FOOD

Ann Anders, REHS, CP-FS,

CHM, CFSM, CPFM
Edward H. Manley,
MCFE, CHM, CPFM, Editor

SAFETY
In a Nutshell
Cover photo by redcharlie on Unsplash
FOOD
SAFETY In a Nutshell

The Common Sense Approach to Food Safety

Ann Anders, REHS, CP-FS, CHM, CFSM, CPFM

Edward H. Manley, MCFE, CHM, CPFM, Editor
 This book is dedicated to (in alphabetical order):
Cathreen, Dennis, Elme, Frandy, Harold, Lito, Neptali, Ringo,
and Shield, for it is their desire and thirst for knowledge
that inspired me to see the simplicity of what we do
and express it in a straightforward manner.

Copyright 2009
E. H. Manley & Associates

Editor: Edward H. Manley, MCFE, CHM, CPFM, DHCFA

Art Director: Anna Jelstrom (Ann Sorosky and Associates)

Photos: © iStockphoto.com / Anette Romanenko (pg. 5); Sergey Kashkin (pg. 7);
Roger Branch (pg. 8); Sharon Dominick (pg. 9); Jeu (pg. 10); Nick Free (pg. 11);
Carmen Martínez Banús (pg. 12); Dr. Heinz Linke (pg. 17); Zoran Jagrovic (pg. 23);
YinYang (pg. 24); VM (pg. 25); Tatiana Makarova (pg. 26); Megan Stevens (pg. 27);
Juanmonino (pg. 31, 54); Web Photographer (pg. 30); Nicolae Popovici (pg 33); Ever
(pg. 34); Aleaimage (pg. 35); Andrey Volodin (pg. 37); Vladislav Mitic (pg. 36); Ed
Hidden (pg. 43); Sabrina dei Nobili (pg. 40); Alison Stieglitz (pg. 44); Leif Norman
(pg. 45); Simon Smith (pg. 46); Timothy Houghton (pg. 47); Lamprey (pg. 48); Dutchy
(pg. 49); JackJelly (pg 50); Franklin Lugenbeel (pg. 51); Serdar Yagci (pg. 53); Roman
Milert (pg. 53); Donald Gruener (pg. 55); Valentin Casarsa (pg 58); Christa Brunt (pg.
61); Kati Neudert (pg 60); Larysa Dody (pg. 62); Bruno Uhernik (pg 63).
 Welcome

Welcome!

Hello and welcome to my second book. My most recent adventure has inspired me to
write this NO-Nonsense guide to food safety certification. Yes, yes I know there are a
multitude of books on food safety. So you are probably wondering, “Why another one?”
Let me explain.

At the time of writing this I am working overseas on a government installation training

a third-world culture, the local food service employees, on food safety. The goal is to
certify a group as Persons in Charge. This has been one of my most challenging tasks
since there was a HUGE language barrier.

I learned to break this whole food safety arena down to its most fundamental basis
without all the “fluff” that those in the academic world and food industry organizations
have added… nothing wrong with that, but “more” isn’t always better. Now days, with
everyone suffering from information overload, “simple” is easier to assimilate… Like Sgt.
Friday always said, “Just the facts, ma’am, just the facts.”

Just how many pages does it take to say the temperature danger zone is the range
between 41°F - 135°F? Seems to me I just did it in one sentence….duh. Heck, let’s
even drop all those Celsius numbers since this book is primarily written for distribution
in the United States. The less extraneous stuff my eyes have to look at, the less my brain
has to attempt to process. I by no means want to diminish the fact that food safety is
VITALLY important! I believe that this point can be made with fewer words.

The challenge is to get the most crucial operational points across simply and succinctly.

A technical note, I used a technique called “information mapping” which “chunks”

information together. This book won’t “read” like a normal book; it is more of an out-
line, and some charts and examples with a few transition paragraphs are thrown in.

The FDA Food Code is, as we know, the “model” for food safety. Most states have
adopted it in its entirety while a few other states have used the bulk of it and tweaked
certain parts to fit their unique situations. It is my opinion that every operator should
be well versed in the Code. I also believe that a person who is certified should also know
the Code well. Given that it is over 600 pages of rather “dry” material, most books on
food safety have extrapolated the most important information. I have done the same
thing.

Let’s get started…

Ann Anders

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 5

Chapter
Introduction

The Importance of Food Safety

Ma Generally speaking, consumers are more informed today than
ever before. In the past four years various outbreaks have
occurred on large cruise ships, in hotels, and other large tour-
ist sites due to contaminated products and cross contamina-
tion from infected people. These have made newspaper, TV
and internet headlines and caused the temporary closure of
some facilities, and even put some out of business. The public
expects and deserves to have safe food!

The following are findings from a study published in 2000 by

the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) indicating that each
year foodborne illnesses cause:
The President’s • 76,000,000 illnesses
Council on • 325,000 hospitalizations
Food Safety says:
• 5,000 deaths
“While every player It is probably safe to conclude that those numbers have risen
in the flow of food over the last few years.
from farm to table
(consumer) has some Depending on which resource you read, there are anywhere
degree of responsibility between 40,000 and 60,000 lawsuits filed in the last few years
with millions of dollars paid out to the winners of those cases.
for food safety, you are
So, not only are your customers at risk, your business and live-
usually the last line lihood could also be at risk should you be sued or shut down
of defense before food by the health department for not following safe food handling
reaches the consumer. practices.
Because of this, you
have a significant The President’s Council on Food Safety says:
share of the “While every player in the flow of food from farm to table
responsibility for (consumer) has some degree of responsibility for food safety, you
are usually the last line of defense before food reaches the consumer.
ensuring safe food.”
Because of this, you have a significant share of the responsibility
for ensuring safe food.”

66 ________________________________________________________________________ Food
________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety
Safety 101
101
The Importance of Food Safety 4 Table of
Contents
Chapter 1

Management & Personnel 6

Chapter 2

Managing Food Safety, Overview 13

Chapter 3

Recognizing Food Safety Hazards 18

Chapter 4

Controlling Foodborne Illness 41

Chapter 5

Facilities, Equipment & Utensils 52

Chapter 6

Cleaning & Sanitizing 56

Chapter 7

Facility Management 59

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 7

1
Chapter 1

Management & Personnel

Management:
Why Training for Persons in Charge?
Individuals who are placed in charge of a food establishment
must be certified that their knowledge level of food safety is
sufficient to follow food safety practices and to prevent food-
borne illness.

The Food & Drug Administration (FDA) publishes the Food

Code. It is a set of uniform standards for food safety. The 2005
Food Code states that:
1. There must be a designated Person in Charge (PIC)
present during all hours of operation.
2. The PIC must demonstrate various areas of knowledge
3. The PIC must be certified.

Included in the duties of the Person in Charge are ensuring

that the regulations are followed and that all employees:
• Clean their hands
• Check foods at receipt to determine that it is delivered
at the required temperatures and protected from con-
tamination
• Cook and cool potentially hazardous foods properly
• Sanitize multi-use equipment and utensils after clean-
ing and before reuse
• Prevent cross contamination
• Cease operation immediately in the event of fire,
storm, flood, mechanical breakdown, extended power
outage (greater than 2 hours), loss of drinking water
(potable source), backup of sewage, imminent health
hazard, or similar event that may—
Result in the contamination of food.
Prevent PHF from being held at required temperatures.
Prevent proper, uninterrupted cooking, reheating, or
cooling of PHF.

8 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 Chapter 1

The Food Code can be found online at https://www.fda.gov/

food/retail-food-protection/fda-food-code . In the remainder
Management
of the text I will simply refer to it as the Code. This book will & Personnel
not include an extensive glossary. If there are terms you are
not familiar with, they can be found in Chapter 1 of the Code.

This book is the compilation of the major knowledge areas that

PIC must know to become certified. Consequently, there is the
assumption that you already have experience and some train-
ing in food safety.

