Neurosci. Bull. www.neurosci.

cn
DOI 10.1007/s12264-017-0183-5 www.springer.com/12264

REVIEW

Biomarkers for Parkinson’s Disease: Recent Advancement

Sharvari Lotankar1 • Kedar S Prabhavalkar1 • Lokesh K Bhatt1

Received: 5 April 2017 / Accepted: 3 July 2017

Ó Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, CAS and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017

Abstract As a multi-factorial degenerative disease, bradykinesia, hypokinesia, postural instability, rigidity,

Parkinson’s disease (PD) leads to tremor, gait rigidity, stooped posture, and tremor at rest, which commonly
and hypokinesia, thus hampering normal living. As this present along with gait impairment, stiffness of the arms,
disease is usually detected in the later stages when neurons legs, and trunk, poor balance and coordination, and
have degenerated completely, cure is on hold, ultimately bilateral vocal cord paralysis at the extreme and worsening
leading to death due to the lack of early diagnostic level. These motor features are used to monitor the
techniques. Thus, biomarkers are required to detect the response to therapy and to assess progression in PD
disease in the early stages when prevention is possible. [2, 3]. These symptoms are due to the changes at different
Various biomarkers providing early diagnosis of the levels within the brain. The major pathological change is
disease include those of imaging, cerebrospinal fluid, the progressive degeneration of neurons in the substantia
oxidative stress, neuroprotection, and inflammation. Also, nigra pars compacta, one of the nuclei constituting the
biomarkers, alone or in combination, are used in the basal ganglia. These neurons are involved in transmitting
diagnosis and evolution of PD. This review encompasses dopamine to another basal ganglia nucleus and the
various biomarkers available for PD and discusses recent striatum. Degeneration of these neurons leads to dysfunc-
advances in their development. tion of the neuronal circuits that include motor cortical
areas and the basal ganglia. Ultimately, at the level of an
Keywords Parkinson’s disease
Imaging biomarkers
individual’s behavior, these changes result in movement
Biochemical biomarkers
Clinical biomarkers
Genetic abnormalities, the major manifestations of PD, affecting
biomarkers the individual’s quality of life [2].
Along with the selective neuronal loss in substantia
nigra pars compacta, another characteristic of PD is the
Introduction Lewy body inclusions that are composed mainly of a-
synuclein (ASN) [4, 5], a presynaptic protein genetically
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a multifactorial neurodegener- and neuropathologically linked to PD [6]. Lewy bodies are
ative disease that involves the progressive impairment of abnormal insoluble fibrillary aggregates that develop inside
voluntary motor control. This represents the primary nerve cells in PD [7]. Apart from these prominent features,
clinical feature of the disease and its prevalence increases familial forms of PD can be traced to the mutations in the
steadily with age [1]. Impairment of voluntary motor gene for ASN and single gene mutations, along with
control leads to the signs and symptoms akinesia, mutations of nuclear encoded proteins leading to the
autosomal and recessive forms of PD [7]. In addition to the
motor features, several non-motor features have gained
& Kedar S Prabhavalkar attention for detecting prodromal PD, such as hyposmia
kspharmac@gmail.com
(olfactory deficits), visual abnormalities (oculomotor dis-
1
Department of Pharmacology, SVKM’s Dr Bhanuben Nana- turbances), neuropsychiatric symptoms like depression and
vati College of Pharmacy, Vile Parle (W), Mumbai, India anxiety, anhedonia, apathy, autonomic dysfunction,

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 Neurosci. Bull.

orthostatic hypotension, sleep disorders such as REM-sleep Changes in Brain Volume in PD

