❛ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✻✳✵✳✷ ✭P❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❡♥ Rn ✮ ❙❡❛ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦

R ❡♥ Rn ✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ P ❞❡ R ❛ ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ {Ji } ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❝❡✲
rr❛❞♦s ❡♥ Rn t❛❧ q✉❡ R = Ji ❡ int(Jp ) ∩ int(Jq ) = φ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ p 6= q ✳
[

✼✸
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆❈■Ó◆ ▼Ú▲❚■P▲❊

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✵✳✷ ❊s❝r✐❜❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s✿

[0, 2] × [−1, 1]✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❡❝tá♥❣✉❧♦s✳

[0, 2] × [1, 4] × [2, 3]✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝❛❥❛s✳

❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ P ❝♦♠♦ k P k❂ max{V (Ji )}✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ V (Ji ) ❞❡♥♦t❛ ❧❛

i
❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✱ ❡❧ ár❡❛ ♦ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡ Ji s❡❣ú♥ ❧❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ Ji ✳

✻✳✶✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞♦❜❧❡s

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✻✳✶✳✶ ✭❙✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ② ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✮ ❙❡❛ f ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ② ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ❡♥ R = [a, b] × [c, d]✳ ❙❡❛ P = {Ji } ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❘✳ ❙❡❛♥
(xi , yi ) ∈ Ji ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦s❀ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❞❡ f r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ P
❝♦♠♦✿

n
f (xi , yi )A(Ji )❀ ❞♦♥❞❡ A(Ji ) ❞❡♥♦t❛ ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡❧ r❡❝tá♥❣✉❧♦ Ji ✳
X
Sf (P ) =
i=1

n
❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ f ❡s ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ R✱ s✐ lim f (xi , yi )A(Ji ) ❡①✐st❡✳ ❊♥
X
kP k→0
ˆ ˆ i=1

❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ ❞❡♥♦t❛♠♦s ❡st❡ ❧í♠✐t❡ ♣♦r f (x, y)dA✳

R

P❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ s❡❛ ❡q✉✐❡s♣❛❝✐❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❛♠❜❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✱ t♦✲
♠❛♥❞♦ m s✉❜✲✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❡♥ [a, b] ② n s✉❜✲✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❡♥ [c, d]✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ✉♥❛
s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❞❡ f ❝♦♠♦✿
m
n X
b−a d−c
✳
X
f (xi , yj )∆xi ∆yj ; ∆xi = ; ∆yj =
j=1 i=1
m n

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ s✐ f ❡s ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✱ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

n m
b − a d − c XX
ˆ ˆ
f (x, y)dA = lim f (xi , yj )
R n,m→+∞ m n j=1 i=1

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❞♦s t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s

❞♦❜❧❡s✱ q✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛r ❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ♠❛②♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥✳

✼✹
 ✻✳✶✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❉❖❇▲❊❙

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✻✳✶✳✶ ❙❡❛ R = [a, b] × [c, d]✳ ❙✐ f : R → R ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s f ❡s

❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ R✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✻✳✶✳✷ ✭❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❋✉❜✐♥♥✐✮ ❙❡❛ˆ R = [a, b] × [c, d]✳ ❙✐ f : R → R ❡s

d
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ R ② ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ x 7→ f (x, y)dy ❡①✐st❡ ② ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥
c
ˆ b
[a, b]✱ ❛sí ❝♦♠♦ y 7→ f (x, y)dx ❡①✐st❡ ② ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ [c, d]✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
ˆ ˆ ˆ b aˆ d  ˆ d ˆ b 
f (x, y)dA = f (x, y)dy dx = f (x, y)dx dy ✳
R a c c a
ˆ ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✶✳✶ ❱❡r✐✜q✉❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❋✉❜✐♥♥✐ ♣❛r❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r x2 ydA❀ ❞♦♥❞❡
R
R = [−1, 2] × [0, 1]✳

❯♥❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♦♠étr✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞♦❜❧❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ f

♥♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ r❡❝tá♥❣✉❧♦ R✱ ❡s ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡❧ só❧✐❞♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛
s♦❜r❡ R ② ❞❡❜❛❥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡ f ✳

✻✳✶✳✶✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞♦❜❧❡s ❡♥ r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s

❯♥❛ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛ q✉❡ s✉r❣❡ ❞❡ ❧♦ ✈✐st♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡s q✉é r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❛♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❧♦s
r❡❝tá♥❣✉❧♦s✱ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛♥ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞♦❜❧❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✳
P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✻✳✶✳✷ ✭❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥✉❧❛✮ ❯♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❛❝♦t❛❞♦ A ⊂ Rn t✐❡✲

♥❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ s✐ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ ε > 0 ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s
{Ji } ❞❡ Rn ✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ A ⊂ Ji ② V (Ji ) < ε✳
[ X

i i

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s s♦♥ ❧❛s ❣rá✜❝❛s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ❡♥

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❞❡ Rn ✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✻✳✶✳✸ ✭❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❏♦r❞❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡✮ ❯♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ D ⊂ Rn ❡s ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡

❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❏♦r❞❛♥ ♦ s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❏♦r❞❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡✱ s✐ s✉ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛ F r(D) t✐❡♥❡
♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥✉❧❛✳

❊s ❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❏♦r❞❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡s✱ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❏♦r✲

❞❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡✳

✼✺
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆❈■Ó◆ ▼Ú▲❚■P▲❊

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❛♠♦s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ② t❡♦r❡♠❛ ♣❛r❛ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s

❡♥ r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✻✳✶✳✹ ✭❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✮ ❙❡❛ f : D ⊂ Rn → R ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❛❝♦t❛✲

❞❛✳ ❙❡❛ R ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦
 ❞❡ Rn t❛❧ q✉❡ D ⊂ R✳
f ; (→
−
x)∈D

❙❡❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ fD (→
−
x)= ✳
0; (→
−
x)∈ /D


❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡
ˆ ˆf ❡s ˆ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ˆ❡♥ ˆD s✐ ˆ② só❧♦ s✐ fD ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ R✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱
❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ... f dv := ... fD dv ✳
D R

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✻✳✶✳✸ ❙❡❛ D ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t♦ ② ❏♦r❞❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡ ❞❡ Rn ✳

❙❡❛ f : D → R ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s f ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ D✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✿ ❙❡❛ R = Πnj=1 [aj , bj ] ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❞❡ Rn t❛❧ q✉❡ D ⊂ R✳


f ; (→
−
x)∈D

❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ fD (→
−
x)= ✳
0 ; (→
−
x)∈
/D


▼♦str❛r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ ε > 0✱ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ P r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧
S(fD ) − I(fD ) < ε✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ S(fD ) ❡ I(fD ) s♦♥ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ❡ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ fD ❡♥ R✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

P♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s F r(D) t✐❡♥❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥✉❧❛✳ ❉❛❞♦ ε > 0 ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✜♥✐t❛
ε
❞❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s {Ji } ❞❡ Rn ✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ F r(D) ⊂ Ji ② ❀ ❞♦♥❞❡
[ X
V (Ji ) <
i i
4M
M > 0 ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦t❛ ❞❡ fD ✳

❊st❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ Ji ✐♥❞✉❝❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ P ′ ❞❡ R ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✐❞❛❞ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧♦s

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s ❡♥ Dc ✱ fD ❡s ♥✉❧❛✳

❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ f ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t♦ D✱ ♣❛r❛ ε > 0 ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥ δ > 0 t❛❧ q✉❡
ε
s✐ |xj − x∗j | < δ ❀ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s |f (x1 , ..., xn ) − f (x∗1 , ..., yn∗ )| < ✱ ♣❛r❛
2V (R)
t♦❞♦ xj , x∗j ∈ [aj , bj ]✳ V (R) ❞❡♥♦t❛ ❡❧ ár❡❛ ♦ ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡ R✳

✼✻
 ✻✳✶✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❉❖❇▲❊❙

❚♦♠❡♠♦s ✉♥ r❡✜♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦ P ❞❡ P ′ ✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ kP k ≤ δ ✳

P❛r❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❞❡ fD t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡✿

fD (xi )V (Ji )❀ s✐❡♥❞♦ fD (xi ) ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠á①✐♠♦ ❞❡ fD ❡♥ ❡❧ Ji ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦
X
S(fD ) =
i
❞❡ P ✳

P❛r❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❞❡ fD t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡✿

fD (xi )V (Ji )❀ s✐❡♥❞♦ fD (xi ) ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠í♥✐♠♦ ❞❡ fD ❡♥ ❡❧ Ji ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦
X
I(fD ) =
i
❞❡ P ✳

❈♦♥ ❡st♦ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ S(fD ) − I(fD )❂ fD (xi ) − fD (xi ) V (Ji )✳

X

i

❉❡ ❛q✉í t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝❛s♦s ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ Ji ✿

P❛r❛ ❧♦s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s q✉❡ ❡stá♥ ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ D✱ fD (xi ) = fD (xi ) = 0✳ ❙♦❜r❡ ❡st♦s
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ S(fD ) − I(fD ) = 0✳

P❛r❛ ❧♦s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s q✉❡ s❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❛♥ ❝♦♥ F r(D)✱ |fD (x)| < M ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x q✉❡
♣❡rt❡♥❡③❝❛ ❛ ❛❧❣✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s✳ ❙♦❜r❡ ❡st♦s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s✱ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡
ε
V (Ji ) < ✳
X X
|S(fD ) − I(fD )| ≤ |fD (xi ) − fD (xi )|V (Ji ) < 2M
i i
2

P❛r❛ ❧♦s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s q✉❡ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ int(D)✱ ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ kP k ≤ δ ✱ s✐❣✉❡

ε
q✉❡ |S(fD ) − I(fD )| ≤ |fD (xi ) − fD (xi )|V (Ji ) < ✳
X

i
2
▲❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s tr❡s s✉♠❛s ❞✐s❥✉♥t❛s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✳

❈♦r♦❧❛r✐♦ ✻✳✶✳✶ ✭❘❡❣✐♦♥❡s ■♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ R2 ✮ ❙❡❛♥ h, g : [a, b] → R ❞♦s ❢✉♥✲

❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s✱ t❛❧❡s q✉❡ h ≤ g ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ∈ [a, b]✳ ▲❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ D ⊂ R2 ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛
♣♦r ❧❛s ❣rá✜❝❛s ❞❡ h ② g ✱ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s r❡❝t❛s x = a ② x = b ❡s ❏♦r❞❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡✳ ❊st❛s r❡✲
❣✐♦♥❡s s❡ ❧❛s ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ t✐♣♦ ■✳ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s t✐♣♦ ■■✱ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦
y ∈ [c, d]✱ s♦♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ R2 ✳

P♦r ❧♦ ❡①♣✉❡st♦✱ s✐ "f ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ #D✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s t✐♣♦ I ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r✿
ˆ ˆ ˆ b ˆ g(x) ˆ b ˆ g(x)
f (x, y)dA = f (x, y)dy dx = dx f (x, y)dy ❀
D a h(x) a h(x)

✼✼
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆❈■Ó◆ ▼Ú▲❚■P▲❊

② ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s t✐♣♦

"ˆ II ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r✿
#
ˆ ˆ ˆ d g(y) ˆ d ˆ g(y)
f (x, y)dA = f (x, y)dx dy = dy f (x, y)dx✳
D c h(y) c h(y)

❘❡❣✐ó♥ ❚✐♣♦ ■ ❘❡❣✐ó♥ ❚✐♣♦ ■■

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✻✳✶✳✹ ✭Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞♦❜❧❡s✮ ❙❡❛♥ f ② g ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦✲

♥❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ D ⊂ R2 ✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
✐✳ f +g ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ D ② (f + g)dA = f dA + gdA✳
D D D
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
✐✐✳ αf ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ D ② αf dA = α f dA❀ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ α ∈ R✳
D D
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
✐✐✐✳ ❙✐ f ≤g ❡♥ D✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s f dA ≤ gdA✳
D D
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
✐✈✳ |f | ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ D ② f dA ≤ |f |dA✳
D D

✈✳ ❙✐ D = D1 ∪ D2 ∪ ... ∪ DN t❛❧ q✉❡✱ int(Di ) ∩ int(Dj ) = φ❀ ♣❛r❛ i 6= j ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

ˆ ˆ XN ˆ ˆ
f dA = f dA✳
D i=1 Di

ˆ ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✶✳✷ ❙❡❛ f ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✳ ❈♦❧♦❝❛r ❧♦s ❧í♠✐t❡s ❞❡ f dA✱ s✐✿
D
√
❛✳ D = {(x, y) ∈ R2 / − 1 − x 2 ≤ y ≤ 1 − x 2 }✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥✿

dydx dxdy

❜✳ D = {(x, y) ∈ R2 /x + 2y ≤ 4; x, y ≥ 0} ❡♥ ❛♠❜♦s ór❞❡♥❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

✼✽
 ✻✳✷✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❚❘■P▲❊❙

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✶✳✸ ❙✐ f (x, y) = x2 + y ❀ (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ ❡✈❛❧ú❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞♦❜❧❡s ♣❧❛♥✲

t❡❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ít❡♠ b) ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ♣r❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r❡ ❛♠❜♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✶✳✹ ❈❛♠❜✐❛r ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡✿

ˆ 4 ˆ 12x
❛✳ f (x, y)dydx✳
0 3x2

ˆ a ˆ √2ay−y2
❜✳ f (x, y)dxdy ✳
a/2 0

✻✳✶✳✷✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s

 y = x2 + z 2

❛✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡❧ só❧✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♣r❡♥❞✐❞♦ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s
y = 1 − z 2


✉❜✐❝❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ■ ❖❝t❛♥t❡✳

❜✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ♠❡tá❧✐❝❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❝♦♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r
D = {(x, y) ∈ R2 /0 ≤ y ≤ x; 0 ≤ x ≤ 3}✱ s✐ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦
❡s ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❛❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✳

❝✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡❧ só❧✐❞♦ ❛❝♦t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s y = 4 − x2 ❀ y = 2x + 1❀

z = 1❀ z = 2 + x2 + y 2 ✳

✻✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s tr✐♣❧❡s

❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ② ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❛❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❡s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s q✉❡ s❡ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛r s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❡rr❛❞❛✱ ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ②
❏♦r❞❛♥✲▼❡❞✐❜❧❡ ❞❡ R3 ✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s Q ⊂ R3 ❝❡rr❛❞❛s ② ❛❝♦t❛✲
❞❛s✱ ❝✉②❛ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❣rá✜❝❛s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❞❡ ❞♦s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱
❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ D ⊂ R2 ❚✐♣♦ ■ ♦ ❚✐♣♦ ■■✳

❆sí ♠✐s♠♦✱ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f : Q → R q✉❡ s❡❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ Q✱ ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳

✼✾
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆❈■Ó◆ ▼Ú▲❚■P▲❊

▲♦s ❧í♠✐t❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥✱" ❡♥ ❝❛s♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛

# ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛r s❡❛ z ✱ s♦♥✿
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ g2 (x,y)
f (x, y, z)dv = f (x, y, z)dz dA
Q D g1 (x,y)

s✐❡♥❞♦ g1 ② g2 ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r ❡ s✉♣❡r✐♦r

❞❡ Q✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❆❧ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ z s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦tr❛s

❞♦s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ s❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛ s♦❜r❡ D t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ❡st✉❞✐ó ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♣r❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡✳
❊♥ ❧❛ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛✱ D ❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠ú♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❣rá✜❝❛s ❞❡ g1 ② g2 ✱ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱
s❡ ❧❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY ✳

❯♥❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ tr✐♣❧❡ ❡s ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ✭♦ ❝❛r❣❛✮ ❞❡ ✉♥ só❧✐❞♦ Q

❝♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ ✭♦ ❝❛r❣❛✮ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r f ✳

P❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ s❡❛ˆ ❤♦♠♦❣é♥❡❛

ˆ ˆ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✶ ♣♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞✱
s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡ Q ❡stá ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r✿ dv ✳
Q

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✷✳✶ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝❛❥❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❝♦♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ s✉

❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ✸ ② ✷ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s✱ ❛❧t✉r❛ ✺ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s✱ s✐ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡s ♣r♦♣♦r✲
❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❛ s✉ ❜❛s❡✳ ❱❡r✐✜q✉❡ ❡❧ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❋✉❜✐♥♥✐ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦
z ② x ❝♦♠♦ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛r✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✷✳✷ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡❧ só❧✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♣r❡♥❞✐❞♦ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s
y = x2 + z 2 ❀ y = 1 − z 2 ✱ ✉❜✐❝❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ■ ❖❝t❛♥t❡✳

ˆ ˆ ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✷✳✸ ❊s❝♦❣✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥ ♦r❞❡♥ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦✱ ❡✈❛❧ú❡ x2 dv ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ Q ❡s ❡❧
Q
x2 y 2 z 2
só❧✐❞♦ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❡❧✐♣s♦✐❞❡ 2 + 2 + 2 = 1✳
a b c

❙✉❣❡r❡♥❝✐❛✿ ❋✐❥❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ② r❡s✉❡❧✈❛ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡✲
❣r❛❧ ❞♦❜❧❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ r❡s✉❡❧✈❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ q✉❡ ✜❥ó ❛❧
✐♥✐❝✐♦✳

✽✵
 ✻✳✷✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❚❘■P▲❊❙

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✻✳✷✳✶ ✭Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s tr✐♣❧❡s✮ ❙❡❛♥ f ② g ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦✲

♥❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ Q ⊂ R3 ✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
✐✳ f +g ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ Q ② (f + g)dv = f dv + gdv ✳
Q Q Q
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
✐✐✳ αf ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ Q ② αf dv = α f dv ❀ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ α ∈ R✳
Q Q
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
✐✐✐✳ ❙✐ f ≤g ❡♥ Q✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s f dv ≤ gdv ✳
Q Q
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
✐✈✳ |f | ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ Q ② f dv ≤ |f |dv ✳
Q Q

✈✳ ❙✐ Q = Q1 ∪ Q2 ∪ ... ∪ QN t❛❧ q✉❡✱ int(Qi ) ∩ int(Qj ) = φ❀ ♣❛r❛ i 6= j ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

ˆ ˆ ˆ XN ˆ ˆ ˆ
f dv = f dv ✳
Q i=1 Qi

ˆ 1 ˆ 1−x ˆ 1−x−y
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✷✳✹ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ xyz dzdydx✳
0 0 0

❛✳ ❉✐❜✉❥❛r ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥✳

❜✳ ❈❛♠❜✐❛r ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❛ dxdzdy ✳

❝✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡♥ ❧♦s ór❞❡♥❡s ❞❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ② ❡♥ ❡❧ ít❡♠

b)✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

√
q
4x−y 2
ˆ 2 ˆ 2 x ˆ
2
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✷✳✺ ❙❡❛ f ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ R3 ② s❡❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ dx dy f (x, y, z) dz ✳
0 0 0

❛✳ ❉✐❜✉❥❛r ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥✳

❜✳ P❧❛♥t❡❛r ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ dydxdz ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✷✳✻
ˆ ˆ ˆ ❙❡❛ Q ❡❧ só❧✐❞♦ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r x + z = 1✱ y + z = 1❀ x, y, z ≥ 0✳
❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r (1 − y 2 )dv ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥✿
Q

❛✳ dydzdx✳

❜✳ dzdxdy ✳

✽✶
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆❈■Ó◆ ▼Ú▲❚■P▲❊

✻✳✸✳ ❱❛❧♦r ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✻✳✸✳✶ ✭❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ❱❛❧♦r ▼❡❞✐♦ ♣❛r❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ♠ú❧t✐♣❧❡s✮ ❙❡❛ D
✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t♦✱ ❏♦r❞❛♥✲♠❡❞✐❜❧❡ ② ❝♦♥❡①♦ ❞❡ Rnˆ
✳ ❙❡❛ f : D → R
ˆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✳

❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ x0 ∈ D t❛❧ q✉❡ f (x0 )V (D) = ... f dv ✳

D

❖❜s✳ ✶ V (D) s❡ ❡♥t✐❡♥❞❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✱ ár❡❛ ♦ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡ D s❡❣ú♥ s❡❛ ❧❛ ❞✐✲

♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳

❖❜s✳ ✷ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r f (x0 ) q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ s❡ ❧♦ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ✈❛❧♦r ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡

f ❡♥ D✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✸✳✶ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ❡♥ ❧❛

r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❝✉r✈❛s y = 2❀ y = |x| − 1✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✸✳✷ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y, z) = 1 − y 2 ❡♥ ❡❧

❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s ② ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s x + z = 1❀ y + z = 1✳

✻✳✹✳ ❈❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ♠ú❧t✐♣❧❡s

❆❧❣✉♥❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❛sí ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s✉❜✲✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ s♦♥ ♠ás ❢á✲

❝✐❧❡s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥❛r ❡♥ ♦tr♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦s ❝❛♠❜✐♦s ❞❡

✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❜❛ ❥♦ q✉é ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r ❡st♦s

❝❛♠❜✐♦s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s q✉❡ ♥♦s ❣❛r❛♥t✐❝❡ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s

❞❡ ❧❛s ♥✉❡✈❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❊❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ♥♦s ❞❛ ❡st❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✻✳✹✳✶ ❙❡❛♥ D ② D∗ ❞♦s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ Rn t❛❧ q✉❡ T : D∗ → D

❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❜✐②❡❝t✐✈❛ ② ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1✳ ❙❡❛ T′ ❧❛ ❏❛❝♦❜✐❛♥❛ ❞❡ T✱ ✐♥✈❡rt✐❜❧❡ ❡♥

int(D∗ )✳ ❙✐ f ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ D✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
... f dx1 ...dxn = ... (f♦ T ) | det(T ′ ) | dx∗1 ...dx∗n
D D∗

✽✷
 ✻✳✹✳ ❈❆▼❇■❖ ❉❊ ❱❆❘■❆❇▲❊ ❊◆ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ▼Ú▲❚■P▲❊❙

❖❜s ✶✳ ❆ det(T ′ ) s❡ ❧♦ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❡❧ ❏❛❝♦❜✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ② s✉❡❧❡ ❞❡♥♦✲

∂(x1 , ..., xn )
t❛rs❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✳
∂(x∗1 , ..., x∗n )

❖❜s ✷✳ ❇❛❥♦ ❧❛s ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ♣r❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ q✉❡ s❡❛ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ❧❛

1
tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ T −1 : D → D∗ , det(T ′ ) = ✳
det(T −1 )′

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✹✳✶ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧♦s ❏❛❝♦❜✐❛♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳

P❛r❛ ♣❛s❛r ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s ❛ ♣♦❧❛r❡s✳

P❛r❛ ♣❛s❛r ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s ❛ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s✳

P❛r❛ ♣❛s❛r ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s ❛ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✹✳✷ ❊♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡❧

n o
só❧✐❞♦ Q = (x, y, z) ∈ R3 /0 ≤ z ≤ x2 + y 2 ; x2 + y 2 ≤ 1 ✳
p

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✹✳✸ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛sq✉❡t❡

❡s❢ér✐❝♦ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ a ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s✱ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❧t✉r❛ ❞❡❧ ❝❛sq✉❡t❡ H ❀ 0 ≤ H ≤ a✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✹✳✹ ❊♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥

