Oil & Gas Refinery Branch / Forth Year

Air Pollution Control

1.Introduction
Air Pollution (is not new problem)
Air pollution is the present of contaminated substances in air in such concentrations that
can produce harmful effects on man and his environment.

Pollutants
Pollutants are undesirable materials that cause pollution if they present in such
concentration in air. Thesematerials may be physical, chemical or biological such as gases,
particulate, radioactive materials, and many others.

Type of air pollutants:

Air pollutants are classified based on state of matter into
1. Particulate Matter (liquid drops or solid particles)
2. Gaseous pollutants

Classification of air pollutants

Air pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by natural and anthropogenic sources. These
pollutants can be classifiedaccording to their origin into primary and secondary pollutants

1) Primary pollutants
They are that are directly emitted into atmosphere from natural sources or are
produced as a result of human activity. Some of common pollutants of this group
are:
 Particulate Matter
 Gaseous pollutants: such as
1. Carbon monoxide, CO
2. Carbon dioxide, CO2 R

3. Sulfur dioxide, SO 2 R

4. Hydrogen sulfide, H 2 S R R

5. Nitrogen oxides, NO, NO 2 , N 2 O R R R R

6. Ammonia, NH 3 R

7. Volatile organic Compounds, VOC

2) Secondary pollutants
They are those that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical interaction among
primary pollutants and normal atmospheric constituents.Some of the common
pollutants, which belong to this group, are:

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1. Ozone, O 3
R

2. Hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2
R R R

3. Peroxyacetyl nitrate, PAN

4. Aldehydes such as formaldehyde
5. Organic hydroperoxides

1) ParticulateMatter:
Particulate matter (PM) (also called airborne particulate) is the name for a wide range of
atmospheric particles that are small enough to be carried by the air. They can be solid or
liquid, or mixture of both. Particulates can be composed of inert or extremely reactive
materials. The classification of various particulates may be made as:
Dust: It contains particles of size ranging from 1 to 200 µm. These are formed by natural
disintegration of rock and soil or by the mechanical process of grinding and
spraying. They have large settling velocities and are removed from air by gravity.
Smoke: Itproduced Fine particles of size ranging from 0.01 to 1 µm diameter, which is
formed by incomplete combustion of organics.
Fumes: They are finely divided solid particles of the size ranging from 0.1 to 1 µm. they
are produced during sublimation, distillation and molten metal processing.
Mist: Liquid droplets generally smaller than 10 µm, which are formed by condensation in
the atmosphere or released from industrial operations.
Fog: It is the mist in which the liquid is water.
Smog: It is a mixture of smoke and fog
Aerosol: They are small particles, either solid or liquid, suspended in a gas. The aerosol
particle size ranges from 0.01 to 100 µm.

Sources of air pollutants

Pollutants are emitted to air as a result of natural processes as well as due to human
activity:
1) Natural sourcessuch as oceans, volcanoes, swamps, biologically decaying organic
matter, desert and non-desert areas, forest and forest fires.
2) Created by human activities, which gives rise to air borne pollutants, are:
(a) Industrial sources: There are numbers of industries which are sources of air
pollution. Petroleum refinery are the major source of gaseous pollutants, Cement
factories emit plenty of dust, stone crushers, food and fertilizers industries which
emit gaseous pollutants, chemical manufacturing industries which emit acid vapors
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in air,fossil fuel combustors, metallurgical and metal processing industries, food

biochemical and pharmaceutical industries
(b) Thermal power stations: The chief pollutants are fly ash,SO 2 , and other gases and
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hydrocarbons.
(c) Automobiles: the source of emission of vehicles exhaust. This exhaust produced
many air pollutants such as CO, NO x and lead oxides
R R

Air pollution source categories

There are four types of air pollution sources:
• Point or stationary sources:such as electric power plants, oil refineries, industrial
facilities, and factories.
• Mobile sources: such as cars, buses, airplanes, trucks, and anything else that moves
and pollutes the air.
• Area sources:small and individual sources such as agricultural areas, cities, wood
burning fireplaces,
• Natural sources such as wind-blown dust, wildfires, and volcanoes.

Effects of air pollutants

Air pollutants affected the ecosystem in various ways. The effects are manifested by
bringing about some changes in an ecosystem directly or indirectly. The overall effects
may be classified as:
1. Effects on atmospheric properties.
2. Effects on vegetation.
3. Effects on animals.
4. Effects on human beings.
5. Effects on land and water bodies.
6. Effect on material.

Atmosphere of earth
The atmosphere comprises of a mixture of gases surrounding the planet earth. Itacts as a
gaseous blanket protecting the earth by absorption the dangerous ultraviolet solar radiation
(UV), warming the surface of the earth through the heat retention (greenhouse effect).The
greenhouse effect’ which keeps the earth warms enough to sustain the life on the earth.It
extends up to about 500 km above the surface of the earth.

Composition of Earth's atmosphere

Normal composition of clean, dry air at or near the sea is as following:

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− The major gases of the atmosphere are: N 2 , O 2, andWater vapor (H 2 O).

R R R R R R

− The minor gases in the atmosphere are: Argon (Ar) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). R R

− The trace gases in the atmosphere are: Methane, Nitrous oxide, Hydrogen, ozone.
Nitrogen dioxide, Carbon monoxide, Ammonia, Neon, Helium, etc.

Layers of Earth's atmosphere:

The atmosphere which extended up to about 500 km above the earth’s surface can be
broadly divided into four major regions with widely varying temperature even within each
region. These regions are:

Fig.1.1Layers of air atmosphereAtmosphere of earth

1. Troposphere
This layer is closest to the Earth's surface, and extends up to an altitude of 11 km. It is also
the layer where majority of our weather occurs. This layer is primary composed of 78%
nitrogen and 20.9% oxygen (make up air) and other gases including greenhouse gases. All
atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in this layer.

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1. Stratosphere:
This layer lies directly above the troposphere. It extends about 11-50 km above the Earth's
surface. It contains the ozone layer. About 90% of the ozone in the Earth's atmosphere is
found in this region. The ozone layer absorbs the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. very
little weather occurs in the stratosphere.
2. Mesosphere:
This area is directly above the stratosphere, it extends about 50-85 km above the Earth's
surface.
3. Thermosphere:
This layer extends from 85-500 km above the Earth's surface.

Major greenhouse gases are

Greenhouse Chemical Sources

Gas symbol
Water vapor H2O
R R
Naturally occurring. Rising global temperatures may act to increase
water vapor in the atmosphere.
Naturally occurring. Also it occurs as a result of human activities such
Carbon Dioxide CO 2 R

as burning of coal, oil, and natural gases.

It produces by both the natural and human process. It is produced

Methane CH 4 R when plants decay and where there is very little air. It is also called
swamp gas because it is abundant around the water and swamps.

Nitrous Oxide N2O

R R
Generated by burning fossil fuels, in the manufacture of nitrogen
fertilizer and by use of this fertilizers in agricultural.
Naturally occurring. Ultraviolet radiation and oxygen interacted to
Ozone O3 form ozone in atmosphere. Ozone layer helps to protect the earth from
ultra-violet radiation
Chlorofluorocar Various Increasing the use of CFCs tend to destroy ozone in the upper
bons, CFCs compounds atmosphere causing depletion the ozone layer.

Among the greenhouse gases, water vapor and carbon dioxide are the most important
greenhouse gases.

The greenhouse gases acting like the greenhouse allow the solar radiation in the range 300
to 2500 nm (e.g. near UV, visible and near IR region), while filtering the dangerous UV
radiations (e.g. < 300 nm)

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2. Regional and Global Problem

2.1. Global warming and greenhouse effects

Greenhouse Effect:
The solar energy comingfrom the sun passes through the atmosphere gases to reach the
Earth's surface. Roughly one-third of this radiation is reflected directly back to the space.
The remaining two-thirds are absorbed by the earth’s surface and warm it. A long wave
infrared (IR) radiation (heat) emitted from the Earth's surface. Some of IR radiation passes
through the atmosphere into the space and some of it is absorbed by certain gases in the
atmosphere, called greenhouse gases and re-emitted in all direction.The effect of this is to
warm the Earth's surface and the lower atmosphere. This phenomenon is called the
greenhouse effect. These gases essentially act as blanket, making the earth’s surface
warmer than otherwise it would be.

Fig.2.1 The Greenhouse effects

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Important of greenhouse effect:

The important of greenhouse effect is:
1. To maintain the average temperature of world. The average temperature should
remain constant and governs all life process.
2. To maintain the sea level.
3. The polar ice caps remain intact.

Global warming
Global warming is increase in global average temperature near the Earth's surface as
a result ofincreasing in concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere from human
activities. If more greenhouse gases are added to the atmosphere from human activities,
they will absorb more of infrared radiation reflected by the Earth's surface. The surface
and the lower atmosphere will warm further. This extra warming is called the enhanced
greenhouse effect. Enhanced greenhouse effect causes global warming.