The Code lists seventeen items for areas of knowledge with

which a PIC has to be familiar. The next page condenses and
paraphrases twelve of those areas.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 9

Chapter 1

Management PIC Areas of Knowledge:

& Personnel n Identify how the personal hygiene of food handlers can pre-
vent foodborne disease.
n Describe actions that a PIC has to take to prevent the trans-
mission of foodborne disease by a sick food employee.
n Describe the symptoms associated with the diseases that are
transmissible through food.
n Explain the significance of the relationship between main-
taining the time and temperature of potentially hazardous food
(PHF) and the prevention of foodborne illness.
n Explain the hazards involved in the consumption of raw or
undercooked meat, poultry, eggs, and fish.
n State the required food temperatures and times for safe
cooking, refrigerated storage, hot holding, cooling, and re-heating
of PHFs.
n Describe how to prevent foodborne illness by the manage-
ment and control of the following:
(a) Cross contamination.
(b) Hand contact with ready-to-eat foods.
(c) Handwashing.
(d) Maintaining the food establishment in a clean
condition and in good repair.
n Explain correct procedures for cleaning and sanitizing
utensils and food-contact surfaces of equipment.
n Identify poisonous or toxic materials in the food establish-
ment and the procedures necessary to ensure that they are
safely stored, dispensed, used, and disposed of according to
law.
n Identify critical control points (CCPs) in the operation that,
when not controlled, may contribute to the transmission of
foodborne illness, and explain steps needed to ensure that the
points are controlled.
n Identify major food allergens and what symptoms they may
produce.
n Identify the water source and how to protect it from con-
tamination from backflow or cross connection.

10 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 Chapter 1

Personnel: Management
I. Personal Health & Personnel
Maintaining good employee health is crucial to keeping food
safe. Chapter 2 in the Code covers employee health in great
detail and I would advise reading it and being familiar with
the information. Annex 3 in the Code provides tables covering
restrictions and exclusions.

Briefly, what you need to know is the five diseases below are easily
transferable to food and must be reported to the person in charge:
• Salmonella • E. coli 0157:H7 • Shigella spp.*
• Hepatitis A virus • Norovirus (*spp. = species)

Personnel cannot work if they have had these diseases within

the time frame noted:
n Norovirus 48 hours
n Hepatitis A virus 30 days
n Shigella spp. 3 days
n Salmonella 14 days
n Escherichia coli* 3 days (*E. coli 0157:H7)

Doctors and Health Departments are well aware of these

requirements and should notify operators if the person is a
food worker.

Food workers must also report any of the following symp-

toms:
•Vomiting •Coughing •Jaundice
•Diarrhea •Sneezing •A lesion or wound
•Sore throat •Runny nose containing pus that
w/fever is open and draining

In the event a food worker has been exposed to any of the

above, he or she may be:
• Excluded from work
• Restricted to activities that do not involve contact
with food
• Excluded/restricted from handling food or having
contact with clean equipment, utensils, linens or
single service items

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 11

Chapter 1

Management II. Personal Cleanliness & Hygiene

& Personnel This area covers proper handwashing, fingernail maintenance,

jewelry, clothing, hair restraints and preventing contamination.

Good personal hygiene is critical for preventing food contami-

nation. The Code specifies how, when and where hands should
be washed.

III. Proper Handwashing

Hand washing is absolutely critical to safe food handling!
Food handlers must know HOW, WHEN and WHERE to
wash their hands. The washing process should take 20 seconds.

HOW:
• Rinse under warm water
• Apply soap
• Rub vigorously
• Rinse under warm water
• Dry with disposable paper towels
(Note: “common use” towels are NOT allowed.)
• To avoid recontaminating hands, use paper towel to
turn off faucet and open door.
WHEN:
BEFORE:
• Beginning work
• Returning to work station
• Preparing food
• Putting on gloves

DURING:
• Food prep as often as necessary to remove soil and
contaminants
• Food prep as often as necessary to avoid cross
contamination
• Food prep when switching from prepared raw food to
ready-to-eat food

12 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 Chapter 1

AFTER:
• Touching human body parts, other than clean hands
Management
• Using the toilet & Personnel
• Coughing, sneezing, or using a tissue/handkerchief
• Eating, drinking, smoking
• Engaging in any activities that may contaminate
hands such as:
• Wiping counters or tables • Taking out the trash
• Picking up dropped items • Handling chemicals

WHERE: A designated “hand sink”.

Every sink must have:
• Running warm water
• Soap dispenser
• Disposable paper towels
(Note: “common use” towels are NOT allowed.)
Workers must NOT clean their hands in a sink used for:
• Food preparation
• Dishwashing, utensil washing, or pot and pan washing
• Mop sinks

IV. Personal Habits and Clothing

• Keep fingernails trimmed, filed and well maintained
• Unless wearing gloves, fingernail polish or artificial nails
are not allowed.
• Except for a plain ring such as a wedding band, jewelry
should not be worn while preparing food
• Bandage cuts and cover bandages
• Wear hats, hair covering, and beard restraints to keep
hair from falling in food.
Keep uniform clean:
• Do not wipe hands or utensils on uniform or apron
• Change your apron any time that it becomes soiled
Aprons:
• Do not dry or wipe hands on apron
• Remove aprons before going to the restroom or on break

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 13

Chapter 1

Management Prevent Contamination

& Personnel To avoid cross contamination, food workers cannot eat, drink
or smoke in any area where food, clean equipment or utensils,
linens, etc. are present.

Personal beverages: The Code states that a food employee

“may drink from a closed beverage container if the container is
handled to prevent contamination of” the following:
• Employee’s hands
• The container
• Exposed food, clean equipment, utensils, and linens;
and unwrapped single-service and single-use articles.

Disposable Gloves
According to the Code, gloves are required when working with
RTE foods. Don’t be lulled into a sense of false security while
wearing gloves. You must change gloves whenever you change
tasks, making sure to wash your hands before donning another
pair of gloves.

14 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 2
Chapter 2

Managing Food Safety, Overview

Foodborne Illness
Very simply put — Foodborne illness is caused by eating a
contaminated food!

In a study done by the CDC, they established broad categories

termed by the FDA as “foodborne illness risk factors”
• Food from Unsafe Sources
• Inadequate Cooking
• Improper Holding Temperatures
• Contaminated Equipment
• Poor Personal Hygiene

Preventing Foodborne Illness

So if the major factors that cause foodborne illness are
• Time and temperature abuse
• Cross contamination
• Improper cleaning and sanitizing
• Poor personal hygiene practices

Then it would make sense that the way to prevent foodborne

illnesses are:
• Control time and temperature
• Avoid cross contamination
• Practice proper cleaning and sanitizing procedures
• Practice proper hygiene techniques

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 15

Chapter 2

Managing Foodborne Disease outbreak

Food Safety, A Foodborne Disease Outbreak is the occurrence of two or more

cases of a similar illness resulting from the ingestion of a com-
Overview mon food. Any suspected outbreak should be reported to your
local health department or food safety authority.

Highly Susceptible Populations

People who are classified as highly susceptible are a major
source of concern because foodborne illness can cause severe
reactions, even death for people in these categories:
• Pregnant
• The elderly
• Very young children
• People with weak immune systems due to diseases or
medications

Sources of Contamination
Contamination is the inadvertent presence of harmful sub-
stances in food that can cause illness or injury to people who
eat the affected food.

Contamination can occur at a variety of points during the flow

A Foodborne Disease of food from the farm to the consumer.
Outbreak is the
occurrence of two or Contaminants are EVERYWHERE and can include:
more cases of a similar • Soil, water, air
illness resulting from • Humans
the ingestion of a • Contact surfaces
• Plants and animals
common food.
• Packing/shipping materials
• Ingredients

Contamination is not always immediately or readily apparent.

Many types of food contamination can cause illness without
changing the appearance, odor, or taste of food.

16 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 Chapter 2

Cross Contamination Managing

Cross contamination is the transfer of harmful organisms
(germs)[see pathogenic bacteria on page 21] between items.
Food Safety,
Overview
Cross contamination most commonly occurs when harmful
germs from raw foods are transferred to cooked or ready-to-eat
foods by contaminated:
• Hands / food workers
• Equipment / utensils
• Any food contact surface

Contaminants
Contaminants are hazards to food safety. These will be dis-
cussed in more detail later. The three categories of hazards are:
n Biological
Microorganisms which include bacteria, viruses or
parasites all of which are too small to be seen by the
naked eye….microscopic.
n Chemicals
Any chemical – in a food facility it could mean the
sanitizers (QUAT or bleach) or other cleaning materials
or pesticides.
n Physical hazards
Such as bone fragments, broken glass, metal shavings or The three categories
hair, etc. of hazards are
biological, chemical
and physical.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 17

Chapter 2

Managing Flow of Food

Food Safety, The flow of food includes all of the steps food goes through
from the time it is harvested to the time it is eaten – “farm to
Overview consumer.”
Depending on your particular position in your organization,
you may not have any direct contact with or participation in
the purchasing element of the flow of food. However, without
a doubt your role in the food flow begins when you receive it.

You may have seen the flow of food represented in either a

circular diagram or in a flow chart diagram. To make it sim-
ple, after the purchasing step I describe things in four separate
categories: receiving, storage, preparation and serving. You will
note in my diagram I include the steps of cooking, holding,
cooling and reheating under the heading of preparation.