behavior disorder, and constipation and other dysauto-
nomic features. Urogenital dysfunction as well as mood The cognitive functions of PD patients are strongly
disorders and other neurobehavioral abnormalities have correlated with brain size [11, 25]. In PD patients, atrophy
also been reported [8, 9]. of the brain has been reported in many cortical and
subcortical areas, which contributes to the decrease in the
Anatomical Changes in PD volume of the brain [11, 26]. Also, volumes of the frontal
lobe, the temporoparietal junction, the parietal lobe, the
In PD, susceptibility to cognitive impairment has been insula, the anterior cingulate cortex, the basal ganglia, and
suggested [10]. Thus, understanding the structural changes the thalamus are increased in PD patients [11, 27].
underlying cognitive decline is essential for diagnosis and
treatment of PD. Below we describe the neuroanatomical Changes in the Thalamus in PD
changes that aid in the diagnosis and treatment of PD [11].
Thalamic stimulation leads to the enhancement of cogni-
Changes in the Basal Ganglia in PD tion through the hippocampus and neocortex and the
modulation of gene expression, whereas thalamic lesions
Signals from the cortex for accurate execution of voluntary have been found to impair cognition [11, 28, 29]. The
movements are processed by the basal ganglia [11, 12]. changes in the thalamus include 30%–40% neuronal loss
The basal ganglia are mainly involved in cognitive along with a decrease in volume [11, 19, 30]. Specific
functions and are the most affected area in PD thalamic nuclei are involved in PD. Atrophy of the caudal
[11, 13, 14]. There are two subtypes of PD, tremor- intralaminar nucleus and hypertrophy of the other nuclei
dominant (TD) and with postural instability/gait difficulty result in an altered shape of the thalamus. Depression of PD
(PIGD), in each of which the basal ganglia are affected in a patients is due to the changes in the mediodorsal thalamus
different manner [11, 15]. In the TD subtype, reduced [11, 31, 32]. Also, a significant reduction in fractional
fractional anisotropy within the substantia nigra and anisotropy has been reported in the anterior, dorsomedial,
increased mean and radial diffusivity within the substantia and ventral anterior nuclei of the thalamus [11, 33].
nigra and globus pallidus have been reported. However, in
PIGD, the microstructure within the substantia nigra is Changes in the Hypothalamus in PD
severely affected [11, 16]. Severe reduction of the neu-
romelanin pigmentation, neuronal loss, and Lewy bodies In PD patients, impairment of hypothalamic function has
have been observed in the substantia nigra [11, 17]. been reported and the hypothalamus plays a role in
Depending on the severity and duration of the disease, the cognitive functions [11, 34, 35]. Predominant degeneration
basal ganglia undergo different degrees of dysfunction has been observed in the tuberomamillary nucleus and
[11, 18]. Reduction in the volumes of the caudate nucleus, lateral and posterior hypothalamic nuclei, along with
thalamus, and white matter is an early sign during disease neural degeneration in all 13 nuclei of the hypothalamus
progression. Since the basal ganglia are responsible for [36]. Further, decreased levels of neurotransmitters such as
voluntary motor control, procedural learning, eye move- dopamine, melanin, serotonin, and hypocretin have been
ment, and cognitive and emotional functions, all of these found in the hypothalamus [11, 36]. Due to the disruption
are hampered [11, 19]. in hypothalamic functioning, secondary degeneration
occurs in structures such as the striatum where synthesis
Changes in the Cerebellum in PD of dopamine occurs [11, 37]. Due to the dopamine
dysfunction in the hypothalamus, sleep disorders as well
The cerebellum shows increased activity during cognition, as endocrine and autonomic disorders develop in PD
which is impaired in PD [11, 20]. Certain PD-related [11, 38].
morphological changes have been observed in the cerebel-
lum, such as decreased grey matter volume in the right Changes in the Limbic System in PD
quadrangular lobe along with significant contraction in the
left cerebellum. The cerebellum has reciprocal connections In PD, changes in the limbic system lead to atrophy of the
with the basal ganglia [11, 21, 22]. As the cerebellum grey matter which, along with the dopamine dysfunction,
receives dopaminergic projections from the basal ganglia, leads to changes in creativity and emotional dysfunction in
and dopaminergic receptors are also present in the cere- PD patients [11, 39, 40]. Cortical, accessory basal and
bellum, changes in cerebellar activation are induced by granular nuclei are the least affected areas whereas
degeneration of these dopaminergic neurons [11, 23, 24].

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accessory cortical and central nuclei are more affected in surplus of muscarinic cholinergic neurons via M4 recep-
PD [11, 41]. tors. In PD caused by depletion of dopamine, the autoin-
hibition of acetylcholine release by auroreceptor is
Changes in the Locus Coeruleus in PD blocked, which results in surplus acetylecholine release.
However, the dopaminergic neurons are activated partly by
In PD patients, there is a significant dopaminergic neuronal nicotinic cholinergic neurons [49, 52] along with the
loss in locus coeruleus. Due to the neuronal loss in PD, activation by nACh neurons in the putamen via beta-2
symptoms such as resting tremors occur [11, 42, 43]. In the receptors. Thus, beta-2 nACh agonists could be of thera-
locus coeruleus, lesions of the dopaminergic system result peutic value in the treatment of PD [49, 53].
in metabolic dysfunction in the cerebral cortex and
impairment of cognitive functions [11, 44]. Serotonin

Changes in Glial Cells in PD Serotonergic (5-HT) neurons have connections to almost

all brain structures and show a high degree of axonal
In response to the physiological and pathological condi- branching. The loss of dopamine can be compensated by
tions, structural changes occur in astrocytes, which influ- 5-HT hyperactivity. There is a dopaminergic and seroton-
ence neurons through non-synaptic communication ergic interaction in the putamen through glutaminergic
[45–47]. This altered neuroglial interaction is the underly- neurons via NMDA receptors and 5-HT exerts its function
ing cause of neurodegenerative diseases like PD [48]. via 5-HT2A receptors. Additional administration of 5-HT2A
antagonists not only improves dyskinesias, but also
Neurotransmitter Changes in PD improves psychotic symptoms [49, 54].

