Chapters

Structural Behavior of Fiber Reinforced Stabilized Mud Block Masonry
Chapter 1-1
Introduction
1.1 Overview
Cement has been the basic building material and prime aspect in construction field. In order
to get required strength it has been used as stabilizing agent in certain proportions. This
property of cement has lead to the continuous production of cement at larger rate and this
has lead to expelling of co2 gas in larger proportions. This drawback has lead few attempts
to vary cement with similar material which can provide the strength and other properties
that cement provides and that would be economical, eco friendly.
Technology advancement has resulted slow growth in the field of mud block masonry in
which the amount of cement is reduced and natural fibers has been included in smaller
proportions with cement and varying the soil content to assess the effect of dry strength and
durability of these blocks[1]. The properties of natural fibres that effect properties of block
are given in Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1 Parameters of natural fibres affecting block properties
Stabilized mud blocks are used as a building material from ancient period. Today, earthen
Structural Engineering 2021-2022 Page 1
architecture is correlated with low-cost housing and commonly seen in developed countries.
Continuous energy and cost fluctuations for some construction materials (cement and ceramic
bricks) and environmental concerns facilitate the use of renewable materials such as earthen
materials[2].
Mud blocks are the mixture of wetted soil, stabilizer and sand compacted together in a
compressing machine. There are two major types in fibres namely natural fibres and synthetic
fibres. In natural fiber two sources exist they are Flora-based, such as leaves, nuts, straw wood
and canes, other is animal-based, like sheep wool and chicken feathers.
Generally cement and soil mortar is used for manufacturing of these blocks. In present work,
we are attempting to study the effect on addition of various natural fiber in specific proportions.
These fibers act as reinforcement material, in the same way as fibers in reinforced fiber
concrete, and prevents cracking upon drying by spreading the stress resulting from soil
shrinkages across the majority of the material with regard to dry compressive strength.
1.2 Literature review

The literature review is conducted on fibre reinforced mud block on it’s relative properties such
as physical, chemical, and mechanical properties and different types of fibres used.
1.2.1 Review on Natural fibres
Fibers that are formed by plants, animals, and geological processes are natural fibres. They can
be used as a part of composite materials where the properties are affected by the alignment of
fibres. Natural fibres may be matted into sheets and used to create paper or felt. For a long time,
fibres have been used in building materials. Natural and synthetic fibres have shown positive
outcomes in recent studies and investigations, as their existence has shown major advantages
in terms of the composite material's overall physical and mechanical properties. The use of
waste fibres in building materials will mitigate these challenges and facilitate environmentally

responsible and innovative solutions that operate in the field[3]. Few research explores the
forms, features and applications of various fibres used in a wide variety of building industry
materials. Fibres have a number of properties and can be used in a variety of shapes and sizes.
If the fibre is used then its form must be carefully considered and picked, since certain fibres,
such as glass, basalt, and recycled polyethylene terephthalate fibres, can degrade in alkaline
environments, the results revealed that the uniformity of density, distribution of fibres, and
manner of preparation all had a major impact on the strength and homogeneity of the reinforced
soil [4][5]. Natural fibres have a range of disadvantages and risks, including low durability and
deterioration over time. Studies have been undertaken to attempt to increase the durability of
the fibres, that includes of chemical preparation and chemical coating[6][7].
1.2.2 Review on Fibre reinforced mud blocks
The majority of buildings in rural areas are constructed of limestone, standard low-quality
concrete brick and adobe. But these, Materials do not have compressive strengths that are
strong enough. An earthquake-resistant material with a high degree of compressive strength
was sought after[8]. There are three basic techniques: earth block (adobe) masonry, rammed
earth and clom. An comprehensive compression and diagonal compression (shear) test
campaign was carried out in order to obtain better knowledge of structural behavior under static
loads. In the case of the earth, first compression findings showed brittle mechanical behavior
Masonry of the block (adobe), rammed earth and clom[9]. In order to obtain better knowledge
of structural behavior under static loads, a detailed compression and diagonal compression
(shear) test was conducted. In the case of the earth, brittle mechanical behavior was seen in the
first compression results[10]. The old approaches have been supplemented by new earth
building. Experiments with multiple stabilizers found that only certain quantities were

successful and it was concluded that by using certain amounts of cement and lime as stabilizers,
conventional earth construction can be strengthened[1]. Soil reinforcement is described as a
technique for improving the soil's engineering features. It is an old and ancient concept to use
natural fibers to stabilize the soil in this manner. Consequently, for the second time, randomly
dispersed fiber-reinforced soils in geotechnical engineering have recently drawn growing
interest[11]. The use of natural fiber in soil blocks impacts mechanical properties positively.
Fiber-reinforced soil blocks have enhanced wear resistance and erosion resistance. Those for
binder stable blocks do not obey associations between properties. The relevance of type of soil
vs. type of fiber depends on the property [12].180 samples for the regular proctor and UCS
examination have been prepared and tested. Samples was tested for 7D, 14D, 28D, 56D and
90D cycles according to Indian norms. Results show improved soil compressive strength using
both fibers suggested[13][14].The Peak load, post-crack strength, ductility are improved by
addition of these fibre[15]. Ever since prehistoric times, natural fibres have been used in
maximize the elimination of shrinkage, earthen construction Cracking, resistance to stress,
resilience and tensile ductility[16][17]. Production of these stabilized blocks doesn’t require
any skilled labors and manufacturing of these blocks can be carried out in three stages i.e soil
preparation, mixing and compression, curing. Stabilizer plays important role in manufacture of
these blocks and formation of bonds between mixtures of soil stabilizers. One of the key
functions of the stabilizing medium is to reduce the soil's swelling properties by creating a rigid
soil mass structure, increasing its strength and resilience[18][19], Not all soil types can be used
for production, it has specific requirements, top layer and organic soils aren’t suitable for
production. But it is possible to select from several different varieties of soil, with some
expertise and experience, to create mud-stabilized bricks. In manufacturing good-quality
goods, it is important to recognize the properties of the soil[20][21].

1.2.3 Review on source and properties of bagasse fibre
Sugarcane bagasse is type of natural fiber that is the residue after the sugars have been
extracted. As being agro-industrial residue, sugarcane bagasse (Saccharum officinarum) is one
more source of lignin raw material. It is the by-product of sugarcane industry consisting of 32–
34% of cellulose, 19–24% hemicellulose, 25–32% lignin, 6–12% extractives. The chemical
structure of bagasse sugarcane is identical to that of the other walls of plant cells[22]. The
colossal cellulose content makes sugar cane bagasse a perfect composite reinforcement
material, various scientists have reported various chemical compositions for bagasse.
Sugarcane bagasse fibre’s crystallinity is 47 % and cellulose present in it shall be crystalline
structure[23][24]. Approximately 54 million tons of dry bagasse are produced annually
worldwide. From a period of long time, bagasse was used as fuel in some particular factories.
Nowadays, it is also used as a natural resource in the manufacture of pulp, paper products,
construction materials and biofuel[25]
Chemical composition of sugarcane bagasse is similar to the other plant cell walls. Sugarcane
bagasse lignin has a higher proportion of H-type lignin, p-hydroxyphenyl, and hence a lower
methoxy content than softwood and hardwood lignins. Approximately 250–280 kg of bagasse
is generated from processing each ton of sugarcane which roughly yielded 54 million tons of
bagasse annually[26]. Currently, a large amount of bagasse is burnt as for energy recovery, and
only a limited quantity has been used to make pulps, board materials, and composites. It is
estimated that 200 million tons of lignin is produced annually from bagasse. The bagasse fibre
had a diameter of 0.3 mm to 3.1 mm range, length of 0.3 mm to 13.8 mm. Specific gravity of
bagasse fibre (Gf) was found to be 1.25-1.55 and its average tensile strength was 96.24-29.95
MPa. The obtained fibre was air dried at room temperature of 250C and had relative humidity