Effects of global warming

The following effects will results from the global warming (rising temperature):
1- Thermal expansion of the water and melting of polar ice caps would cause sea level
to rise.
2- Changes in regional wind systems which would influence global rainfall
distribution and lead to redistribution and frequently of flood, drought, and forest
fires.
3- Growth in insect population: Climate change would create favorable conditions for
growth in insect population, which this have bad effect on agriculture and human
health.
4- Disrupts the Water supplyand droughts would be more common.
International action to reduce global warming
Kyoto protocol : Held in December 1997, at the city of Kyoto. The Kyoto is a
legally binding agreement under which 37 developing countries committed themselves to
reduce their annual greenhouse gases emission to an average of5% less than 1990 levels
by 2012 because they are responsible for 36% of the world CO 2 emission. Now more than
R R

500 cities around the world have taken up programs to reduce their greenhouse gases
emission.

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Controlling global warming

1- Reduce deforestation and develop way to sustainable agriculture.
2- Use of technologies to absorb CO 2 from emission.
R R

3- Increased absorption of CO 2 by planting more trees.

R R

4- Sequester CO 2 in deep ocean.

R R

5- Increased dependence on renewable energy source.

2.2. The Ozone Layer and Ozone Layer Depletion

The Ozone Layer
The ozone layer in the stratosphere serves as a shield, protecting the earth’s surface from
the suns’ ultraviolet radiation (UV). Ozone layer absorbs 97-99% of the UV radiation. As
the ozone absorbs UV-radiation, it is broken into oxygen molecule and oxygen radical.
The oxygen and the oxygen radical then recombine to form new ozone molecule, available
to absorb more UV-radiation.
O3 →
UV
O2 + O ∗

O2 + O ∗ 
→ O3
Ozone layer depletion
The ozone layer depletion occurs as results of releasing of chemicals such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs when first used in air conditioning and refrigeration
systems valued for their non-toxic and stable properties. CFCs introduced in the lower
troposphere pass through the ozone without any change and reach the stratosphere. Here,
they impact by the UV-radiation and release destructive chlorine atoms:
CFCl3 →
UV
CFCl2 + Cl
(CFC-11)

CF2Cl2 →
UV
CF2Cl + Cl
(CFC-12)

The chlorine atom quickly reacts with the ozone molecule breaking it into oxygen:
Cl + O3 → ClO + O2

The ClO produced reacts with oxygen radical forming more chlorine atom that can react
with more ozone

ClO + O ∗ → Cl + O2
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The above reaction also removes the oxygen radial thus preventing it from recombined
with the oxygen to form an ozone molecule. The overall effect is a decrease in the amount
of ozone that leads to ozone removal from stratosphere.

Source of ozone layer depletion

The facts the ozone layer depletion was discovered in the mid of 1980. The main source of
ozone layer depletion is
1- Chlorofluorocarbon, CFCs: CFCs are cause damage to ozone layer. When CFCs
reach the upper atmosphere they are degraded by UV radiation to produce chlorine
atom. This atom breaks up ozone molecules to form oxygen and ozone then
disappear and depleted.
2- Nitrogen oxides: such as N 2 O, NO and NO 2 . These oxidesintroduced in the
R R R R

atmosphere byburning of fossil fuel, organic matter as well as microbial action on

the nitrogenous fertilizers, which cause depletion of the ozone layer.
3- Nuclear test: Nuclear explosions release high quantity of various gases and other
materials which damage the ozone layer.

International action to protect the ozone layer

Montreal protocol: isan international agreement signed in Montreal city of Canada

in 1987. Its goal was to cut emission of CFCs into atmospheres by about 35% between
1989 and 2000.

2.3. Acid rain

Acid rain is mainly caused by the release of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and oxide of
R R

nitrogen(NO x ) during fossil fuel combustion and the use sulfur coal and oil. When these
R R

gases are discharged into atmosphere they react with water, oxygen, and other gases in the
atmosphere to form sulfuric acid, ammonium, and nitric acid. These acids then disperse
over large areas because of wind patterns and fall back to the ground with rainwater as
acid rain.
Unpolluted rain is naturally acidic with a pH of about 5.6 due to CO2 in the atmosphere,
which reacts with rainwater forming carbonic acid (H2CO3):

CO2 + H 2O → H 2CO3 → H + + HCO3−

Carbonic acid is a weak acid and the acidity in rainwater can quickly be neutralized on
contact with materials. But the present of sulfuric acid or nitric acid in the atmosphere

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could lower the pH of rain droplets to value below 5.6 and such rain is considered acidic
and it called "acid rain".

Fig.2.2 The acid rain

Effects of acid rain

The harmful effects caused by acid deposition can be categories under many effects:
1- Effects on water bodies: acid rain causes acidulation of lake and streams and
contributes to damage of tree at high elevation and much sensitive forest.
2- Effect on material: acid rain accelerates the decay of building, bridge, and other
structures may by corrosion.
3- Effect of human health: acid rain caused acidification of air, water and food that
damage the human health. It can also release heavy metals from the pipes of the
distribution systems into the potable water supply.

Chemical processes of acid formation in atmosphere

A large part of SO 2 in the atmosphere is oxidized to sulfur trioxide SO 3 :
R R R R

2 SO2 + O2 
→ 2 SO3

Also SO 2 reacted with atmospheric ozone to give sulfur trioxide SO 3 :

R R R R

SO2 + O3 
→ SO3 + O2

Sulfur trioxide SO 3 is then quickly combined with moisture (water) in the atmosphere to
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form sulfuric acid mist:

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SO3 + H 2 O 
→ H 2 SO4

The overall reaction is:

2 SO2 + O2 + 2 H 2O 
→ 2 H 2 SO4

Nitrogen dioxide reacts with atomic oxygen to give nitrogen trioxide:

NO2 + O 
→ NO3

Also NO 2 reacted with atmospheric ozone to give nitrogen trioxide NO 3 :

R R R R

NO2 + O3 
→ NO3 + O2

NO 3 reacted with NO 2 forming N 2 O 5 , which react with moisture (water) forms nitric acid:
R R R R R R R R

NO3 + NO2 
→ N 2 O5

N 2 O5 + H 2 O 
→ 2HNO3

Control strategies for acid rain

1- The use of low sulfur coal or substitution of coal by other fuels.
2- Alternative methods for power generation instead of thermal power plants, such as
hydropower facilities or nuclear power.
3- Installation of flue gas desulfurization systems in large power plants can reduce
emission of SO 2 .
R R

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3. Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollutant Dispersion

Introduction
Air pollutants emitted from anthropogenic sourcemust first be dispersed, and diluted in the
atmosphere; before these undergo various physical and photochemical and reach their
receptors.Otherwise, the pollutant concentrations reach dangerous transformation levels
near the source of emission.

Factors affecting the dispersion of pollutant in the air

• Meteorological conditions including:
Atmospheric stability
Wind speed, wind direction and turbulance
• Emission source height(Ground level sources such as road, traffics or high
level sources such as tall chimneys).
• The source (fixed point such as chimney, or diffuse source such as cars)

Meteorological conditions
Dispersion of pollutant is controlled by meteorological conditions prevailing in the
atmosphere. Hence, it is important that we understand the meteorological conditionsor
factors that affecting the dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere.
The meteorological factors affecting dispersion are:
1. Atmospheric stability
2. Wind speed, wind direction and turbulence
The degree of stability of the atmosphere in turn depends on the rate of change of ambient
temperature with altitude. The relation between temperature and the pressure can be
explained through understanding the concept of Lapse rate.

Lapse rate
Lapserate is therate at which the Earth's atmospheric temperature decreaseswith an
increase in altitude, while moving upward through the earth’s atmosphere. This represents
by
dT (3.1)
−
dz
Eq.(3.1) is the laps rate (unit of temperature/unit of altitude), T is the temperature and z is
the altitude.

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The relation between the temperature and the altitude Eq. (3.1), can be obtained by
considering air is to be an ideal gas, as:

The pressure in the vertical direction is

P = ρgz (3.2)
The change in the pressure in the vertical direction can be represented by the relation:
dP
= − ρg (3.3)
dz
where p is the atmospheric pressure, z is the altitude, ρ is the atmospheric density and g is
the acceleration.
The perfect gas relationship,
R
P=ρ T (3.4)
M
R
The ratio is the specific gas constant for air, which is represented by the symbol R, T
M
is the absolute temperature,
P = ρRT (3.5)
P
ρ= (3.6)
RT
Substitution Eq. (3.6) into Eq. (3.3) gives the general expression for the variation of
pressure with altitude:
dP Pg
=− (3.7)
dz RT

If we consider simple case of isothermal atmosphere, Eq. (3.7) could be integrated directly
to give:
 g 
P = P0 exp − z (3.8)
 RT 
where P 0 is the pressure at the ground level (at z=0) which is 1.013 bars.
R R

Eq.(3) gives the exponentially decreasing pressure with altitude.