In PD, the signs and symptoms develop only after GABA

dopamine deficiency is up to 80% in the basal ganglia
(caudate and putamen) and the substantia nigra pars GABA exerts a presynaptic inhibitory action in the
compacta. Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine striatum, in the globus pallidus internus which is an output
(ACh), c-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and glutamate also nucleus, and in the globus pallidus externus which is an
play a major role [49, 50]. In the extrapyramidal system, input nucleus, via GABAA and GABAB receptors. The
there is a neurotransmitter imbalance with a deficiency in dopamine deficiency is enhanced by GABA hypofunction
dopamine and GABA and a surplus of ACh and glutamate. together with antagonistic interaction between AMPA/
Dopamine and ACh act as postsynaptic excitatory neuro- NMDA glutaminergic neurons and GABAA receptors [49].
transmitters, through D1/D2 receptors and muscarinic and At present, agents that enhance the GABAergic neuro-
nicotinic cholinergic subreceptors, respectively [49, 51]. transmission with an agonistic effect particularly on
GABA exerts a reduced presynaptic inhibitory action and GABAA receptors could be of therapeutic value for PD
glutamate exerts an excitotoxic effect and a presynaptic [49, 55].
inhibitory action via N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and
metabotropic glutaminergic receptors [49, 51]. Glutamate

Dopamine In PD there is an imbalance in GABAergic-glutaminergic

neurotransmitters, with a GABA deficiency and a gluta-
PD is pathologically characterized by a loss of dopamin- mate hyperactivity or excitotoxicity in the extrapyramidal
ergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, due to system. Glutaminergic neurons strongly presynaptically
oxidative stress and partly to susceptibility genes leading to inhibit D2 dopaminergic neurons via NMDA receptors in
a lower dopamine level. This lowering in dopamine level the putamen [49, 56].
further leads to characteristic motor impairments in PD.
The role of dopamine in PD is supported by various studies Biomarkers for Parkinson’s Disease
which showed effectiveness of dopamine agonists in
ameliorating the motor defects of PD [49]. Currently, one of the significant limitations in the treatment
of PD is late detection. Despite the rigorous efforts in
Acetylcholine patient management and clinical research, methods are
suboptimal in areas of diagnosis, refining prognosis,
In PD, there is an imbalance between dopaminergic– predicting individual responses to therapeutic interven-
cholinergic neurotransmission via the D2 receptors and a tions, and tracking disease progression. Thus the need of

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validated biomarkers with a high degree of sensitivity and transporters and visualizing dopamine degeneration in the
specificity is the need of the hour with the intuitive goal to nigro-striatum in PD [61]. DaTscan (ioflupane I123 injec-
help diagnose disease [57]. The following encompasses tion, also known as phenyltropane) is a radiopharmaceu-
various biomarkers available for PD and discusses recent tical agent which is injected intravenously in a procedure
advances in their development. called SPECT imaging. The 123I-N-3-fluoropropyl-2beta-
A biomarker gives an indication of the particular disease carbomethoxy-3beta-4-iodophenyl tropane (123I-FP-CIT)
state of an organism and evaluates the progress of the binds to DAT proteins in the presynaptic membrane on
disease and the treatment effects. It can be a physical, the dopaminergic terminals from the substantia nigra to the
chemical, or biological parameter [58]. As per the NIH striatum thus serving as a marker for dopamine terminal
study group, it is objectively measured and evaluated as an innervation. This depicts the DAT abnormality in PD and
indicator of normal biologic processes and pathogenic or predicts the course of the disease by measuring the number
pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention [58]. of DATs relative to the normal level at any early point in
In the diagnosis of PD, although no individual biomarkers PD [60, 61].
have been recommended, they can be combined rationally
to predict the status and progression of the disease. The Fluorodopa PET Scan
difficulties in diagnosing PD make the search for biomark-
ers difficult, as identifying the diagnostic criteria for a F-DOPA is a fluorinated form of levodopa (L-DOPA).
disease is important in identifying and validating the F-DOPA is used as a radiotracer in PET scans, which focus
biomarkers. Although biomarkers of PD are diverse, they on analyzing the efficiency of neurons in the striatum in
can be broadly divided into three stages: Prodromal, dopamine usage and serve as a biomarker for PD [62]. The
preclinical, and clinical PD. Table 1 summarizes the F-DOPA scan involves a neutral amino-acid that is
biomarkers of PD at these stages. transported into presynaptic neurons by an active transport
system and is converted into fluorodopamine by the
Imaging Biomarkers enzyme aromatic amino-acid decarboxylase (AADC). This
is a rate-limiting step during dopamine synthesis in
Imaging biomarkers are being increasingly employed in the dopaminergic neurons. [18F] DOPA uptake reflects the
diagnosis of PD to provide support for clinical observa- ability of dopaminergic neurons to produce dopamine
tions. The imaging biomarkers include molecular imaging, through AADC. The fluorodopamine is stored in presy-
transcranial sonography, magnetic resonance imaging naptic vesicles until neuronal activation triggers its release,
(MRI), and optical coherence tomography (OCT). and subsequently binds to dopamine receptors and then
enters catecholamine storage vesicles.
Molecular Imaging When injected into the bloodstream, 6-fluoro (18F)-L-
DOPA crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and ulti-
Molecular imaging techniques are not just those that offer mately reaches the dopaminergic cells. It is then used as a
anatomical images. In PD, molecular imaging is a type of precursor of dopamine for the assessment of presynaptic
medical imaging that provides pictures of the events dopaminergic integrity and accurately reflects the
happening inside the body at the cellular and molecular monoaminergic disturbances in PD. This test specifically
levels and measures the chemical and biological processes distinguishes PD from other types of neurodegeneration. It
as compared to the other imaging techniques. In PD, it assesses the cerebral metabolism of glucose thereby
measures the functions of neurons and other brain tissues serving as a biomarker for neuronal activity and neurode-
that use neurotransmitters like dopamine which become generation. This reduced brain metabolism is depicted in
abnormal. Molecular imaging procedures are noninvasive, the cortex, cerebellum, and striatum [62]. The current
safe, and painless. This involves an imaging device, an status of 18F-DOPA PET scans for PD is that 18F-DOPA is
imaging agent, and a probe. There are two widely used a PET tracer with selective in vivo affinity for the basal
imaging techniques that focus on dopamine, dopamine ganglia due to the specific metabolism of the substantia
transporter single-photon emission computed tomography nigra, and that 18F-DOPA PET imaging is the best
(DAT-SPECT) and fluorodopa positron emission tomog- diagnostic tool for PD [63]. In a retrospective study of
raphy (F-DOPA PET) [59]. PD patients (n = 29) scanned with 18F-DOPA PET, an
association has been established between reduced 18F-
DAT SPECT DOPA uptake and key symptoms of PD such as hypoki-
nesia-rigidity. There is hypothesized to be a stronger
DAT SPECT is an FDA-approved approach [60] to correlation between dopamine depletion in the striatum
scanning for the functioning of presynaptic dopamine with hypokinesia-rigidity than with tremor.

