Biology Tie Wazaelimu - Com Form Five

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Biology
for Advanced Level Secondary Schools
Student’s Book
Form Five
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Tanzania Institute of Education
BIOLOGY FORM 5 KIWANDANI.indd 1 10/10/2019 14:05

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Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools
© Tanzania Institute of Education, 2019
Published 2019
ISBN 978-9987-09-031-0
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P.O.Box 35094
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Dar es Salaam
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Tel: +255 22 2773005/+255 22 2771358

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Fax: +255 22 2774420

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Email: director.general@tie.go.tz
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Website: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Tanzania Institute of
Education.
Student’s Book Form Five

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Preface
This book Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools, is written specifically for
Form Five Biology Students in the United Republic of Tanzania. The book is prepared
according to the 2009 Biology Syllabus for Advanced Level Secondary Education
Form V-VI, issued by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.
The Book consists of seven chapters, which are: Cytology, Principles of classification,
Comparative studies of natural groups of organisms, Coordination, Nutrition,
Gaseous exchange and respiration, and Regulation. In addition to the content, each
chapter contains activities, illustrations, exercises and revision questions. Learners
are encouraged to do all activities and answer all questions so as to enhance their
understanding, and promote acquisition of the intended skills, knowledge, and attitudes.
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Acknowledgments
The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the contributions
of all organisations, and individuals who participated in the design and development of
this textbook.
Writers: Dr Charles M. Lyimo, Dr Emmanuel K. Laisser, Dr Ernest S. Kira,

Ms Mwanahamisi A. Jokolo, Ms Jamila M. Mweta, Ms Theonestina
A. Lema & Mr WilliamTungalaja
Editors: Dr Hashim Mangosongo, Dr Bruno Nyundo & Dr Heriel Moshi

(Chairman of the panel)
Designer: Mr Anton Asukile
Illustrators: Mr Fikiri A. Msimbe & Alama Art and Media Production Co. Ltd.
Coordinator: Ms Mwanahamisi A. Jokolo
TIE also extends its sincere gratitude to secondary school teachers who participated in
the trial phase of the manuscript.
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Likewise, the Institute would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Science and
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Technology for facilitating the writing of this textbook.

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Dr Aneth A. Komba
Director General

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Table of contents
Preface .................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................ iv
Chapter One: Cytology........................................................................................... 1

1.1 Concept of cytology ........................................................................................... 1
1.2 The cell theory ................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Types of cells ....................................................................................................... 3
1.4 The organic constituents of cells (Biochemistry) ............................................. 33
1.5 Water as a constituent of the cell ....................................................................... 74
Revision questions ................................................................................................... 76
Chapter Two: Principles of classification........................................................... 77

2.1 The concept of classification ..................................................................................77
2.2 Classification systems........................................................................................79
2.3 Taxonomic ranks ............................................................................................... 83
2.4 Nomenclature .....................................................................................................84
2.5 Taxonomic keys..................................................................................................86
Revision questions .................................................................................................. 90
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Chapter Three: Comparative studies of natural groups of organisms.............92

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3.1 General overview of classification ..................................................................92

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3.2 Viruses ................................................................................................................ 93

3.3 Kingdom Monera .............................................................................................. 100
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3.4 Kingdom Protoctista .........................................................................................112

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3.5 Kingdom Fungi ...............................................................................................127

3.6 Kingdom Plantae ..............................................................................................137
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3.7 Kingdom Animalia .......................................................................................... .166

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Revision questions ................................................................................................ . 210

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Chapter Four: Coordination and irritability....................................................212

4.1 Nervous coordination in mammals ..................................................................212
4.2 Receptor ............................................................................................................230
4.3 Hormonal coordination in mammals ...............................................................244
4.4 Coordination in plants .....................................................................................248
4.5 Plant hormones (Phytohormones) ...................................................................252
Revision questions .................................................................................................256

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Chapter Five: Nutrition ......................................................................................257

5.1 Concept of nutrition .........................................................................................257
5.2 Autotrophic nutrition .......................................................................................257
5.3 Heterotrophic nutrition ....................................................................................275
Chapter Six: Gaseous exchange and respiration ..............................................291

