Week 4 –Basic Electronics – BM223

Outline
• Common-Emitter Configuration,
• Common-Collector Configuration,
• Limits of Operation,
• Transistor Specific Sheet,
• Transistor Testing,
• Transistor Casing and Terminal Identification
 Common-Emitter Configuration
“The Emitter is common to both the input and output terminals
(in this case common to both the base and collector terminals)”

Common-Emitter Configuration (npn-type) Common-Emitter Configuration (pnp-type)

 Common-Emitter Configuration (Cont.)
Two sets of characteristics can describe the behavior of the common-emitter configuration:
(1) For the input or base-emitter circuit,

The input characteristics are a plot of the input current

(IB) versus the input voltage (VBE) for a range of values of
output voltage (VCE).

Base-Emitter Characteristics
 Common-Emitter Configuration (Cont.)
(2) one for the output or collector-emitter circuit,

For the common-emitter configuration the output

characteristics are a plot of the output current (IC) versus
output voltage (VCE) for a range of values of input
current (IB).

Note that the magnitude of IB is in microamperes,

compared to milliamperes of IC. Consider also that the
curves of IB are not as horizontal as those obtained for IE
in the common-base configuration, indicating that the
VCE will influence the magnitude of the collector current.

Collector-Emitter Characteristics
 Common-Emitter Configuration (Cont.)
(2) one for the output or collector-emitter circuit,

In the active region of a common-emitter amplifier, the

base-emitter junction is forward-biased, whereas the
collector-base junction is reverse-biased.

The active region of the common-emitter configuration

can be employed for voltage, current, or power
amplification.

Collector-Emitter Characteristics
 Cutoff Region of CE-Confgiruation

Note on the collector characteristics, IC is not equal to

zero when IB is zero. For the common-base
configuration, when the input current IE was equal to
zero, the collector current was equal only to the reverse
saturation current ICO. To derive this relation:

𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 − 𝛼 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 − 𝛼𝐼𝐶 − 𝛼𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 1 − 𝛼 = 𝛼𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝛼𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 = +
(1 − 𝛼) (1 − 𝛼)
Collector-Emitter Characteristics
 Cutoff Region of CE-Confg. (Cont.)
𝛼𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 = +
(1 − 𝛼) (1 − 𝛼)

In Cutoff, if IB=0, and α = 0.996, the resulting IC will be:

𝛼(0𝐴) 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 = +
(1 − 𝛼) (1 − 0.996)
𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 = = 250 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
0.004

The collector current defined by the condition IB=0 mA, can be

represented as ICEO, hence:
𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 = = 250𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
1−α
Collector-Emitter Characteristics
Common Emitter Configuration (Cont.)
 β – Beta (CE-Config.)
In the dc mode the levels of IC and IB are related by a quantity called beta, and ranges in between 50-400. In
general For a device with a β of 200, the collector current is 200 times the magnitude of the base current.
𝐼𝐶 2.7𝑚𝐴
β𝑑𝑐 = = = 108
𝐼𝐵 25µ𝐴
β𝑑𝑐 reveals that for dc input at the base, the collector current
will be about 108 times the magnitude of the base current.
For ac situations an ac beta:
∆𝐼𝐶
β𝑎𝑐 = (𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
∆𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐶2 − 𝐼𝐶1
β𝑎𝑐 =
𝐼𝐵2 − 𝐼𝐵1

3.2𝑚𝐴 − 2.2𝑚𝐴 1𝑚𝐴

β𝑎𝑐 = = = 100
30µ𝐴 − 20µ𝐴 10µ𝐴
β𝑎𝑐 reveals that for ac input at the base, the collector current will be about 100 times the magnitude of the base
current.
 β – Beta (CE-Config.)
The levels of βac and βdc are usually reasonably close and are often used interchangeably. That is, if βac is known,
it is assumed to be about the same magnitude as βdc, and vice versa.

βac & βdc in the example are same, which is ideal cases but in
the true cases. At Q-point, βdc will be:

𝐼𝐶 8𝑚𝐴
β𝑑𝑐 = = = 200
𝐼𝐵 40µ𝐴

At Q-point, βac will be:

9𝑚𝐴 − 7𝑚𝐴 2𝑚𝐴
β𝑎𝑐 = = = 200
45µ𝐴 − 35µ𝐴 10µ𝐴
 Relationship b/w β – α (CE-Config.) Cont.
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
From Common Emitter: β= → 𝐼𝐵 =
𝐼𝐵 β
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
From Common Base: α= → 𝐼𝐸 =
𝐼𝐸 α

Substitute IB and IE into: 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵

𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
= 𝐼𝐶 +
α β
1 1
=1+
α β
1 1 1−α 1 α
For 𝛃: −1= = =β
α β α β 1−α
1 β+1 β
For 𝛂 : = α=
α β β+1
 Relationship b/w β – α (CE-Config.) Cont.
𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 α
Recall that: 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 = =β
1−α 1−α
1 1
𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 = (𝐼 ) α=β
1−α 𝐶𝐵𝑂
1−α
𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 = β + 1 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
1 β
𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 = β𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 =
1−α α
𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 ≅ β𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 1 β
β
=
𝐼𝐶 1−α β ∗α=
β+1
Since, β = β+1
𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐶 = β𝐼𝐵
And, 1 β+1
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 =β∗
1−α β
𝐼𝐸 = β𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐵
1
=β+1
𝐼𝐸 = (β + 1)𝐼𝐵 1−α
 Biasing (CE Config.)