❞❡❧ só❧✐❞♦ Q ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ❞❡ ❧❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4❀
x2 + y 2 − z 2 = 0✳ ❯t✐❧✐❝❡ ❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❞♦s ❝❛♠❜✐♦s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✹✳✺ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡ ✉♥❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❝♦♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛rt♦ ❞❡ ❝♦r♦♥❛ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛r✱ ❧✐✲
♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦s a < b✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❙✐ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛
♣✉♥t♦ ❡s ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛❧ ❧♦❣❛r✐t♠♦ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛
❛❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦r♦♥❛✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✹✳✻ ❊♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞♦❜❧❡s ② ✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦✱

♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡❧✐♣s❡ ❡s π ✈❡❝❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s
s❡♠✐❡❥❡s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✹✳✼ ❙❡❛ R ❡❧ ❝✉❛❞r✐❧át❡r♦ ❞❡ ✈ért✐❝❡s (0,ˆ1)ˆ❀ (1, 2)❀ (2, 1)❀ (1, 0)✳
❊♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦✱ ❡✈❛❧ú❡ (x + y)2 sen2 (x − y)dA✳
R

✽✸
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆❈■Ó◆ ▼Ú▲❚■P▲❊

ˆ ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳✹✳✽ ❙❡❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ f (x, y)dA✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ R ❡s ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r
R
❧❛s ❝✉r✈❛s xy = 1✱ xy = 2✱ y = x✱ y = 2x✱ ✉❜✐❝❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ■ ❈✉❛❞r❛♥t❡✳ ❊①♣r❡s❡ ❧❛

✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳

✽✹
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✼

■♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✼✳✵✳✶ ✭❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s P❛r❛♠étr✐❝❛s✮ ❯♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ S ⊂ R3 s❡ ❞✐❝❡ ♣❛✲

r❛♠étr✐❝❛ s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ r : Ω ⊂ R2 → R3 t❛❧ q✉❡ Ω ❡s ❝♦♥❡①♦ ② S
❡s ❧❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♥ ❞❡ r✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✼✳✵✳✷ ✭❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ s✉❛✈❡ ② s✐♠♣❧❡✮ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ S ❡s

s✉❛✈❡ s✐ ❛❞♠✐t❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐ó♥ r ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥ Ω ② ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ru × rv 6= 0 ❡♥
int(Ω)✳ ❙✐ ❛❞❡♠ás r ❡s ✐♥②❡❝t✐✈❛ ❡♥ int(Ω)✱ ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ S ❡s s✐♠♣❧❡✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱
❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ru × rv (u0 , v0 ) ❡s ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛ S ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ (u0 , v0 )✳

❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s✱  ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡

 s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞❛
∂f ∂f
♣♦r z = f (x, y)✱ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡stá ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r − , − , 1 ✳
∂x ∂y

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳✵✳✶ ▲❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s P❛r❛♠étr✐❝❛s s♦♥ ❈❧ás✐❝❛s✿

❊❧ ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦ (x − h)2 + (z − k)2 = a2 ❛❞♠✐t❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐ó♥ s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞❛

♣♦r r(u, v) = (acos(u) + h, v, asen(u) + k); 0 ≤ u ≤ 2π; v ∈ R✳

▲❛ ❡s❢❡r❛ (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 + (z − l)2 = a2 ❛❞♠✐t❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐ó♥ s✉❛✈❡

❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r r(u, v) = (asen(u)cos(v) + h, asen(u)sen(v) + k, acos(u) + l)❀
0 ≤ u ≤ π; 0 ≤ v ≤ 2π ✳

❊❧ ❝♦♥♦ (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 − (z − l)2 = 0 ❛❞♠✐t❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❛❞❛

♣♦r r(u, v) = (ucos(v) + h, usen(v) + k, u + l); u ∈ R; 0 ≤ v ≤ 2π ✱ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❡s
s✉❛✈❡ ♣❛r❛ u 6= 0✳

✽✺
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ❙❯P❊❘❋■❈■❊

❊❧ t♦r♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❝✐ó♥ s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

r(u, v) = (cos(v)(R + acos(u)), sen(v)(R + acos(u)), asen(u)); u, v ∈ [0, 2π] ;
0 < a < R✳

❋✐❣✉r❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ t♦r♦ ❝♦♥ r❛❞✐♦s R=2 ② a=1 ❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ❲✐♥♣❧♦t✳

✼✳✶✳ ❆r❡❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✼✳✶✳✶ ❙❡❛ S ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r z = f (x, y)✱ ❝♦♥ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡
♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❏♦r❞❛♥✲♠❡❞✐❜❧❡ R ⊂ XY ✳ ❊❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ S ❞❡♥♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r As ✱ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿

s2  2

∂f ∂f
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
As = dS = 1+ + dA
S R ∂x ∂y
ˆ ˆ
❙✐ S ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣❛r❛♠étr✐❝❛✱ As = k ru × rv k dA✳
Ω

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳✶✳✶ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ a✳ ❯t✐❧✐❝❡ ❛♠❜❛s
❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳✶✳✷ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ z = 4 − x2 − y2 q✉❡ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛

❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡❧ ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦ x2 + y 2 = 1

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳✶✳✸ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❧ t♦r♦

r(u, v) = (cos(v)(R + acos(u)), sen(v)(R + acos(u)), asen(u)); u, v ∈ [0, 2π]✳

✽✻
 ✼✳✷✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲ ❉❊ ❙❯P❊❘❋■❈■❊ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘

