BIOLOGY MODULE 2: SECTION 2.

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A LEVEL FOUNDATION IN BIOLOGY

BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANE
REVISION NOTES
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By Nasteexo Cali
all cells and organelles are surrounded by a partially permeable membrane composed of a sea
of phospholipids with protein molecules.

Main function of the membrane

The main function of the membrane is controlling the movement of substances in and out of
the cell/organelle.

However, it also contains receptors for other molecules such as hormones and enables adjacent
cells to stick together.
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The fluid mosaic model

They call the structure of the cell-surface membrane the fluid mosaic model because the word
fluid is used because the phospholipid molecules can move around within each layer. This
means the membrane is flexible and can change shape. The word mosaic is used because the
membrane is shedded with protein molecules. The arrangement of these proteins varies a bit
like the tries in a mosaic.

( It is called the fluid mosaic model because of the fluidity of the membrane and the
mosaic arrangement of the protein.)

The movement of molecules through the cell membrane depends on the

properties of the molecules as well as the requirements of the cell.

there are several types of movement:

● Diffusion is the passive movement of small, non-polar lipid soluble molecules such as
carbon dioxide and oxygen from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration. The molecules move directly through the phospholipid bilayer.
● Facilitated diffusion requires a channel protein in the cell membrane to transport polar
molecules, charged and water soluble molecules across the membrane.
● Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from an area of low solute concentration to
an area of high solute concentration through a partially permeable membrane.
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● Active transport can transport all types of molecules through carrier proteins from an
area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. However, this process
requires energy in the form of ATP.
● Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large particles and bulk transport. The particles
are enclosed in vesicles made from the cell surface membrane and transported into the
cell in endocytosis.
● In exocytosis, vesicles containing large particles are fused with the cell surface
membrane.

the rate of gas exchange by diffusion becomes more rapid as:

● Surface area of the cell increases.
● diffusion distance decreases.
● The diffusion gradient becomes more steep.

cell-surface membrane
● Describe the role of phospholipids in the membrane.

● Describe the fluid-mosaic model of the cell

surface membrane.
The hydrophobic tails don't interact with water because it is away
from the water in outer (fatty acids).

The hydrophilic head can interact with the water (phosphate group).
If placed in water they arrange themselve parallel from each other.

Polar hydrophilic head.

Non-polar hydrophobic tails.

the phospholipid bilayer is the basis of all cell membranes this includes cell surface membrane
and membranes surrounding organelles such as lysosomes and mitochondria.

membranes act as barriers for example between the external contents/environment of the cell
and external environment or between the contents of an organelle and the cytoplasm.
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membranes can be located for chemical reactions (respiration).

membranes are involved in cell signaling.

Because the cell surface membrane contains a hydrophobic center, hydrophobic molecules such
as steroid hormones. They can easily pass through the cell membrane.

However, the hydrophobic cantre prevents hydrophilic water-soluble molecules from easily
passing through. This is because hydrophilic substances are polar (charge). The substances
cannot easily pass through the non-polar region of the membrane.

water molecules can pass through cell membranes even though they are polar. This is because
they are extremely small = takes places at a slow rate.

Cholesterol:

Cholesterol has a polar hydrophilic group. This group attracts the polar head group on the
phospholipid molecules.

The rest of the cholesterol molecules are non-polar and hydrophobic. attract non-polar fatty
acid in the phospholipids.

This increases the strength of the cell-surface membrane. It makes it more stable and less likely
to damage.
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cholesterol reduces sideways movement of phospholipids and molecules. This controls fluidity
of the membrane. This prevents the membrane from becoming too fluid under warm conditions
and too rigid under cool conditions. Cholesterol reduces movement of water-soluble chemicals
across the cell-surface membrane.

(key definition: compartmentalisation = the formation of separate

membrane-bound areas in a cell)

Membrane proteins
● describe the different types of protein found in cell-surface
membrane.

● describe what it is meant be a glycolipid

you can divide cell membrane proteins into two broad categories:
● intrinsic / integral proteins.
● extrinsic / peripheral proteins

Intrinsic protein

intrinsic proteins are fully embedded in the membrane from side to the other.
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Because they pass right through the lipid bilayer they have hydrophobic fatty acid tails in the
phospholipids bilayer.

Carrier proteins

They can change shape and positions to transfer molecules or ions from one side of the
membrane to the other.

protein channels

They have a channel running through the center. This channel is lined with hydrophilic amino
acids and is filled with water molecules. Protein channels allow water-soluble molecules and
ions to diffuse through.

Extrinsic protein

Extrinsic proteins do not span the membrane. Instead they are found on one side of the
membrane or the other and sometimes they are attached to intrinsic proteins.