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Table 1 Biomarkers of PD at various stages.

Prodromal PD Preclinical PD Clinical PD

Clinical Starts with early non-motor symptoms along with early subtle motor symptoms No clinical signs or Classical motor
status and PD pathology is present. symptoms. manifestations are
present.
Biomarkers Non-motor symptoms Molecular imaging Motor symptoms
Hyposmia (olfactory deficits) DAT SPECT Akinesia
Visual abnormalities (oculomotor disturbances). Florodopa PET scan Bradykinesia
Neuropsychiatric symptoms Transcranial Hypokinesia
i. Depression sonography Postural instability
ii. Anxiety Magnetic resonance Rigidity
imaging
iii. Anhedonia Stooped posture
Optical resonance
iv. Orthostatic hypotension Tremor at rest
tomography
v. Sleep disorders such as REM-sleep behavior disorder Gait impairment
Biochemical
vi. Constipation and other dysautonomic Features. biomarkers Stiffness of arms, legs,
vii. Urogenital dysfunction. trunk
Genetic biomarkers
viii. Mood disorders and neurobehavioral abnormalities Poor balance and co-
ordination

The results showed that reduced F-DOPA uptake is substantia nigra hyperechogenicity in PD patients is
contralateral to the hypokinesia-rigidity symptoms and is believed to be associated with increased iron concentra-
also correlated with its severity. Furthermore, freezing of tions that result in oxidative stress and further injury to
gait is correlated with reduced F-DOPA uptake in the dopaminergic neurons, causing PD. Elevated nigral iron
putamen of the right hemisphere. But for tremor severity, levels have been reported in PD, reflecting disturbed brain
no correlation has been seen with F-DOPA reduction, as iron homeostasis [68]. Nigral iron elevation is an invariable
tremor in PD is not only based on dopamine-related feature of PD and is considered to be a sufficient cause of
pathway but may also rely on a different pathway [64]. neurodegeneration in PD [69]. Neurodegeneration along
In another study, the visible and quantitative anatomic with brain iron accumulation is caused by a mutation in
distribution of 18F-labelled L-DOPA in the healthy human pantothenate kinase 2 (PANK2), which catalyzes the initial
brain was evaluated to understand the extrastriatal sites of step in coenzyme A synthesis. Mutations reduce the
levodopa function and the fluorodopa accumulation in catalytic activity of PANK2 along with iron accumulation
patients. F-DOPA PET imaging demonstrated trapping of in the basal ganglia. Patients with this type of mutation
the labeled dopamine or its metabolites in substantial often present with Parkinsonism, as the brains of affected
quantities in many brain areas and not specifically in patients contain Lewy bodies, indicating that iron accu-
dopaminergic or catecholaminergic neurons. The total mulation is upstream of ASN deposition in idiopathic PD
uptake of florodopa is correlated with the sum of the [69]. Changes in the echogenicity are usually due to
catecholamine and indolamine concentrations in the brain. morphological and functional changes in the PD brain [67].
Substantial dopamine production within serotonin and Thus, this procedure is reliable in detecting abnormalities
norepinephrine neurons may play a role in therapeutic in the basal ganglia. The area of the substantia nigra has
effects of L-DOPA [65]. been measured using a Sonos 5500 ultrasound device.
Echogenicity of the raphe, red nuclei, thalamus, caudate,
Transcranial Sonography lenticular nuclei, and width of the third and lateral
ventricles have been documented [66].
Transcranial sonography is a non-invasive, painless tech-
nique that can be performed with no need for anesthesia Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
[66, 67]. Transcranial sonography helps to visualize the
mesencephalic hyperechoic signals in the substantia nigra MRI imaging in PD has particularly demonstrated the
pars compacta in PD that represent a dysfunction in the presence of increased iron in the substantia nigra in
dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway [67]. Hyperechogenic- Parkinsonian individuals. One of the most developed MRI
ity is an echo that is produced due to fat deposits during the markers is the iron load, using T2/T2* relaxometry [71].
ultrasound examination of an organ. The mesencephalic Using T2 and T2* imaging of the substantia nigra in PD