✼✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❊s❝❛❧❛r

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✼✳✷✳✶ ❙❡❛ S ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r z = f (x, y)✱ ❝♦♥ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡
♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❏♦r❞❛♥✲♠❡❞✐❜❧❡ R ⊂ XY ✳ ❙❡❛ g ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ S ✳ ❙❡
❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ g ❡♥ S ❝♦♠♦✿
s  2  2
∂f ∂f
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
g(x, y, z)ds = g(x, y, f (x, y)) 1+ + dA
S R ∂x ∂y
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
❙✐ S ❡stá ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❞❛✱ g(x, y, z)ds = (g♦ r)(u, v) k ru × rv k dA✳
S Ω
ˆ ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳✷✳✶ ❊✈❛❧✉❛r (x + z)dS s✐ S ❡s ❧❛ ♣♦r❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦ y 2 + z 2 = 9
S
✉❜✐❝❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ I ❖❝t❛♥t❡✱ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s x = 0 ② x = 1✳❯t✐❧✐❝❡ ❛♠❜❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ②
❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳✷✳✷ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ tr✐á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s ② ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ 2x + y + 2z = 6✱ s✐ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r
ρ(x, y, z) = y 2 + 2xz ✳

✼✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❱❡❝t♦r✐❛❧

❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♠♣❧❡❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛✳ ▲❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✐♥✲
t✉✐t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❡s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡s❝♦❣❡r ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r
♥♦r♠❛❧ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❛ ♦ ✈❛rí❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ t❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛ q✉❡ ❡❧
s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ s❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❡ ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♣✉♥t♦✳

❚♦❞❛s ❧❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❡st✉❞✐❛❞❛s ❤❛st❛ ❛❤♦r❛ s♦♥ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛s ♣❡r♦ ❡①✐st❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s
s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s q✉❡ ♥♦ ❧♦ s♦♥✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❧❛ ❜❛♥❞❛ ❞❡ ▼♦❡❜✐✉s q✉❡ s❡ ✐❧✉str❛ ❡♥
❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ✜❣✉r❛✿

✽✼
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ❙❯P❊❘❋■❈■❊

❊♥ ❧❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛r ❞♦s ❝❛r❛s ♦ ❧❛❞♦s ♠✐❡♥t❛s q✉❡
❡♥ ❧❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ♥♦ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛s só❧♦ s❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛ ✉♥ s♦❧♦ ❧❛❞♦✳

❙✐ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✼✳✸✳✶ ❙❡❛ S ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ s✉❛✈❡ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r z = f (x, y)✱ ❝♦♥ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡
♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❏♦r❞❛♥✲♠❡❞✐❜❧❡ R ⊂ XY ✳ ❙❡❛ F ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❡♥ S ✳ ❙✐ S
❡stá ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ N ✱ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ ❞❡ F ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ S
❝♦♠♦✿
 
∂f ∂f
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
F · N dS = F (x, y, f (x, y)) · − , − , 1 dA
S R ∂x ∂y
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
❙✐ S ❡stá ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❛❞❛✱ F · N dS = (F♦ r) · (ru × rv )dA
S Ω

❘❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r ❧♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✿

 
∂f ∂f
❖❜s ✶✳ ❊❧ ✈❡❝t♦r − ,− ,1 ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r r❡❡♠♣❧❛③❛❞♦ ♣♦r s✉ ✐♥✈❡rs♦ ❛❞✐t✐✈♦
∂x ∂y
❡♥ ❝❛s♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ r❡q✉❡r✐❞♦ s❡❛ ❤❛❝✐❛ ❛❜❛❥♦✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❤❛
s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ ❡stá ❛♣✉♥t❛❞♦ ❤❛❝✐❛ ❛rr✐❜❛✳

❖❜s ✷✳ ❆❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♦tr❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛✲
❝❡rs❡ s♦❜r❡ ♦tr♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦ ❞✐st✐♥t♦ ❛ XY ✳ ❉❡ s❡r ❛sí✱ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡
♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r x ó y ✱ ❛sí ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝❛♠❜✐❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ 1✳

❖❜s ✸✳ ❊❧ ✢✉❥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦✱ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦
♦ ❝❡r♦✱ ❛❞❡♠ás ❡s ❛❞✐t✐✈♦ ② ❝❛♠❜✐❛ s✉ s✐❣♥♦ ❛❧ ❝❛♠❜✐❛r ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧✳

❖❜s ✹✳ ❙✐ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s s✉❛✈❡ ♣♦r s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s✱ s❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛ ❧❛ ❛❞✐t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ✢✉❥♦

♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ t♦t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✢✉❥♦s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳✸✳✶ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ F (x, y, z) = x✐ + y❥ + z ❦✱ ❛

tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛ x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 ❀ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦ ❤❛❝✐❛ ❛❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡✳ ❯t✐❧✐❝❡ ❛♠❜❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦s✳

✽✽
 ✼✳✸✳ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲ ❉❊ ❙❯P❊❘❋■❈■❊ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳✸✳✷ ❉❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ R3

G(x, y, z) = (x2 + 5y)✐ + (2x + 3y + z)❥ + (y 2 + z 2 − x2 )❦✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦
❤❛❝✐❛ ❛rr✐❜❛ ❞❡ ∇ × G✱ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡✿

❛✳ ▲❛ ♣♦r❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦ y 2 + z 2 = 9 ✉❜✐❝❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ I ❖❝t❛♥t❡✱ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s x = 0

② x = 1✳

❜✳ ❊❧ ❝❛sq✉❡t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4z + 2 = 0✱ ✉❜✐❝❛❞♦ ❞❡❜❛❥♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❝❡♥tr♦

② ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥♦ z 2 = x2 + y 2 ✳
ˆ ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳✸✳✸ ❊✈❛❧✉❧❛r F · N dS ✱ s✐ F (x, y, z) = (x2 + 1)✐ − 2yz ❥ + (3 − z)❦
S
② S ❡s ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❧ ❝✉❜♦ Q = [0, 2] × [0, 2] × [0, 2] ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦
♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦ ❤❛❝✐❛ ❛❢✉❡r❛✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ s✉❛✈❡ ❛ tr♦③♦s ♦ ♣♦r s❡❝❝✐♦✲

♥❡s✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ q✉❡ s✐ ❜✐❡♥ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❧ ❝✉❜♦ ♥♦ ❡s s✉❛✈❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❛r✐st❛s✱ s❡ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛
❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ s✉❛✈❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝❛r❛s✳