of 80%[27]. With expansive soil, when bagasse fiber is added it was observed to improve the
potential of compressive pressure and bearing With growing lime and bagasse fiber, swell
potential and compressibility decreased[27][28][29]. 20 percent cement substitution with
natural mineral admixture the hydration of cement was strengthened and 24.4 percent calcium
hydroxide was absorbed, creating a moderate natural reinforcing environment. The flexural
strength and strength of fiber-reinforced cement mortar has declined because of fiber
deterioration[30][31]. In cement matrix fibre overlapping creates a pathway for crack
development[32]. The properties of earth-based composites are greatly enhanced by bagasse
fibres and alkaline activators. Bagasse fibres improve flexural strength/density and decrease
the absorption of water. Micro fibres of pulp Polypropylene fibres convey composite
deflection-hardening behavior[33][34]. Few authors suggested combining bagasse fibers,
conglomerated by inorganic and organic binders such as ordinary Portland cement, plaster,
polymer resins (mainly polyurethane) and natural glues, to reinforce or produce plasterboards,
cement or polymer-based panels and bricks. For our analysis, these works on bagasse fibers
and their characterization were of notable importance[35][36]. Bagasse has been shown to have
a density of 1.28 g/cc and a density of 1.28 g/cc about 35% crystallinity index. The reported
tensile strength is in the 20-50 MPa range, with a 2.7 GPa tensile modulus. Like all other natural
cellulosic fibers, sugarcane bagasse has a natural hydrophilicity disadvantage, which tends to
draw moisture from the environment, resulting in swelling and loss of mechanical properties,
this deficiency of natural fibers to some extent can be minimized through modifying them by
subjecting them to different chemical treatments[37][38].
1.2.4 Review on different fibres used in fibre reinforced mud blocks
The addition of carpet waste fiber was found to increase the soil stiffness. Increasing the

carpet waste fiber content above the 0.2 percent did not have much impact on the maximum
strength, but significantly improved the residual strength[39] To evaluate the soil
stabilization efficiency of solid waste products reducing the issue of solid waste disposal in
an appropriate way. The modification of the index properties of soil combined with
industrial waste additives should be studied. To boost the process of soil stabilization in a
cost-effective manner. To monitor the risk of combining emissions with the
environment[40]. Physical-mechanical characteristics of compacted earth blocks formed
by a traditional silty clay clay from Portugal (as the mineral skeleton).Stabilized with a
natural cement activated by alkali, derived solely from waste[41]. The material behavior in
compression is analyzed, including time, stress, and shear strength gain. Parameters such
as tensile and shear fracture energy, which are often omitted from current experimental
work, are crucially assessed[42]. Investigation on tensile strength behavior of plastic-fiber-
reinforced soil. To study the possibility of utilization of waste plastics in soil masonry
blocks[41][18]. The effects on properties such as shrinkage, tensile and compressive
strength, duration of cracking, and failure. In contrast to unreinforced mud soil blocks, the
presence of fiber was examined[43]. Standard un stabilized adobe blocks and masonry
prisms have uniaxial compressive power and stress-strain behavior. The result shows that
the ratio of mortar strength to block strength determines the compressive strength, original
tangent module and Poisson's ratio of prism[44]. lime mortar (LM) as the cementious
matrix was investigated for the strengthening of lime masonry wallettes, which were
compared with the respective cement-based matrix. Diagonal, four-point bending, and
column uniaxial compression tests were performed to evaluate the shear, flexural, and axial
behavior[20][45]. Presentation of the development of a new lightweight block of masonry
using natural Geopolymer mortar based on pozzolana, hydrogen peroxide as a foaming

agent and jute fibers as reinforcement. Additive for the production of a modern lightweight
masonry block using natural geopolymer mortar based on pozzolana, hydrogen peroxide as
foaming agent, and jute fibers as reinforcing additive[46][15]. Stronger and more spatial,
they are stable relative to earlier styles of methods of earthen construction. Overall, the
addition of fibers increased efficiency in bending and ductility[47].
Various conditions impacting the estimation and calculation of the buffering potential were
investigated. On 18 samples, measurements of moisture buffering value (MBV) and steady
state properties (water vapor permeability and absorption) were performed to investigate
different conditions concerning the buffering capacity measurement and estimation[48]. It
reviews the physical-mechanical properties of sustainable building materials. Production
processes and the environmental effects of various materials are being researched. The
application offers strategies for the management of energy and natural resources[49].
Homogeneity of the microstructure within the specimens with pore size reduction.
Increased mechanical properties are primarily related to the non-propagation of fibre cracks
in the modified clay matrix due to its high tensile strength and adhesion to the clay matrix,
the effect of fibers on flexural strength was favorable[50]. The mechanical properties of 12
earth-blocked masonry wallets compression, compression of the diagonal and mixed shear-
compression tests[51]. Compared with conventional cement, geopolymers have a positive
environmental impact. The geopolymer microstructure depends on the source materials and
the parameters of the synthesis. Compared with conventional cement, geopolymers have a
positive environmental impact[52][53]. Analysis of water content, precise gravity analysis,
grain size analysis, overall dry density check, plastic cap and liquid limit analysis reveals
the sand clay is soil, In order to boost its sustainability, its low compressive strength must

be improved[41][54]. In the field of building, the stabilization of earth-based materials
continues to gain interest from researchers. The research concludes that soil-cement mortar
properties for building use are positively influenced by coconut fibres and lime[55][56].
Behavior as an earth stabilizer with seven natural polymers. The construction material
required a dry strength of 2 N/mm2 and a wet strength of 1 N/mm2 was achieved. Behavior
as an earth stabilizer with seven natural polymers. The construction material required a dry
strength of 2 N/mm2 and a wet strength of 1 N/mm2 was achieved[57]. Relationship among
bulk density, water absorption and porosity were established. Relationship was also
established between water absorption and thermal conductivity thermal conductivity was
also verified analytically by finite element[58][59]. Chemical stabilizer minimized the
absorption of water from bamboo particles in adobe. Through the use of chemical stabilizer
and bamboo particles, the shrinkage of Adobe was minimized[60][61]. For tests, water
absorption ranged from 8.7 percent - 11.3 percent, relative to clay bricks and concrete
bricks, values were favorable. The compressive power of compressed earth blocks has been
raised twice, For tests, water absorption ranged from 8.7 percent - 11.3 percent, relative to
clay bricks and concrete bricks, values[62] [19]. Cost analysis of production shows that
blocks with 10 %cement are about 55.7% cheaper than burnt brick[63][21]. By adding the
agro wastes and geopolymer, SMB strength was low compression strength and durability
of the blocks were increased by adding black cotton soil[64].
1.2.5 Review on chemical treatment of Bagasse fibres
One of the common techniques used for chemical treatment is using sodium hydroxide on raw
fibres. This helps to eliminate the contents of lignin and wax found in the fiber wall's outer
portion. There is ionization of the hydroxyl group of the alkoxides, which in turn tends to