Direction of IE can indicate

the polarities of junction p
biasing’s
n n
p p

npn pnp
 Common-Collector Configuration
The common-collector configuration is used primarily for impedance-matching purposes since it has a high input
impedance and low output impedance, opposite to that of the common-base and common emitter configurations.

pnp Common-Collector Configuration npn Common-Collector Configuration

 Common-Collector Configuration (Cont.)

For all practical purposes, the output characteristics of the common-collector

configuration are the same as for the common-emitter configuration.

For the common-collector configuration the output characteristics are a plot

of IE versus VCE for a range of values of IB.
Common Emitter pnp transistor
The input current, therefore, is the same for both the common-emitter and
common-collector characteristics.

The horizontal voltage axis for the common-collector configuration is

obtained by simply changing the sign of the collector-to-emitter voltage of
the common-emitter characteristics.

Common Collector pnp transistor

 Limits of Operation

For each transistor there is a region of

operation on the characteristics that will
ensure that the maximum ratings are not
being exceeded and the output signal
exhibits minimum distortion.
Here, ICmax was specified as 50 mA and
BVCEO as 20 V.

The vertical line on the characteristics

defined as VCEsat specifies the minimum
VCE that can be applied without falling
into the nonlinear region labeled the
saturation region.

Defining the linear (undistorted) region of operation for a transistor

 Limits of Operation (Cont.)
The maximum dissipation level for common
emitter and common collector is defined by the
following equation:

𝑷𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬 𝑰𝑪

Suppose in this given graph the limit of operation

is defined as 300mW, means the transistor
collector cannot and should not dissipate power
more than 300mW.

At ICmax, At any point on the characteristics the

product of 𝑽𝑪𝑬 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝑪 must be equal to 300 mW.
 Limits of Operation (Cont.)

If we choose 𝑰𝑪 to be the maximum value of 50 mA

and substitute into the relationship, we obtain:

𝑷𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬 𝑰𝑪
𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬 𝟓𝟎𝒎𝑨
𝟑𝟎𝟎
= 𝑽𝑪𝑬
𝟓𝟎
𝟔 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬

As a result we find that if 𝑰𝑪 = 50 mA, then 𝑽𝑪𝑬= 6V

on the power dissipation curve
 Limits of Operation (Cont.)

If we now choose 𝑽𝑪𝑬 to be its maximum value of 20 V,

the level of 𝑰𝑪 is the following:

𝑷𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬 𝑰𝑪
𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝑽 ∗ 𝑰𝑪
𝟑𝟎𝟎
= 𝑰𝑪
𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟓𝒎𝑨 = 𝑰𝑪

As a result we find that if 𝑽𝑪𝑬= 20V, then 𝑰𝑪= 15mA on

the power dissipation curve
 Limits of Operation (Cont.)

IC, VCE, and their product VCE * IC fall into the following range:

0.1𝑚𝐴 ≤ 𝐼𝐶 ≤ 50𝑚𝐴
0.3𝑉 ≤ 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ≤ 20𝑉
𝑉𝐶𝐸𝐼𝐶 = 𝑃𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Limits of Operation (Cont.)

For a known power dissipation of transistor, If we use

more points of 𝑰𝑪 or 𝑽𝑪𝑬 in collector power dissipation
equation, we can easily draw the power dissipation
curve on any given transistor output characteristics.

For common base is defined by the following equation:

𝑷𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝑪𝑩 𝑰𝑪
Transistor Specification Sheet
Transistor Specification Sheet (Cont.)
Transistor Specification Sheet (Cont.)
Transistor Specification Sheet (Cont.)
 Transistor Testing

1. Curve Tracer
All the parameters can be found using the
Output characteristics on Curve Tracer.
 Transistor Testing (Cont.)

2. Transistor Testers
You can test the junctions of transistors, which
one is forward bias and which one is reverse.

DMM Dedicated Testers

 Transistor Testing (Cont.)
3. Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter or the resistance scales of a digital
multimeter (DMM) can be used to check the 100Ω - kΩ
state of a transistor.

In active region, the forward-biased junction

should register a relatively low resistance,
whereas the reverse-biased junction shows a
much higher resistance.

Type of transistor (npn or pnp) or pins of

transistor (E, B, C) can also be found out using ≥100kΩ
ohmmeter or resistance options of DMM.
Transistor Casing and Terminal Identification