◆♦t❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡st♦ ❝♦♥❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛r❛ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥
② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ s❡ ❞❡❜❡♥ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r s❡✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✢✉❥♦✳ P♦r ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛✱
❞❡❜❡♠♦s ♣❧❛♥t❡❛r ❝❛❞❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ✢✉❥♦ r❡s♣❡t❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡q✉❡r✐❞❛✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱
❝❛❞❛ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡❜❡ ❛♣✉♥t❛r ❤❛❝✐❛ ❡❧ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ❞❡❧ ❝✉❜♦✳

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ t♦t❛❧ ❡s ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s❡✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✢✉❥♦✳

✽✾
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✽

❚❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❚❡♦rí❛ ❱❡❝t♦r✐❛❧

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ❚❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ●r❡❡♥✱ ❞❡ ❙t♦❦❡s ② ❞❡ ●❛✉ss✳ ❚♦✲

❞♦s ❡❧❧♦s✱ ❜❛❥♦ ❝✐❡rt❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ♣❡r♠✐t❡♥ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ♦ ❞❡
s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✳ ❊♥ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❝❛s♦s ❡st♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛
❞❡ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❡st❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r♠❡♥t❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛❞❛s✳

✽✳✶✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●r❡❡♥

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✽✳✶✳✶ ✭❘❡❣✐ó♥ ♣❧❛♥❛ s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥❡①❛✮ ❙❡❛ R ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ♣❧❛✲

♥❛✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ R ❡s s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥❡①❛ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❡s ❝♦♥❡①❛ ♣♦r ❝❛♠✐♥♦s ② t♦❞❛

❝✉r✈❛ ❝❡rr❛❞❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ R ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥tr❛❡rs❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦

❞❡ R✳

■♥t✉✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡st♦ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ❝♦♥❡①❛ ♣♦r ❝❛♠✐♥♦s ② ♥♦
♣♦s❡❡r ❛❣✉❥❡r♦s✳ ▲❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ✜❣✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛ ❡s s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥❡①❛ ♣❡r♦ ❧❛
❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛ ♥♦ ❧♦ ❡s✳

✾✶
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✽✳ ❚❊❖❘❊▼❆❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✽✳✶✳✶ ❙❡❛ C ✉♥❛ ❝✉r✈❛ ❝❡rr❛❞❛✱ s✐♠♣❧❡ ② s✉❛✈❡ ❛ tr♦③♦s✱ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥

s❡♥t✐❞♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦✱ q✉❡ ❧✐♠✐t❛ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ♣❧❛♥❛ R s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥❡①❛✳ ❙✐ M ② N s♦♥

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C1 ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛ R✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

¨  
∂N ∂M
˛
M dx + N dy = − dA
C R ∂x ∂y
ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✶✳✶ ❊♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●r❡❡♥✱ ❡✈❛❧ú❡ y 3 dx + (x3 + 3xy 2 )dy
C
❞♦♥❞❡ C ✈❛ ❞❡ (0, 0) ❛ (1, 1) ♣♦r ✉♥ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ r❡❝t♦ ② ❞❡s❞❡ ❡st❡ ♣✉♥t♦ r❡❣r❡s❛ ❛❧

♦r✐❣❡♥ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ y = x3 ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✶✳✷ ❊❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ F (x, y) = y ✐ + (3x − 2y 2 )❥ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ s❡♠✐❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ❞❡ (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1 ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛

♣♦s✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ② ❧✉❡❣♦ ✈❛ ❞❡s❞❡ (0, 0) ❤❛st❛ (2, 0) ♣♦r ✉♥ tr❛♠♦ r❡❝t♦✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧

tr❛❜❛❥♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ♣♦r F✳

−y x
ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✶✳✸ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ F · dr s✐ F (x, y) = ✐+ ❥❀ (x, y) 6= (0, 0) ②
C x2 +y 2 x + y2
2

C ❡s ❧❛ ❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ✉♥✐t❛r✐❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

✽✳✶✳✶✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●r❡❡♥ ❡♥ ❘❡❣✐♦♥❡s ▼ú❧t✐♣❧❡s ❈♦♥❡①❛s

x2 y2
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✶✳✹ ❙❡❛ R ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ✐♥t❡r♥❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❡❧✐♣s❡ + = 1 ② ❡①t❡r♥❛ ❛ ❧❛
ˆ 9 4
❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ x2 + y 2 = 1✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r 2xydx + (x2 + 2x)dy ✱ s✐ C ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡
C
R ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

✽✳✶✳✷✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

r❡❣✐ó♥ ♣❧❛♥❛

❙✐ R ❡s ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛s ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❞❡❧ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●r❡❡♥ ② C
❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡ R✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ R ❞❡♥♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r AR ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿

1
˛
AR = xdy − ydx
2 C

x2 y 2
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✶✳✺ ❍❛❧❧❛r ❡❧ ár❡❛ ✐♥t❡r♥❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❡❧✐♣s❡ + 2 = 1✳
a2 b

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✶✳✻ ❍❛❧❧❛r ❡❧ ár❡❛ ✐♥t❡r♥❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛str♦✐❞❡✿ x2/3 + y 2/3 = a2/3 ✳

✾✷
 ✽✳✷✳ ❚❊❘❖❘❊▼❆ ❉❊ ❙❚❖❑❊❙

✽✳✷✳ ❚❡r♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙t♦❦❡s

❙❡❛ S ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ N ✱ ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛
❝✉r✈❛ ❝❡rr❛❞❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ C s✉❛✈❡ ❛ tr♦③♦s✳ ❙✐ F ❡s ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥
✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛ S ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✿
˛ ¨
F · dr = (rotF ) · N ds❀
C S

❞♦♥❞❡ N t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r C ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛♥♦ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✷✳✶ ❙❡❛ C ❡❧ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡❧ tr✐á♥❣✉❧♦ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦

♣♦r ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ 2x+2y +z = 10 ② ❧♦s ♣❧❛♥♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦s✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦ q✉❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛
❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ F (x, y, z) = −y 2 ✐ + z ❥ + x❦✱ ❛❧ ♠♦✈❡r ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ C ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✷✳✷ ❙❡❛ C ❧❛ tr❛③❛ ❞❡❧ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧♦✐❞❡ z = 4 − x2 − y 2 ˆ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ z = 1✱

♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❙❡❛ F (x, y, z) = 2z ✐ + x❥ + y 2 ❦✳ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ F · dr ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦
C
tr❡s ❢♦r♠❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s✳
ˆ
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✷✳✸ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ −y 3 dx + x3 dy − z 3 dz ❞♦♥❞❡ C ❡s ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s
C
s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s x2 + y 2 = 1❀ x + y + z = 4✳

✽✳✸✳ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●❛✉ss

❙❡❛ Q ✉♥ só❧✐❞♦ ❛❝♦t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❝❡rr❛❞❛ S s✉❛✈❡ ♣♦r s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s✱ t❛❧
q✉❡ S ❡stá ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s N ✱ ❞✐r✐❣✐❞♦s ❤❛❝✐❛ ❡❧ ❡①t❡r✐♦r
❞❡ Q✳ ❙✐ F ❡s ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡ C 1 ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡
❛ Q✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✿
" ˚
F · N dS = (divF )dv
S Q

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✸✳✶ ❙❡❛ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ F (x, y, z) = (x2 + 1)✐ − 2yz ❥ + (3 − z)❦✳
❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ ❞❡ F ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❧ ❝✉❜♦ Q = [0, 2] × [0, 2] × [0, 2]✱
♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦r♠❛❧ ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦ ❤❛❝✐❛ ❛❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ Q✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✸✳✷
ˆ ˆ ❙❡❛ F (x, y, z) = (x − y)✐ + 2y ❥ + 3z 2 ❦; (x, y, z) ∈ R3 ✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛r
F · N dS s✐ S ❡s ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❧ ❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦ x2 + y 2 = 4✱ ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r x + z = 6 ②
S
z = 0✳

✾✸
❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✽✳ ❚❊❖❘❊▼❆❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✸✳✸ ❉❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧

G(x, y, z) = (x2 + 5y)✐ + (2x + 3y + z)❥ + (y 2 + z 2 − x2 )❦✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦
❤❛❝✐❛ ❛rr✐❜❛ ❞❡ rotG ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦r❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4z + 2 = 0
✉❜✐❝❛❞❛ ❞❡❜❛❥♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❝❡♥tr♦ ② ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥♦ z 2 = x2 + y 2 ✭❝❛sq✉❡t❡ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦✮✳

qw
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳✸✳✹ ❉❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ E(x, y, z) = ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ w = x✐ + y ❥ + z ❦✱
|w|3
❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ q ✉❜✐❝❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧
✢✉❥♦ s❛❧✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ E ✱ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡✿

❛✳ ▲❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛ x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 ✳

❜✳ ▲❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❧ só❧✐❞♦ ❛❝♦t❛❞♦ ♣♦r x2 +y 2 +z 2 = a2 ❀ x2 +y 2 +z 2 = b2 ❀ 0 < a < b✳

✾✹
❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❞❡ ❙í♠❜♦❧♦s

R ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ◆ú♠❡r♦s ❘❡❛❧❡s

N ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ◆ú♠❡r♦s ◆❛t✉r❛❧❡s

ω ❈❛r❞✐♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ N

kvk ◆♦r♠❛ ❡✉❝❧✐❞✐❛♥❛ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r v

kvk∞ ◆♦r♠❛ ❞❡❧ ♠á①✐♠♦ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r v

kvk1 ◆♦r♠❛ ❞❡❧ t❛①✐st❛ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r v

✾✺
❇✐❜❧✐♦❣r❛❢í❛
❬✶❪ P✐t❛✱ ❈✳ ❈á❧❝✉❧♦ ❱❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✳ ▼é①✐❝♦✳ ❊❞✐t♦r✐❛❧ Pr❡♥t✐❝❡✲❍❛❧❧✳ ✶✾✾✺✳ ✶✵✼✼♣✳

❬✷❪ ❙t❡✇❛rt✱ ❏✳ ❈á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❱❛r✐❛s ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ▼é①✐❝♦✳ ❈❊◆●❆●❊ ▲❡❛r♥✐♥❣✱ ✻t❛ ❡❞✐✲
❝✐ó♥✳ ✷✵✶✶✳ ✶✶✸✽♣✳

❬✸❪ ❉❡♥♥✐s ●✳ ❩✐❧❧❀ ❲❛rr❡♥ ❙✳ ❲r✐❣❤t✳ ❈á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❱❛r✐❛s ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ▼❝●r❛✇❍✐❧❧✳

❬✹❪ ❲✳ ❘✉❞✐♥✳ Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❞❡ ❆♥á❧✐s✐s ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝♦✳ ▼❝●r❛✇ ❍✐❧❧✳ ▼é①✐❝♦✳ ✶✾✼✼✳ ✷✼✽
♣✳

❬✺❪ ▼✳ ❙♣✐✈❛❦✳ ❈á❧❝✉❧♦ ■♥✜♥✐t❡s✐♠❛❧✳ ❘❡✈❡rté ❙✳❆✳ ❊s♣❛ñ❛✳ ✷✵✶✵✳ ✾✷✻ ♣✳

❬✻❪ ❆♣✉♥t❡s ❞❡ ▼❛❣íst❡r ❞❡ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛✳ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❈♦♥❝❡♣❝✐ó♥✳ ❈❤✐❧❡✳ ✷✵✶✸✳

❬✼❪ ❆♣✉♥t❡s ❞❡ ❈á❧❝✉❧♦ ■■■✳ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❈♦♥❝❡♣❝✐ó♥✳ ❈❤✐❧❡✳ ✷✵✶✹✳

✾✼