The better model for the atmospheric dependence of P and T is the polytropic atmosphere
which obeys the relation,
n −1 / n
P
T = T0   (3.9)
 P0 
Substituting Eq. (3.9) for P in Eq. (3.7) and differentiating we get,
dT n −1 g
=− (3.10)
dz n R

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Eq. (10) represents the variation of temperature with altitude for a polytropic model where
the temperature decreases with altitude linearly with the slope –(n-1)g/nR. The decrease in
temperature with altitude is known as the lapse rate.

Type of lapse rate

There are two types of lapse rate:
1. Environmental lapse rate (ELR)
2. Adiabatic lapse rate (ALR)

1. Environmental lapse rate (ELR):

This refers to the actual reduction of temperature with altitude in the stationary
atmosphere (non-rising air).
Based on meteorological data, in the troposphere up to 10 km, where the temperature
decreases linearly with altitude, the environmental lapse rate is found to be about 6.5 °C
per kilometer as shown in Fig. 3.1. Putting this value for dT/dz in the Eq. 3.10 for
polytropic model, we have,
 dT  6.5°C n − 1 g
  =− − (3.11)
 dz  env 1000m n R

From above equations the value of n comes to be 1.23. The troposphere extends up to 12
km. above the troposphere is the stratosphere. In stratosphere, there are two distinct
regions of temperature variation. The lower region, extending up to 25 km, has a
temperature which is essentially constant, and in the upper region the temperature increase
with altitude as a result of ozone layer formation. In the lower region of the stratosphere
the isotherm model based on n = 1 is applicable. The temperature –altitude profiles are
represented in Fig. 3.1.

Fig.3.1 Temperature-Altitude Profiles

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2. Adiabatic lapse rates (ALR):

These refer to the adiabatic decrease in temperature of an air parcel with altitude as it
moves vertically without exchanging heat with its surrounding. There are two
adiabatic:

1. DALR: Dry adiabatic lapse rate.

2. WALR: Wet Adiabatic lapse rate.

Adiabatic lapse rate expresion

The concept of air parcel is used to explain the movement of air pollutants, which is
pictured as a little sphere of air.
As the air parcel rises in the atmosphere, it goes through a region of decreasing pressure
and expands to accommodate the decreasing pressure. As it expands, it does work on the
surrounding. Since the process is usually rapid, there is no heat transfer between the air
parcel and the surrounding air, therefore the process is adiabatic.

For adiabatic process the first low of the thermodynamic yields

− dW = dU (3.12)
This mean that the internal energy decreases by decreasing the temperature
The term W is the work done on the surroundings and U is the internal energy
dW = pdV and dU = CV dT , where C V is the specific heat at constan volume.
R R

Substituting these terms in Eq.(3.12),

pdV + CV dT = 0 (3.13)
Eq.(3.13) in term of unit mass
pdν + Cν dT = 0 (3.14)

where v, ( v = V/m), the specific volume and C v the specific heat per unit mass
R R

for perfect gas

Pν = RT
Differentiating
pdν + νdp = RdT
pdν = RdT − νdp (3.15)
Substituting Eq.(3.15) in Eq.(3.14)
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RdT − νdp + Cv dT = 0
(Cν + R )dT = νdp (3.16)
The variation of temperature with altitude can be written as
dT dT dp
= (3.17)
dz dp dz
dT ν
From Eq.(3.16) = (3.18)
dp Cν + R

The change of pressure with altitude in vertical direction may be represent by:
dp pg
= − ρg = − (3.19)
dz RT
Substituting Eq.(3.18) & Eq.(3.19) in Eq.(3.17), to get
dT g
=− (3.20)
dp Cν + R
Noting that Cν + R = C p , where C p is the specific heat at constant pressure per
R R

unit mass of air parcel, Eq.(3.20) can write as

dT g
=− (3.21)
dp Cp

Eq.(3.21) represent the lapse rate for dry air parcel, and it is known as the dry
adiabatic lapse rate, which is denoted by Г
 dT 
Γ = −  = 100 C (3.22)
 dz  adia
In the present of moisture in atmosphere the lapse rate known as the wet
adiabatic lapse rate.

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Atmospheric stability

The ability of the atmosphere to disperse the pollutant emitted into it depends to a large
extent on the degree of its stability. A comparison the adiabatic lapse rate with the
environmental lapse rate gives an idea of the stability of the atmosphere. The cases of
stability can be explained as:
1. Stable:When ELR < DALR a rising air parcel becomes cooler and more dense
than its surroundings and tends to fall back to its original position, in this condition
the lapse rate is said to be subadiabatic. Under stable condition there is very little
vertical mixing (less buoyancy) and pollutantsdisperse very slowly. This associated
with high pollution.
2. Neutral stable:When the ELR = DALRa rising parcel of air will have the same
temperature, pressure and density of the surrounding and no buoyancy force. In this
case the air parcel neither tends to return to its original position nor tends to continue
its displacement. in the case moderate pollution.
3. Unstable: When the ELR > DALR.The atmospheric is said to be
superadiabatic. Hence, a rising parcel of airwill be warmer and less dense than the
surrounding environment. As a result, it becomes more buoyant and tends to
continue its upward motion. There is vertical mixing and pollutant dispersed
rapidly.low pollution.
4. Condition stability CS: occurs if the environmental lapse rate is between the two
values of stability and instability.

Comparison between stable and unstable atmosphere condition

stable condition Unstable condition

Less atmosphere mixing and therefore high High atmospheric mixing and therefore low
pollutant concentration around level pollutant concentration around level
source source

Elevated emission, better dispersed rate Elevated emission, are returned more
and therefore low ground level readily to ground level leading to high
concentration of pollutants ground level concentration of pollutants.

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Inversions
Temperature inversion, condition in which the temperature of the atmosphere increases
with altitude.
When temperature inversion occurs, cold air underlies warmer air at higher altitudes.
Under this condition the atmosphere is very stable and practically no mixing of pollutants
takes place.

Wind speed:
Wind speed is caused by air moving from high pressure to low pressure. The wind
velocity is influenced by: (1) the surface roughness, (2) the time of the day.

Atmospheric turbulence
Atmospheric turbulence is irregular air motions characterized by wind that vary in speed
and direction. Turbulence is important because it mixes and churns the atmosphere and
causes water vapor, smoke, and other substances, as well as energy, to become distributed
both vertically and horizontally.

Plume behavior
The behavior of plume emitted from an elevated source such as a tall stack depends on:

1- The degree of instability of the atmosphere,

2- The prevailing wind turbulence.

The Common types of plume behavior under various conditions of stability are:
1- Looping plume 4- fumigation plume
2- coning plume 5- lofting plume
3- fanning plume 6- trapping plume

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1. Looping plume:It occurs under superadiabatic lapse rate and solar heating. The
large scale thermal eddies present in unstable air carry portions of plume to the
ground level for short time periods, causing momentary high surface concentration
of pollution near the stack. Looping is associated with light to moderate wind speed.

2. Coning plume: It can occur when the lapse rate essentially neutral. The plume
shape is vertically symmetrical about the plume line and a major part of pollutant
concentration is carried downwind fairly far before reaching the ground level.
Coning is often associated with moderate to high wind speeds.

3. Fanning plume: It occurs when the plume is dispersed in the presence of very light
winds as a result of strong atmospheric inversions. If the density of the plume is not
significantly different from that of the surrounding atmosphere, the plume travels
parallel to the ground in a flat, straight ribbon downwind. For high stack, fanning is
considered a favorable because the plume does not contribute to ground pollution.
A fanning plume is often observed at height and in early morning in all seasons.

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Air dispersion model

Air dispersion model is a mathematical simulation of how pollutants dispersed in the
ambient atmosphere. The dispersion models are used to estimate or to predict the
downwind concentration of air pollutants from sources such as industrial plants. One of
the most models is the Gaussian plume model.

Gaussian plume Model

The Gaussian plumeidea
Gaussian plume model is usually called as diffusion model and sometimes dispersion
model. In this model:
• a point source such as a factory smoke stack is selected
• The downwind concentration resulting from this point source is calculated.

Fig. 13. Coordinate system for Gaussian plume idea

• The origin of the coordinate system is placed at the base of the smokestack with x-
axis aligned in the downwind direction. The contaminated gas stream or plume
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rising from the smoke stack (Δh) and then travel in x direction and spread in the y
and z direction as it travels.

• The plume normally rises higher above the smokestack because they are emitted at
higher temperature than atmosphere and with vertical velocity.

• For calculation, the plume is assumed to be emitted at coordinate (0, 0, H), where
Where H is effective stack high as illustrate in Fig. 14.