Flow of Food

RECEIVING STORAGE PREPARATION SERVICE

Dry Cold-holding

Refrigerated Cooling

Freezer Hot-holding Cooling

Thawing
Reheating

18 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 Chapter 2

HACCP Managing
The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system
helps food managers identify and control potential problems
Food Safety,
BEFORE they happen! Overview
To quote from our HACCP Implementation manual,
“It is important to note that HACCP is not a “magical”
stand alone program. It is part of an integration of opera-
tional practices such as sanitation, employee training, and
other prerequisite programs.”

“The key is to think of the FOOD FLOW…the path that

food follows from farmer to final service to the customer.
This is what you do every day…it’s the things you already
know how to do.”
As you follow the food flow through the facility, you are able
to identify the steps (or critical control points) where food
may become unsafe due to contamination, or time and tem-
perature abuse.

Most resources tell you that it is vital to your success to con-

duct self-audits. In fact, certain military regulations REQUIRE
weekly self-audits where the documentation is maintained for
one year.

Another term you may see in the food code and other books
is Active Managerial Control (AMC). AMC simply stated is
where the food facility operators do everything possible to have
effective sanitation and safe food practices in place to prevent
foodborne illness. It is just another name for HACCP.

Clean and Sanitary

Let’s be blunt – It is vital to keep your food establishment
clean and sanitary. The two most obvious benefits to a clean
and sanitary environment are to eliminate:
• chances of contamination
• attraction and harborage of pests

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 19

3
Chapter 3

Recognizing Food Safety Hazards

The first HACCP principle is to identify hazards. You have to
identify WHAT they are and WHERE they can come from.
Let’s cover the general information first and then delve into
the “microbiology” aspect of the more prevalent foodborne
pathogens and illnesses.

Foodborne Illness:
Symptoms & Classifications
General symptoms of foodborne illnesses can include:
• Headache • Dehydration
• Nausea • Abdominal pain
• Vomiting • Fatigue
• Diarrhea • Fever
Foodborne illnesses are classified as:
n Infections
Illness caused by eating food that contains pathogenic
(disease causing) organisms that grow inside the body
n Intoxications
Illness caused by eating food that contains a harmful
chemical or toxin. Cooking may NOT destroy all toxins
Onset time
Onset time is the time it takes between eating a contaminated
food and when symptoms of a foodborne illness develop.

The onset time can vary based on a few factors, the most
common are:
• Age, health, and weight of the person
• Type and amount of contaminant ingested

20 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 Chapter 3

Biological Hazards Recognizing

n Bacteria – Single-cell germs
Food Safety
Pathogenic bacteria:
• Disease causing germs Hazards
• Appearance, taste, or smell may NOT be affected
making it impossible to “see” if a food has been
contaminated
n Viruses – Germs that live on or in other animals and
humans.
n Parasites – Plants or animals that live and feed in or on
another plant or animal.

Key characteristics of biological hazards:

• Microscopic – need a microscope to see them
• Cause the most foodborne illnesses
• Prevention-based food safety programs key in on bio-
logical hazards because of the fact they do cause the
most foodborne illnesses.

Chemical Hazards
Chemical hazards can be man-made or naturally occurring.
MAN-MADE NATURAL
• Cleaning solutions • Ciguatoxin
• Food additives • Mycotoxin
• Pesticides • Scombrotoxin
(scombroid poisoning)
• Shellfish toxins

Physical Hazards
Physical hazards are hard or soft foreign objects in food that
can cause foodborne illness or injury:
• Glass
• Plastic
• Toothpicks
• Metal shavings (like what comes from a can opener)

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 21

Chapter 3

Recognizing Bacterial Growth

Food Safety • Bacteria reproduce through binary fission – each cell divides
to form two new cells.
Hazards ­• Under ideal conditions, bacteria can double every 20
minutes.

There are six conditions that allow for bacterial growth.

Remember them by using the acronym
F-A-T-T-O-M.

Food high in protein or carbohydrates

Acid mildly acidic environment (pH of 4.6 – 7.0)
Temperature between 41°F and 135°F
Time bacteria need about 4 hours to grow to high

enough numbers to cause illness

Oxygen different bacteria grow at different oxygen levels
Moisture disease-causing bacteria only grow in foods
with a water activity (Aw) higher than .85

There are six conditions Food

that allow for Bacteria prefer foods that are high in proteins or carbohydrates
bacterial growth. such as:
Remember them by Meats
using the acronym Poultry
F–A–T–T–O–M. Seafood
Dairy products, cooked rice, beans, and potatoes
Acid
Bacteria grow best in a mildly acidic environment, with a
pH level of 4.6 to 7.0. Most foods fall into this pH range.
Some books use 4.7; I’m not sure the bacteria would notice the
difference.

22 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 Chapter 3

Temperature Recognizing
Bacteria grow best between 41°F and 135°F. This temperature
range is called the temperature danger zone.
Food Safety
Hazards
Time
Under ideal conditions:
• Most bacteria cells double every 20 minutes

TIME & TEMPERATURE

are the most critical factors affecting
the growth of bacteria in foods.

The two conditions you can control:

Temperature
• Refrigerate/freeze food properly • Cook food properly

Time
• Minimize time food spends in the
temperature danger zone (TDZ)

The two conditions

Oxygen you can control:
Different types of bacteria require different oxygen environ- temperature and time
ments to grow.
• Aerobic Need oxygen
• Anaerobic Need an oxygen-free environment

Moisture
Disease-causing bacteria can only grow in foods that have a
water activity (Aw) higher than .85.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 23

Chapter 3

Recognizing Bacterial Growth Curve

Food Safety Bacteria grow in four phases:

Hazards 1. Lag phase

• Little to no growth takes place here, the bacteria are
adapting
• Maintain foods at or below 41°F to prevent slipping
into log phase

2. Log phase
• Rapid growth – doubling every 20 minutes
• Food safety focuses on keeping food out of this phase

3. Stationary phase
• Number of new bacteria growing is equal to the
number of bacteria dying

4. Decline phase
• Bacteria die off rapidly because the nutrients have
been used up and they are now being poisoned by
their own toxic waste

Stationary
# of Bacteria >

Decline
Bacterial Log
or Death
Growth

Lag

Time >

24 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 Chapter 3

Potentially Hazardous Foods Recognizing

Potentially hazardous foods (PHFs) are:
Food Safety
• High in protein or carbohydrates
• High in moisture Hazards
• Low in acidity

• Fish • Poultry • Red Meat • Dairy products

• Eggs • Refried beans • Cooked rice
Additional PHF’s:
• Raw seed sprouts
• Cut melons
• Garlic in oil mixtures that are not modified in a way
to inhibit the growth of disease-causing germs
• Cilantro

Ready-to-Eat Foods (RTE)

Ready-to-eat foods are foods that are edible without:
• Washing
• Cooking
• Further preparation

RTE foods include:

• Cheeses
• Luncheon meats
• Fruits
• Vegetables
• Salad items

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 25

Chapter 3

Recognizing Biological Hazards

Food Safety Biological hazards lead to most foodborne illnesses.

Hazards Next we will review the most common bacteria that cause
foodborne illness. We will discuss:
• Classification
• Symptoms & onset times
• Common foods
• Causes
• Prevention

Campylobacter jejuni
Classification Infection
Symptoms Diarrhea (bloody), abdominal cramps, fever,
headache
Onset 2-5 days
Common foods • raw poultry • raw meats
• raw milk • contaminated water
Causes Cross contamination
Prevention • Cook to proper internal temperatures
• Avoid cross contamination between raw
and cooked or RTE foods
• Wash hands after touching raw animal
foods

It is estimated that 100% of all raw poultry is infected with

Campylobacter jejuni.

Cross contamination is the major cause of Campylobacter jejuni.