dissolve components of low molecular weight. However, higher NaOH concentrations have
recorded excess delignification fibers that allows the fibers to get weaken[65]. This method
also helps in partially removing the content of cellulose and hemicellulose from the raw fibres.
This method ensures that general composition of the fibres doesn’t get affected and helps in
reduction of lignin and hemicellulose[36]. As a binding agent, silane reagents are used and are
stated to be efficient in reducing cellulosic hydroxyl groups at the interphase of the fiber matrix.
Due to its hydrolysable property, the Alkoxy group present can contribute to the formation of
silanols, which can further react with the hydroxyl groups present on the fiber surfaces, leading
to stable covalent bonds, helping to minimize hydrophilic nature of raw fibres[65][38].
The silane treatment shall be carried out in three stages acetylation, permanganate treatment,
peroxide and benzoylation treatment. The acetylation helps in increasing the flexural strength
and modulus and decrease the mechanical properties[66] Peroxide and benzoylation treatment
helps to better the fibre matrix linkage, increases strength of composites, reducing the water
absorption and improving the thermal stability of fibres[67]. By dissolving hemicellulose and
other impurities, acetone treatment of cellulosic fibers produces superior bonding with the
matrix, thus increasing the mechanical properties of the fibres[68] The soil used for building
should consist of 65% sand content and a 10% clay content. Soils with higher clay fractions
can be processed with inert materials such as sand, quarry dust, and mine waste to minimize
clay fractions[69]. Shrinkage and cracking have also been observed in soil blocks that have
been prepared. Because of their low strength, soil blocks are unsuitable for construction and
stabilization of soil blocks can be done with different additives like lime, fly ash, ground
granulated blast furnace slag, cement, metakaolin, bagasse to improve their certain
properties[70]. Soil stabilization is process of altering the physical properties of soil such as
strength, voids, water absorption and resistance and texture, if right method of stabilization is

used then compressive strength of soil can be improved till 400-500% along with increased
cohesion, minimum shrinkage, improvement in permeability, improved water resisting nature
and enhanced durability[71][72][73]
1.3 Literature summary
Studies on recent research indicated that soil stabilization is one of the ground improvement
techniques adopted to improve soil properties by the addition of extra ingredients. Interface
layers of fibrous materials can increase the compressive strength.
1.4 Literature Gap
From the literature review it was observed that stabilized mud blocks are made through
untreated bagasse fibres along with combination of lime and other natural fibres and were
found durable. But in case of only untreated bagasse fibre the mud blocks have not got the
required properties and were not durable so this can be improved on treating bagasse fibre.
1.5 Proposed Objectives
a) To characterize red soil to identify its suitability in stabilized mud block production.
b) To study the effects of the chemically treated Bagasse fibres on the properties of
compressed stabilized mud blocks.
c) To determine load carrying capacity of stabilized mud blocks using soft computing
tools.
d) To evaluate compressive strength of different type of walletes built using stabilized
mud blocks.

Chapter 2
Stabilized mud blocks
2.1 Stabilized mud blocks
The development of several alternative construction materials will be extremely beneficial
in reducing the impact of pollution on the environment. There are a few drawbacks, such
as loss of strength when saturated with water, erosion due to wind or driving rain, and poor
dimensional stability. In the process of minimizing the above mentioned drawbacks
stabilized mud blocks were invented and these had lesser drawbacks.
2.2 Equipment and methodology for the manufacture of stabilized mud
blocks
Stabilized mud blocks can be manufactured using a variety of equipment. For decades, the
blocks were made entirely of clay with the addition of some agro-waste, such as straw and
weeds. Few small houses have been built throughout the years utilizing these hand moulded
or basic timber moulded, un-stabilized and unburnt bricks/blocks.
The use of stabilizers such as lime, cement, gypsum, and fly ash coincided with the necessity
to apply some manual or mechanical pressure in order to obtain a higher density, reduced water
absorption, and higher compressive strength. Using hydraulic machinery to carry out the
stabilization stage has also reduced the amount of stabilizing compounds required, making the
blocks more cost effective to make, and has resulted in enhanced physical and mechanical
qualities in the completed products. During hot weather condition water is added in excess to
reduce shrinkage cracks on the blocks. Mixing the proportioned materials and soon moulding

process is carried out since cement may start hydrating process. Curing is done in two stages
primary curing will include covering blocks withplastic bags, grass etc to prevent the escape
of moisture. Later after two to four days depending on the local temperature, blocks are stacked
and weather cured for 14 days.
There are two types of presses for manufacture process
• Manual press
• Mechanical press
2.3 Manual press
This type of presses is light, solidly built, low cost, easy to manufacture and repair. Capacity
depends upon the way of work is classified the average production is 500 blocks/ day to 1200
blocks/ day. These presses are manufactured in countries like Belgium, Burkina Faso, USA,
Switzerland and other countries. Manual presses need pressure up to 2-10MN/m2 for the
production of blocks. In manual presses moulds canbe changed for changing frog dimensions
and block dimensions. The Figure 2.1[5] represents manual press machine
Figure 2.1 Manual pressing machine

2.4 Mechanical press
This type of presses is heavy, more efficiency, productivity and less work. Hydraulic presses
have capacity of 300-800 blocks/ hour. This machine takes 10-20 metric tons of force for the
block surface. These presses run through diesel or electricity power. They are of 2 kinds which
are semi-automatic and fully automatic motorized presses. They deliver continuously a
homogenous moist and stabilizer suitable for SMB manufacturing. The Figure 2.2[5]
represents Mechanical press.
Figure 2.2 Mechanical pressing machine

Chapter 3
Materials and Methodology
The methodology for. Carrying out the experimental studies on the blocks such as
dimensionality test, compressive strength test, water absorption test. Determining the
compressive strength of the masonry wallet by compressive test and finally comparing the
results obtained.
3.1 Materials used in the present study
3.1.1 Red soil
Red soil forms in a humid, temperate, moist environment under deciduous or mixed woodland,
with thin organic and organic-mineral layers overlying a yellowish-brown leached layer
settling on an illuvium red layer. The majority of red soils are made up of crystalline quartz.
The Figure 3.1 represents the collected sample of red soil.
Figure 3.1 Red soil
3.1.2 Bagasse fibres
The bagasse fiber is the dry pulpy fibrous residue that remains after crushing of sugarcane.

Sugarcane bagasse has a natural hydrophilicity disadvantage, which tends to draw moisture
from the environment, resulting in swelling and loss of mechanical properties. The Figure 3.2
represents the collected sample of bagasse fibre.
Figure 3.2 Bagasse fibre
3.2 Methodology
Methodology used in the present study is shown in Figure 3.3
Materials
Test on materials Case study
characterization
Determination of characteization of
Refering to Journals
material properties experimental data
Comparision of
Compressive test analytical results
on walletes using with experimental
Ansys results
Figure 3.3 Flowchart of research work

The detailed methodology consists of material collection and characterization of materials,
followed by performing basic tests on materials to assess their basic properties. Casting of
blocks with varying the fibre content and selecting the eminent block from the results obtained.
The masonry wallets are to be casted and then tested for compressive strength, comparison of
the results has to be done, but due to covid conditions the above-mentioned methodology
couldn’t be carried out and adopted analytical approach. It includes of referring to quality
journals and obtaining relevant data required for analytical analysis, carrying out work through
Ansys software and comparing the results obtained with experimental results taken from
journals.