Fig.14. Gaussian Dispersion Model

• The effective stack height is the summation of physical stack height, h, and plume
rise, Δh: H = h + Δh

Fig.15. Plume dispersion Coordinate system

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Modified of Gaussian dispersion equation

 Extension to elevated sources with reflection
Most pollutants are emitted into atmosphere from elevated sources such as chimney stacks
so that the equation for pollutant concentration at selected location (x, y, z) in three
dimensional field downwind of the elevated point source is given by:

Q  1 y 2    1 (z − H )2   1 (z + H )2  
C ( x, y , z, H ) = 
exp −  
exp −  + exp −   (17)
2πσ yσ z u  2 σ 2    2 σ 2  σ 2 
 y   z   2 z 

Centerline Horizontal Vertical

where
C: pollutant concentration, µg/m3 P

Q: pollutant emission rate. g/s

H: effective stack height. m
u: wind velocity, m/s
σ y: Horizontal crosswind dispersion coefficient, m
R R

σ z : vertical crosswind dispersion coefficient, m

R R

σ y&σ z =f (downwind distance x & atmosphere stability), m

R R R R

Eq.17 consists of three terms:

• Centerline concentration as a function of downwind distance, x

• The lateral or horizontal spread relative to the centerline value, y
• The vertical spread relative to the centerline value. z

Q
The first term in Eq.18 ( ) is the concentration in the centerline of the plume.
2πσ yσ z u
The second and third terms (the exponential term) show how the concentration decreases
as we move horizontally or vertically.

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Fig.16. representation of the centerline concentration terms and lateral and vertical terms

Three common forms obtained from the basic equation are frequently used to
analyze specific situations:

a) Ground level concentration (z = 0) - plume at height H

Q  1 y2   1 H2 
exp −  exp −
C ( x, y ,0, H ) =
πσ yσ z u  2σ2   2 σ 2  (18)
 y   z 

b) Ground level centerline concentration: (z = 0) and (y = 0) - plume height H

Q  1 H2 
C ( x,0,0, H ) = exp − 
2  (19)
πσ yσ z u  2 σ z 

Eq.19 is used to estimate the ground level concentration expected at any distance
downwind of an elevated source.
In the case of emission source is also at the ground level, i.e., H = 0. Eq. 19 further
simplifies to
Q
C ( x,0,0,0) = (20)
πσ yσ z u

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c) Maximum ground level centerline concentrations from an elevated source

The maximum ground level concentration can be obtained starting from Eq.19. If the
spreading coefficient σ y and σ z are expressed as:
R R R R

σ y = Ax p (21)
and σ z = Bx p
(22)

where A, B and p are constants, then the value of < C > in Eq.19 can be maximized by
dC
substituting forσ y and σ z and setting
R R R R = 0 . Then simplification of resulting expression
dx
yields:
−2p H2p
+ =0 (23)
x 2 p +1 B 2 x 4 p +1
From Eq.23:
H
Bx p = σ z = (24)
2
This gives the downwind position at which the maximum ground level centerline
H
concentration occurs. Substituting of σ z = in Eq.19 we get:
2

2Q σ z
C Max ( x,0,0, H ) = (25)
π u eH 2 σ y

Eq.25 shows why pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere through tall stacks.
Note: e means exponent (exp. (1)) = 2.718.

Estimation of σy and σz
• The values of σy and σzare the dispersion coefficient in the y- and z-direction. They
are function of downwind distance x from the source as well as to the atmospheric
stability conditions.

• Based on experimental observations of the dispersion of real plume, σy and σz of the

plume can be calculated from knowledge of the atmosphere stability.

• Six categories of atmospheric stability , A through F, were suggested as shown in

table 1

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• When the stability category is known from appropriate weather conditions σy and σz
values for any downwind distance x can be calculated from the equations:

σ y = Ax 0.903 (26)

σ z = Bx p (27)

Table 5Key to Stability Categories

Day Night
Wind speed
Incoming solar radiation Thin overcast Clear
(m/s)
Strong Moderate Slight ≥
( 4/8 low ≤
( 3/8 cloud)
(at z =10 m
cloud)
<2 A A-B B E F
2-3 A-B B C E F
3-5 B B-C C D E
5-6 C C-D D D D
>6 C D D D D
A: Extremely unstable, B: Moderately unstable, C: slightly unstable, D: Neutral
conditions, E: Slightly stable, F:Moderately stable

The values of A, B and p are given in table 6

Table 6.Fitted values for σy and σz

x1 x ≤ x1 x2 x1 ≤ x ≤ x2
Class A (meters) B p (meters) B p
A 0.40 250 0.125 1.03 500 0.00883 1.51
B 0.295 1000 0.119 0.986 10000 0.0579 1.09
C 0.20 1000 0.111 0.911 10000 0.111 0.911
D 0.13 1000 0.105 0.827 10000 0.392 0.636
E 0.98 1000 0.100 0.778 10000 0.373 0.587
The values in table 2 closely fit the curves shown in Figs. 17 and 18

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Fig.17 Horizontal Dispersion Coefficient σy

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Fig.18 Vertical Dispersion Coefficient σz

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Example (1):
Estimate the values of σy and σz at a point of 0.65km downwind from a pollutant source
on abright sunny day (C category) with the wind speed 6 m/s.

Answer:
Using Figs. 17 and 18 we get:
σy = 70 m and σz= 45 m

Example (2):
A factory emits 20 g/s of CO at effective height (H) = 20 m. The wind speed is 5 m/s at
distance 0.5 kmdownwind for C stability. What are the CO concentration at a point of25m
to the side and 2 mabove the ground?

Solution
H = 20; Q = 20 g/s; u = 5 m/s
From Figs. 17 and 18 reading for σy and σz :
σy = 50 m and σz= 37 m
then substitute into Eq.18

Q  1 y 2    1 (z − H )2   1 (z + H )2  
C= 
exp −  exp −  + exp − 
2πσ yσ z u  2 σ 2    2 σ 2   2 σ 2   (18)
 y   z   z 

20 g / s  1 (25m )2    1 (2 − 20)2   1 (2 + 20)2  

exp −  exp −   
C=
2π (50m)(37m)(5m / s ) ( )2 
  2 (37m )2  + exp − 2 (37m )2  
 2 50 m     

g µg
C = 4.96 × 10 −4 3
= 496 3
m m

So the concentration at y = 25 m and z = 2 m is 496 µg/m3. P P

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Average wind speed u

The average wind speed at stack height Hcan be evaluated by
α
u H 
=  (28)
u1  z1 

Where u1 is usually the meteorological value of the velocity at z1 = 10 m, and u are the
wind speeds at altitude H.
α = 0.25 for unstable conditions,
α = 0.50for stable conditions.

Note: the Gaussian model is most accurate for the downstream between approximately
100 and 2000 m.

Example (3):
A chimney with a design stack height of 250 m is emitting sulfur dioxide at a rate of 500
g/s on a sunny day in June with moderate wind speed at stack altitude. If the moderate
wind speed at this condition is 6 m/s. Estimate the concentration of sulfur dioxide
downstream for the following situations:
(a) C SO4 (1000, 0, 0, 250)

(b) C SO4 (1000, 50, 0, 250)

(c) C SO4 (1000, 50, 20, 250)

(d) If C SO4 (1000, y, 0, 250) is 100 µg/m3, what is the value of y in meters?
P P

solution:
on sunny day in June the incoming solar radiation will be strong, also the air will be
unstable.
u = 6 m/s
From Eq.28 the velocity u1 at 10 m level can be obtained.

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α
z 
u1 = u  1 
H 
For unstable condition α = 0.25, therefore,
0.25
 10 
u1 = 6 = 2.7m / s
 250 
This shows that the surface wind speed is between 2 and 3 m/s.
Reference to Table 1 shows a stability class of A-B. We choose class B
From the information given in Table 2, at class B and at distance x = 1000 m:

A = 0.295 , B = 0.119, P = 0.986

Then the values of σy and σz can be calculated using Eqs. 26 and 27 respectively.
σ y = Ax 0.903 (26)

σ y = 0.295(1000)0.903 = 151m
And
σ z = Bx p (27)

σ z = 0.119 (1000)0.986 = 108m

(a) C SO4 (1000, 0, 0, 250)

Using the ground level centerline equations Eq.20, substituting the values of σy and
σz and using Q = 500 g/s, u = 10 m/s, and H = 250 m, we get
Q  1 H2 
C ( x,0,0, H ) = exp − 
2  (20)
πσ yσ z u  2 σz 

500 × 106  1 (250)2  g

C (1000,0,0,250) = exp −  = 112 × 10 −4 3 = 112 µg / m 3
2 
π (151)(108)6  2 (108)  m

(b) CSO4 (1000, 50, 0, 250)

Using Eq.19, we get
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Q  1 y2   1 H2 
C ( x, y ,0, H ) = exp −  exp  − 
2 
πσ yσ z u  2σ2  σ
(19)
 y   2 z 

500 × 10 6  1 (50)2   1 (250)2  g

C (1000,50,0,250) = exp −  exp −
2 
 = 106 × 10 −4 3 = 106µg / m 3
π (151)(108)6  2 (151)   2 (108) 
2
m

CSO4 (1000, 50, 20, 250)

Using Eq.18, we get

Q  1 y 2    1 (z − H )2   1 (z + H )2  
C ( x, y , z, H ) = exp −  exp −  + exp − 
2πσ yσ z u  2 σ 2    2 σ 2   2 σ 2   (18)
 y   z   z 

