OpenStax Psychology

Chapter 4 States of Consciousness

Study Guide

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

Consciousness is the basic awareness of both internal and external stimuli. Internal awareness can range from feelings
of hunger or pain to even thoughts and emotions. External stimuli are generally more physical and include detection of
light, the feeling of temperature, or even listening during a conversation.

As humans, we experience various states of consciousness and our levels of awareness differ in many case. From being
fully awake to a state of deep sleep, our levels of awareness are continuously changing.

 Sleep, for instance, is a state marked by relatively low physical activity as well as a reduced sense of awareness.
 Wakefulness encompasses relatively higher levels of sensory awareness, thought activity, and behavior. To
demonstrate these differences, you can imagine times of being sleepy in comparison to being fully alert and
awake. What sorts of thought or behavior patterns differ between these states? Perhaps you demonstrate a
more wakeful state in the early afternoon versus early in the morning.

 These states are delegated through internal rhythms of biology activity also known as biological rhythms.
 Biological rhythms encompass all cyclical patterns of bodily change ranging from fluctuation of body
temperature to an individual’s menstrual cycle. Keep in mind levels of alertness can also be associated with
these bodily fluctuations.
 All these fluctuations take place every day for a period of about 24 hours and are a prime example of our
circadian rhythm, the biological rhythm that cycles every 24 hours.

Throughout these changes, homeostasis, or the tendency towards equilibrium within our biological system, is
maintained. A sense of time is maintained I the part of the hypothalamus known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus and
acts as a clock of a sorts within the brain. Despite continued maintaining of equilibrium between states; various
instances, like sleep deprivation, can throw off our circadian rhythms.

● To maintain any irregularities, an endocrine structure known as the pineal gland releases a hormone known as
melatonin to regulate our sleep-wake cycles.
Questions:
1. How does the chapter describe consciousness
a. What is the difference between internal and external stimuli?
b. Compare and contrast sleep and wakefulness states
2. What are biological rhythms and what are some examples?
3. Homeostasis is a concept presented in chapter 3.
a. what does it mean?
b. Where in the brain is it located?
4. Where in the brain is our biological clock and what is it called?
5. Explain what type of hormone is melatonin and which brain structure releases it.
c. How is melatonin related to homeostasis?
d. How does sleep regulation affect people who called themselves “night owls”? what about morning
people?
6. Disruptions of Normal Sleep:
e. What is jetlag and when does it happen?
f. What are some examples of jobs that required a rotating shift work?
i. What are the effects of having a rotating shift work and how can they be ameliorated?
g. What happens when people suffer from insufficient sleep?
h. What are the effects of sleep deprivation?

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

Sleep is a state marked by relatively low physical activity and a reduced sense of awareness.
Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple brain areas including the thalamus and hypothalamus (slow-
wave sleep) and the pons (REM sleep).
Sleep is associated with the secretion and regulation of many hormones including:
 Melatonin
 Follicle stimulating hormone
 Luteinizing hormone
 Growth hormone.
Adaptive Function (Evolutionary Hypotheses)
 Sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day.
 Sleep is an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness.
There is little evidence to support these explanations.
Cognitive Function
Focuses on sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation.
 Research shows that sleep deprivation results in disruptions in cognition and memory deficits.
 These impairments become more severe as the amount of sleep deprivation increases.
 Slow-wave sleep appears to be essential for effective memory formation.
Benefits of sleep
Maintaining a healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, increased motor coordination as well as many
benefits related to cognition and memory formation.
 Questions:
1. When does sleep rebound happen?
2. What are the different hormones secreted during sleep?
3. How is the secretion of different hormones during sleep related to normal daily functioning?
4. According to evolutionary theories, what are the adaptive functions of sleep?
5. How does the theory of cognitive function explain why we sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

Sleep itself is not present in a single state; rather it is composed of 5 stages divided by differentiating brain wave activity.
Entirely, sleep can be divided into two general phases:

rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM).

● REM can be characterized by actual rapid eye movements under closed eyelids as well as similar brain wave
activity to that of being awake.
● In contrast, non-REM sleep is makes up the majority of the sleep stages and can be categorized into 4 stages,
each with differentiating intensity of brain wave activity.

Questions:
Is sleep a uniform state of being? If not, what are the different stages involved in sleep?
1. Why do you think we go through different stages of sleep?
2. What happens during each stage of sleep? What characteristics are involved in each?
3. How do we know of the different stages of sleep? That is, what tool is used to measure them?
REM SLEEP
4. What does REM stand for? What happens during REM?
5. What is REM rebound?
Dreams
6. How did Sigmund Freud interpret dreams?
7. According to Freud, what are the two types of dream content?
8. According to Carl Jung, what is the collective unconscious?
9. How does the dreaming researcher Rosalind Cartwright counter attack the views of Freud and Jung on dreams?
10. What about Alan Hobson’s activation-synthesis theory of dreaming? How does it explain dreams?
11. Which of those dream explanations are you more inclined to believe and why?
4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

Despite all bodily functions set in maintaining scheduled sleep, issues such as disorders or substance uses create altered
states of consciousness that can disrupt and interfere with sleep.

Disorders such as insomnia, sleep apnea, or sleepwalking are just a few of the more common instances preventing sleep.

