Part 4: Post Earthquake Damage

Evaluation and Retrofitting of Reinforced

Concrete Buildings
 Why do the repair and retrofitting of earthquake
damaged buildings essential?

The occurrence of earthquake leaves behind innumerable damaged structures

with varying intensities ranging from minor cracking to total collapse. At such a
moment replacement is neither feasible nor practical to meet out shelter
problems. Therefore, repair and retrofitting is the only solution which may
convert such buildings to seismically safe structures for future earthquakes.
This section of the manual intends to provide guidance for repair and
retrofitting of earthquake damaged structures.

Cracked infill wall

(with cracks extending
through concrete frame)

Diaphragm distress Racking of cladd

Damaged cladding
Panel zone cracking connections

Beam concrete spalling Columns out of plumb

exposure of reinforcement (at any level)

Column concrete spalling

Typical damages in a RC buildings11

What are the causes of column failure in an RC building and
in what manner?

Columns are damaged mainly due to lack of confinement, large tie spacing,
insufficient splices length, inadequate splicing at the same section, hook
configurations, poor concrete quality, less than full height masonry infill
partitions, and combinations of many of the above compounded with vertical and
geometrical irregularities. Failure of columns has catastrophic consequences for
a structure. Two types of failure in columns are generally observed as shown
below and their consequences are also listed.

Failure sketch28
Type 1: Damage at the top and bottom Type 2: Damage in weakest part of column in
section of column (often occurs in long the form of X-shaped cracks (often occurs in
columns) short columns)

Consequences of damage
 Loses its ability to carry vertical  Spectacular collapse of the building
load  Generally occurs in columns of ground floor
 Loss of equilibrium
What is the cause of beam failure in a building and in what
manner?

Only a few examples exist in which buildings have exhibited plastic hinging in the
beam. The probable regions of hinging are at and near their intersections with
supporting columns28. The causes of hinging are lack of confinement of concrete
core and support for the longitudinal compressive reinforcement against
inelastic buckling.

Failure sketch28
Type 1: Orthogonal to beam axis along the Type 2: Shear failure near the supports of
tension zone of the span beam

Consequences of damage
 Most common type of damage  Second most frequent type of damage
 Existing micro cracks, due to bending of  More serious than the previous one
the tension zone, widened due to vertical  Brittle in character
component of earthquake.  Sometimes jeopardize the overall
 Does not jeopardize the safety of stability of the structure
structure

Failure sketch28

Type 3: Flexural cracks on the upper and Type 4: Shear failure at the location of
lower face of beam at the supports indirect support/secondary beams

Consequences of damage
 Flexural cracks on the upper and lower  Due to the vertical components of
face of the beam earthquake which amplified the
 Cracking at lower face due to bad concentrated load
anchorage of the bottom reinforcement
in to the support, in that case one or two
cracks from close to support
 What is the cause of beam -column joint failure in a
building and in what manner?

Beam-column joints are critical elements in frame structures, are subjected to

high shear and bond-slip deformations under earthquake loading. Account for
cross-sectional properties of the joint region, amount and distribution of column
vertical steel, inadequate or absence of reinforcement in beam-column joints,
absence of confinement of hoop reinforcement, inappropriate location of bar
splices in columns are the common causes of failure of beam-column joints.

Failure sketch28

Type 1: Corner Joint Type 1: Exterior Joint Type 3: Cross shaped Joint

Consequences of damage
Reduce the overall stiffness of the building
 What is the cause of slab failure in a building and in what
manner?

Generally slab on beams perform well during earthquakes and are not dangerous
but cracks in slab create serious aesthetic and functional problems. It reduces
the available strength, stiffness and energy dissipation capacity of building. In
flat slab construction, punching shear is the primary cause of failure.

Failure Sketch28
Type 1: Cracks parallel or transverse to the Type 2: Cracks at critical sections of large spans
reinforcement at random locations or large cantilevers, transverse to the main
reinforcement

Consequences of damage
 Most of time it is due to the widening of  Mostly due to the vertical component of the
already existing micro-cracks due to earthquake action
bending action/temperature changes/
shrinkage. It became visible after
dynamic excitation
 Sometimes due to differential settlement
of columns

Failure Sketch28
Type 3: Crack at locations of floor Type 4: Cracks in areas of concentration of large
discontinuities, such as the corner of seismic load effects, particularly in the connection
large openings accommodating interval zones of slab to shear walls or to column in flat plate
stairways, light shaft and so on system

Consequences of damage
 Mostly due to the vertical  Punching shear failure
component of the earthquake action  Aggregated by the cyclic bending moment caused
by an earthquake
 Slab directly on column seismically vulnerable
structures. It should be avoided
What is the cause of shear wall failure in a building and in
what manner?