26 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 Chapter 3

Salmonella
Recognizing
Salmonella is commonly found in intestinal tracts of humans
and animals.
Food Safety
Classification Infection Hazards
Symptoms Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, fever,
headache, nausea
Onset 6-48 hours
Common foods
• Raw/undercooked eggs, • Dairy products
poultry, beef, pork • Cream-filled
desserts
Causes Cross contamination – bacteria is transferred
to food by contact with:
• Raw foods • Food-contact surfaces
• Food workers
Prevention • Cook to proper internal temperatures
• Clean and sanitize food-contact surfaces
• Wash hands
• Prevent cross contamination

Shigella spp. accounts for about 10% of all foodborne illnesses

in the United States and is most commonly transferred by a
food worker’s contaminated hands.
Classification Infection
Symptoms Bloody diarrhea, abdominal cramps, chills,
fever, dehydration
Onset 1-7 days
Common foods • Poultry • Milk & Dairy products
• Raw vegetables • Ready-to-Eat salads

Causes • Fecal contaminated water

• Food and utensils contaminated by
infected workers
Prevention • Exclude food workers from working who
have been diagnosed with shigellosis
• Cook foods to proper internal temperatures
• Prevent cross contamination
• Ensure the facility has potable water for
washing produce and other foods

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 27

Chapter 3

Recognizing Listeria

Food Safety Classification Infection

Organism is found everywhere
Hazards Can survive and grow slowly at tempera-
tures below 41°F
Symptoms Nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, life threaten-
ing for highly susceptible populations –
Spontaneous abortion of fetus
Onset 1-3 days
Common foods • Ready-to-Eat deli meat • Hot dogs
• Raw meats and poultry • Seafood salads
• Unpasteurized milk • Raw vegetables
Causes • Cross contamination
• Improperly cooked foods
Prevention • Cook foods to proper internal temperatures
• Practice safe food handling procedures
• Prevent cross contamination
• Practice FIFO to ensure timely use of foods

Vibrio spp.
Classification Infection
Symptoms Vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps,
nausea, chills/fever, headache
Onset 2-48 hours
Common foods • Oysters MOST COMMON • Fish
• Crabs • Shrimp
• Clams • Lobsters
Causes • Cross contamination
• Eating of raw and undercooked seafood
Prevention • Buy seafood from approved sources
• Cook seafood to proper temperatures
• Avoid consuming raw or lightly cooked
seafood

28 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

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Escherichia coli (E. coli)

Recognizing
Classification
Symptoms
Infection
Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, bloody
Food Safety
diarrhea, kidney failure, death Hazards
Onset 12-72 hours
Common foods • Raw / undercooked ground beef
• Produce
Causes • Meat is contaminated during the slaugh-
tering process
• Infected workers not washing their hands
Prevention • Cook ground meats to at least 155°F for
15 seconds
• Practice proper personal hygiene
• Avoid cross contamination

Bacillus cereus
Classification Intoxication
Associated with 2 distinct illnesses:
vomiting and diarrhea
Symptoms Vomiting, diarrhea
Onset 6-16 hours
Common foods VOMITING TYPE: DIARRHEA TYPE:
• Rice • Meats
• Pasta • Milk
• Potatoes • Vegetables
Causes Improperly cooled or hot-held foods
Prevention • Cook foods to proper temperatures
• Cool foods rapidly to 41°F or below before
storage
• Hold hot foods at 135°F or higher

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Chapter 3

Recognizing Staphylococcus aureus

Food Safety Classification Intoxication

Can be found living in about half of the
Hazards population including healthy individuals.
Can grow in foods that contain high salt
or high sugar and a low water activity,
such as ham and luncheon meats.
Symptoms Vomiting, acute abdominal cramps,
diarrhea
Onset 2-6 hours
Common foods • Pre-cooked, RTE foods
• Vegetable & egg salads
• Milk & dairy products
• Foods that require extensive food
preparations & handling
Causes • Cross contamination
• Saliva from talking, coughing or sneezing
near food
• Improper food tasting techniques
• Re-contamination by poor handling
practices
Prevention • Use single-use gloves properly
• Ensure infected wounds are properly
covered
• Proper handwashing
• Proper tasting techniques
• Proper temperature controls

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 Chapter 3

Clostridium botulinum
Recognizing
Classification Intoxication
Produces a neurotoxin that affects the
Food Safety
central nervous system – one of the deadliest Hazards
toxins known to man.
Symptoms Headache, double vision, weakness, difficult
to speak or swallow, death
Onset 12-36 hours
Common foods • Low acidic foods
• Foods packed in metal cans
• Vacuum-packed foods
• Garlic or onions stored in oil
• Home-canned foods such as green beans
Causes • Improperly canned food (in particular
“home canned”)
• Reduced oxygen packaging
• Temperature abused vegetables like baked
potatoes
Prevention • Purchase from approved sources
• Inspect canned food for damage - Discard
or refuse damaged cans

Clostridium perfringens
Classification Intoxication
Symptoms Abdominal pain, diarrhea
Onset 8-22 hours
Common foods • Meat • Poultry
• Vegetables • Stews / gravies
• Spices • Improperly cooled foods
Causes Improperly cooled or reheated foods
Prevention • Cook foods to proper temperatures
• Cool foods rapidly from 135°F to 70°F
in 2 hours and 70°F to 41°F or below in
4 hours (total 6 hours)
• Reheat foods to 165°F within 2 hours
• Hold hot foods at 135°F or above

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 31

Chapter 3

Recognizing Viruses Differ from Bacteria

Food Safety Viruses:

• Are smaller
Hazards • Require a living host to grow
Viruses are transmitted to food by:
• Infected workers who don’t wash their hands properly
after using the restroom
• Shellfish harvested from polluted waters

Good personal hygiene habits and limiting bare-hand

contact with RTE foods are crucial to preventing food
contamination.

Hepatitis A virus and Norovirus are the two foodborne ill-

nesses caused by viruses. They are very similar in the types of
common foods and preventive measures. Both are primarily
found in the feces of infected people.

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Hepatitis A
Recognizing
Classification Virus
Causes a viral infection of the liver
Food Safety
Symptoms Fever, nausea, abdominal pain, fatigue, Hazards
jaundice
Onset 10-50 days
Common foods • Raw and partially cooked shellfish
• Ready-to-eat foods
• Deli meats
• Produce / salads
Prevention • Purchase shellfish from reputable sources
• Cook seafood to the proper temperature
• Proper handwashing and minimize bare-
hand contact with RTE food
• Exclude employees who have been diag-
nosed with Hepatitis A until medically
cleared

Norovirus (Norwalk Virus)

Classification Virus
Symptoms Abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting
Onset 24-48 hours
Common foods • Ready-to-Eat foods
• Shellfish contaminated by polluted waters
Causes • Fecal-oral route via contaminated water
and foods
• Sick food handlers contaminate food
Prevention • Exclude food handlers with diarrhea and
vomiting from facility
• Wash hands thoroughly
• Keep raw and RTE foods separate during
preparation, storage and display
• Purchase shellfish from reputable sources

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 33

Chapter 3

Recognizing Parasites

Food Safety Parasites are also different from bacteria and viruses. The
key point to remember is that parasites are typically passed to
Hazards humans through an infected host.

Parasites can infect many animals to include cows, chicken,

pigs, and fish.

Parasites:
• Are small/microscopic organisms
• Need to live on or in another living organism to
survive (host)
• Infect animals and are transmitted to humans
• Are a hazard to food and water
Illnesses caused by parasites discussed in this manual include:
• Anisakiasis • Cyclosporiasis • Trichinella

Anisakis spp.
Classification “Worm-like”
Symptoms Coughing
Tingling in throat
Abdominal pain
Vomiting
Parasites
Onset 1 hr – 2 weeks
can infect
Common foods • Salmon
many animals
• Cod
including cows, • Haddock
chicken, pigs, • Crab
and fish. • Shrimp
Prevention • Buy seafood from approved sources
• Cook seafood to the proper temperature

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Cyclospora cayetanensis
Recognizing
Classification Infection
Humans are the only known carrier of this
Food Safety
parasite! Hazards
Symptoms Nausea, abdominal cramping, diarrhea, mild
fever
Onset 1-7 days
Common foods • Strawberries
• Raspberries
• Fresh produce
• Contaminated water
Causes • Fresh fruits and vegetables contaminated
at the farm
• Transmitted by infected workers or con-
taminated water touching foods
Prevention • Purchase produce from reputable source
• Wash berries and produce thoroughly with
potable water
• Wash hands
• Exclude food handlers who have diarrhea

Trichinella spiralis
Classification Roundworm
Symptoms Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
Onset 2-28 days
Common foods • Pork
• Wild animals (bear, wild boar)
Causes Undercooked pork products and wild game
meats
Prevention Cook foods to proper temperature

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 35

Chapter 3

Recognizing Foodborne Diseases caused by Chemical Hazards

Food Safety Chemical hazards are defined as: Toxic substances that may
occur naturally or may be added during the processing of
Hazards food.

As previously mentioned there are two types of chemical hazards:

Naturally occurring – which means they are produced by a

biological organism… you can think of them as biological tox-
ins and are a natural part of the plant or animal.
• Ciguatoxin
• Scombrotoxin (also called scombroid poisoning)
• Shellfish toxins
• Mycotoxin
Some fish toxins are systemic, meaning the toxin is produced
by the fish itself, like Pufferfish.