6.1 Gaseous exchange in mammals.......................................................................291
6.2 Gaseous exchange in plants..............................................................................303
6.3 Respiration .......................................................................................................305
Chapter Seven: Regulation (Homeostasis) ...................................................... 325

7.1 The concept of regulation .................................................................................325
7.2 Temperature regulation ...................................................................................330
7.3 Excretion ...........................................................................................................335
7.4 Osmoregulation ................................................................................................347
Revision questions ..................................................................................................351
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Glossary .................................................................................................................................352
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Bibliography ........................................................................................................................358
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Index .....................................................................................................................................359
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One
Chapter
Cytology
Introduction
All living organisms are made up of units called cells. A cell is the basic structural,
fundamental and functional unit of life. Understanding and learning about cells
supports the learning of other biological processes. In this chapter, you will learn about
the concept of cytology, cell theory, types of cells, and cell structure and function. You
will also learn about cell differentiation, organic constituents of cells, and water as a
constituent of the cell.
1.1 Concept of cytology small chambers surrounded by walls; he

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Cytology is the branch of biology that gave the spaces the name “cell” meaning
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deals with the study of the structure “little room” or “cavity”. He thought the
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and function of the cells. The cell is the objects he had discovered looked like the
basic structural and functional unit of individual rooms in a monastery, which
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all organisms. All living organisms may were known as cells. The cells observed
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be composed of a single or many cells. by Hooke gave no indication of the

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The unicellular organisms consist of a nucleus and other organelles found in most
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single cell while multicellular organisms living cells. However, in his invention,
consist of multiple cells. For multicellular Hooke did not discover the true biological
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organisms, the cells are differentiated and function of cells.

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organised into groups to form different

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structures that perform various functions.
Robert Hooke, who is also known as the Chambers of

father of cytology, was the first scientist to the cork cell
study the cell structure using a primitive
microscope. In 1665, he examined a
cross-section of the back of a cork tree
and observed its structure (Figure 1.1). Figure 1.1 First view of the cork cells by Robert
He found that the cork was made up of Hooke
Source: http://ucmp.berkeley.edu

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He was later followed by Anton von in the biochemical evolution theory

Leeuwenhoek, who in 1674 discovered free of origin of life on the earth, various
living cells in pond water. Leeuwenhoek chemical compounds were combined
made a microscope consisting of a single and mobilized into prokaryotes, which
gave rise to eukaryotes in the course of
high-quality lens which could magnify an
evolution.
object 270 times. This instrument was at that g) Helps to understand the basis of
time referred to as a compound microscope. genetics; the location, structure,
With this microscope, Leeuwenhoek was chemistry, and role of nucleic acid
able to make a number of important (DNA and RNA).
scientific discoveries, including single- h) Cytopathology, a study of cellular
celled animals, plants, bacteria, and abnormalities, helps to diagnose
spermatozoa. diseases by using cellular changes.
The importance of studying cytology 1.2 The Cell Theory

The study of cytology helps us to The origin of the concept of “cell theory”
understand the role of cells as the can be traced to as 1830’s when two
building blocks of all living organisms, scientists, Matthias Schleiden a Belgian
including their anatomy and physiology. botanist (1838) and Theodor Schwann,
Additionally, the significance of studying a German zoologist (1839) provided the
cytology includes the following: first definition of the cell. It was stated
a) Helps to realise the role of cells
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that, all living organisms, both simple
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in metabolic processes such as

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and complex, are made up of one or more

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respiration, protein synthesis, excretion,

cells. It was described that, the cell is the
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and growth.
structural and functional unit of life. This
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b) Aids in understanding the detailed

structure and functions of different led to the formation of the concept of cell
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cells. theory. The theory states that “All living

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c) Enhance an understanding on the organisms are made up of cells”. In 1855,

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structural (anatomical and chemical) Rudolf Virchow, a German physiologist,

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composition of cells. was among the first scientists to accept

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d) Gives knowledge about the process and and extend the work of Robert Hooke.
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significance of cellular differentiation, He showed that, the origins of cells was