Shear wall generally performs well, but sometimes shows diagonal flexural-shear
cracking causing significant damage to coupling beams and short piers between
openings

Failure Sketch28

Type 1: X-shaped shear Type 2: Sliding at the Type 3: Damage due to

cracks - limited spelling construction joint flexure and compression

Consequences of damage
 Under the action of  Most frequent type of  Very rarely occurs
vertical loads, the failure because of bending
isosceles triangles  Old concrete is not moment developed at
formed on the two sides properly bounded with the base of the wall
tend to separate from fresh concrete much smaller when
the structure and  Not too serious because those calculated for
therefore cause of the structure still carries the design.
collapse vertical load
What is the cause of infill failure in a building and in what
manner?

Infill wall failure occurs due to stiffening effect of infill panels because of i)
unequal distribution of lateral forces in the different frames of a building -
overstressing of some frames ii) vertical irregularities in strength and stiffness
- soft storey iii) horizontal irregularities - torsion and iv) failure of infill itself.

1 2
Vu Vu

Mode 1 Mode 2

3 4
Vu Vu

Mode 3 Mode 4
1
Vu
Lenegd
Plastic Hinge
Shear Failure in Frame
Crack in Infill
Crushing of Infill

Mode 1

Mode of failure of in-filled masonry in RC moment resisting building frame29

 Why is repair necessary before retrofitting of earthquake
damaged structure?

The aim of repair is to reestablish the initial strength of damaged structural

members. Properly repaired structural members may posses the same strength
but will have a somewhat reduced stiffness due to very fine cracks. Retrofitting
is the judicious modification of the strength and/or stiffness of structural
members and improve structural performance. Retrofitting will be effective
when the damaged structures have sufficient strength and stiffness achieved
by the repairing process. The choice of repair depends upon post earthquake
evaluation besides other minor factors such as local site conditions, type and age
of the structure, type and degree of damage, available time, equipment and
staff for specific architectural requirements, cost, and the required level of
seismic safety.

Post Retrofitting Process – to

obtain the higher strength and
stiffness than before damage

Repairing Process – to
regain the lost strength
and stiffness
 What should be the aim of post earthquake damage
evaluations?

Post earthquake investigation is the statement of the structure pertaining to its

nature and degree of damage, design and emergency measure for temporary
support to minimize the possible material loss in case of increased damage to
structure during aftershocks. The post damage evaluation is also utilized in
determining repair and/or retrofitting measures.

It is an evaluation of the structure which may require removal of some non-

structural components, coatings, concrete covers, details of cracks, yielded
reinforcement, excessive deformations, connection failures, etc. It is also an
assessment of the structural members to resist the seismic forces and the dead
and live loads26.

First degree Emergency Demolition YES

inspection Service or support

NO
“YELLOW” “GREEN”
Damage
posting
Demolition
“RED” or support

Emergency YES
action

NO

Second degree
inspection

“YELLOW” “GREEN”
Damage
posting

“RED”

YES NO
repairable

Third degree
inspection

YES repairable NO

Repair or Demolition Unlimited

Strengthening use
Limited use
or no use
 What are the considerations for emergency measures in
temporary protection?

Temporary protection provides temporary strength or support for damaged

elements and connections to achieve safety of the whole structural system.
Temporary support is recommended for severely damaged buildings which
exhibit in the form of a rupture of a column, serious cracking of load bearing
walls, etc. Shoring of the damaged elements relieving danger of collapse during
aftershocks is diminished. Support is needed at the floor of the damaged
vertical element which may be extended to other floors as well. The purpose is
to provide safety to the people in adjacent streets, sidewalks and yards; to
workmen making repairs and retrofitting provisions. The distance between the
supports and the damaged member must be minimum providing enough
unobstructed space for the eventual repair work or replacement of damaged
elements. Against unstable horizontal forces, lateral counter forts or wall
braces should be provided for walls which may fall laterally. Diagonal braces of
structural frames can be installed. The whole procedure should be properly
organized, in order to minimize the working time of people in and under the
structure.

t t

t t

t t

t t

Column or load bearing wall

to be replaced or repaired

Temporary Protection of a damaged column26

 What are the methods for supporting vertical loads?