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patients, a change in the relaxation time constants can be Proteins and peptides reflective specifically of brain-
measured as a substitute for increased iron concentration in derived activities can diffuse into the CSF and many of
PD. These brain changes in PD have been found with a the biochemical modifications would be reflected in the
powerful MRI (3 Tesla scanner) that generates a magnetic CSF. Thus CSF may be a potential biomarker [76]. Many
field twice the strength of 1.5 Tesla machines and 10-to-15 of the CSF proteins basically originate from the blood
times the strength of open MRI scanners [70]. Further, the rather than directly from the surrounding brain tissue. CSF
T2 relaxation time also demonstrates the speed of water samples are usually obtained by lumbar puncture in the L3-
magnetization and its return to equilibrium after perturba- 4 or L4-5 interspace [77]. Following are some of the
tion by a radiofrequency pulse during this MRI scan. T2* potential biochemical biomarkers for early detection of PD.
imaging and its reciprocal R2* are essential in nigral
imaging and demonstrate the macroscopic nigral changes Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP)
in iron [70]. This method mainly reflects non-heme iron
rather than heme-iron. These imaging techniques are more Astrocytes are the most abundant cell type in the human
sensitive to bound iron stored as ferritin or neuromelanin central nervous system [78]. Apart from being central to
[70]. the catabolism of specific amino-acids, they are used in the
MRI has become a standard technique that is routinely synthesis of new amino-acids in the brain [79]. Astrocytes
performed in patients with PD in order to exclude are essentially involved in brain metabolism and the
secondary causes and provide specific information that transport of multiple nutrients and metabolic precursors
aids in the diagnosis of a neurodegenerative disease like to neurons via the malate-aspartate shuttle and other
PD. Transcranial sonography is a more widely used and a transporters. Protoplasmic astrocytes envelop neuronal cell
more recent advance in the diagnosis of PD. It may detect bodies and synapses beside an increase in the accumulation
individuals in the premotor phase of PD, and from this of ASN, whereas fibrous astrocytes interact with the nodes
perspective transcranial sonography is considered superior of Ranvier and oligodendroglia [78, 80]. Astrocytes are
to MRI [72]. characterized by the expression of the intermediate fila-
ments GFAP and vimentin [78]. GFAP is the major
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) as a Recent Bio- intermediary filament of astrocytes [80, 81]. It is a highly
marker for PD specific brain protein involved in maintaining the shape
and motility of the astrocytic processes. It also contributes
OCT provides accurate cross-sectional imaging of the to white matter architecture, BBB integrity, and myelina-
internal structures in biological tissues to reveal various tion [81]. Extra-cerebral sources of GFAP have not yet
inner retinal or optic nerve pathologies. Vision is one of the been identified and its blood levels in healthy individuals
non-motor systems that are altered in PD. Neurochemical are very low. Release of GFAP from brain tissue into the
analysis of the eyes of patients with PD has shown blood stream is supposed to occur under these conditions:
decreased retinal dopamine concentration, resulting in disruption of the BBB, and the loss of astrocytic structural
decreased visual acuity. In the human retina, dopamine is integrity due to necrosis or mechanical disruption. It is also
released by a set of amacrine cells in the inner proximal a key intermediate filament 3 protein responsible for
layer of the retina that communicate with other cells to play maintaining the structure of glia and maintaining their
a role in channeling visual information through the retina. mechanical strength as well as supporting neighboring
Thus the thickness of the retinal nerve fiber layer is a neurons and the BBB [82]. Evidence has suggested that
potential biomarker for PD diagnosis [73]. Retinal assess- GFAP and its breakdown products (GFAP-BDPs) serve as
ment is performed by DARC (detection of apoptotic retinal a biofluid-based biomarker for neurological conditions like
cells) and by OCT [74]. PD. Injury to the astrocytes causes the release of GFAP-
BDPs and to a lesser extent, full-length GFAP, from the
Biochemical Biomarkers injured astrocytes to the interstitial/extracellular fluid. They
are then released into the circulating blood by direct venous
Biochemical biomarkers can be investigated either in the drainage (lymphatic pathway) or further continue to follow
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or in blood. CSF is an accessible the CSF flow and eventually enter the circulation by
source of brain-derived proteins [75]. It is separated by the diffusing through the BBB. One of the major advantages of
BBB and supplies the brain tissues with nutrients and filters GFAP as a biomarker is that it has a strong brain-specificity
waste from the brain interstitial fluid. In PD, there are and is highly expressed in the brain [83, 84].
disruptions in the BBB and thus the CSF can be investi- Astrocytic functions become transiently impaired after
gated for potential biomarkers [76]. Also, the CSF remains astrocytic damage and this impacts the neurons and leads to
in close contact with the extracellular space of the brain. PD [78]. Thus, high levels of CSF GFAP and blood-serum