Chapter 4
Experimental and Analytical studies

Experimental work has been carried out to characterize the materials such as red soil, cement,
bagasse fibres.
4.1 Test on Materials
Various tests were performed to determine the properties of M-sand such as Specific Gravity,
Moisture Content and Grain Size Distribution as per IS-2386- part 1 (2016)[74].
4.1.1 Sieve analysis
The sieve analysis test was conducted to identify grain size distribution of Sand. The sieve
analysis was conducted on M-sand using sieve shaker in which different sized sieves are placed
in decreasing order of their sieve openings as shown in Figure 4.1. The test is conducted as per
IS 2386- part 1: 1963[74]. The results of sieve analysis are tabulated and are shown in Table
5.1. The graph showing distribution of particle sizes is shown in Figure 4.1. Based on the
cumulative percentage weight retained, the fine aggregate may be categorized as zone II
according to Indian Standard specification [IS383: 2016] [75].
4.1.2 Specific gravity
Specific gravity is defined as ratio of density of the material to that of the reference material
and the procedure followed as per IS: 2386- part 3 (2016)[76] . Aggregate absorption is
measured as the increase in dry sample weight when soaked in water for 24 hours. The specific
gravity in the present study is calculated by using the below equation.
Specific gravity =[W₂−W₁]/ [(W₄ −W₁) −(W₃−W₂)]
Were,

W1 = Weight of empty pycnometer (g)
W2 = Weight of pycnometer +1/3rd Volume of fine aggregate sample (g)
W3 = Weight of pycnometer +1/3rd Volume of fine aggregate sample + 2/3rd
volume of water (g)
W4 = Weight of pycnometer +Water (g)
4.2 Test on Red soil
In this study red soil has been used for mortar mix for construction of prisms. Various test such
as Liquid Limit, plastic limit and Specific gravity were performed as per IS 2720- part 5
(1985)[77].
4.2.1 Liquid Limit
The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the groove formed by a standard tool into the
sample of soil taken in the standard cup, closes for 12 mm on being given 25 blows in a
standard manner. At this limit, the soil possesses low shear strength. Apparatus used for the
experiment are Casagrande apparatus, Grooving Tool, Balance, Oven, Spatula and Squeeze
Bottle.
LL= [(W2-W3/(W3-W1)] x 100
LL= [(31.67-25.85)/ (25.85-13.26) * 100
LL= 46.227%
Were,
W1= Weight of Cup (g)
W2= Weight of Cup + Wet Soil (g) W3=Weight of Cup + Dry Soil (g)

4.2.2 Plastic Limit
The Plastic Limit (PL) also known as the lower plastic limit, is the water content at which a soil
changes from the plastic state to a semisolid state. The Plastic limit test isperformed by repeated
rolling of an ellipsoidal-sized soil mass by hand on a non- porous surface.
LL= [(W2-W3/(W3-W1)] x 100
LL= [(14.40-13.51)/ (13.51-9.87) * 100
LL= 24.45
Were,
W1= Weight of Cup (g)
W2= Weight of Cup + Wet Soil (g) W3=Weight of Cup + Dry Soil (g)
4.3 Test on cement
Ordinary portland cement of Grade 53 has been used for the preparation of mortars, Various
tests were conducted to determine the properties of cement as per IS: 8112- 2013 [78]and IS
4031- part 5 [79].
4.3.1 Fineness test
Fineness modulus of cement is conducted as per IS:4031 Part 1-1996 [80]. Finenessof cement
has an impact on the hydration and strength gain and also heat generation. As cement becomes
finer the surface area for hydration increases and early strength development. Cement of 100
grams is sieved by standard IS Sieve No. 90 microns. Weigh the residue left on the sieve.
Fineness should not exceed 10% for ordinary cement. The fineness modulus of the cement was
found to be 6%.

4.3.2 Standard consistency
The test was conducted as per the code IS: 4031:1988 [80]. The standard consistency as known
as normal consistency provides the amount of water required to produce cement paste. Vicat
apparatus is used with a plunger of 10mm diameter and 50mm length. Take 500 grams of
cement and prepare a paste with sufficient water. Fill the vicat mould and release the plunger
and record the depth of penetration. The amount ofwater required for plunger to penetrate up
to 33-35mm forms the standard consistencyand consistency of cement was found to be 31%.
4.3.4 Initial setting of cement
The test was conducted as per IS: 4031:1988 [80] and the water used for cement pasteof standard
consistency of 0.85P. The needle will penetrate into the block easily and later it starts
hardening. The time taken for the needle to penetrate the block for 33- 35mm depth is called
as initial setting time. The initial setting of cement was found to be 130 minutes.
4.3.5 Specific gravity
It is defined as the ratio between mass of cement to mass of equal volume of water both being
measured at same temperature. The test is conducted as per IS 2720 Part 3 1988[81] and blow
Table 4.1 represents properties of cement.
Table 4.1 Properties of Cement
Properties of cement
Property
Observed values
Specific
gravity 3.15
Fineness
6%

The below Table 4.2 represents properties of fine aggregates
Table 4.2 Properties of fine aggregate Soil

Properties of Fine aggregate
Experiment Result
Specific 2.65
gravity
Liquid limit 46
Plastic limit 25
Plasticity index 21
Water content 13.1%
4.4 Methodology for test on blocks

Blocks are subjected to a variety of tests to determine their suitability for construction of
walletes. As per codal provisions basics tests will be carried out on blocks and cement mortar.
Tests on blocks such as dimensionality test, density test, initial rate of absorption and water
absorption test compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.
Mortar may contribute in smaller part to structural strength although its minor role it needs to
be check whether it attains the physical property needs of the structure it is used. Flow table
test, compressive strength and modulus of elasticity tests are conducted on a mortar.
Table 4.3 and 4.4 represents the required IS codal provisions for the tests on blocks and
mortars.

Table 4.3 Codal references for experiments on Blocks

Sl no Tests for Blocks Code references
1 Dimensionality IS: 1725:2013[82]
2 Initial rate of absorption IS 1077:1992[83]
3 water absorption IS 1725:2013 [82]
4 compressive strength IS 1725:2013[82] and
IS 3495:1992[84] (part 2)
5 Modulus of Elasticity IS 516:1959[85]
Table 4.4 Codal references for experiments on mortar

SI no Test Code book
1 Flow table test IS-5512 (1969)[86]
2 Compressive strength IS-2250 (1981)[87]
3 Modulus of elasticity IS 516:1959[85]
4.4.1 Dimensionality test [IS: 1725:2013[82]]
Twenty blocks shall be measured for its length, breadth and height with a scale graduation of
1mm length division the length measured shall be on longitudinal center line of each face,
Width across the top and bottom bearing surfaces at mid length. Height on both faces at mid
length.
As per IS:1725(part 1):2013, the maximum variation in the length of the blocks shall not be
more than ± 5 mm and width and height of the block shall not be more than ±3mm.