Some toxins are caused by microorganisms on the fish them-

selves.

Other toxins occur when predatory fish eat smaller fish that
have eaten the toxin.

The best way to protect against fish toxins is to buy fish from
an approved, reputable supplier. You should always do a
through receipt inspection to make sure there has not been
any temperature abuse.

Man-made – these may be present in a food after processing.

• Cleaning solutions
• Food additives
• Pesticides
• Heavy metals (leaching metal from containers)

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Ciguatoxin
Recognizing
Classification Intoxication
Ciguatoxin is heat stable and cannot be
Food Safety
destroyed by cooking Hazards
Symptoms • Nausea
• Vomiting
• Dizziness
• Tingling in fingers, lips, or toes
• Shortness of breath
• Reversal of hot and cold sensations
• Joint and muscle pain
Onset 15 min. – 24 hours
Common foods Large predatory fish
• Snapper • Grouper
• Barracuda • Jack
Causes Eating fish that have Ciguatoxin
Prevention Purchase from an approved, reputable
source

Scombrotoxin
Classification Intoxication - Histamine poisoning
Certain foods contain a specific protein
called histidine. Histamine is produced by
certain bacteria when these foods decom-
pose. It cannot be destroyed by freezing,
cooking, smoking or curing.
Symptoms • Dizziness • Shortness of breath
• Sweating • Burning sensation
• Headache in the mouth
Onset Within minutes
Common foods • Tuna • Mahi-mahi
• Bonito • Mackerel
Causes Eating foods that contain high levels of
histamine.
Prevention • Purchase from an approved, reputable source
• Conduct receipt inspection to make sure
there has not been any temperature abuse

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 37

Chapter 3

Recognizing Shellfish Toxins

Food Safety Classification Intoxication

Shellfish eat the toxic marine algae from the
Hazards water and consequently become contaminated.
What makes this challenging is that you can-
not smell or taste these toxins. They are not
destroyed by freezing or cooking.
Symptoms • Numbness of lips, tongue, arms, legs, and
neck
• Lack of muscle coordination
Onset Within minutes
Common foods • Mussels • Clams
• Oysters • Scallops
Causes Shellfish feed on toxic algae
Prevention Purchase seafood from a reputable supplier

Mycotoxins
Classification Intoxication
Foodborne illness can be caused by some
types of molds, yeast, and mushrooms by
producing toxic chemicals called Mycotoxins.
Fungi are larger than bacteria and prefer
foods high in sugar.
Cooking does not destroy Mycotoxins.
Symptoms ACUTE onset – hemorrhage, fluid buildup
CHRONIC onset – cancer from small doses
over time
Common foods • Moldy grains • Peanuts
• Corn & corn products • Pecans
• Milk • Walnuts
Prevention • Purchase products from a reputable supplier
• Keep grains and nuts dry
• Inspect foods for mold growth

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Okay, about now your eyes are crossed and you are thinking,
“How on earth am I going to remember all of this?”
Recognizing
Below is a diagram that presents a “pictorial” view of the
Food Safety
pathogens – a “visual association.” It is followed by a review of Hazards
the high points.

PATHOGENS

BACTERIA VIRUS PATHOGENS TOXINS

Infections Intoxications Infection Infection Intoxication

Campylobacter
jejuni Bacillus cereus Hepatitis A Anisakis Ciguatoxin

Salmonella Staphylococcus Norovirus Cyclospora Scombrotoxin

aureus

Clostridium
Shigella botulinum Cryptosporidium Shellfish toxins

Clostridium
Listeria perfringens Giardia Mycotoxins

Vibrio spp. Trichinella

E. coli

Review:

Bacterial infections
• C. jejuni, Salmonella, and Shigella are primarily poultry based
food sources with similar symptoms.
• Listeria is found in RTE foods with hot dogs being highly sus-
pect. This bacteria continues to grow in cool temperatures.
It is life threatening to “high risk” populations, can cause
spontaneous abortions.
• Vibrio spp. deals with seafood (the only one in this grouping).
• E. coli – while raw/rare beef is the common food source, it is
also found in raw vegetables.

Bacterial intoxications
• Bacillus cereus has two distinctive types: vomiting and diar-
rheal. The more common food source for the vomiting type
is rice.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 39

Chapter 3

Recognizing • Staphylococcus aureus – humans have this on their body.

Food Safety • C. botulinum is the one that deals with vacuum-packed

foods, in particular “home-canned” products.
Hazards • C. perfringens occurs when PHF’s are not properly cooled.

Viral infections
• Hepatitis A is a contamination via the fecal-oral route of RTE
foods with shellfish as a common food source. It affects the
liver with a symptom of jaundice and onset of 2-3 weeks.
• Norovirus is also a fecal-oral contamination of RTE foods
with a rapid onset of 24-48 hours.

Parasites
• Anisakis has seafood as it primary food source: cod, crab,
haddock, salmon, and shrimp (CCHSS…this is how I
remember them).
• Cyclosporiasis has berries (strawberries, raspberries) as well
as contaminated water as the source of contamination.
• Cryptosporidiosis and Giardia are mostly waterborne. (not
discussed in detail)
• Trichinella is found in pork and wild animal meats.

Toxins cannot be
destroyed by cooking. Toxins – CANNOT BE DESTROYED BY COOKING
• Ciguatoxin is associated with marine algae eaten by preda­
tory reef fish: snapper, grouper, barracuda, and jack (SGBJ –
See the Great Barracuda Jump)
• Scombrotoxin is associated with high histamine levels: tuna,
bonito, mahi mahi and mackerel (TBMM – Tuna Boats
Make Money). Also they can be remembered by the “m”s in
scombrotoxin & histamine.
• Shellfish toxins contaminate the filter feeding shellfish with
toxic algae: mussels, clams, oysters, scallops.
• Mycotoxins are produced by molds, yeasts and mushrooms.
Common food sources include moldy grains, corn, peanuts,
and milk.

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Food Allergens Recognizing

Seven million (7,000,000) in the United States alone have
food allergies.
Food Safety
Hazards
Briefly defined, a food allergen is: The body’s negative reac-
tion to a particular food protein.*

Classification Chemicals that cause a person’s immune

system to overreact
Between 5 -8% of children and 1-2% of
adults have food allergies

Symptoms • Hives
• Difficulty breathing
• Diarrhea
• Swelling of the lips, tongue, and mouth
• Vomiting
• Cramps

Common foods • Milk products • Soy products

• Egg products • Tree nuts
• Wheat proteins • Fish
• Peanuts • Shellfish

Prevention • The only way for a person who is allergic

to a food to prevent a reaction is to avoid The only way for a
the food product person who is allergic
• Avoid cross contamination to a food to prevent a
• Proper labeling and warnings reaction is to avoid the
food product.

* A more expanded definition is “a substance in food that causes the

human immune system to produce chemicals and histamines in order to
protect the body. These chemicals produce allergic symptoms that affect the
respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract, skin, or cardiovascular system.”

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 41

Chapter 3

Recognizing Man-Made Chemicals

Food Safety There are many chemicals added to foods that may pose a
potential health risk. INTENTIONALLY added chemicals
Hazards include:
• Food additives
• Food preservatives
• Pesticides/herbicides

UNINTENTIONALLY added chemicals include:

• Cleaners
• Sanitizers
• Food containers or food-contact surfaces made from
inferior metals that are misused may lead to heavy
metal or inferior-metal poisoning

Physical Hazards
A physical hazard is an item that is not supposed to be in food.

Physical hazards commonly result from accidental contamina-

tion and poor food-handling practices.

Controls for physical hazards include:

• Wash raw fruits and vegetables thoroughly
• Inspect foods
• Practice safe food handling techniques to avoid
physical hazards

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 4
Chapter 4

Controlling Foodborne Illness

Controlling TIME and TEMPERATURE are the most
critical ways to ensure food safety.

Time and Temperature Abuse can happen anywhere along the

flow of food.

Preventing Temperature Abuse

Obviously, temperatures have to be monitored all along the
flow of food to prevent temperature abuse. So let’s talk about
temperature taking before we get started on food flow. A non-
glass, calibrated thermometer must be used.