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GFAP are a potential early biomarker for neurological within the substantia nigra is associated with the deterio-
disorders such as PD. The GFAP level in CSF is usually ration of dopaminergic neurons. Thus, BDNF serves as a
measured with an in-house ELISA kit based on polyclonal potential biomarker in PD. The CSF level of BDNF is
antibodies, with a lower limit of 70 ng/L and intra- and correlated with cognitive performance in PD patients.
inter-assay coefficients of variation of 4% and 8%, BDNF levels can be assessed with the ELISA method [89].
respectively [81].
Neurofilament Light Chain Protein
DJ-1
Neurofilaments are major structural elements involved in
DJ-1, also known as Parkinsonism-associated deglycase maintaining neuronal shape and size and axonal caliber.
encoded by the PARK7 gene [85], is a multifunctional Thus, they are necessary for maintaining neuronal integrity
protein that plays a neuroprotective role in oxidative stress and the conduction of nerve impulses along the axon.
during neurodegeneration, apart from its other functions of Neurofilaments comprise three subunits [92, 93], neurofil-
transcriptional regulation, antioxidative stress reaction, and ament light (60 kDA), neurofilament medium (100 kDA),
chaperone, protease, and mitochondrial regulation [85, 86]. and neurofilament heavy (110 kDA) chain proteins. The
DJ-1 is usually expressed throughout the body in almost all presence of neurofilament light chain proteins in the CSF is
the cells and brain tissues in both neurons and glia [85]. indicative of neuronal degeneration. In particular, abnor-
Specifically, the expression of DJ-1 is increased in mally phosphorylated neurofilaments have been identified
oxidative stress. An increase of DJ-1 ultimately reflects in PD associated with Lewy bodies. Thus, neurofilaments
oxidative stress in PD patients, making it a biomarker for in the CSF can serve as a potential biomarker to predict the
PD [28, 29]. However, it should be noted that as the DJ-1 extent of neurodegeneration. Elevated levels of neurofila-
level is very high in erythrocytes, hemolysis and contam- ments have been detected in CSF following axonal damage
ination by erythrocytes greatly affect the DJ-1 levels in in the CNS that correlates with age. Increased levels of
CSF and plasma [85]. Therefore, in determination of the neurofilaments reflect degeneration of large myelinated
DJ-1 content in plasma and CSF, an evaluation of axons. This can be useful in the differential diagnosis of
hemolysis and contamination by erythrocytes is necessary PD, assessing the increasing levels of NFL as this is very
[85]. sensitive in detecting more aggressive neuronal death
[92, 93].
Urate
Glutathione
Urate is the anionic form of uric acid (2, 6, 8-trioxy-purine)
that predominates at neutral pH both intracellularly and in It is well known that redox stress contributes to PD
all body fluids. Urate is synthesized by xanthine oxidore- progression [95] and is involved in the degeneration of
ductase through successive oxidization of hypoxanthine to dopaminergic neurons. Disruption of physiological main-
xanthine and then to urate [87]. Uric acid is an important tenance of the redox potential in neurons interferes with
endogenous antioxidant with high concentrations in brain several biological processes and ultimately leads to cell
and serum. It can prevent oxidative stress due to its ability death. Glutathione functions as an antioxidant that clears
to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive out free radicals that could damage and potentially be toxic
nitrogen species (RNS) [79, 87, 88]. to dopaminergic neurons, thus operating as a neuroprotec-
Evidence from meta-analysis results has shown a lower tive agent. The total glutathione comprises reduced (GSH)
serum level of uric acid in patients with PD than in healthy and oxidized forms, maintains redox homeostasis, clears
controls, and this finding is more marked in men than in metabolic waste, and serves as a reservoir for amino-acids
women. Thus the serum uric acid level may be a potential in the brain [94].
biomarker for PD [87]. Post-mortem analysis of nigral tissue from PD patients
has revealed deficiency of GSH, indicating an impaired
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) ability of cells to metabolize cellular waste and defense
against ROS, RNS and H2O2 [94].
BDNF is a potent inhibitor of apoptosis-mediated cell
death and the neurotoxin-induced degeneration of Coenzyme Q10
dopaminergic neurons. Thus, the BDNF is eventually used
in the development of neuroprotective therapies to improve Coenzyme Q10 has recently gained attention as a dietary
cognitive functioning in PD [89–91]. Implicated in regu- supplement. It is present in the cytosol and plasma in
lating neuronal survival, the reduced expression of BDNF various neurodegerative diseases including PD. Coenzyme

