EDUCATION COMMISSIONS AND COMMITTEES IN RETROSPECT

Origin of the Present System of Education

The origin of the present system of education which is prevalent in this country today can be traced to the
beginning of the nineteenth century when a controversy had been raging over the issue whether oriental learning
and science should be spread through the medium of Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian or Western sciences and literature be
spread through English as the medium of instruction. The Government conducted surveys of the then prevalent
systems of education with a view to re-organising education to suit the needs of the times. Consequent on
Macaulay's Minute regarding the educational policy of the future, Lord William Bentick's Government issued a
communique wherein it was stated " that the great object of the British Government ought to be the promotion of
European literature and science among the natives of India; and that all the funds appropriated for the purpose of
education alone". The Government Resolution, however, stated that provision should be made for the continuance of
schools and colleges where indigenous learning was being imparted.

Wood's Despatch of 1954 on Education

By 1853 a number of problems concerning education in the country had risen which required immediate
solution. As a result of an inquiry made by the Government, Sir Charles Wood, the then Secretary of state, sent a
despatch popularly known as Wood's Despatch to the Court of the Directors of the East India Company in 1854. The
despatch enunciated the aim of education as the diffusion of the Arts, Science, Philosophy and Literature of Europe. It
laid down that the study of Indian languages was to be encouraged and that the English language should be taught
wherever there was a demand for it, and that both English and the Indian Languages were to be regarded the media
for the diffusion of European knowledge; a scheme to establish universities was to be formulated, whose functions
were to hold examinations and corder degrees. The despatch also recommended that a number of high schools
should-be set up4. This eventually led to the establishment in the country of the first three universities in 1857.

The Education Commission of 1882

In 1882 the Government of India appointed a Commission, known as the Hunter Commission, "to enquire
into the manner in which, effect had been given to the principles of the Despatch of 1854 and to suggest such
measures as it may think desirable in order to further carrying out of the policy therein laid down". The Commission,
inter alia, recommended the gradual withdrawal of the State from the direct support and management of institutions
of higher education. With regard to vocational and technical education, the Commission recommended that in the
particular class of high schools there should be two avenues, one leading to the entrance examination of the
University and the other of a more practical character intended to fit the youth for commercial, vocational and non-
literary pursuits.

The Universities Commission of 1902

The recommendations of the Hunter Commission led to a rapid expansion of higher education during the next two
decades, giving rise to problems which necessitated the appointment of a Commission on January 27, 1902, "to
enquire into the condition and prospects of the universities established in British India; to consider and report upon
any proposals which have been, or may be made for improving their constitution and working, and to recommend
such measures as may tend to elevate the standard of university teaching, and to promote the advancement of
learning". The Commission recommended the reorganization of university administration; a much more strict and
systematic supervision of the colleges by the university; and the imposition of more exacting conditions of affiliation;
a much closer attention to the conditions under which students live and work; the assumption of teaching functions
by the university within defined limits; substantial changes in curricula and in the methods of examination. As a result
of the recommendations of this Commission secondary schools came to be more under the domination of the
Universities: under the Indian Universities Act of 1904, schools had to be recognized by the Universities, and rules and
regulations were framed for this purpose *7.
 Government Resolution on Educational policy in 1913

There was a growing popular demand in the country for mass education. A Government Resolution *8 on
education policy were issued in 1913, enunciating three cardinal principles:

(i) that the standard of existing institutions should be raised in preference to increasing their number;

(ii) that the scheme of primary and secondary education for the average scholar should be steadily diverted to more
practical ends; and

(iii) that-provision should be made for higher studies and research in India, so that Indian students might get enough
facilities for higher work without having to go abroad.

Though the Resolution was immediately carried into effect, the out break of the World War I delayed the
developments planned in the Resolution. However, some new universities were established. *9

The Calcutta University Commission of 1917

The next important stage was the appointment of the Calcutta University Commission in 1917 under the
Chairmanship of the late Sir Michael Sadler. This Commission went into the question of secondary education and held
the view that the improvement of secondary education was essential for the improvement of University education.
The Commission made the following important re- commendations:

(i) The dividing line between the University and Secondary courses should properly be drawn at the Intermediate
examination than at the Matriculation Examination.