500 × 106  1 (50)2 

C (1000,50,20,250) = exp − ×
2π (151(108)) 
 2 (151) 

  1 (20 − 250)2   1 (20 + 250)2   g

exp −  + exp −
 
  = 113 × 10 −4 3 = 113 µg / m 3

  2 108   2 108   m

C
(c) If SO4 (1000, y, 0, 250) is 100 µg/m3, what is the value of y in meters?
Dividing Eq.19 by Eq.20, we get

CSO2 (1000,50,0,250 1 y2 
= exp  2
CSO2 )1000,0,0,250)  2 σ y 

CSO2 (1000.0,0, H )
12

y = 2 ln  σy
 CSO2 ( x. y.0.H ) 

CSO2 (1000.0,0, H )
1 2

y = 2 ln  (151)
 CSO2 ( x. y.0.H ) 

12
 112 
y = 2 ln (151) = 72m
 100 

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Effective Stack Height

Generally, effluent plumes from chimney stacks are released into the atmosphere at
elevated temperature. The rice of the plume after release to the atmosphere is caused by
the buoyancy and vertical momentum of the effluent. Under windless conditions the
plume rises vertically but more often it is bent as a result of the wind that is usually
present. This rise of the plume adds to the stack an additional height, ΔH, such that the
effective stack height, H is obtained by adding the term ΔH, the plume rise, to the actual
height of the stack (physical height) , h. The plume centerline height H = Hs + ΔH is
known n as the effective stack height and it is the height that is used in Gaussian plume
calculations. The effective stack height is illustrated in Fig.8

Fig.19 plume rise

The effective stack height is given by

H = H s + ∆H (29)

Where

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H :is the effective stack h

Hs :is the actual or physical stack height
ΔH : is the plume rise
Estimation of Plume Rise
The plume rise ΔH is essentially used to estimation the effective stack height. The
common formulas used to estimate the plume rise are:

1. Buoyant plumes
2. Non-buoyant plumes
3. Plume rise for larger volume source

1. Buoyant plumes
The influence of buoyancy force is greater than the influence of vertical momentum. Such
plumes are usually when the release temperature are more than 50 oC greater than ambient
P P

atmospheric temperatures.
Holland equation
This is one of the earliest equations proposed to calculate the plume rise. It has been
widely used because of its simplicity and has been included in many plume rise
studies.

∆H =
(1.5V Ds s + 4 × 10 −5 QH )
(30)
u
where
Vs : Stack gas exit velocity, m/s
Ds : Diameter of stack outlet, m
u : Wind velocity, m/s
QH : Heat emission rate, cal/s
ΔH : Plume rise above the stack, m

2. Non-Buoyant plumes
For sources at temperature close to the ambient and having exit speeds of at least 10 m/s.
1.4
V 
∆H = Ds  s  (31)
u

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3. Plume rise for larger volume source

For volumes flow rates greater than 50 m3/s, for unstable or neutral conditions, the
P P

recommended equation is
F
∆H = 150
(u )3 (32)

where, F is the buoyancy flux parameter (m4/s3), given by

P P P P

 D  T −T
2

F = gVs  s  s a (33)
 2  Ts

Example (4):
A chimney with a design stack height of 250 m is emitting sulfur dioxide at a rate of 500
g/s on a sunny day in June with moderate wind speed at stack altitude. The stack diameter
is 5 m, the sulfur dioxide exit velocity is 13.5 m/s, and the gas temperature of the exit is
145 oC. If the wind speed at this condition is 6 m/s, what is the plume rise for an ambient
P P

air temperature of 30 oC. Calculate the ground level concentration of sulfur dioxide on the
P P

plume centerline at the downstream distance of 1 km. the density of sulfur dioxide at 145
o
P C is 1.886 kg/m3
P P

solution:
Calculate the volumetric flow rate of the flue gas:

π 
Vol.Flow.Rate = Vs × As = Vs ×  Ds2 
4 
π 
Vol.Flow.Rate = (13.5m / s ) ×  (5) 2  = 265m 3 / s
4 

Where As is the cross section area of the exit stack

Since the volumetric flow rate is far greater than 50 m3/s, Eq.33 can be applied P P

F
∆H = 150 3
(u )
The buoyancy flux F parameter is given by Eq.34

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 D  T −T
2

F = gVs  s  s a
 2  Ts

 5  418 + 303
2

F = 9.8(13.5)  = 227m 4 / s 3
2 418

Then ∆H = 150 2273 = 158m

(6)

The effective stack height H is

H = H s + ∆H = 250 + 158 = 408m

Using the value of H in Eq.20, we get

Q  1 H2 
C ( x,0,0, H ) = exp − 
2 
(20)
πσ yσ z u  2 σz 

500(106 )  1 (408)2 
C (1000,0,0,408) = exp −  = 1.30µg / m 3
2 
π (151)(108)6  2 (108) 

Note: the values of σy and σz are taken from Example 3

There is a significant reduction in ground level concentration as compared to the case for
zero plume rise, means H = 250+0 = 250, where

500(106 )  1 (250)2 
C (1000,0,0,250) = exp −  = 112 µg / m 3
2 
π (151)(108)6  2 (108) 

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Example (5):
The heat emission rate associated with a stack gas is 4800 kJ/s, the wind and stack gas
speed are 5 m/s and 15 m/s respectively. The inside stack diameter at the top is 2 m.
Estimate the plume rise.
Answer:
Using Holland equation, Eq.30

∆H =
(1.5V D
s s + 4 × 10 −5 QH )
(30)
u

QH = 4800 kJ ,cal = 4.184 J

QH = (4800 kJ s ) ×
1kcal 1000cal
Then = 1147 kcal / s × = 1.147 × 106 cal / s
4.184kJ 1kcal
1.5(15)(2 ) + 4 × 10 −5 (1.147 × 106 )
∆H =   = 18.2m
 5 

Example (6):
A factory is emitting SO2 at a rate 160 g/s through a stack with an effective height of 60
m. The wind speed is 6 m/s and atmospheric stability is of class D.
Determine the maximum ground level concentration along the centerline.
Ans.: 879 μg/m3 P

Answer:
y=0 & z=0

2Q σ z H 60
C Max ( x,0,0, H ) = for max. conc. σ z = = = 42.42m
π u eH σ y
2
2 2

From Fig.7 find x (corresponding to σz = 42.42 m)

‫ ؞‬x = 1300m

σ y = AX 0.903 = 0.13(1300)0.903 = 84.3m

2Q σ z
CMax ( x,0,0, H ) =
π u eH 2 σ y
2(160)106 42.42
CMax (500,0,0,60) = = 2.06 × 10− 3 = 879 µg / m 3
π (6)( 2.7)(60) 84.3
2

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Air pollution control equipment

The various air pollution control equipment are used to control the air pollution
from stationary sources. These equipment are conveniently divided into two types, one
type are those which applicable for controlling particulate, and the other that used for
controlling gaseous pollutants as shown in Fig.20.

Air pollution control

Particulates pollutants Gaseous pollutant

Filters:
Gravitational Packed filters
settling Fabric filter Adsorption by solids
chambers Electrostatic
-Fixed bed adsorption
precipitator

Cyclone Wet scrubbers:

separator Combustion: Absorption by liquids
− Spray towers
− Furnace combustion − Packed towers
− Centrifugal scrubbers
− Flame combustion − Plate and spray towers
− Venturi scrubbers
− Catalytic combustion − Venturiscrubbers

Fig.20. The most commonly equipments deal with air pollution control from stationary
sources

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Control of Particulate Pollutants

Particulate control equipment
Particulate matter emitted in gaseous streams consists of discrete and minute
suspended particles. Particle sizes range from 100 µm to 0.1 µm and even less. The choice
of collection devices depends upon a number of factors:
1- The physical and chemical properties of the particulates.
2- The range of volumetric flow rate of the gas stream.
3- Theparticulate size and its concentration in gas stream.
4- The temperature and humidity of the flow stream.
5- The toxicity and inflammability
6- The collection efficiency that required for outlet stream.

1- Gravitational settling cambers

Gravitational force may be employed to remove particulate
1) Used to remove of coarse particles larger than 50 μm from gas streams,
2) Since most of particles in the gas stream are much smaller sizes than 50 µm,
these devices are used as a primarily prior to passing the gas stream through high
efficiency devices.
3) They offer low pressure drop and required simple maintenance.

The efficiency of equipment depends on the residence time of the gas in the settling
chamber which is related to the velocity of the gas flow and the chamber volume. The
simplest form of gravity settling camber is shown in Fig.21.
Inlet L
gas
V Outlet
gas
H

Hoppers
Fig.21. A gravitational settling chamber

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2- Cyclone separators
Cyclone separators utilize a centrifugal force generated by spinning gas stream to
separate the particulates from the carrier gas. The centrifugal force on particles in a
spinning gas stream is much greater than gravity; therefore, cyclones are effective in the
removal of much smaller particles than gravitational settling chambers, and required much
less space to handle the same gas volumes.