4.4.2 Water absorption [IS 1725:2013 [82]]
Three blocks are selected from each source and completely immersed in water for 24 hours,
Blocks are removed from water and allowed to drain then the visible surface water is
cleaned and weighed, Blocks are kept oven dry for 24 hours at temperature 100°c then these
shall be taken from oven and cooled to room temperature for which dry weight and
measurements has to be taken.
4.4.3 Compressive Strength [IS 1725:2013[82]]
Eight blocks to be selected out of twenty to carry compressive strength test to which
gypsum plaster capping has to be done on both sides to ensure uniform bearing surface.
The blocks are then placed in compressive testing machine between two steel plates of
thickness 12mm. Block and machine base are vertical and centrally aligned. Later, blocks
are subjected to compressive load at the rate of 2 N/mm2 per minute.
4.4.4 Flow table test [IS-5512 (1969)[86]]
Place about 25 mm thick layer of mortar mixed in accordance with 7.3.1 in the moulds and
tamp 20, times with the tamping rod. The tamping pressure shall be just sufficient to ensure
uniform filling of the moulds. Then fill the moulds with mortar and tamp-as specified for
the first, -layer. Cut off the excess mortar to a plane surface, flush with the top of the moulds
by drawing the, straight edge of a trowel (held nearly perpendicular to the moulds) with a
sawing motion across the top of the moulds. Wipe the table to clean and dry, particularly
taking care to remove any water from around the edge of the flow moulds. Lift the moulds
away from the mortar one minute after completion of the mixing operation. Immediately
drop the table through a height, of 12’5 mm, 25 times in 15s. The flow is the resulting
increase in average base diameter of the mortar mass, measured on at least four diameters

at approximately equi-spaced intervals expressed as a percentage of the original base
diameter.
4.5 Analytical approach – Introduction
Preliminary experimental works of the materials were finished in the current study and
experimental work was to be carried out and it included casting, curing and testing of mud
blocks and wallets.
Experimental work could not be carried out because of the COVID-19 epidemic. A
systematic review of the literature opened the way for selecting relevant parameters and
collecting data, which led the analytical method used to complete this research effort.
Ansys software is used for the analysis of walletes and nonlinear analysis method by using
material stress strain data and finding out the yield load and ultimate load carrying capacity
of the walletes.
4.6 Analysis of wall using Ansys
Wallete built from stabilized mud blocks was modelled in ansys and nonlinear analysis was
carried out.
4.6.1 Introduction to finite element method

The finite element method is a powerful tool to obtain the numerical solution of wide range
of engineering problem. The method is general enough to handle any complex shape or
geometry, for any material under different boundary and loading conditions. The generality
of the finite element method fits the analysis requirement of today’s complex engineering
systems and designs where closed form solutions of governing equilibrium equations are
usually not available. In addition, it is an efficient design tool by which designers can perform
parametric design studies by considering various design cases, (different shapes, materials,

loads, etc.) and analyze them to choose the optimum design. The method originated in the
aerospace industry as a tool to study stress in a complex airframe structures. It grows out of
what was called the matrix analysis method used in aircraft design. The method has gained
increased popularity among both researchers and practitioners. The basic concept of finite
element method is that a body or structure may be divided into small elements of finite
dimensions called “finite elements”. The original body or the structure is then considered, as
an assemblage of these elements connected at a finite number of joints called nodes or nodal
points.
The step-by-step procedure for static structural problem can be stated as follows:
Step-1: Modelling
Modelling refers to the creation of the geometry of the object which is nothing but
computer compatible mathematical description. Mathematical model helps in displaying the
image of the object crated and manipulated on the graphical terminal by various software
commands executed through the CPU and input devices.
Step 2: Description of continuum (Structure). The first step in the finite element method is
to divide the structure of solution region in to sub divisions or elements. Meshing is a pre-
processing process that is done after the modelling of the model, Meshing is one of the most
critical processes in completing an accurate FEA simulation. A mesh is made up of elements
that contain nodes (coordinate positions in space that vary depending on element type) that
describe the geometry's form. An FEA solver cannot readily cope with unusual forms, but it is
considerably more at ease with standard shapes such as cubes. The act of transforming irregular
forms into more identifiable volumes known as "elements" is known as meshing.
Step 3: Selection of proper interpolation model
Since the displacement (field variable) solution of a complex structure under any

specified load conditions cannot be predicted exactly, we assume some suitable solution, within
an element to approximate the unknown solution. The assumed solution must be simple and it
should satisfy certain convergence requirements.
Step 4: Derivation of element stiffness matrix
From the assumed displacement model the stiffness matrix [K(e)] and the load vector
P(e) of element are to be derived by using either equilibrium conditions or a suitable Variation
principle.
Step 5: Assemblage of element equations to obtain the equilibrium equations.
Since the structure is composed of several finite elements, the individual element
stiffness matrices and load vectors are to be assembled in a suitable manner and the overall
equilibrium equation has to be formulated as [K]φ=P
Where K is assembled stiffness matrix, Φ vector of nodal displacement and P is vector of nodal
force.
Step-6: Enforcing the boundary conditions
The equations so generated cannot be solved unless boundary condition are substituted.
The geometry boundary conditions arise from the fact that displacement may be expressed at
the boundaries or effect of the body or structure.
Step 7: Solution of system equation to find nodal values of displacement
The overall equilibrium equations have to be modified to account for the boundary
conditions of the problem. After the incorporation of the boundary conditions, three
equilibrium equations can be expressed as [K]φ=P. For linear problems, the vector “φ” can
be solved very easily. But for non-linear problems, the solution has to be obtained in a
sequence of steps, each step involving the modification of the stiffness matrix [K] and “φ” or
the load vector P.

Step 8: Computation of element strains and stresses
From the known nodal displacements, if required, the element strains and stresses can be
computed by using the necessary equations of solid or structural mechanics. In the above steps,
the words indicated in brackets implement the general FEM step-by-step procedure.
4.7 Convergence requirement
The finite element method provides a numerical solution to a complex problem. It may
therefore be expected that the solution must converge to the exact formulation of the structure.
Hence as the mesh is made finer the solution should converge to the correct result and this
would be achieved if the following three conditions were satisfied by the assumed displacement
function. The displacement function must be continuous within the element. Choosing
polynomials for the displacement model can easily satisfy this condition. The displacement
function must be capable of representing rigid body displacement of the element. This is when
the nodes are given such displacement corresponding to a rigid body motion; the element
leads to zero nodal forces. The constant terms in the polynomials used for displacement models
would usually ensure this condition. The displacement function must be capable of representing
constant strain states within the element. The reason for the requirement can be understood if
we imagine the condition when the body or structure is divided in to smaller and smaller
elements. As these elements approach infinitesimal size the strain in each element also
approach constant strain states. For one, two and three-dimensional elasticity problems the
linear terms present in the polynomials satisfy the requirement. However, in constant curvature
instead of constant strains.
4.8 Advantages of FEM
The properties of each element are evaluated separately, so an obvious advantage is that we