(ii) The Government should, therefore, create a new type of institution called the intermediate colleges which would
provide for instruction in Arts, Science, Medicine, Engineering and Teaching etc; these colleges were to be run as
independent institutions or to be attached to selected high schools.

(iii) The admission test' for universities should be the passing of the Intermediate examination.

(iv) A Board of Secondary and Intermediate Education, consisting of the representatives of Government, University,
High Schools and Intermediate Colleges be established and entrusted with the administration and control of
Secondary Education.

The Sadler Commission Report was a comprehensive one and many of the universities in India implemented its
suggestions. It was also for the first time that a Commission had recommended the attachment of Intermediate
Classes to the high schools and the setting up of a Board of Education to control High School and Intermediate
Education.

The Hartog Committee

In 1929, an Auxiliary Committee of the Indian Statutory Com- mission, known as the Hartog Committee
after its Chairman Sir Philip Hartog was appointed to review the position of education in the country. In the opinion of
this Committee, the Matriculation of the University still dominated the whole of the secondary course. In order to
obviate this defect, the Committee recommended that a large number of pupils intending to follow certain avocation
should stop at the middle school stage and there should be "more diversified curricula in the schools". The Committee
also recommended diversion of more boys to industrial and commercial careers at the end of the middle stage,
preparatory to special instruction in technical and industrial schools". The Committee also reviewed the problems
relating to the training of teachers and the service conditions of the secondary teachers".
 The Sapru Committee

The Sapru Committee appointed in 1934 by the U.P. Government to enquire into the causes of
unemployment in U.P. came to the conclusion that the system of education commonly prevalent prepared pubils only
for examinations and degrees and not for any avocation in life. The Committee suggested that-

(i) diversified courses at the secondary stage should be introduced, one of these leading to the University degree;'

(ii) the intermediate stage be abolished and the secondary stage be extended by one year;

(iii) the vocational training and education should begin after the lower secondary stage; and

(iv) the Degree course at the University should extend over a period of three years.

The Abbot-Wood Report, 1936-37

In pursuance of the Resolution of 1935 of the Central-Advisory Board of Education (an advisory body set up
in 1921), two expert advisers, Messrs. Abbot and Wood were invited in 1936 to advise the Government "on certain
problems of educational reorganization and particularly on problems of vocational education". The Abbot-Wood
Report, submitted in 1937, suggested a complete hierarchy of vocational institutions parallel with the hierarchy of
institutions imparting general education.

As a result of their recommendations "a new type of technical institution called the Polytechnic has come into
existence". The provinces also started technical, commercial or agricultural high -schools conducting non-literary
courses .

Zakir Hussain Committee's Report

In 1937, the Congress Ministry assumed responsibility of administration in seven major Provinces of India
and concentrated their attention on educational reforms. In October 1937, an all-India National Educational
Conference was summoned at Wardha under the presidentship of Mahatma Gandhi and the following resolutions
were adopted:

1. That in the opinion of this conference free and compulsory education be provided for seven years on a nation-wide
scale;

2. That the medium of instruction be the mother- tongue;

3. That the conference endorses the proposal made by Mahatma Gandhi that the process of education throughout
this period should centre around some form of manual and productive work, and that all other abilities to be
developed or training to be given should, as far as possible, be integrally related to the central handicraft chosen with
due regard to the environment of the child; and

4. That the conference expects that this system of education will be gradually able to cover the remuneration of
teachers.

The conference then appointed a committee 'with Dr. Zakir Hussain as its chairman. The Committee submitted its
report on December 2, 1937, and the scheme of education suggested by it is popularly known as the "Wardha
Scheme", the main features of which are as follows-

(i) A Basic Craft is to serve as the centre of instruction. The idea is not to teach some handicraft side by side with
liberal education, but the entire education is to be imparted through some industry or vocation;

(ii) The scheme is to be self-supporting to the extent of covering teachers' salaries and aims at making pupils self-
supporting after the completion of their course;
(iii) Manual labor is insisted on so that every individual may learn to earn his living through it in liter life. It is also
considered non-violent, since an individual does not snatch away the living of others with the help of a machine; and