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Q10 is an essential co-factor in the mitochondrial respira- a-Synuclein and Other Lysosomal Enzymes
tory chain and in oxidative phosphorylation, and is
considered to be a relevant antioxidant in PD, as it helps Lysosomal dysfunction and impairment is increasingly
in the functioning of the mitochondrial transport chain. In recognized as a central event in the pathophysiology of PD,
vitro and in vivo studies have suggested a defect in thus serving as a potential biomarker for PD. Lysosomes
mitochondrial complex 1 that results in the disruption of are a part of the cellular waste-disposal system and their
redox equilibrium, which ultimately leads to neuronal dysfunction is involved in PD pathogenesis. Apparently
toxicity. As a lipophilic antioxidant, it scavenges the this autophagy-lysosomal system is responsible for the
radicals within membranes. A decreased concentration of hydrolysis of dysfunctional proteins, and in the case of
this coenzyme results in an increase of free radicals not lysosomal impairment, ASN aggregation is observed as a
being scavenged, leading to neuronal degeneration [96]. common hallmark of PD. This ASN aggregation also
Thus coenzyme Q10 significantly retards the progression of involves post-translational modifications and certain
PD, and is clinically available as a peripheral biomarker as unknown factors. Certain lysosomal enzymes such as
it is capable of identifying diminished coenzyme Q10 glucocerebrosidase and cathepsin have been reported in
activity and has the potential to enhance the clinical lysosomal dysfunction. Consequently, detection of the
outcome in PD [96]. lysosomal enzymes and proteins in the CSF could serve as
a biomarker for PD. However, CSF lysosomal enzyme
Neuromelanin activity alone cannot discriminate PD from other diseases.
The combination of CSF lysosomal markers with ASN
Neuromelanin is a dark polymer pigment present in species and indicators of mitochondrial dysfunction,
catecholaminergic neurons and it appears to be abundant inflammation, and other pathological proteins in PD may
in the human brain but is absent from the brains of many facilitate a more accurate diagnosis [80]. In addition,
lower species [97, 98]. In PD, cells in the substantia nigra deficiency of the lysosomal enzyme beta-glucocerebrosi-
that contain neuromelanin are affected [98]. Accumulation dase (GCase) increases the risk of Parkinsonism, which
of neuromelanin-containing neurons seems to be a protec- appears to be driven by a direct effect of GCase deficiency
tive phenomenon that prevents various neurotoxic pro- and lysosomal dysfunction on a-synuclein aggregation.
cesses. In dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra Therefore, the GCase activity in the CSF would further
where no ferritin has been detected, neuromelanin func- serve as a PD biomarker [80].
tions as an iron storage system. In PD, dying neurons
release neuromelanin and this triggers a vicious cycle of Inflammatory Biomarkers
neuroinflammation which ultimately leads to neuronal
death [96, 98]. Neuromelanin also protects neurons from Neuroinflammatory reactions are involved in idiopathic PD
oxidative stress mediated by free radicals and metals [99]. [85] and this process occurs alongside the loss of dopamin-
The neuromelanin level can be measured by MRI tech- ergic neurons in PD [87]. Microglial cells are one of the
niques [90, 100], and it has been demonstrated to provide major cell types involved in the inflammatory process in
information on substantia nigra degeneration and is an the CNS [86]. Under physiological conditions, the quies-
essential biomarker for PD. cent state of microglia is maintained by a variety of
immunomodulators such as CX3CL1, CD200, and neural
Plasma Homocysteine cell adhesion molecule. The CX3CL1–CX3CR1 signaling
negatively regulates microglial activation, thus protecting
Homocysteine is a naturally occurring amino-acid resulting the DA neurons from degeneration by neurotoxins. Defi-
from the methylation process. The homocysteine levels are ciency of this signaling results in increased neurotoxicity
influenced by folate concentrations and several genetic and enhanced cell death of dopamine neurons in the
factors. An elevated concentration of total homocysteine in substantia nigra pars compacta of animal PD models.
plasma and CSF is considered to be a risk factor for PD Dysfunction of CD200–CD200R signaling also increases
[101]. Homocysteine triggers neuroinflammation and acti- the activation of microglia and exacerbates the degenera-
vated astrocytes and microglia release a number of factors tion of dopamine neurons in rat PD models, leading to
that further trigger inflammatory responses, ultimately neuroinflammation [86].
leading to neuronal death [102]. Also, homocysteine causes One inducer through which neurons and the microglia
neuroinflammation, leading to NO release from the support communicate to regulate inflammation is fractalkine
cells of the nervous system. This can trigger the release of (CX3CL1). Fractalkine is a 373-amino-acid protein that
NO within neurons themselves, triggering apoptosis is secreted by neurons and exists in both membrane-bound
[102, 103]. and soluble forms. The membrane-bound form serves as an