Clean gas

Feed dirty
gas

Fig.3. Reverse flow cyclone

Solids out

Fig.22. A cyclone separator

The dirty gas flows tangentially into the cyclone at the top, and spiral down near the
outer radius and then back upward in the center core, in a second smaller diameter spiral,
and exit at the top through a central vertical pipe. The particle moves radials to the walls,
slide down the walls, and are collected at the bottom.

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Type of cyclones
Three types of cyclones:
1- Conventional cyclones

2- High efficiency cyclones

3- High volume cyclones

Fig.23 shows typical curves for several types of equipment with their fraction collection
efficiency as a function of particle size

Fig.23. the fractional collection efficiency as a function of particle size for several
types of cyclones.

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3- Fabric filter (or bag filter)

Filtration is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of separating
particulate from a carrier gas. A filter generally is a porous structure which tends to retain
the particulate as the carrier gas passes through the void of filter, and allowing clean gas to
pass out.
The fabric filterconsists of several tubular bags or an envelope,called a baghouse,
hanged in such a manner that the collected particle fall into a hopper. The dirty gas enters
the bag at the bottom and passes through the fabric filter, while the particulate is deposited
on the inside of the bag and the gas passes out from their side to be finely released out of
the filter system as a clean gas. Fig.24 shows a typical baghouse.

Clean gas

Dirty
Filter
gas
bag

Hopper

Dust
outlet

Fig.24. Typical bag house

The advantages of fabric filter

1- High collection efficiency over broad range of particle size.
2- Retention of finest particles.
3- Relatively low pressure drops.
4- Collection of particulates in dry form.

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The main disadvantages of fabric filter

1- Their large size.
2- High construction costs.
3- Hydroscopic material cannot be handling.

4- Electrostatic precipitators, ESP

Electrostatic precipitator is a physical process by which particles suspended in gas
stream are discharged electrically and, under the influence of the electrical field, separated
from the gas stream. A typical wire and pipe precipitator is shown in Fig.25.

DC High
voltage Clean gas
outlet

Rectifier Discharged electrode

wire

Corona
discharge
(-)
(+)
Particle
Power supply collection
surface
Ground

Dirty gas in

Solid waste

Fig.25. Electrostatic precipitators

The ESP system consists of a positively charged (grounded) collecting surface and a high-
voltage discharge electrode wire(negative electrode) suspended axially in the tube. At a
very DCa corona discharge occurs close to the negative electrode, setting up an electric
field between the wire electrodes and the collecting surface electrode. Electrons are
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released at the wire electrode in a corona discharge. As the particle-laden gas enters near
the bottom and flows upward, these electrons attach themselves to particles to charge
them. The charge particles are derived by the electric field toward the grounded surface of
tube; on the surface the particles lose their charge and collection occur.

Advantages of electrostatic precipitators

1- Low Pressure drop
2- High collection efficiencies very small particles can be collected wet and dry.
3- Can handle both gas and mists for high volume flows.
4- Low energy consumption.
5- Ability to operate with relatively high temperature gases.

Disadvantages of electrostatic precipitators

1- Relatively high initial cost and large space requirement.
2- It is necessary to safeguard operating person from high voltage.
3- Collection efficiency can deteriorate (‫ )ﺗﺘﺪﻫﻮﺭ‬gradually.

5- Wet scrubbers
Wet scrubber is one of the particulate control equipment in which water is used to capture
particulate dust. The resulting the solids are removed from the gas stream by water as
slurry. The principle mechanism involved impact (impingement) of the dust particles and
water droplet in order to achieve good contact time.

The advantages of wet scrubbers

1- Simultaneously removal of gases and particulate.
2- Can effectively remove fine particulate, both liquid and solid, ranging from 0.1-20 μm
from gas stream.
3- Equipment occupies only a moderate amount of space compared to dry collectors such
as bag house.

The disadvantages of wet scrubbers

1- Relatively high energy costs.
2- Problem of wet sludge disposal.
3- Corrosion problems
4- The wet sludge causes water pollution and there is need to treatment method to
remove particles from the water.
5- Very small particles (sub-micron sizes) may not captured.
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The major types of wet scrubbers are:

1- Spray scrubbers
2- centrifugal scrubbers
3- Venture scrubbers

1-Spray scrubbers
The simplest type of wet scrubbers is a spray tower (Fig.26) in which the polluted gas
flows upward andwater droplet is sprayed downward by means of spray nozzles located
across the flow passage. The particle from the polluted gas is colliding with water droplet
and the water droplet contaminated with this particle. If the gas flow rate is relatively
slow, the contaminated water droplets will settle by gravity to the bottom of the tower as
slurry. A mist eliminator is usually placed at the top of the tower to remove both exes
clean water droplet and dirty droplets which are very small that cannot be settled and thus
carried upward by the gas flow.
Clean gas

Mist eliminator
Water in

Water spray

Dirty gas in

Dirty water (slurry) out

Fig.26. Sketch of a spray tower scrubber

High pressure spray produce small droplet with more surface area per mass of water
used.Theeffectiveness spray towers ranges from 95% for 5 µm particles 99% for
25μmparticles.
Spray tower is acounter current flow and may be circular or rectangular spray tower as
shown in Fig.26.

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2-Centrifugal scrubbers
Fig.16. shows centrifugal scrubber. The polluted gas introduced tangentially into
the lower portion of the vertical cylinder. Water drops are injectedfrom multiple nozzles,
which throw the water radially outward across the flow gas stream. These droplets are
caught in the spinning gas stream and are thrown upward towards the wall by centrifugal
force. During their motion the, the droplets collide with particles and capture them. The
scrubbing liquid along with the particles flows down the wall to the bottom of the
scrubber and exits as slurry. The cleaned gas exists through a demister and is processed
for the removal of any entrained water droplets.
The collection efficiency for the particles smaller than those recovered in spray
towers can be increased through the use of centrifugal scrubbers. Commercial scrubbers
have operating efficiency of 97% or better for particles larger than 1 µm.

Clean gas

Mist eliminator

Core buster disc

Sprays

Polluted gas

Water Slurry

Fig.27.Centrifugal Scrubber, tangential entry

3-Venturi scrubbers
A venturi is a rectangular or circular flow channel which converges to a narrow
throat section and diverges back to its original cross section area. The narrow throat causes
acceleration of the velocity of the gas to a high level in the venturi section.
Fig.28. shows a vertical downward venturi with throat injection. A bank of nozzles on
either side of throat injects water into high velocity gas stream. The high velocity gas
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assist in atomizing the liquid injected into the gas. The drops collide with dust particles in
the gas to form dust-water agglomerates. The gas-liquid mixture is then directed to a
separation device such as cyclone separator where the droplets carrying the particulates
are separated from the gas stream. Venturi scrubbers offer high performance collection of
fine particles usually smaller than 2 to 3 µm. They are suitable when the particulate matter
is sticky, flammable or highly corrosive.

Dirty gas

Water inlet

Water + dust outlet

to cyclonic separator

Fig.28. Vertical downward venturi scrubber with throat injection

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Air pollution equipment design

Collection efficiency
The collection efficiency measures the system performance. This expressed as a
percentage

weight.of .material.collected
ηT = 100 ×
Total.amount.enterin.collector

Fig.29. Fractional efficiency curve

The overall collection efficiency ηT can be calculated over n number of size Fractionsas:
n

∑m η i i
ηT = i =1
(1)
M
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where M = total amount entering the collector.

Example 1

The following table shows the size distribution of dust sample and the fraction efficiency
of removal in a gas cleaning equipment. Calculate the overall collection efficiency.
Dust size Weight per 100 g of dust (g) Fractional efficiency
ηi (%)
<5 2 1
5-10 2 7
10-15 4 16
15-20 7 44
20-25 10 67
25-30 8 81
30-35 7 88
35-40 10 92
40-50 15 93
50-60 20 95
60-70 10 98
>70 5 100

Answer
Using Eq.1 we can calculate the overall collection efficiency ηTas
n

∑m η i i n
ηT = i =1
= ∑ wiη i (1)
M i =1

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mi
where wi = , the weight fraction in each size. Then the following we get
M

Dust Weight per 100 g of Weight Fractional

size dust (g) fraction efficiency wi x ηi
wi ηi (%)
<5 2 0.02 1 (0.02 x1)
5-10 2 0.02 7 (0.02x7)
10-15 4 0.04 16 (0.04x16)
15-20 7 0.07 44 (0.07x44)
20-25 10 0.1 67 (0.1x67)
25-30 8 0.08 81 (0.08x81)
30-35 7 0.07 88 (0.07x88)
35-40 10 0.1 92 (0.1x92)
40-50 15 0.15 93 (0.15x93)
50-60 20 0.2 95 (0.2x95)
60-70 10 0.1 98 (0.1x98)
>70 5 0.05 100 (0.05x100)
ηT = 80.17

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1. Settling chamber design (gravity settling)