A suitable method of supporting vertical load can be support of damaged or

failed members with techniques such as industrial scaffolding; tree logs, steel
profiles, or grillage logging26. This depends on means, seriousness of damage and
size of structure.

Industrial-Type Shoring For small loads, independent industrial-type metal tube

and Scaffolding shores

For shoring of beams or slabs - dismountable type metal

towers, wedged to the surface with the aid of special
screw type bolts.

Timbers, Tree Logs and For one damaged column – Minimum one 250 mm diameter
Telephone Poles log on each side
For two or more supporting elements - X-shaped braces
may be preferred
Built-up steel members In the same manner as in case of tree logs. Steel sections
or Steel Profiles require bearing plates of both sections top and bottom and
must be properly wedged. Steel profiles assembled around
the perimeter of a damaged column similar to permanent
jacketing can also be utilized for temporary support
Timber Grillages If wooden rail sleepers or other similar timber is available,
vertical support can be erected by forming a grillage. The
sleepers are placed in alternating layers to the required
height. On top of the grillage wide flanges steel I-beams or
suitable timbers are placed

wedges wedges
L> 100x100x10
bolt

L> 120x120x10

Shoring with timber grillage PLAN

L>100x100x10
bolt
L>120x120x10 L>120x120x10
plate
(min 40.8)
welding
welding

L>120x120x10

BASE
VIEW

Industrial Industrial type Built-up steel members or steel profiles26

shoring26 scaffolding26
 What are the methods for providing lateral support?

A suitable method of supporting lateral support of damaged walls or failed

members are such as lateral wall bracing, frame bracing, wedging techniques
etc26.

Lateral Wall Bracing Lateral wall bracing like timbers, logs or steel profiles
may be used to support the
hazardous/damaged/instable exterior bearing walls of
masonry, stone or concrete block construction since the
walls may fall outward due to the loss of vertical
support

Frame Bracing For concrete framed structures, without in-filled walls

in the lower story or with heavily damaged in-filled
walls in a particular story; internal diagonal frame
bracing can be used. Frame bracing consists of timbers,
tree or steel profiles of sufficient strength for
buckling. The bracing members are installed diagonally
between columns on a frame line, consisting of several
more slender elements laced together to form a built-
up compression member. The location of the braces
should be provided in a balanced system

Wedging Techniques Wedging is recommended for all temporary supports to

transfer the loads from the damaged member to the
new support system for which several methods may be
used, such as ordinary wooden wedges with suitable
securing devices, mechanical jacks, hydraulic jacks or
hydraulic flat jacks to ensure uniform loading and
unloading

timber or steel struts wedged tight P

Roof to act as compressive struts
roof
Vertical with
suitable attachment steel
to building wall connection
floor

Diagonal brace, H H
braced for compressive
Floor
stability as required

floor
Deadman or anchor
to ground

Floor

Lateral Wall Bracing26 Frame Bracing26 Wedging Techniques26

 How to carry out retrofitting process for a damage
building?

Following steps are generally followed while carrying out retrofitting of a

damaged building during an earthquake;

Step Action required

1. Fix emergency measures for temporary protection
2. Detailed documentation such as design calculations, drawings,
specifications, construction details, original construction data, material
strengths, foundation and soil condition data, previous repairs or
alterations, codes followed etc.
3. Visually inspect each and every structural member such as, beam, column,
beam-column joints, staircase, floor slabs and the connections between
floors and walls and foundations and note the location and amount of
damage. The reason of failure should be highlighted like shear,
compression, tension, flexure, bar anchorage, etc.
4. Prepare the plan or alternative schemes to repair and /or retrofitting/
strengthening the structure with cause of damage underlined such as
discontinuities in strength or stiffness, torsion, hammering with adjacent
structures, improper connections or details, effects of non-structural
elements.
5. Try to estimate the existing strength and stiffness of the damaged
structure and with the repair and /or strengthening schemes. Precaution
must be taken that the strengthening/retrofitting elements should not
cause increased damage in a future earthquake. For example, If shear
walls are added, new foundations will be required not only to support the
weight of the wall but particularly the overturning forces otherwise it is
fatal in itself
6. Finalize the schemes as per feasibility, imagination and ingenuity with
professional experience best with economy
7. Finally design procedures include a completion of the detailed calculations of the
strengthening/retrofitting solution and the preparation of drawings,
specifications and instructions of the work
 What type of materials can be used in Repair and
Retrofitting Project?

Different types of materials may be used in repairing and retrofitting structures.