Some extrinsic proteins have a structural role within the membrane. whereas others act as an
enzyme. Some are receptors for other molecules like hormones.
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Many membrane proteins also contain carbohydrate molecules attached. They are called
glycoproteins. They have a range of functions within the cell.

Some glycoproteins allow cells to attach to each other to form tissues such as nervous tissues;
others play a role in the immune system presenting antigens to T cells. Others act as receptors
for hormones

Carbohydrates can also be found attached to phospholipid molecules. This is called glycolipids.
They are often used when cells come in contact with each other. They can also act as antigens
for example in determining your blood group.

Diffusion
● Describe what it means by diffusion.

● Describe the factors that affect the rate of diffusion.

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Diffusion is a net (or overall) movement of particles from a region of higher

concentration to a region of lower concentration (down the concentration gradient).

Net movement because some particles move randomly. most particles move in the same
direction so the overall movement of particles.

1. starts of with one of the sides having a high concentration (constant kinetic collision)
and the other side have a low concentration
2. Over time as particles are moving randomly some of the gas is passing through the
partially permeable cell membrane.
3. The concentration would then be the same on each side of the membrane so no
concentration gradient. Equilibrium has been reached no net movement

Diffusion is a passive process so it doesn't require metabolic energy to take place.

metabolic energy is energy released by respirations.

Because some chemicals can easily diffuse through the cell membrane while others cannot, the
cell membrane is described as partially permeable.

FACTORS:

● the greater the concentration, the greater the rate of diffusion.

● Because the cell membrane contains a hydrophobic core, charged particles such as ions
will not be able to diffuse through the membrane. Except water = polar/small. uncharged
oxygen diffuses rapidly across the membrane.
● size is important. small particles will diffuse faster than layer ones.
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● temperature. In warmer conditions, particles have more kinetic energy and diffuse
faster than in colder conditions. However this is not an issue for mammals and birds
because they contain constant body temperature.
● surface area. Diffusion happens more rapidly to smaller surface area.
● Distance. The greater the distance, the slower the rate of diffusion. This explains why
cells are so thin
● Channel/Carriers (facilitated diffusion)

Facilitated diffusion
● Describe what is meant by facilitated diffusion

not all molecules/substances diffuse across the cell membrane at the same rate. That's because
the center of the cell membrane is hydrophobic due to the fatty acid tails of the phospholipid
molecules.

hydrophobic substances such as steroid hormones can diffuse rapidly across the membrane.

However, hydrophilic substances such as ions and polar molecules cannot diffuse across the
membrane

● An exception is water. water molecules can diffuse across membranes even though
water molecules are polar. That's because water molecules are very small.

This is a problem for some cells as many of these substances are required for processes inside
the cell.

to solve this problem cells use facilitated diffusion

In facilitated diffusion hydrophilic substances diffuse across the cell membrane via protein
molecules. These protein molecules allow the hydrophilic substances to cross the membrane
without interacting with the hydrophobic center of the phospholipid bilayer. There are two
types of protein molecules involved in facilitated diffusion (channel/carrier).
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Carrier proteins have a binding site for a specific chemical. When the chemical binds it causes
the tertiary structure of carriers protein to change.

This change in tertiary structure brings the chemical across the membrane where the chemical
is now released.
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A protein channel is a protein with a central pore. This pore or channel is lined with hydrophilic
amino acids and contains water.

Hydrophilic substances can pass through the channel from one side of the membrane to the
other.

Protein channels are selective for the chemical that can pass through. This means only
certain chemicals can pass through each type of protein channel.

While some types of protein channels are always open, other protein channels only open in
response to a certain trigger. This could be a chemical binding to the protein channel. For
example, neurotransmitters could be voltage across the membrane like the nerve system.

Facilitated diffusion is still a type of diffusion so even though chemicals diffuse via carrier
proteins or protein channels the chemicals still move from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration.

Metabolic energy is not needed in facilitated diffusion.

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Active transport
● Describe what is meant by active transport.

● Describe the role of ATP in active transport.

In active transport, carrier proteins in the membrane transport a chemical from a region of low
concentration to a region of higher concentration.

Active transport requires metabolic energy which is provided by the molecule ATP. Active
transport is used to move lots of different molecules and ions both into and out of the cell but
always against the concentration gradient.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

1. During active transport, the molecules or ions to be transported attach to a receptor site
on the carrier protein.
2. This takes place on the side of the membrane where the chemicals is at a lower
concentration.
3. A molecule of ATP then binds to the carrier protein.
4. Next the ATP molecule undergoes hydrolysis producing phosphate and molecule of
ADP.
5. The phosphate attaches to the carrier protein and causes it to change shape.
6. This shape change causes the carrier protein to transport the molecules or ion to the
other side of the membrane where it is released. The phosphate now leaves the carrier
protein causing it to return to its previous shape.
7. The ADP and phosphate will later reform ATP during respiration.