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that is, a process in which cells are the division of pre-existing cells, and
specialised for their functions, such concluded that “new cells arise from pre-
as reproductive cells, red blood cells, existing cells”.
absorptive cells, and nerve cells.
e) Enables us to understand how similar 1.2.1 The main ideas of the cell theory
cells are organised into tissues. The principal ideas of the cell theory are
f) Helps to show how organisms are as follows:
evolutionarily related. For example, a) All living organisms are composed of
one or more cells and cell products.
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Cytology
b) Cells are the basic or fundamental in every cell, but mature human red blood
units of life, as all life processes are cells and sieve tube cells of angiosperm
controlled by cells. are some of the cells that lack genetic
c) All new cells arise from pre-existing material. Furthermore, the cell theory
cells. revealed that new cells arise from the pre-
However, in the modern version of the existing cells by cell division. However, it
cell theory, the following were added: does not show the origin of the first cell.
a) Cells contain genetic material which
carry hereditary information (DNA)
Exercise 1.1
that is passed from one generation to
another. 1. Explain the importance of studying
b) Energy flow occurs within cells in cytology.
which all metabolic processes of life
2. Analyse the main ideas of the cell
occur.
theory and its shortcomings.
c) All cells have the same basic chemical
composition, and the structure and 3. Explain why the cell is regarded as
functions of cells complement each the basic unit of life.
other. The living organism’s activities
depend upon the combined actions of
individual cells. 1.3 Types of cells
d) All new cells arise from pre-existing Based on the level of cell organisation,
cells through cell division. cells can be divided into two main types,
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namely prokaryotic cells and eurykaryotic

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1.2.2 Shortcomings of the cell theory cells. Prokaryotic cells have simple cell
Due to increased understanding on cell organisation, while eukaryotic cells have
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biology, the concept of “cell theory” has high level of cell organisation.
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been challenged based on the modern

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knowledge of virology, blood cells 1.3.1 The prokaryotic cells

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and origin of life. The study of viruses The word prokaryotes comes from two
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indicated that these living infectious Greek words pro meaning ‘primitive’
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particles are non-cellular. Schleiden and or ‘before’ and karyo (karyon) meaning
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Schwann could not explain the structure ‘nucleus.’ From this basic implication,
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and functioning of a virus. They said prokaryotic cells refer to those cells which
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that the body function is coordinated by lack true or well organised nuclei such that
the cell, which is not the case in a virus the nuclear materials are freely suspended
because it only starts its functioning when in the cytoplasm. The common examples
hosted by bacterial, plant or animal cell. of prokaryotic cells are bacteria and blue-
Thus, as per the cell theory, they are non- green algae. Prokaryotic cells have the
living creatures (akaryotes). However, following general characteristics:
when they are in host cells, they exhibit a) They are microscopic with an average
living characteristics. Regarding the cell diameter of 0.5-10 nm.
theory, there should be genetic material

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b) They lack well organised nuclei. peptidoglycan in the cell wall and lacks the
That is, their nucleus has no nuclear outer membrane, while the Gram-negative
membrane, therefore, the nuclear bacterium contains a thin cell wall made
materials are freely suspended in the up of a few layers of peptidoglycan and
cytoplasm. possesses the outer membrane.
c) They have small, circular and naked
DNA. That is, the DNA is not The glycocalyx or capsule is a layer
associated with histone protein coat to surrounding the cell wall of some bacteria.
form chromosomes. This layer protects the bacteria from drying
d) They have few and small ribosomes of out, especially in hypertonic conditions. The
70s sedimentation coefficient. fimbriae are structures that help bacteria to
e) They lack membrane bound organelles adhere to target cells. They thus play a major
such as mitochondria, Golgi bodies, role in bacterial virulence. The flagella are
and plastids. long whip-like extensions that help bacteria
f) The cell wall is chemically composed to move about in the environment. The axial
of a carbohydrate-protein complex filaments or endoflagella are long structures
called peptidoglycan or murein. which move in waves enabling the bacteria
g) Cilia and flagella, if present do not to spin.
arise from basal bodies, and they lack
microtubules of a “9+2” arrangement Beneath the cell wall, there is a plasma
pattern.
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phospholipids associated with proteins

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Structure of prokaryotic cells and other molecules. It protects the

intracellular materials and regulates the
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The prokaryotic cell does not have a defined

movement of materials into and out of the
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nucleus, as it lacks a nuclear membrane.