Before utilizing any of these materials or techniques, the designer should study
technical literatures, obtain advice, and be thoroughly familiar with the process.
The most common type of materials used in repair and retrofitting are;

Conventional cast-in- Low shrink concrete with higher strength than existing is
place concrete recommended (fc rep ≥ fc exist + 5 MPa).
High strength Conventional concrete with super plasticizers and expansive
concrete admixtures in the appropriate proportions
Shotcrete (Gunite) Dry mix concrete of higher strength than existing is
recommended (fc rep ≥ fc exist + 5 MPa).

Polymer concrete Polymer-modified concrete has mainly two advantages (i)

water-reducing plasticizers, (ii) improving the bond between
old and new elements but several disadvantages like
vulnerablity to fire and lower alkalinity present inferiors
resistance against carbonation compared to conventional
concrete
Resins Resins are used for grouting injections into cracks in order
to glue together the cracked concrete or thin metal sheets
on concrete surfaces. Its modulus of elasticity must be
compatible to the concrete to be glued and viscosity
appropriate for the crack width. Resins lose their strength
in temperatures higher than 100°C and therefore such
repairs are not fireproof. Epoxy resins are the most
common type of materials in use today
Grouts Grouts consist of cement, water, sand, plasticizers and
expansive admixtures used for the filling of voids or cracks
with large openings on masonry or concrete.
Gluing metal sheets Stainless steel sheets usually 1.00-1.50 mm thick covering
on concrete with an epoxy resin layer
Welding of new Low-alloy steel is preferred as new reinforcement because
reinforcement it may be welded more easily. New bars are welded on the
old ones with the aid of connecting bars
Gluing Fiber- Similar to steel sheets fiber reinforced plastic sheets
Reinforced Plastic (glass, aramid and carbon fibers) are glued to structural
(FRP) sheets on members. Where dead weight, space or time restrictions
concrete exist, FRP are an attractive choice. But exposures can
result in the weakening of the interface between FRP
composites and concrete.
 How to repair minor/ moderate cracking in a structural
member?

The process of repairing is similar to all structural members i.e. column, beam,
beam-column joints; shear wall etc. as it depends on crack width. There are few
instances and its repairing techniques are given here;

Post-earthquake condition Repairing Technique(s)

of structural member

Minor cracking Epoxy resin injection from bottom proceeds upward

through ports placed in drilled holes, spaced 20 to
100 cm

Moderate cracking Cement grout injections from bottom proceeds

upward through ports in drilled holes. Strength and
compactness should be checked through appropriate
testing.

1
2

1 - cracks; 2 - injection ports

Repairing process for minor cracking26

1 a-a

4
7
3
a a

1 2
5
4

1 - existing reinforcement; 2 - added new reinforcement; 3 - added new ties;

4 - existing concrete; 5 - new concrete; 6 - welding; 7 - temporary castform

Repairing process for moderate cracking26

 How to repair severe cracking in a structural member?

Heavily damaged or Replace with non-shrinkage concrete or concrete with

crushed concrete low shrinkage properties. The temporary form and
concrete should be higher than the finally required
top level in order to compact the concrete
sufficiently. After one day, the form can be removed
and the fresh concrete that is beyond the normal
configuration can be chipped away.

buckling of longitudinal Totally remove and replace the damaged parts, cut
reinforcement, the buckled reinforcement and straighten, insert new
ruptured ties and longitudinal reinforcement and weld it to the existing
crushed concrete reinforcement, insert new additional close ties in two
piece welded to each other, place the new non-
shrinkage concrete. Special attention must be paid to
achieve good bond between the new and the existing
concrete.

1
1 8

5
4
3

2
6

1 9

1
1 8

2 5
6

1 - existing non-damaged concrete; 2 - existing damaged concrete;

3 - new concrete; 4 - buckled reinforcement; 5 - new reinforcement;
6 - new ties; 7 - welding; 8 - existing ties; 9 - existing reinforcement

Repairing process for severe cracking26

 Are the repairing techniques sufficient for a building in
case of future earthquake?

Any repairing process is only helpful to retain the most original strength of any
building. It is not helpful to increase beyond the original strength. Therefore,
opt retrofitting techniques as explained in Part IV to increase its strength
globally and locally wherever it is deficient.

VC  VD
% 
VC
VB

VB (Required seismic capacity)

VC (Existing seismic capacity before damage)

VD (Seismic capacity after damage)

repair

strengthening

seismic resistance
V
Required Repair and Strengthening28