Thermometer Calibration
The bi-metallic stem thermometer should be calibrated:
• Before first use
• Daily
• If dropped
• If used in extreme temperatures
• When its accuracy is in question
How to Calibrate a Thermometer
1. Fill a glass with crushed ice and water
2. Submerge the thermometer stem or probe in the
water, up to the dimple, for thirty seconds
3. Hold the calibration nut and rotate the thermometer
head until it reads 32°F

Measure Temperatures Accurately

To accurately measure food temperatures:
• Use an approved temperature measuring device
• Locate the sensing portion (the dimple) on the device
• Ensure the device is calibrated
• Clean and sanitize the device before and after each use
• Insert the probe into the thickest part of the product
and wait for temperature to stabilize.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 43

Chapter 4

Controlling Food Flow

Foodborne The flow of food actually starts on the farm where the produce
Illness is grown or the animals are raised. Two steps of the process
flow, purchasing and delivery, are not discussed.

I introduced this diagram earlier and now we will go through it

in a step by step format.

We will discuss the receipt and inspection of several types of

foods. Then we will briefly talk about the different types of
storage. Under the preparation category, we will discuss the
specific critical limits that would be used in a HACCP system.
Lastly we will address a couple of obvious service issues.

Flow of Food

RECEIVING STORAGE PREPARATION SERVICE

Dry Cold-holding

Refrigerated Cooling

Freezer Hot-holding Cooling

Thawing
Reheating

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Flow of Food
Controlling
Receiving: Inspection
Foodborne
The discussion of the Food Flow begins with the inspection
process at delivery. Illness
The first thing to do is to look, touch, smell, and sometimes
taste the products to determine the quality of the food.

Look at the food quality characteristics:

• Color
• Texture
• Signs of spoilage (slime/mold, etc.)
• Package (no tears/dents, etc.)
Your nose knows! Smell for any “off-odors”

Check the product for texture changes or abnormalities

like soft or mushy when it should be firm.

Always ensure you check the temperatures before accepting.

Receipt temperatures are covered in the Code and are outlined
below.

Flow of Food
Receiving: Good Practices
Any purchaser buys in good faith that wholesome products will
show up on the receiving dock. Keep in mind food safety is
the most important thing.

Refuse or return products that:

• Do not meet company quality guidelines
• Appear to be damaged or spoiled
A note on dry foods: Although they are not potentially hazard-
ous foods, their packaging must be inspected for any type of
damage or contamination prior to being stored at room tem-
perature.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 45

Chapter 4

Controlling Flow of Food

Receiving: Hermetically Packaged Goods
Foodborne
Hermetic – airtight - so tightly or perfectly fitting as to exclude
Illness the passage of air; protected from outside influence – protected
from or preventing any outside interference or influence.

Intact hermetically sealed goods are packages that are com-

pletely sealed against the entry of pathogens or chemical or
physical hazards.

Common hermetically sealed containers include

• Metal cans
• Vacuum packages
• Glass jars
Check for, and refuse, hermetically sealed containers if they:
• Leak
• Bulge
• Have dents
• Have broken seals / damage around seams
• Have penetrating rust
• Have missing labels

Flow of Food
Receiving – Milk, Eggs and Egg Products
Fluid milk must be:
• Pasteurized
• Received at or below 41°F
Whole FRESH eggs must be:
• Received at or below 45°F
• Clean and sound
• Free of off odors
Egg products (an egg without its shell) must be:
• Pasteurized
• Received at or below 41°F

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Flow of Food
Controlling
Receiving – Poultry
Foodborne
Fresh poultry must be:
• Received at or below 41°F
Illness
• Have the appropriate color/ no discoloration
• Flesh should be
• Firm and elastic to the touch
• Not sticky/slimy
• Smell fresh, no off odors

Flow of Food
Receiving – Seafood
Fish should be received at or below 41°F and have:
• Bright red, moist gills / shiny skin
• Clear, bulging eyes
• Firm flesh, elastic to the touch
• A mild pleasant odor
Molluscan shellfish (oysters, clams, and mussels) should be
received at or below 41°F and have legible shellfish identifica-
tion tags:
• Shells closed and unbroken
• Purchased by FDA approved sources

Shellfish identification tags (which tell where they came from)

must be attached to the container until it is empty and kept on
file in the facility for 90 days. The reason for keeping the tags
is in case there is a problem with, or a recall of a particular lot.
Crustaceans (fresh lobster and crabs) must be delivered alive.

Flow of Food
Receiving – Fresh Fruits and Vegetables (FFV)
• There are no temperature mandates for FFV with the excep-
tion of cut melons – they have to be received and stored at
or below 41°F.
• Look for any evidence of mishandling, abuse, spoilage or
degradation.
• FFV may not be normally considered potentially hazardous.
However, they have been associated with foodborne illness.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 47

Chapter 4

Controlling Flow of Food

Storage
Foodborne
First-In, First-Out (FIFO) – a method of stock rotation using
Illness older food products before newer food products.

Storage principles:
• Use FIFO storage method
• Store older products in front of new products
• Store foods a minimum of 6 inches off the floor

Flow of Food
Good Practices
Do not store food, single-service items, utensils, equipment, or
paper goods:
• In locker areas / dressing rooms
• In toilet rooms
• In garbage rooms
• In mechanical rooms
• Under piping
• Under water and sewage lines unless the lines are
shielded to prevent leaks from reaching stored
food/items
• Under open stairwells

Flow of Food
Dry Storage
The key issues with dry storage are heat and humidity
(moisture).
• Room temperature should be 50°F to 70°F
• Room humidity should be 50 to 60%
• Store foods out of direct sunlight
• Store foods 6 inches off the floor

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Flow of Food
Controlling
Refrigeration
Foodborne
Refrigeration can slow bacteria growth.
• Keep refrigerator in good repair and ensure a ther-
Illness
mometer is located in the warmest part (such as close
to the door) to help with monitoring the temperature
• Store potentially hazardous foods at or below 41°F
• Don’t overload, stack items so that the cold air can
circulate around them and cool the products
• Use open shelving – don’t line the shelves with any
thing such as aluminum foil, which prevents the air
from circulating
• Never place large quantities of HOT foods directly into
the refrigerator – use proper cooling techniques as
described on page 52
• Store raw products under cooked and ready-to-eat
foods
• Store species of animals in the following order from
top to bottom:
• Cooked and ready-to-eat foods
• Fish and other red meats
• Ground beef and ground pork
• Poultry and eggs

Flow of Food
Freezers
Freezers:
• Keep foods frozen
• Keep freezer in good repair and ensure a thermometer
is located in the warmest part to help with monitor-
ing the temperature
• Hold foods at or below 0°F
• Don’t overload, stack items so that the cold air can
circulate around them and cool the products

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 49

Chapter 4

Controlling Flow of Food

Thawing
Foodborne
Thawing methods:
Illness • In a refrigerator
PREFERRED – as it keeps food out of the temperature
danger zone
• In a microwave
Must be part of a continuous cooking process
• Completely submerged in cool (<70°F), potable running
water
Clean and sanitize the sink prior to use
• As part of the cooking process
i.e. frozen hamburgers on the grill

NEVER THAW FOODS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE!

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Flow of Food
Controlling
Cooking
Foodborne
Cooking ensures the destruction of foodborne pathogens com-
monly found in some foods. Food facilities that choose to Illness
serve certain foods raw increase their risk of causing a food-
borne illness. Make sure that a Consumer’s Advisory is posted.

Cooking decreases the risk of foodborne illness.

• There is a relationship between time and temperature
for cooking certain types of food as noted below
(poultry, ground beef, etc.)
• Requirements for cooking should include:
• Required final temperature
• Amount of time it must be cooked at that
temperature

Flow of Food
Cooking – Minimum Temperature and Time
Requirements
To reduce or destroy foodborne illness pathogens, certain PHF
must be heated to specific minimum temperatures for a mini-
mum amount of time.

Poultry, Stuffed Meats

165°F for 15 sec.
Ground Beef and Pork
155°F for 15 sec.
Eggs, Beef/Pork, Fish
145°F for 15 sec.
Beef Roast (medium), Pork Roast, Ham
145°F for 15 sec.
Beef Roast (rare), Pork Roast
130°F for 112 minutes

If a dish contains more than one of the above items, it must

be cooked to the highest temperature.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 51

Chapter 4

Controlling Flow of Food

Cooling
Foodborne
Cooling is the act of reducing the temperature of properly
Illness cooked food to 41°F or below.

This is probably the area that gets facilities into the most
trouble... cooling hot foods too slowly. When it comes to tem-
perature abuse, improper cooling is the most common cause of
foodborne illness.

After proper cooking, PHFs not used for immediate service or

hot holding should be cooled:

from 135°F to 70°F in 2 hours.

then from 70°F to 41°F in 4 hours.
Total cooling time of 6 hours

PHFs must be cooled to 41°F or below in four hours or less

if prepared from ingredients at room temperature, such as
reconstituted food (like powdered milk) and canned tuna.
Refrigerating the tuna prior to preparation helps reduce the
cooling time.