can incorporate different material properties for each element. Thus almost any degree of non-
homogeneity can be included. There is no restriction on to the shape of medium; hence arbitrary
and irregular shapes cause no difficulty like all numerical approximations FEM is based on the
concept of description. Nevertheless, as either the variations or residual approach, the
technology recognizes the multidimensional continuous but also requires no separate
interpolation process to extend the approximate solution to every point with the continuum.
One of the important advantages of FEM is that it makes use of boundary conditions in the
form of assembled equations. This is relatively an easy process and requires no special
technology. Rather than requiring every trial solution to satisfy boundary conditions, one
prescribes the conditions after obtaining the algebraic equations for individual’s finite
elements.
4.9 Limitations in FEM:
FEM reached high level of development as solution technology; however the method yields
realistic results only if coefficient or material parameters that describe basic
phenomena are available. The most tedious aspects of use of FEM are basic process of
sub-dividing the continuum of generating error free input data for computer.
4.10 Applications of FEM
The finite element method was developed originally for the analysis of aircraft structures.
However, the general nature of its theory makes it applicable to wide variety of boundary value
problem in engineering. A boundary value problem is one in which a solution is sought in
domain or region of a body subject to the satisfaction of prescribed boundary conditions. Finite
element method is the best tool in investigation of aircraft structures involving static analysis
of wings, structures of rockets and missiles, dynamic analysis, response to random loads and
periodic loads. In mechanical design, stress concentration problems, stress analysis of pressure
vessels, dynamic analysis of mechanical linkages can be effectively dealt using finite element
method. The specific application of the finite element method in the three major categories of
boundary value problems, namely equilibrium of steady state or time independent problems,
Eigen value problems, and propagation or transient problems. In the equilibrium problems
steady state displacement or stress distribution is found for a solid mechanics problem,
temperature or heat flux distribution in the case of heat transfer problem. Referring to Eigen
value problems in solid mechanics or structural problem, natural frequencies, buckling loads
and mode shapes are found, stability of laminar flows is found if it is a fluid mechanics problem
and resonance characteristics are obtained if it is an electrical circuit problem, while for the
propagation or transient problem, the response of the body under time varying force is found
in the area of solid mechanics. Finite element method finds its application in the field of civil
engineering in carrying out the static analysis of trusses, frames and bridges. The dynamic
analysis of the structure is to obtain natural frequencies, modes and response of the structures
to periodic loads. Nuclear engineering also uses finite element method concept in the static and
dynamic characterization of its systems such as nuclear pressure vessels, containment structure
and dynamic response of reactor component containment structures. Even the Biomedical
engineering applies finite element method, for impact analysis of skulls. Finite element method
can be applied to analysis of excavation, underground openings and dynamic analysis of dam
reservoir systems, which come under Geo mechanics.
Finite element Method based upon discritization of component into Finite number of blocks
(elements), Finite element method (FEM) is a numerical technique for finding approximate
solutions to boundary value problems for partial differential equations. It uses subdivision of a
whole problem domain into simpler parts, called finite elements, and variational methods from
the calculus of variations to solve the problem by minimizing an associated error function.

Analogous to the idea that connecting many tiny straight lines can approximate a larger circle,
FEM encompasses methods for connecting many simple element equations over many small
subdomains, named finite elements, to approximate a more complex equation over a larger
domain.
There are mainlt two types of analysis
• Linear static analysis
• Non linear analysis
4.11 Linear Static Analysis

It is the simplest and most commonly used type of analysis. The below Figure 4.1 represents
the linear static approach.
Figure 4.1 Linear Static Approach
Linear means straight line. σ = €E is the equation of straight line (y = mx+c) passing through
origin. ‘E’, Young’s modulus is the slope of curve and is a constant. In real life, after passing
yield point material follows nonlinear curve but software follows same straight line.
Component break into two separate pieces after crossing ultimate stress but software based
analysis never show failure in this fashion. It shows single unbroken part only with red color
zone at the location of failure. Analyst has to conclude whether the component is safe or fail

by comparing maximum stress value with the yield or ultimate stress.
There are two conditions for static analysis:
• No variation of force with respect to time (Dead weight)
• Equilibrium condition - ∑ Force = 0 and ∑Moments = 0
Hence, peak linear stress linear strain will be calculated by this method for dead frontal axle
under defined loading conditions.
4.12 Non linear analysis
A nonlinear analysis is one in which a nonlinear relationship exists between applied forces and
displacements. Nonlinear effects can be caused by geometrical nonlinearity (large
deformations), material nonlinearity (elasto-plastic material), or touch. As a result of these
factors, the stiffness matrix is not constant during the load application. In contrast, in the linear
static analysis, the stiffness matrix stayed constant. As a result, a new solution technique and
hence a separate solver are required for the nonlinear analysis.
In our case we are choosing using linear analysis over non linear analysis because when we
develop a model, three matrices are formed (Load matrix, stiffness matrix and displacement
matrix).
In linear elastic analysis, the [F] = [K][X] equation is solved and that's all.

Chapter 5
Results and Discussions
5.1 Analytical approach
The factors like block dimensions, young’s modulus, poisons ratio, density, tangent modulus
and mortar proportions were taken from the model that gave optimum results. The input
values were obtained from the experimental results refered from journal of B. V. Venkatarama
Reddy, Stabilized soil blocks for structural masonry in earth construction, Venkatarama
Reddy and Jagadish (1989), Shrinivasa Rao et al. (1995), Walker (2004), Salih (2018) shed
some insight on the structural strength of cement stabilized mud block masonry. Table 5.1
compiles the compressive strength (wet) of cement stabilized mud block masonry prisms
derived from the preceding research a variety mortar strengths and block strengths.
The Table 5.1 provides experimental values of blocks required for analytical approach.
Table 5.1 Compressive strength of blocks
Size (mm) Strength (MPa) Percentage and Type of fibre
305 x 143 x 100 3.2 (7%) Bagasse fibre[88]
305 x 143 x 100 4.65 (7%) Coir fibre[89]
305 x 143 x 100 5.34 (7%) Basalt fibre[89]
305 x 143 x 100 4.36 (7%) Kraft pulp[89]
305 x 143 x 100 4.23 (7%) Jute fibre[88]

6 5.34
Compressive Strength 4.65
5 4.36 4.23
4 3.2
3
2
1
Strength (MPa)
0
(0%)Fibre (7%) Bagasse (7%) Coir fibre (7%) Basalt (7%) Kraft pulp
fibre fibre
1.15 3.2 4.65 5.34 4.36
Block 1 (0% Block 2(7% Block 3(7%Coir Block 4(7% Block 5(7%
Fibre) Bagasse fibre) fibre) Basalt fibre) Kraft pulp)
Size (mm)
Figure 5.1 Graphical representation of compressive strength of blocks
The above Table 5.1 and Figure 5.1 represents the compressive test result of blocks and
mechanical properties of blocks were investigated. Blocks having basalt fibres had higher
compressive strength compared with other blocks.
The below Table 5.2 represents wallete sizes and compressive strength
Table 5.2 Wallete characteristics
Wallete characteristics
Size (m) Percentage and Type Strength (MPa)
of fibre
1 x 0.19 x 1.12 (0%) fibre[88] 1.15[88]
1 x 0.19 x 1.12 (7%) Bagasse fibre[88] 3.84 [88]
0.9 x 0.14 x 1.15 (7%) Coir fibre[89] 3.66 [89]

0.9 x 0.14 x 1.15 (7%) Basalt fibre[89] 3.64 [89]
1 x 0.14 x 1.12 (7%) Kraft pulp[89] 4.55 [89]
1 x 0.14 x 1.12 (7%) Jute fibre[88] 5.27 [89]

The experimental results gave a maximum compressive strength of 5.27Mpa and minimum
was found to be 3.64 MPa.
Review of journals has given a conclusion that the inclusion of fibres had resulted to increase
the compressive strength and other physical properties.
5.2 Modelling of wallete
Wallete shall be modelled using available inputs, five walletes shall be modelled using different
blocks with varying fiber type and content.
5.2.1 Input data
Wallete 1
Size of wallete 1m x 0.19m x 1.12m

Youngs modulus 1500MPa
Poissons ratio 0.18
Density of block 1800kg/m3
Tangent modulus 3000MPa
Wallete 2