1.1. Terminal settling velocity

A gravity settler is simply a long chamber through which the contaminated gas
passes slowly, allowing time for particles to settle by gravity to the bottom. The important
parameter is the terminal or settling velocity of the particle, Vt the terminal velocity is
defined as the constant downward speed that a particle attains in a direction parallel to the
Earth's gravity field.
If the particle is settling in a fluid at its terminal velocity, three forces acting on it:
drag, buoyancy, gravity force,as shown in Fig.30.The terminal settling velocity of the
particles is found from forces balance as:

Fg = FD + FB (2)

where
FD FB
Fg = gravity force (secondary Newton law) = mpg (3)

ρ gVt 2 AC D
FD = drag force = FD = (4)
2

 ρg 
 g
FB = buoyancy force = FB = m p  ρ  (5)
 p 

mp = mass of particle = ρ pV p
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2 P

ρg = gas density, kg/m3 P

Fg
ρp =particle density, kg/m3 P

CD = drag coefficient
Fig.30 the forces acting on a
Vt = terminal velocity, m/s particle in a fluid

A = frontal cross sectional area, m2 P

Vp = volume of particle, m3 P

Substituting Eqs. 3,4 and 5 in the overall balance Eq. 2 we get

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ρ gVt 2 AC D  ρg 
mp g = + mp  g
2 ρ  (6)
 p 
The general solution to Eq.6, in term of Vt, is

2m p g ( ρ p − ρ g )
Vt = (7)
ρ p ρ g AC D
for spherical particle
π π
Vp = d 3p , A= d p2 , m = ρ pV p
6 4

where dp = particle diameter, m. substituting the value of Vp and A in the above equation
of Vt, we get

4 gd p ( ρ p − ρ g )
Vt = (8)
3C D ρ g

Eq.8 is the general equation for the terminal settling velocity

where CD is the drag coefficient which is related to the particles Reynolds number,

ρ gVt d p
Where Re p =
µg (9)

The general drag coefficient for spherical particles may be represented by three
relationships.
 In Stocks law region, laminar flow around the particle

24
CD =
Re p for Rep<0.1 (10)

 In transition region, ( 0.1< Re < 1000 ) this region between the Stokes law region
and turbulent region

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18.5
CD =
Re 0p.6 for 0.1≤ Rep ≤ 1000 (11)

 In the turbulent region, (Rep< 1000), the drag force becomes almost constant with
the value of 0.45,

C D = 0.45 for Re> 1000 (12)

The drag coefficient can be calculating within the required range of Reynolds number
and then substituted in the Eq(8) to determine the terminal velocity as:

1. Substituting Eqs.9 and 10 into Eq,8, we can calculate the terminal settling
velocity in the Stokes region:

gd p2 (ρ p − ρ g )
Vt = (13)
18µ g

2. Substituting Eqs.9 and 11 into Eq.8 we can calculate the terminal settling
velocityIn the transition region.

g 0.71d 1p.14 ( ρ p − ρ g ) 0.71

Vt = 0.153 (14)
ρ g0.29 µ g0.43

3. Substituting Eqs.9 and 12 into Eq.8 , we can calculate the terminal settling
velocity in the turbulent region:
1
 gd p ( ρ p − ρ g )  2

Vt = 1.73  (15)
 ρg 

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It is difficult to estimate Reynolds number and then to estimate which CD

correlation used to calculate terminal velocity, Vt, because Vt is presented in Reynolds
number and CD equations. Therefore the following equation is used to provide a
convenient correlation using K, as

 g (ρ p − ρ g )ρ g
1
 3

K = dp  (16)
 µ g2 

If the size of particles is known, K value can be calculated from Eq.8:

If K < 3.3 then Stokes region applied to estimate Vt, Eq.13.
If 3.3 ≤ K ≤ 43.6 then transition region applied to estimate Vt, Eq.14.
If K value > 43.6 then turbulent region applied to estimate Vt, Eq.15

Example 2
Three different fly ash particles settled through air, their sizes are 0.4, 40, 400 µm.
calculate the terminal settling velocity for each particle assume the particle are spherical.
Data required given below:
Tair = 114.5 oC, Pair = 1 atm, µair = 0.021 cp, sp.gr. of fly ash = 2.31
P P

Note: Use K-value as a guide for the region.

Answer

 g (ρ p − ρ g )ρ g 
1
3

K = dp  (16)
 µ g2 

the gas is air. The density of gas

P. MWt
ρg =
RT
atm.m 3
Gas constant R = 0.082 , T = 114 .5 + 273 = 387.5K , then the air density
kgmol . K air

(1)( 29)
ρg = = 0.9126kg / m 3
(0.082)(387.5)
The viscosity of air
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µ g = 0.021cp = 0.021 × 10−3 kg / m.s

The density of fly ash = ρp

ρ p = sp. gr × ρ H 2O
= 2.31 × 1000 = 2310kg / m 3

1
 9.81( 2310 − 0.9126)(0.9126)  3
K = dp 
 (0.21 × 10− 3 ) 2 

K = 36056.5d p (a)

For dp = 0.4 µm = 0.4 x 10-6 mP P

K = 36056.5(0.4 × 10 −3 ) = 0.014
K < 3.3 then use stocks region for calculating the settling velocity Eq.13

gd p2 (ρ p − ρ g )
Vt =
18µ g

9.81(0.4 × 10 −6 ) 2 (2310 − 0.9126)

Vt = −3
= 9.58 × 10 − 6 m / s
18(0.21 × 10 )

For the other particle diameter (40 and 400 µm) are illustrated in the following table
Particle Size K Region Vt
µm m/s
0.4 0.014 Stocks 9.58 x 10-6
P

40 1.442 Stocks 0.0958

400 14.423 Transition 26.72

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1.2. Retention time, τ

Additional parameter in design of settling chamber hydrodynamic is retention time, τ,

where
V L ∗W ∗ H L
τ = = = (17)
Q W ∗ H ∗u u
where
V = the volume of the settling chamber, m3 P

Q = the volumetric flow of gas stream, m3/s P P

u = linear gas velocity, m/s

L, W, H = chamber length, width, and height respectively, m

1.3. Chamber efficiency, η

Vt L VtWL
η= or η = (18)
Hu Q

For most air pollution applications, Stock's law Eq.13 is appropriate substituting in Eq.10
as

d p2 g (ρ p − ρ g )L
η= (19)
18µ g Hu

With 100% efficiency (η =1), Eq.19 becomes

18µ g Hu
d p ,min = (20)
g (ρ p − ρ g )L

or

18µ g Q
d p ,min =
g ( ρ p − ρ g )WL (21)

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Eq.20 & 21 is to determine the minimum particle size dp,mincan removed with 100%
efficiency (completely removed).

Example 3
A hydraulic acid mist in air at 25 oC is to be collected in a gravity settling chamber.
P P

Calculate the smallest mist droplet that will be collected by the chamber, applying stock’s
law. The operating data and dimension of settler are given below:
Wide (W) = 30 ft, Height (H) = 20 ft, Length (L) = 50 ft, Qgas = 50 ft3/s, ρg = 0.076 lb/ft3,
P P P P

µg = 1.24 x 10-5 lb/ft.s, sp.gr of acid mist = 1.6

P P

Answer

18µ g Hu
d p ,min = (20)
g (ρ p − ρ g )L

ρ p = sp. gr × ρ H 2O
= 1.6 × 62.4 = 99.84lb / ft 3
Q Q 50
u= = = = 0.083 ft / s
A HW ( 20)(30)

18(1.24 × 10 −5 )( 20)(0.083)
d p , min =
32.2(99 − 0.076)(50)

−5  0.3048m  10 6 µm 
= 4.81 × 10 ft   
 1 ft  1m 

= 14.7 µm

Design of settling chamber

To design a settling chamber the following equations seems to be useful as a guide:

18µ g Q
WL =
gρ p d p2 (22)

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Q
Ac = WH = (23)
u
where
Ac= cross sectional area of the settling tank
Q = volumetric flow rate of the gas stream
W = width of settling chamber
H = height of settling chamber
L = Length of settling chamber
u = linear gas velocity, as a design rule of thumb must be below 10 ft/s (30 m/s).
The minimum height of the chamber (H) should be 1 m for cleaning.
Note Eq. 22 estimated from Eq.19 assuming η = 1 for design purpose

Example 4
Design a gravity settler to remove all the iron particles from a dust laden stream. The
particles diameter dp = 35 µm. Use the following data:
Gas is air at ambient condition with characteristics:
Qg = 130 ft3/s, u = 10 ft/s. ρg = 0.0775 lb/ft3, µg = 1.23 x 10-5 lb/ft.s, ρp = 475.7 lb/ft
P P P P P P

Answer
The gas densitycan be neglected compare to the particle density

 1m  1 ft 
d p = 35µm 6  −5
 = 11 .48 × 10 ft
 10 µm  0.3048m 

18µ g Q 18(1.23 × 10 −5 )(130)