(iv) Instruction is closely coordinated with the child's life, i.e., his home and village crafts and occupations.",

The Sargent Report

In 1944, the Central Advisory Board of Education submitted a comprehensive Report on Post-War
Educational Development, known as the Sargent Report, visualizing a system of universal, compulsory and free
education for all boys and girls between the ages of 6 and 14, the Senior Basic or the Middle School to be the final
stage in the school career of majority of the pupils. The Report also recommended that at the Middle School stage,
provision should be made for a variety of courses, extending over a period of five years after the age of 11. These
courses while preserving an essentially cultural character should be designed to prepare the pupils for entry into
industrial and commercial occupations as well as into the Universities. It was recommended that the High School
course should cover 6 years, the normal age of admission being 11 years and that the High Schools should be of two
main types (a) academic, and (b) technical. The objective of both should be to provide a good all-round education
combined with some preparation in the later stages for the careers which pupils will pursue on leaving schools.

The University Education Commission of 1948

The era of educational reconstruction inevitably followed in the wake of social and economic reconstruction initiated
by the National Government after 1947, education being the chief instrument for reconstruction and transformation
of society. The first steps taken in the direction of educational reconstruction were the appointment of a series of
commissions to survey, study, review and recommend improvements in the different sectors of education.

To look into the problems of University education, the University Education Commission was appointed by the
Government of India in 1948 under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan in pursuance of the recommendations
of the Central Advisory Board of Education and also of the Inter-University Board. The Commission made important
suggestions for improving the standard of university education in the country. Introduction of a three-year degree
course for the first university degree, greater use of tutorial system of instruction, formulation of new aims, emphasis
on developing knowledge and critical thinking rather than mechanical passing of exami- nations, establishment of
Rural Universities and introduction of moral education were some of its salient recommendations. The Commission,
however, thought it unfortunate that neither the public nor the Government had realized the importance of
Intermediate Colleges in the Indian educational systems. To coordinate University Education in the country, the
establishment of the University Grants Commission was also recommended. The Commission came into being
immediately there after.

The Secondary Education Commission, 1952

The Radhakrishnan Commission had surveyed the field of secondary education in a passing manner and
had admitted that 'our secondary education remains the weakest link in our educational machinery and needs urgent
reform' *18. This fact was the raison d'etre of an All India Commission for Secondary Education appointed in 1952
under the Chairmanship of Dr. A. Lakshmanswamy Mudaliar. This Commission offered a numbers of suggestions to
adjust secondary education with the new goals and needs of free India. The aim was now to train our youth for
intermediate leadership and for democratic citizenship. Secondary education was to be a terminal stage for a large
majority of the nation's youth, who would take up their places in society after their school education and provide
leadership to the general masses. The Commission was equally concerned with qualitative improvement of the
schools. To develop individual talent, curricular offerings were extended and diversified. To achieve the new aims of
education, changes in methods of teaching were suggested. New trends in examination, guidance and extra
curricular work were brought into the school programmes. Multipurpose secondary school was a new concept
recommended by the Commission. Inclusion of craft, social studies and general science in the curriculum was aimed
at orienting students towards an industrial and science-centered democratic life.
The following were the main recommendations of the Commission:

1. New Organization pattern.-(i) Secondary education should commence after four or five years period of primary or
junior basic education and should include (a) the middle or senior basic secondary stage of 3 years, and (b) the higher
secondary stage of 4 years; (ii) The present intermediate stage should be replaced by the higher secondary stage
which should be of four years' duration, one year of the present intermediate being included in it; (iii) As a
consequence of the preceding recommendations, the first degree course in the university should be of three years'
duration; (iv) For those. who pass out of the High School, there should be provision of a pre-University course of one
year; (v) Admission to professional colleges should be open to those who have completed the higher secondary
course, or have taken the pre-University course; (vi) Multi-purpose schools should be established wherever possible to
provide varied courses of interest to students with diverse aims, aptitudes and abilities.

2. Technical Education.-Technical schools should be started in large number either separately or as part of multi-
purpose schools. Such schools should be located in close proximity to appropriate industries and they should function
in close cooperation with the industry concerned.