Rapid cooling can be achieved by:

• Using shallow pans 3” or less
• Separating into smaller/thinner portions
• Using blast chillers
• Stirring while cooling
• Ice wands
• Using ice baths
• Using stainless steel pans to facilitate heat transfer

Flow of Food
Reheating
All PHFs that are cooked and then cooled must be reheated for
hot holding to at least 165°F for 15 seconds. The reheating
must be done rapidly and cannot exceed 2 hours.

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Flow of Food
Controlling
Cold-Holding & Hot-Holding
Foodborne
Hot-holding: Maintaining the internal temperature of the food
at or above 135°F. Illness
Cold-holding: Maintaining the internal temperature of the
food at or below 41°F.

Flow of Food
Service – Food Handling
Good food handling practices help keep food safe:
• Frequent hand washing and good personal hygiene
• No bare hand contact with ready-to-eat foods
• Handle utensils correctly
• “In use” utensils should be positioned so that handles
don’t touch the food

Flow of Food
Service – Self-Service Bars
Self-service bars can be hot or cold-holding.
Maintain hot foods > 135°F
Maintain cold foods < 41°F

Self-service bars:
• Must have sneeze guards
• Ensure customers get a clean plate or bowl when returning
for additional food
• Must have trained personnel who monitor temperatures

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 53

5
Chapter 5

Facilities, Equipment & Utensils

Chapters 4, 5, and 6 in the Code cover these areas separately.
This section is the compiled and condensed information.

Facilities
While we are primarily concerned about the food safety aspect
of a facility, keep in mind that all facilities have to meet all
zoning, building and fire codes.

Specifically in food preparation areas, the walls, floors and

ceilings are to be:
• Smooth (impervious – meaning nowhere for the
bacteria to hide)
• Durable
• Easily cleanable
• Floor and wall juncture (seam) is to be coved and sealed.
• Carpeting is NOT allowed.

Lighting has to have a protective shielding. That can be in the

form of a light cover or shatter-resistant coated bulbs.

There are minimum lighting intensity requirements. Lighting is

measured by “foot candles,” which is a common unit of mea-
surement used to calculate adequate lighting levels of work-
spaces.
• 10 foot candles – Walk-in refrigerators and dry storage
• 20 foot candles – Consumer self service areas, reach-
in and under-counter refrigerators
• 50 foot candles – Surfaces where food workers are
working with food or with utensils or equipment such
as knives, slicers, grinders or saws where employee
safety is a factor.

Ventilation is necessary to keeps rooms free of excessive heat,

steam, condensation, vapors, obnoxious odors, smoke, and
fumes. Hoods have to be made from stainless steel and prevent
grease from dripping back onto food. Filters must be remov-
able for easy cleaning.

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 Chapter 5

Handwashing sinks shall

Facilities,
• Be conveniently located in food preparation and dis-
pensing, dish and pot washing areas, and in or imme- Equipment &
diately adjacent to toilet rooms Utensils
• Provide water at a temperature of at least 100°F
through a mixing valve or combination faucet
• Be accessible at all times for employee use – in other
words, access to the sink CANNOT be blocked by
other items, such as mop buckets, carts, etc.
• NOT be used for any purpose other than hand washing

Equipment and Utensils

The Code specifies the characteristics of materials used in the
construction of utensils and food contact equipment to be:
• Durable
• Corrosion-resistant
• Nonabsorbent
• Have a smooth easily cleanable surface
• Resistant to pitting, chipping, scratching, etc.
Stainless steel is the preferred material. There are very specific
limitations on the use of certain materials like cast iron, lead,
copper, galvanized metal, and wood.

A cast iron surface can be used for cooking and serving if the
process is uninterrupted from cooking to serving.

A hard maple, close-grained wood can be used for cutting

boards, cutting blocks, bakers’ tables, rolling pins, salad bowls
and chopsticks.

All food service equipment and utensils must be certified by

NSF or Underwriters Laboratories (UL), and must be calibrated
at regular interval.”

Preventive Maintenance
Failure to have a comprehensive PM program in place can lead
to biological (hiding in cracks), chemical (oil drips) and phys-
ical (bolts falling off) hazards into your food. The same would
be true if your suppliers didn’t have a PM program in place,
thus, be sure they do.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 55

Chapter 5

Facilities, Dishwashing Equipment:

Equipment & Cleaning and sanitizing equipment and utensils are some of
the most important tasks in any food facility (more detail on
Utensils cleaning and sanitizing in the next chapter).

An important key to proper dishwashing is that it helps to pre-

vent cross contamination.

Manual Washing:
The manual dishwashing process is performed in a three-com-
partment sink:
• “Sink compartments shall be large enough to accom-
modate the largest equipment and utensils”
• Adequate drainboards to allow equipment and utensils
to air-dry properly

A three-compartment sink set up:

• Compartment 1: Wash in a detergent solution with
water of 110°F or as specified by detergent manufacturer
• Compartment 2: Rinse with water of 120°F
• Compartment 3: Sanitize using the hot water or
chemical method

Two acceptable methods for sanitizing are:

• Hot-water method—maintained at 171°F or above
• Chemical method—must have test kit available

Concentration Water
Chemical
(ppm)* temperature

Chlorine** 50ppm 75°F

Iodine 12.5-25ppm 75°F
Quat*** 100-200ppm**** 75°F

*Parts per million

**Without consideration of water pH
***Affected by water hardness
****Or as indicated by manufacturer’s directions

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 Chapter 5

Mechanical Washing:
Facilities,
The mechanical methods with machines are a little easier to
manage because the machine cycles do processes automati-
Equipment &
cally. With that said, not all machines are the same. Utensils
There are stationary rack machines and conveyor machines.
The wash water temperatures vary from machine to machine
with ranges from 150°F to 165°F.

Remember, these are the temperatures as they leave the man-

ifold (the water spray arm) on the machine. The water tem-
perature is a little lower by the time it hits the items going
through the machine.

For the sanitizing cycle, the hot water has to be at least 180°F
for all machines except the stationary rack, single temperature
machine which is 165°F when it reaches the item being sanitized.

The dishwashing process differs very little for each of the methods.

They both include:

• Pre-rinsing
• Wash
• Rinse
• Sanitize
• Air-dry
• Store properly

The mechanical method includes the “racking” of the items

going through the machine.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 57

6
Chapter 6

Cleaning & Sanitizing

The cleaning and sanitizing aspects of the Code are spread
throughout the chapters, not isolated in one chapter.

Cleaning is removing soil and food particles from equipment

and utensils.

Sanitizing is reducing the number of harmful germs to a safe

level.

Cleaning is straight forward – you scrub it until you don’t see

soil or food debris. That includes using the right detergent to
get rid of the different types of soil and food, making sure the
water temperatures are correct. Depending on what part of the
country a person is located in, quality of the water, such as
hardness, can affect the cleaning process.

The surface has to be clean before it can be sanitized!

Sanitizing requires applying either a chemical sanitizer or hot

water long enough to kill pathogenic (disease causing) germs
that we cannot see.

Remember that sanitizing can be done either by a chemical

method or a heat/hot water method. The temperature and
chemical concentrations are listed on page 56.

The heat method is simple and easily monitored by taking the

temperature of the water or recording the gauge on a machine.

Chemicals are affected by several other factors. They are weak-

ened as they work and become diluted or contaminated. They
have to be monitored for concentration strength and replaced
when the levels drop below guidelines. As noted on page 56,
chlorine can be affected by the pH of the water, while Quats
are affected by water hardness.

VERY IMPORTANT: Wiping cloths must be kept in the san-

itizer solution when not in use. They don’t belong “tucked”
under your belt or apron tie or thrown over your shoulder.

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 Chapter 6

How Often? Cleaning &

If you become that proverbial “fly on the wall” you can see
that some form of cleaning/sanitizing is happening a good
Sanitizing
portion of the time the facility is operating.

The Code does specify certain instances that will be covered

here.

Food contact surfaces used with potentially hazardous foods

must be cleaned every four hours including:
• Before each use with a different type of raw animal
food such as beef, fish, lamb, pork or poultry
• Each time there is a change from working with raw
foods to working with ready-to-eat foods
• Between uses with raw fruits and vegetables and with
potentially hazardous foods
• Before using or storing a food thermometer
• At any time during the operation when contamina-
tion may have occurred
Food contact surfaces used with non-potentially hazardous
food must be cleaned:
• Any time contamination may have occurred
• At least every 24 hours for:
• Ice tea dispensers
• Customer self-service utensils such as tongs,
ladles, scoops, etc
• Before restocking customer self-service equipment
such as condiment dispensers and display containers
• At a frequency specified by the manufacturer’s guide
lines for equipment like ice bins, beverage dispensers
coffee bean grinders, etc.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 59

Chapter 6

Cleaning & General Cleaning

Sanitizing “Physical facilities shall be cleaned as often as necessary to keep

them clean.”
General facility surface areas have to be cleaned as well. The
below areas should have a cleaning schedule:
• Floors and floor drains
• Walls
• Ceiling – lights, fans, fan grates, and light covers
The bulk of the above type of cleaning is to de done when the
least amount of food is exposed.