Poissons ratio 0.18
Wallete 3
Size of wallete 0.9m x 0.14m x 1.15m

Poissons ratio 0.18

Wallete 4
Size of wallete 0.9m x 0.14m x 1.15m

Poissons ratio 0.18
Wallete 5

Poissons ratio 0.18
Wallete 6

Poissons ratio 0.18
Step 1: Modelling
Within ANSYS, there are numerous methods for creating model geometry, some more
convenient than others. The first step is to notice that the bracket can be readily constructed
using combinations of rectangle and circle primitives.
The isometric view of wallete modelled in ansys is shown in Figure 5.2

Figure 5.2 Isometric view of wall
Front view of modelled wallete in ansys is shown in Figure 5.3
Figure 5.3 Front view of wall
The above figures refer to the geometry of the wallete i.e. Modelling refers to the creation of
the geometry of the object which is nothing but computer compatible mathematical description.
This model helps in displaying the image of the object crated and manipulated on the graphical
terminal by various software commands executed through the CPU and input devices.
Step 2: Meshing model
One useful feature of the ANSYS application is the ability to automatically mesh the model
without having to provide any mesh size parameters. This is referred to as a default mesh, apart
from defining a model, a lot of considerations must be taken for appropriate mesh production.
When producing correct meshes, Ansys normally takes three factors into account:
• Choosing shell vs. solid elements
• Choosing hex (brick) vs. tet (pyramids) elements
• Choosing the proper mesh size and mesh order
Here in our case we have used Hexahedral element meshing or “hex”, at lower element counts,
hex or brick elements produce more accurate results than tet elements. The isometric view of
wallete meshing in ansys is shown in Figure 5.4
Figure 5.4 Isometric view of meshing model

The front view of wallete meshing in ansys is shown in Figure 5.5
Figure 5.5 Front view of meshing model

Meshing is a pre-processing process that is done after the modelling of the model, Meshing is
one of the most critical processes in completing an accurate FEA simulation. A mesh is made
up of elements that contain nodes (coordinate positions in space that vary depending on element
type) that describe the geometry's form. An FEA solver cannot readily cope with unusual
forms, but it is considerably more at ease with standard shapes such as cubes. The act of
transforming irregular forms into more identifiable volumes known as "elements" is known as
meshing.
Step 3: Loading and Boundary Condition
Loading and boundary conditions are used in the same way that they are tested
experimentally and same is shown in Figures 5.6.
Loading is used as the displacement boundary condition during the experimental testing, which
is followed by displacement control testing at a rate of 0.5 mm/min. Actual relevant
characteristics such as Poison's ratio, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, stress-strain
behaviours, and shear transfer coefficients are determined by comparing FE stress-strain
curves to experimental findings.
Figure 5.6 Applied compression load on Mud Block Masonry

Step 4: Applied Load condition
The Table 5.3 refers to the load conditions, in ansys load can be applied in newtons
Table 5.3 Load conditions
Time(s) Load(kN)
0 0
1 500kN
2 600kN
3 700kN
4 800kN
5 900kN
6 1000kN
In ansys load can be applied in newtons, below listed points are different load types in
Ansys,
• Acceleration - used when we know the value of acceleration acting as a load in the
system (for example cars).
• Gravity - when we want to include effects of self-weight for example in cantilever
beam.
• Rotational velocity - includes effect of object spinning without acceleration
(constant speed).
• Pressure - surface load used for example in cases of pressure vessel analysis.
• Hydrostatic pressure - pressure caused by the weight of fluid.

• Bearing load - loads applied to cylindrical faces with special distribution of the
forces simulating nonuniform pressure between bearing and shaft.
• Bolt pretension - bolts are often pretensioned (preloaded) in order to increase their
load bearing capability, with this option you may include effects of such
pretension.
• Moment - applied moment (force x arm), often used in case of torsion.
• Thermal condition - applied temperature, may be used to analyze thermal stresses.
• Joint load - when using joints in analysis you may enforce their motion with such
load.
• Fluid solid interface - used in case of FSI simulations where moving fluid hits solid
body causing deformation.
5.3 Result and Observation
5.3.1 Wallete 1
Figure 5.7 Minimum principal stress wallete 1
The minimum principal stress obtained for applied load condition for wallete modelled is
shown in Figure 5.7. From the above figure we can observe the variation of minimum
principal stress of wallete 1 the red colored indication point at 0.85MPa in the Figure 5.7
represents the point of minimum stress of wallete 1.
Maximum total deformation obtained for applied load condition is shown in Figure 5.8
Figure 5.8 Maximum total deformation wallete 1

From the above figure we can observe the variation of maximum total deformation of wallete
1 the red colored indication point at 1.445MPa in the Figure 5.8 represents the point of total
deformation of wallete 1.
The wallete has been modeled using mud blocks made of red soil and there is no fibre content
included in it and on application of load the deformation has occurred instantly as of there is
no fibres present to act as reinforcement to provide required strength and presence of only red
soil has resulted in providing low strength.
5.3.2 Wallete 2
shown in Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9 Minimum principal stress wallete 2

From the above figure we can observe the variation of minimum principal stress of wallete 2
the red colored indication point at 1.155MPa in the Figure 5.7 represents the point of minimum
stress of wallete 2.

deformation of wallete 2. This wallete is modelled using mud blocks made of red soil along
with bagasse fibre content of 7% the mud block had compressive strength of 3.2MPa, bagasse
fibre included in blocks acts as reinforcement and found to withstand load efficiently compared
to wallete 1 which has no fibres.

5.3.3 Wallete 3
Figure 5.11 Minimum principal stress of wallete 3

the red colored indication point at 1.873MPa in the Figure 5.11 represents the point of
minimum stress of wallete 3.

From the Figure 5.12 we can observe the variation of maximum total deformation of wallete 3
the red colored indication point at 4.34MPa in the Figure 5.12 represents the point of total
with coir fibre content of 7% the mud block had compressive strength of 4.65MPa, coir fibre
included in blocks acts as reinforcement and found to withstand load efficiently compared to

wallete 1, wallete 2 and wallete 4 which had bagasse and basalt fibres.
5.3.4 Wallete 4

minimum stress of wallete 4. Maximum total deformation obtained for applied load condition
is shown in Figure 5.14. From the above figure we can observe the variation of maximum total
deformation of wallete 3 the red colored indication point at 4.10MPa in the Figure 5.14
represents the point of total deformation of wallete 4.

This wallete is modelled using mud blocks made of red soil along with basalt fibre content of
7% the mud block had compressive strength of 5.34MPa, basalt fibre included in blocks acts
as reinforcement and found to withstand load efficiently compared to wallete 2 which had
bagasse fibres.
5.3.5 Wallete 5

minimum stress of wallete 5.

with kraft fibre content of 7% the mud block had compressive strength of 4.36MPa, kraft fibre
wallete 2, wallete 3, wallete 4 which had bagasse, coir and basalt fibres.
5.3.6 Wallete 6

the red colored indication point at 1.98MPa in the Figure 5.15 represents the point of minimum
stress of wallete 6. Maximum total deformation obtained for applied load condition is shown
in Figure 5.18

with jute fibre content of 7% the mud block had compressive strength of 4.23MPa, jute fibre
wallete 2, wallete 3, wallete 4 which had bagasse, coir, basalt and kraft fibres. Table 5.4
represents the analytical results, from these results obtained least strength is obtained for
wallete modelled using blocks made of bagasse fibres and maximum is obtained for wallete
modelled using blocks made of jute fibres.
Table 5.4 Analytical results