WL = =
gρ p d p2 9.81( 475.7)(11 .48 × 10 −5 ) 2

WL = CollectionArea = 142.5 ft 2
Q = u × Frontal. Area = u ∗ H ∗W

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Q 130
HW = = = 13 ft 2
u 10
The minimum vertical height required for cleaning purpose (H = 1 m = 3.3 ft)
13 13
 HW = 13 ft ⇒ W = = = 3.94 ft
2

H 3.3
142.5
 WL = 142.5 ft ⇒ L = = 36.2 ft
2

3.94
∴ Total volume of settler = WHL
= (3.94)(3.3)(36.2)

= 470.7 ft 3

Design multi-tray Settling chamber

A more elaborate settling chamber is the Howard type whose simplified diagram is shown
in Fig.31

Fig.31. Howard settling chamber

For settling chamber having the dimensions L x W x H and n number of trays including
the bottom surface (Fig.31), the hydraulic diameter for flow passage between the trays is
given by
2W∆H
Dh = (24)
W + ∆H
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and the Reynolds number,

υDh ρ g
Re = (25)
µg

Q
υ=
nW∆H

where Q = volumetric flow rate of the gas stream

Substituting for υ and Dh in the Eq.25, we get

2Qρ g
Re = (26)
nµ g (W + ∆H )

The spacing between the trays is, ΔH is given by

H
∆H =
n
Provided there is no dust layer initially present on the tray surface. Substituting for ΔH in
Eq.26 we have
2Qρ g
Re = (27)
µ g (nW + H )
The efficiency of collection
Vt nWL
η= (28)
Q

and the minimum particle size that can removed 100% efficiency can be found from the
equation,

18µ g Q
d p , min = (29)
nWLg ( ρ p − ρ g )

N ote: previous equations assuming the laminar flow

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Example 5
A multi-tray settling chamber having 8 trays. Including the bottom surface, handles 6
m3/s of air at 20 oC. The trays are spaced 0.25 m a part and the chamber is to be 1 m wide
P P P P

and 4 m long.
1. What is the minimum particle size of density 2000 kg/m3 that can be collected with
P P

100% efficiency?
2. What will be the efficiency of the settling chamber if 50 µm particles are to be
removed?
Assume Laminar flow condition within the chamber.
µg at 20 oC = 1.81x10-5 kg/m.s, ρp = 2000 kg/m3.
P P P P P P

Answer
From Eq.29
18µ g Q
d p , min =
nWLg ( ρ p − ρ g )

Since the ρp>>ρg , ρg may be neglected in the above equation.

18(1.81 × 10 −5 )6
d p , min = = 5.6 × 10 −5 m = 56 µm
8(1)( 4)(9.81)( 2000)

From Eq.28 and using Stock’s law for Vt

Vt nWL gd p ( ρ p − ρ g )nWL
2

η= =
Q 18µ g Q

η100 = 1 , then the efficiency to remove 50 µm is:

2
η  dp 
= 
η100  d p . min 


η
2
 50 
=  = 80%
1  56 

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Turbulent Flow model (well-mixed settling)

This model is often referred as the well-mixed settling model.
Assume that the gas flow is totally mixed in y-direction and not in x-direction

y x

υ ΔH c c+dc

dx
cin cout
L
Fig.32. Gravity settling in a horizontal duct: turbulent flow

Mass concentration of Mass concentration of Mass concentration of

cAυthe=
particles entering Aυ + cleaving
( c =+ dc )particles υ tWdxthe + particles leaving the
(30)
elemental volum (Adx) elemental volum (Adx) elemental volum (Adx)

cAv = ( c + dc ) Av + cvtWdx

where c = mass concentration of the particles, and A = WΔH

dc υ tW
cout L

∫
cin
c
=
Aυ ∫ dx
0

cout υ tWL
ln = (31)
cin Aυ

cout
The efficiency η = 1− (32)
cin

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Substituting Eq.31 into Eq.32 we get the efficiency in term of volumetric flow rate,

 nWLυ t 
η = 1 − exp  −
Q 
The efficiency (32)


Noting that the term in the bracket is the negative of the efficiency term for the laminar
flow (Eq.28), we can write as:

ηturb = 1 − exp(− ηlami ) (32)

Example 6
In example 5, is the laminar flow assumption justified? If not, what is the collection
efficiency for 56 and 50 µm particles?
answer
The Reynolds number calculated using Eq.27 as:

2Qρ g
Re =
µ g (nW + H ) (27)

The kinematic viscosity of air at 20 oC, is 1.51x10-5 m2/s.

P P P P P P

µg
= 1.51 × 10 −5 m 2 / s , and H = 2 m, then:
where The kinematic viscosity =
ρg
2Qρ g
Re =
µ g (nW + H )

2Q
=
 µg 
 (nW + H )
ρ 
 g 
2( 6)
= = 79470
1.51 × 10 −5 (8 × 1 + 2 )
The flow is turbulent and the laminar flow assumption in example 5 was not justified.
Hence, using Eq.32 we get:

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 nWLυ t 
η = 1 − exp  −
Q 
(32)

The terminal velocity using stock’s law Eq.13:

gd p2 (ρ p − ρ g )
Vt = (13)
18µ g

The dynamic viscosity of air µg = 1.81x10-5 kg/m.s

P P

 (8 × 1 × 4)υ t 
η = 1 − exp  − 
 6 
The terminal velocity:

9.8 × 2000 × d p2
Vt =
18(1.81 × 10 −5 )

dp, µm Vt, m/s η

50 0.15 o.55 or 55%
56 0.188 0.63 r 66%

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2. Centrifugal separators (Cyclone separators)design

2.1. Cyclone design

Two standard designs for gas-solid cyclones; (a) high-efficiency cyclone, Fig.11a
and (b) high gas flow rate cyclone, Fig.12b. The performance curves for the high
efficiency cyclone and high gas rate cyclone are shown in Fig.33 a and b these curves can
be transformed to other cyclone sizes and operating conditions by use the following
scaling equation for a given separating efficiency:
1
 D ∆ρ1 µ 2 
3 2
 Q
d 2 = d1  C 2  × 1 × ×  (14)
 DC1  Q ∆ρ µ1 
2 2


Fig.33. Standard cyclone dimension

(a) High efficiency cyclone (b) High gas rate cyclone

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Fig.34. Performance curves, standard conditions

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where
d1 = mean diameter of particle separated at standard condition, at chosen separation
efficiency, Fig.13.
d2 = mean diameter of particle separated in proposed design, at the same separation
efficiency.
DC1 = diameter of standard cyclone = 8 inches (203 mm).
DC2 =diameter proposed cyclone, mm
Q1 = standard flow rate, m3/h. P P

for high efficiency design = 223 m3/h. P P

for high throughput design = 669 m3/h. P P

Q2 = proposed flow rate, m3/h. P P

Δρ1 = solid-fluid density difference in standard condition = 2000 kg/m3. P P

Δρ2 = solid-fluid density difference, proposed design.

μ1 = fluid viscosity (air at 1 atm, 20 ○C = 0.018 mNs/m2.
P P P P

μ2 = fluid viscosity, proposed design.

Hint
Cyclones should be designed to give an inlet velocity of between 9 and 27 m/s (30-90 ft/s).
The optimum velocity has been found to be 15 m/s (50 ft/s).

2.2. Cyclone pressure drop

the pressure drop in cyclone will be due to the entry and exit losses, and friction and
kinetic energy losses in the cyclone. The empirical equation can be used to estimate the
pressure drop:

ρg 
  2  2rt  2

∆p = u 2
 1 1 + 2φ 
 r − 1 
 + 2u 2  (14)
203 
 
  e  
 


where
Δp = cyclone pressure drop, millibars.
ρg = gas density, kg/m3.P P

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u1 = inlet duct velocity, m/s.

u2 = exit duct velocity, m/s.
rt = radius of circle to which the center line of the inlet is tangential, m
re = radius of exit pipe, m
ф =fraction from Fig.13.

Fig.35. Cyclone pressure drop factor

Ψ = parameter in Fig.14..
AS
ψ = fC
A1
where
fC = fraction factor, taken as 0.005 for gas.
AS = surface area of cyclone expose to the spinning fluid, m2. P P

For design purpose this can be taken as equal to the surface area of a cylinder with the
same diameter as the cyclone.
A1 = area of inlet duct, m2.P P

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2.3. Cyclone efficiency

The efficiency of cyclone can be estimated by using the concept of a cut diameter,
cut diameter can be defined as the particle diameter at which 50% of particle are removed
by cyclone:
1
 9µ g b  2

= 
d p50
 2πNV g (ρ p − ρ )
g 
(15)

where
μg = gas viscosity, kg/m.s.
b = cyclone inlet width, m.
N = effective number of outer turn in the cyclone (normally about 4).
Vg = inlet gas velocity, m/s.
ρp = particle density, , kg/m3. P P

Ρp = gas density, kg/m3.

P P

The cut diameter can be used to establish the collection efficiency for any other diameter
particle, dp, as shown in Fig.36.

Fig.36. Cyclone efficiency versus particle-size ratio

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