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adhesion molecule to support leukocyte adhesion. The velocity of movement, or reaction time are used clinically
soluble form functions as a pro-inflammatory chemoat- for examination.
tractant and serves as an anti-inflammatory and neuropro-
tective agent that reduces neuronal apoptosis. Thus, low Psychological and Affective Biomarkers
levels of fractalkine contribute to neuroinflammation,
leading to neurodegeneration in PD [104]. Thus fractalkine In early PD there are reports of depression, sleep disorder,
levels are associated with disease severity and the pro- apathy, and anxiety [109]. Although there are many reports
gression of PD [104]. of such conditions in the early stage of PD, they are not
specific and need to be seen in combination with other
biomarkers [109]. Several studies have reported sleep
Neurosin
disturbances with rapid eye movement disorder in PD
patients [110].
Neurosin is a trypsin-type serine protease that is preferen-
tially expressed in the human brain, and can be identified
by northern blotting. Neurosin is a protease that cleaves Olfactory Dysfunction
[66] and degrades ASN, the major constituent of Lewy
bodies present in the brain of patients with synucle- There is evidence of olfactory dysfunction in PD. In a large
inopathies like PD [88]. In synucleinopathies such as PD, proportion of PD patients, hyposmia and anosmia occur
lower neurosin levels have been reported [66]. The accompanied by loss of smell detection and identification
potential link between neurosin and its substrate ASN has [111]. This suggests neurodegeneration in the olfactory
been investigated in vivo using a commercial sandwich bulb. Combined with neuroimaging and neurochemical
ELISA kit and a direct ELISA developed in-house to markers, olfactory testing can be a good tool for early
quantify CSF levels of neurosin and ASN in patients with detection of PD [112].
PD [88, 105].
Vision Disturbance
Clinical Biomarkers
Since dopaminergic pathways are associated with the
In PD, several clinical biomarkers show motor impairment control of oculomotor function, impairment of saccades has
symptoms such as essential tremors, postural irregularity, been observed in early PD. However due to intra-subject
bradykinesia, muscular rigidity, walking difficulty, incon- variability, this biomarker has low reproducibility [113].
tinence, muscle rigidity, falling, and drooling. The PaRkIn-
son And non-Motor symptOms (PRIAMO) study, which Genetic Biomarkers
was conducted to evaluate non-motor symptom prevalence
in PD, showed that in the early stage patients had Single genes leading to the heritable forms of PD have yet
psychiatric disturbances, fatigue, and attention and mem- to be identified. Analysis for mutations in SNCA, Parkin,
ory problems [106]. Along with the non-motor symptoms PINK1, DJ1, LRRK2 and GBA is of utmost importance
such as nocturia, altered circadian rhythm, hyposmia, [103, 114]. The SNCA gene encodes the ASN protein and
hypoguesia, impaired visuo-spatial and color discrimina- corresponds to the PARK1 and PARK4 loci and mutations
tion, cardiac sympathetic innervation, reduction in the in SNCA gene account for [1% in the general population
sympathetic skin response, neurobehavioral deficits like [114, 115]. SNCA encoding ASN, the principal component
depression, dementia, olfaction, nocturia, impaired circa- of Lewy bodies, is the cause of PD [103, 116]. Triplication
dian rhythm, narcolepsy, and impulsive behavior are of SNCA gene causes a two-fold increase in ASA
clinical biomarkers [107]. These biomarkers are helpful expression. In PD patients, triplication of this gene may
and important for assessing the effect of treatment. also cause orthostatic hypotension. In 2008 one such case
of duplication was reported in which the patient showed no
Motor Function as a Clinical Biomarker response to levodopa treatment. Genome expression anal-
ysis can be performed using peripheral blood leucocytes
Epidemiological studies suggest that a large proportion of and PD patients compared to healthy controls [117].
patients with essential tremors also have PD [108]. Further, Analysis of global gene expression with DNA microarrays
many PD patients show pre-existing essential tremors. has been performed in the peripheral blood of PD patients
Complex skills like visually-guided movement, writing, [117, 118].

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