OSHA Requirements
Remember any and all chemicals used in a facility can be dan-
gerous. Employees must be protected at all times. Each chemi-
cal has a material safety data sheet (MSDS).

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

requires food establishments have MSDS “Right-to-Know”
sheets for all chemicals used in the establishment.

The MSDS sheets must be “readily available” for all employees.

All employees handling chemicals as a routine part of their job
need to be properly trained on chemical hazards.

MSDS provide the following information:

• Ingredients
• Physical and chemical characteristics
• Fire, explosion, reactivity, and health hazard data
• How to handle chemicals safely
• Possible protective equipment that may be needed
• Recommended first aid procedures for exposure

60 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 7
Chapter 7

Facility Management
This chapter will cover a potpourri of topics that go into over-
all management of a food service facility:
Overall facility appearance
Garbage and refuse
Plumbing
Pest control

Overall Facility Appearance

When you stand across the street and look back at your facil-
ity, what do you see? Most employees come in through the
back door… you know, the one by the smelly dumpster! But
what do your customers see?

Take a hard look at the building, the parking lots, and general
landscaping. Are they clean and free of litter? Is the land-
scaping tidy?

Garbage and Refuse

Plain and simple – garbage attracts pests! Needless to say,
proper garbage containment and disposal are critical to pre-
venting contamination of food and equipment.

Inside, make sure there are adequate numbers of trash con-

tainers near working areas.
• For containers that have food residue in them, keep
them covered when not in continuous use
• Line the containers with plastic bags
• Empty when full or on a regular basis
• Clean as often as necessary to prevent build up of grime
Outside
• Keep containers covered
• Clean containers frequently so as not to attract pests
or provide harborage
• Keep area clean and litter free
• Ensure garbage is removed often

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 61

Chapter 7

Facility Plumbing

Management The plumbing codes are just about as thick as the food code.
There are a few key points you need to know for your facility.

Plumbing must be installed to ensure there are no cross con-

nections with the potable (drinkable) water system. Simply, a
cross connection is where there could be a physical link to any
contaminants from drains or sewer lines.

Backflow is where a reverse flow of contaminants flow back

into the potable water system thereby contaminating the pota-
ble water. Generally this happens when there is a drop in
water pressure causing a sucking action that pulls the contam-
inants into the system.

Backflow prevention can be achieved either through an air

gap or backflow prevention device.
• An air gap is just what it sounds like. It is a “gap”
between the water supply outlet device (faucet) and
the top of a sink or drain or drain line. For a sink this
means the faucet can’t be below the level the water
could rise in the sink. For something like the pipe
coming out of a steamer which always goes down the
side of the steamer and is positioned over a floor
drain, the gap should be twice the diameter of the
A cross connection is
outlet pipe, i.e. if the pipe is 1” then the gap should be
where there could be 2”. However, it should never be less than 1”.
a physical link to any
• A backflow prevention device is usually a plumbing
contaminants from
valve that allows only one-way flow. There are several
drains or sewer lines.
types of valves for different circumstances. For
instance as a simple example, it could be a valve device
that would go between a hose and a faucet so that the
water could only flow one way – out of the faucet and
not back into the water supply.

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 Chapter 7

Pest Control
Facility
No one likes to think about “pests” in a food facility. But the
reality is that operators must take very proactive measures to
Management
prevent “attracting” or “inviting” pests into the facility.

Those proactive measures are a viable pest control program.

Now that doesn’t mean that you keep a case of insecticide in
the store room “just in case.” It is the common sense things
that have the most effect.

First – Just prevent them from getting in. Use air curtains, or
screens on doors or windows that open to the outside. Make
sure there are no holes, cracks or crevasses in walls, doors or
windows. Insects and rodents can enter through the tiniest of
openings.

Second – KEEP IT CLEAN! Don’t attract them in the first

place! Eliminate all food and water sources. Keeping products
off the floor and removing cardboard and trash eliminates a
harborage area as well.

Third – Use a professional, licensed pest control operator

(PCO) to monitor the facility and eliminate any pests that
may enter. In a commercial establishment, as the facility oper-
ator you cannot apply pesticides. A licensed PCO must be used.

You will hear the term Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

program. It is simply a system or program where the facility
eliminates and controls pests. Common sense tells us that if
we eliminate the pests from getting inside to begin with… the
control measures will be minimal. So aim to eliminate! The
above procedures aimed at elimination can be done as a matter
of routine with a well trained staff.

A start to the elimination of entry is to make sure that the

people who receive products are inspecting to make sure no
“pests” are hitching a ride into your facility.

Another key area is to make sure the outside trash/garbage

containers and the areas around them are kept clean. Keep
the containers covered. Make sure there is no standing water,
which attracts insects.

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 63

Chapter 7

Facility The “pests” that we are primarily talking about are flies, cock-
roaches, and rodents (mice & rats).
Management
Insects
I always have to chuckle to myself when other books launch
into the differences between the housefly and the blowfly or
the American versus the Oriental cockroach. If there is anyone
out there like me, I just smash the darn thing and get rid of
it! It is really up to your pest control operator to make those
determinations so he/she knows what type of product has to
be used to eliminate them.

So needless to say… I’m not going to talk about the different

species. You know what a fly and a cockroach look like…
identifying them is not your primary concern. Both of them
carry disease and as long as you practice good elimination and
control practices to keep them out of your facility, they won’t
be a problem… regardless of what species they are.

The one thing you do have to be concerned with is if you find

cockroach “casings.” This could be a sign that you have an
infestation. Always make sure they are swept up and discarded.
As an operator, the one thing that you should know when
using chemical control measures is that the chemicals kill only
the live (hatched) insects. The chemicals do not affect the cas-
ings. Therefore, when the new casings hatch, you have a new
population that has to be treated.

Rodents
No one likes to think they have those “critters” in their facil-
ity. They carry many disease causing germs! In addition to
being down right nasty little vermin, they damage property and
food products. Because of their habits, they also contaminate
large amounts of food.

Suffice it to say, I am not going to discuss the different species

of rodents. One tell-tale fact most people know is that rats are
larger than mice. Depending on where you are located as to
the habits of the local rodent population….they are actually
smart and adapt to their environment. They are good climbers
and contrary to popular belief, are good swimmers as well.

64 ________________________________________________________________________ Food Safety 101

 Chapter 7

Because rodents are nocturnal, you will rarely see them in

the daytime. However there are some very specific signs you
Facility
can see that may indicate they are in or around your facility. Management
Your pest control operator is trained to look for these, but
you should be knowledgeable enough to know you may have a
problem to bring to their attention.

Here are four common and easily apparent signs of rodents:

• Droppings
• Fresh ones – shiny and black
• Old ones – grey, dry and hard
• Rub marks
• Rodents have poor eye sight; but their sense of smell,
touch and hearing are very good. Consequently,
they stay close to walls and their body oil and
filth will create rub marks
• Gnawing
• Rodent’s teeth grow continuously; gnawing keeps them
short enough to use and keep from killing themselves
• If you find light colored and well defined teeth
marks, the gnawing is fresh
• Nesting
• Rodents build their nests of cardboard, paper,
straw, insulation, pillow fillings and any assort-
ment of things they can find

Controls
Controls are simple: prevent and control!
• Keep it clean
• Eliminate food, water and harborage areas
• Rodent proof the building by sealing all holes and cracks
• Use bait boxes (also called bait stations or mechanical
box traps) particularly outside
• Glueboards usually aren’t sufficient for rodents but
work fairly well for insects
• Only a professional pest control operator can apply
chemical pesticides or rodenticides, which should be
used as a last resort
• No poisoned bait is allowed
• Schedule regular audits by your staff or a PCO so you
are always on top of problems

Food Safety 101 _____________________________________________________________________ 65

NOTES NOTES NOTES
 Part of the
Hospitality in a Nutshell
Series

Like Homer’s Iliad—described

as being copied in so tiny a hand A common sense
that it could fit in a nutshell—the approach to Food Safety
Nutshell Series of books and
training products condense
maximum knowledge into
minimum time.