Insomnia

 Defined by difficulty falling or staying asleep - for at least 3 nights a week for at least one month’s time.
 The most common sleep disorder.
 May be associated with symptoms of depression.

Parasomnia

Parasomnias involve unwanted motor behavior/experiences throughout the sleep cycle. They include:

 Sleep walking:
o Usually occurs during slow-wave sleep.
 REM sleep behavior disorder:
o Occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with REM sleep does not occur.
o Includes high levels of physical activity during REM sleep.
o Often treated with Clonazepam (an anti-anxiety medication).
 Restless leg syndrome:
o Involves uncomfortable sensations in the legs when trying to fall asleep that are relieved by moving
the legs.
o Can be treated with a variety of medications.
 Night terrors:
o Sleeper experiences a sense of panic and may scream or attempt to escape.
o Occur during NREM sleep.

Sleep Apnea

Occurs when individuals stop breathing during their sleep, usually for 10-20 seconds or longer.

2 types:

 Obstructive – airway becomes blocked and air is prevented from entering the lungs.
 Central – CNS fails to initiate breaths.

Treatment can include a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device which pumps air into the person’s airways.
Narcolepsy

Involves an irresistible urge to fall asleep during waking hours. Often triggered by states of heightened
arousal or stress. Shares many features of REM sleep including:

 Cataplexy – loss of muscle tone while awake or in some cases complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles.
 Hypnagogic hallucinations - vivid, dream-like hallucinations.
 Treatment – psychomotor stimulant drugs.

Solutions such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, a type of psychotherapy focusing on cognitive processes as well as
problem behaviors can be used to possibly remedy these sleep disorders.

Questions:
1. What percentage of the population suffer from a sleep disorder?
INSOMNIA
2. What are the characteristics of insomnia?
3. How can insomnia be treated? (Hint: Read through the EVERYDAY CONNECTION topic on Solutions to support
healthy sleep)
PARASOMNIAS
4. List the different types of parasomnias and their definitions.
5. What does sleepwalking have to do with a legal defense? (Hint: Read the story under the DIG DEEPER topic)
SLEEP APNEA
6. What causes it?
7. What are the symptoms?
8. What are the treatments?
SIDS
9. What does SIDS stand for?
10. What are the symptoms?
11. Who does it affect?
12. What causes SIDS?
NARCOLEPSY
13. What happens when someone suffers from narcolepsy?
14. What is cataplexy?
15. How is narcolepsy treated?
4.5 Substance Use and Abuse
Substances ranging from stimulants to hallucinogens can also play a role in sleep deprivation. Uses of
substances encompass disorders primarily on addiction.

Compulsive use can result in a physical dependence, involving changes in bodily functions, or a psychological
dependence, regarding emotional cravings in contrast to physical needs.

Even in discontinuing the substance, withdrawal is a possible result and includes a variety of negative symptoms as a
result of unsatiated addictions.

Psychologically
Class of Drug Examples Effects on the Body Effects When Used Addicting?

Increased alertness, mild euphoria,

Cocaine, amphetamines decreased appetite in low doses. High
(including some ADHD Increased heart rate, doses increase agitation, paranoia,
Stimulants medications such as Adderall), blood pressure, body can cause hallucinations. Some can Yes
methamphetamines, MDMA temperature cause heightened sensitivity to
(“Ecstasy” or “Molly”) physical stimuli. High doses of MDMA
can cause brain toxicity and death.

Low doses increase relaxation,

Sedative- Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., decrease inhibitions. High doses can
Decreased heart rate,
Hypnotics secobarbital, pentobarbital), induce sleep, cause motor Yes
blood pressure
(“Depressants”) Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax) disturbance, memory loss, decreased
respiratory function, and death.

Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Decreased pain, pupil

Morphine, Oxycodone, dilation, decreased Pain relief, euphoria, sleepiness. High
Opiates Vicoden, methadone, and gut motility, doses can cause death due to Yes
other prescription pain decreased respiratory respiratory depression.
relievers function

Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, Increased heart rate Mild to intense perceptual changes
mescaline, DMT, dissociative and blood pressure with high variability in effects based
Hallucinogens Yes
anesthetics including ketamine that may dissipate on strain, method of ingestion, and
and PCP over time individual differences

Questions:
1. Why do you think the topic of substance use and abuse is under the sleep and consciousness chapter?
2. Which manual is used to diagnosed people suffering from addictive disorders?
3. What is the difference between physical and psychological dependence?
4. How are tolerance and withdrawal similar and different from each other?
5. Review Table 4.2 and write down the effects of each of the different classes of drugs
6. What is the difference between a stimulant and a depressant type of drug?
7. Why is alcohol considered a depressant drug?
8. How do stimulant drugs work on the neurotransmitter system?
9. Why might opioids be highly addictive?
10. What is the opioid crisis?
11. How do hallucinogens work in the brain? What neurotransmitters do they target?
4.5 Other States of Consciousness
Although states of consciousness shift between wakefulness and sleep, we have the ability to alter our states of
consciousness ourselves.

Hypnosis, for example, is a state of extreme self-focus, often utilizing powerful forms of suggestion to the individual by a
clinician.

Another form of altered consciousness is meditation, which also increased focus to heighten temporal awareness.

Questions:
1. What are the other states of consciousness that the chapter mentions?
2. How does each one work?
3. Are they beneficial to our health?