Active transport uses a lot of ATP so you would find a lot of mitochondria in cells that use a lot
of active transport.

The carrier proteins used in active transport are specific. So each carrier protein will only
transport one type of molecule or ion.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND FACILITATED DIFFUSION:

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● carrier proteins are different

● Active transport moves chemicals against the coe concentration gradient and is an
active process
● facilitated chemicals move down the concentration gradient; it is a passive process.

Osmosis and water potential

● Describe what it is meant by osmosis in terms of water potential

Because the membrane is a partially permeable membrane, the water molecules can
freely pass across the membrane but the solute molecules cannot.

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to
a region with a lower water potentially (or selectively) permeable membrane.

osmosis is passive.

The water molecules from each side of the partially permeable membrane are colliding with the
membrane constantly.

These collisions mean that the water molecules apply a pressure to the membrane.

The water potential is greater on the right hand side because there are more water molecules.
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After osmosis net movement would be zero.

Particles / molecules would still be moving but the same amount at a time.

Pure water has the highest water potential because it has the highest concentration of water
molecules (0=KPa).

Water potential of any solution is below zero (negative number).

More concentration = low water potential.

Less concentration = high water potential.

Effects of osmosis on animal

and plant cells
● Describe the effect of osmosis on animal and plant cells.

ANIMAL CELL: RED BLOOD CELL.

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The cytoplasm of cell animal cells contains a number of solutes dissolved in water. These
solutes include the sugar glucose and mineral ions such as the sodium ions. These dissolved
solutes mean that the cytoplasm has a negative water potential.

Red blood cells are surrounded by a watery solution called blood plasma.

Water potential of blood plasma is the same as the water potential of the cytoplasm in red
blood cells because the water potential is both the same inside and out of the cell osmosis is not
taking place.

However water molecules are still moving across the cell membrane.

The rate of movement inwards is the same outwards so no net movement of water molecules.

If you put the red blood cell in pure water the water potential is now greater than the water
potential inside. This means water molecules now move inside the cell by osmosis.

The pressure inside the cell increases (hydrostatic pressure).

The cell / plasma membrane is not strong enough to withstand a significant increase in the
hydrostatic pressure inside the cell.

If enough water molecules move inside the cell the cell membrane can rupture and the cell to
burst (haemolysis).

If you put the cell in low water potential (glucose solution) water would move out of the cell
and the cell will shrink.

In animals, the water potential of the liquid around cells is highly controlled so its the same as
the water potential of the cytoplasm.

PLANT CELL:
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If you place the plant in pure water the water potential is greater outside then it is inside
because of this water entering the cell by osmosis.

This causes the hydrostatic pressure inside the cell to increase because of this the protoplast
pushes outwards against the cell walls.

So rather than busting like the animal cell becomes firm because of the cell wall which is
made out of cellulose which makes the cell stronger.

Cell is turgid.

The internal pressure is called turgor pressure.

The turgor pressure prevents any more water from entering the cell by osmosis.

If you place cells in lower concentration (glucose solution). This would be lower than the water
potential inside the cell so therefore water moves out of the cell by osmosis.
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This causes the protoplast to pull away from the cell wall (plasmolysis).

The plant cell is said to be plasmolysed.

When plasmolysis occurs , the space between the cell membrane and the cell wall is now filled
with the solution which surrounds the plant cell.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

● Describe what is meant by endocytosis and exocytosis.

In both these processes large molecules are transferred across the cell membrane.

They can both transfer a large quantity of material (also called bulk transport).

In endocytosis ,particles or molecules are transformed into the cell. This can include large
molecules such as proteins as well as cells like bacteria.
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^ ^ the cell membrane folds inwards to form a cavity around the particles.

The particles to be transported are now in the cavity.

^ ^ the membrane completely encloses the particles to form a vesicle. Now the vesicle moves
into the cell.

What happens next depends on what's in the vesicle so they could be digested like lysosomes or
delivered to where cells need them.

2 types of endocytosis:
when solid materials such as bacteria are taken into cells by endocytosis (phagocytosis).

Endocytosis can be used to transfer fluid into the cell for example the liquid surrounding
the cell (pinocytosis).

Endocytosis brings materials into the cell.

_________
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Exocytosis makes material out of the cell.

This includes secreted proteins such as hormones and certain enzymes.

^ ^ At the start of exocytosis, these proteins are found in the golgi apparatus.

Here the proteins are modified before they are secreted.

^ ^ vesicles containing the protein bud off the golgi apparatus and makes their way towards the
cell membrane.

The vesicles then fuse with the cell membrane and the protein is secreted.

_________

Endocytosis and exocytosis requires energy for example, to move vesicles to and from the cell
membrane. This energy is provided by the molecule ATP.
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