Sl No. Wallete Size (m) Strength (MPa)
1 1 x 0.19 x 1.12 1.08
2 1 x 0.19 x 1.12 3.44
3 0.9 x 0.14 x 1.15 4.34

4 0.9 x 0.14 x 1.15 4.10
5 1 x 0.14 x 1.12 5.03
6 1 x 0.14 x 1.12 5.97
It is a well established information that, increase in block compressive strength resulted in
increased wallete strength. The variation in compressive strength in different walletes was
found to vary from 20 – 59%. Minimum and Maximum compressive strength of blocks was
of the order 1.08 MPa and 5.97 MPa respectively. For the walletes made of blocks from
bagasse fibre the variation is 0.4% between experimental and analytical results, similarly
for other walletes the variation between experimental and analytical results is 0.4-0.7%.
Below Table 5.5 represents combined values of analytical and experimental results, we can

observe clearly the difference between analytical values is slightly varying from
experimental values.
Table 5.5 Analytical and experimental results of compressive strength

Analytical Results Experimental Results
Size of Specimen (m)
(MPa) (MPa)
1 x 0.19 x 1.12 1.03 0.90

1 x 0.19 x 1.12 3.44 3.52
0.9 x 0.14 x 1.15 4.34 3.66
0.9 x 0.14 x 1.15 4.10 3.64
1 x 0.14 x 1.12 5.03 4.55
1 x 0.14 x 1.12 5.97 5.27
Figure 5.19 provides the comparison between experimental and analytical results. It can be
seen from the below Figure 5.19 that increase in compressive strength of block was found
varying linearly, variation in block strength also affects the compressive strength of
walletes. Among the tested models the wallete 6 has obtained optimum result of 5.97MPa
addition of jute fibres has increased wallete strength because jute fibre has high tensile
strength, low extensibility and mainly it has elongation capacity about 1.7% to break point.
7
5.97
Compressive strength(MPa)
6 5.03 5.27
5 4.34 4.55
4.1
3.52 3.44 3.66 3.64
4
3
2
0.9 1.03
1
0
Wallete 1 Wallete 2 Wallete 3 Wallete 4 Wallete 5 Wallete 6
Size(m)
Experimental Results Analytical results Linear (Experimental Results)
Figure 5.19 Comparison of experimental and analytical results

Mainly these fibres have composition of cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin presence of these
make it harder than any other fibres and this has helped to control the cracks in wallete which
has lead wallete to attain good strength.

Chapter 6
Conclusions
In this work, mechanical properties of stabilized mud blocks and masonry walletes were
analyzed for different properties. From the experimental studies adopted from the journal
and analytical studies carried out in ansys the following conclusions were drawn out.
6.1 Masonry Walletes

• The use of natural fibres in the mud blocks has helped to increase the compressive
strength linearly.
• From analytical studies the compressive strength of the walletes was found to be 1.03 MPa
which is comparable with experimental studies i.e. is 3.52 MPa.
• SMB masonry strength is responsive to block strength and rises as block strength increases.
• Linear increase of compressive strength was observed for wallete 6 which included
jute fibre in it.
• Comparison of error between experimental and estimated values was found to range
between 0.4-0.8% for walletes.
• It was observed that as load increases along time period the deformation was also increased
rapidly and deformation was found to be minimum and maximum for
400kN,500kN,1000kN and maintained average deformation at 700,800 and 900kN.
• Use of ansys for analysis avoids tedious, cost and time required to carry out
experimental studies and can be used as an effective alternative approach when
experimental work cannot be performed.
• Based on the limited study conducted, physical and mechanical properties of blocks
procured were found within the limits specified by IS 1725 – 2013. These blocks can

be used for load bearing masonry.
6.2 Scope for future work
1. Experimental investigation of walletes by varying fiber content and mortar ratios.
2. Evaluating the effect of fiber as partial reinforcement material under different loading conditions

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Structural Behavior of Fiber Reinforced Stabilized Mud Block Masonry

that cement provides and that would be economical, eco friendly.

are given in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1 Parameters of natural fibres affecting block properties

1.2 Literature review

1.2.1 Review on Natural fibres

Structural Engineering 2021-2022 Page 2

the fibres, that includes of chemical preparation and chemical coating[6][7].

1.2.2 Review on Fibre reinforced mud blocks

strong enough. An earthquake-resistant material with a high degree of compressive strength

Structural Engineering 2021-2022 Page 3

conventional earth construction can be strengthened[1]. Soil reinforcement is described as a

dispersed fiber-reinforced soils in geotechnical engineering have recently drawn growing

maximize the elimination of shrinkage, earthen construction Cracking, resistance to stress,

expertise and experience, to create mud-stabilized bricks. In manufacturing good-quality

goods, it is important to recognize the properties of the soil[20][21].

Structural Engineering 2021-2022 Page 4

1.2.3 Review on source and properties of bagasse fibre

extracted. As being agro-industrial residue, sugarcane bagasse (Saccharum officinarum) is one

Sugarcane bagasse fibre’s crystallinity is 47 % and cellulose present in it shall be crystalline

structure[23][24]. Approximately 54 million tons of dry bagasse are produced annually

construction materials and biofuel[25]

Structural Engineering 2021-2022 Page 5

potential and compressibility decreased[27][28][29]. 20 percent cement substitution with

deterioration[30][31]. In cement matrix fibre overlapping creates a pathway for crack

development[32]. The properties of earth-based composites are greatly enhanced by bagasse

deflection-hardening behavior[33][34]. Few authors suggested combining bagasse fibers,

subjecting them to different chemical treatments[37][38].

1.2.4 Review on different fibres used in fibre reinforced mud blocks

Structural Engineering 2021-2022 Page 6

cost-effective manner. To monitor the risk of combining emissions with the

environment[40]. Physical-mechanical characteristics of compacted earth blocks formed

work, are crucially assessed[42]. Investigation on tensile strength behavior of plastic-fiber-

blocks[41][18]. The effects on properties such as shrinkage, tensile and compressive

behavior[20][45]. Presentation of the development of a new lightweight block of masonry

using natural Geopolymer mortar based on pozzolana, hydrogen peroxide as a foaming

Structural Engineering 2021-2022 Page 7

addition of fibers increased efficiency in bending and ductility[47].

investigated. On 18 samples, measurements of moisture buffering value (MBV) and steady

different conditions concerning the buffering capacity measurement and estimation[48]. It

reviews the physical-mechanical properties of sustainable building materials. Production

compression tests[51]. Compared with conventional cement, geopolymers have a positive

positive environmental impact[52][53]. Analysis of water content, precise gravity analysis,

Structural Engineering 2021-2022 Page 8

be improved[41][54]. In the field of building, the stabilization of earth-based materials

also verified analytically by finite element[58][59]. Chemical stabilizer minimized the

of the blocks were increased by adding black cotton soil[64].

1.2.5 Review on chemical treatment of Bagasse fibres

Structural Engineering 2021-2022 Page 9

to stable covalent bonds, helping to minimize hydrophilic nature of raw fibres[65][38].

Structural Engineering 2021-2022 Page 10

cohesion, minimum shrinkage, improvement in permeability, improved water resisting nature

and enhanced durability[71][72][73]

1.3 Literature summary

layers of fibrous materials can increase the compressive strength.

1.4 Literature Gap

1.5 Proposed Objectives

compressed stabilized mud blocks.

d) To evaluate compressive strength of different type of walletes built using stabilized