3. Study of Languages-(i) The mother-tongue or the regional language should generally be the medium of instruction
throughout the secondary school stage, (ii) During the middle school stage, every child should be taught at least two
languages. English and Hindi should be introduced at the end of the junior basic stage, subject to the principle that no
two languages be introduced in the same year. (iii) At the high and higher secondary stage, at least two languages
should be studied, one of them being the mother tongue or the regional language.

4. Curriculum.-(i) At the middle School state, the curriculum should include, (a) languages, (b) social studies, (c)
general science, (d) mathematics, (e) art and music, (f) craft and (g) physical education. (ii) In the second year of high
school or higher secondary stage, diversified courses' of instruction should be provided. They- should include
following seven groups: (a) humanities, (b) sciences, (c) technical subjects, (d) commercial subjects, (e) agricultural
subjects, (f) fine arts and (g) home science. (iii) A certain number of core subjects should be common to all students
whatever diversified course of study they may take. These should consist of (a) languages, (b) general science, (c)
social studies and (d) a craft.

5. Miscellaneous.-(i) Educational guidance should receive much greater attention on the part of educational
authorities; the services of trained guidance officers and career masters should be made available gradually and in
increasing measure to all educational institutions. (ii) The number of external examinations and subjectivity in the
essay-type tests should be minimized by introducing objective tests and also by changing the type of questions.

The Commission's recommendations were integrated in the successive five-year plans and began to be implemented,
both at the Centre and in the States, in 1954.

The National Committee on Women's Education, 1958

The problems of education of girls and women in the country, acquired a new significance since the attainment of
Independence. The Educational Panel of the Planning Commission, in July 1957, re- commended that "a suitable
Committee should be appointed to go into the various aspects of the question relating to the nature of education for
girls at the elementary, secondary and adult stages and to examine whether the present system was helping them to
lead a happier and more useful life". The Conference of the State Education Ministers in 1957 also agreed that a
special committee should be appointed to examine the whole question of women's education.

The National Committee on Women's Education was accordingly set up by the Government in May 1958, with
Shrimati Durgabai Deshmukh as Chairman. The Committee, in its report published in 1959, recommended that the
highest priority should be given to establishing a parity between the education of boys and girls and a bold and
determined effort should be made by the Centre and the States to face the difficulties and magnitude of the problem.
It recommended co- education up to the middle school stage but separate institutions for girls at the high school
stage where more diversified curriculum suited to girls should be introduced. The Committee desired ample provision
for school mothers, creches, training of women teachers and employment facilities for adult women. It also desired
that suitable atmosphere should be created for greater enrolment girls, for greater efforts by voluntary
organizations, more provision for scholarships for girls at all stages and particularly at university stage.
Some of the important recommendations of the Committee are below:

1. The education of women should be regarded as a major and special problem in education for a good many years to
come, and that a bold and determinate effort should be made to face its difficulties;

2. Steps should be taken to constitute as early as possible a National Council for the Education of Girls and Women;

3. A separate unit for Women's Education, under a Educational Adviser, should be set up at the Centre;

4. In each State, a women should be appointed as Joint Director and placed in charge of education of girls;

5. Lady teachers should be appointed in all schools where there are no women;

6. There should be identical curricula for boys and girls at the primary stage. At the secondary stage, there is need for
differentiation of the courses;

7. Vocational training courses with 'Primary' as basic qualification may be conducted in school during the day, along
side general education. Courses with 'Middle' and 'Secondary as basic qualifications may be organized in vocational
sections of middle and secondary schools, in multipurpose schools, in separate vocational schools, in apprenticeship
classes, in training centers, in workshops and/or in continuation schools.

8. Educational facilities for adult women in the form of condensed courses (i) that prepare women for the middle
school examination, and (ii) those that prepare them for the high school or higher secondary examination should be
provided more extensively in all States; and

9. Part-time employment of women teachers should be encouraged as largely as possible in order to enable women
to manage their responsibilities at home as well as to do some teaching work.

On the recommendations of the Committee, the Government of India has set up a National Council for Women's
Education at the Centre.