Almost all prokaryotes have a protective cell. In some bacteria, there is infolding of
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cell wall that prevents them from bursting the cell membrane that forms mesosome
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in hypotonic conditions. Such cell walls (which appeared to be associated with

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have different components depending on DNA during cell division, and also used
in respiration), photosynthetic membrane
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the type of organism.

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(which contain photosynthetic pigment

example bacteriochlorophyll used for
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However, most of the prokaryotic cells

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have cell walls containing major organic photosynthesis) and or nitrogen fixing
molecules of proteins, carbohydrates and membrane (for nitrogen fixing bacteria).
lipids. Bacterial cell walls have a unique Beneath the cell membrane, there is
molecule known as peptidoglycan. This cytoplasm, a gel-like fluid filling the cell.
It is a place where cellular organelles such
component of the cell walls allows scientists
as ribosomes are suspended. Ribosomes
to classify bacteria as either Gram-positive
(70s) are small structures in the cytoplasm
or Gram-negative. The Gram–positive
that play crucial role in protein synthesis
bacterium contains many layers of within the bacterial cell (Figure 1.2).

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Cytology
Additional structures sometimes Structures always present

present
Flagellum
Capsule Cell wall

Infolding of cell surface membrane
Cell surface membrane
Mesosomes Cytoplasm
Circular DNA
Plasmid
Ribosomes
Pili
Figure 1.2 The structure of a typical prokaryotic cell
The prokaryotic cell consists of the exchanged between bacteria through pili
nucleoid, a region of the prokaryotic during conjugation process.
cytoplasm containing the genome, which
Most bacteria have a slender tubule-
is the main genetic material (Figure 1.3).
like structure on the cell wall called pili.
It possesses a single, circular DNA with
There are two types of pili. The first type
a double-stranded DNA molecule. Some
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is used by related bacteria to exchange
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bacteria have additional genes located

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genetic material through the process of

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in small circular molecules of DNA

conjugation while the second type of
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called plasmids. These genes play roles

pili enables bacteria to stick to their host
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in maintaining virulence to bacteria,

or substrate which increases chances of
for instance, by developing resistance
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infection.
to drugs. The resistant genes can be
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Cell wall
Plasma membrane Capsule
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Cytroplasm
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Pili
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Plasmid
Bacterial flagellum
Ribosomes
Nucleoid (circular DNA)
Figure 1.3 Structure of the rod shaped bacterium

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Functions of parts of prokaryotic cells cells are those cells whose nuclei are
a) The cell wall of prokaryotic cells bounded by nuclear membranes. Cells are
provides structural and protective typically composed of plasma membrane,
functions. In some prokaryotes, the cytoplasm, nucleus, and organelles such
cell wall is surrounded by a thin sheath, as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
while in others, it is surrounded by a ribosomes, and Golgi apparatus. The
slim capsule. examples of eukaryotic cells are plant and
b) The cytoplasm of prokaryotes is animal cells. These cells are characterised
surrounded by a single cell membrane, by the following features:
and all metabolic processes such as a) They are relatively large in size, ranging
protein synthesis, respiration, and from microscopic to macroscopic.
replication take place within the b) They have true or well organized
cytoplasm. nuclei with nuclear membranes.
c) Genetic material in the form of a c) They have large and numerous
single circular DNA located in the ribosomes with the sedimentation
specified region within the cytoplasm. speed of 80s (The 's' stand for the
This controls hereditary functions of name Svedberg, but is also a unit of
the cell. measurement).
d) The flagellum found in most aquatic d) They have membrane bound organelles,
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and soil bacteria aids in movement
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such as mitochondria and plastids.

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by a unique process of spinning on an

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axis like a propeller. e) The cell walls, if present, are

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chemically composed of cellulose

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e) The pili, a structure located on the and/or chitin.

cell wall help bacteria to increase the
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chances of survival by undergoing f) They have large, helical DNA which

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is associated with histone protein to

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conjugation or by enabling anchoring

to its host or substrate. form chromosomes.
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f) The mesosomes which are infoldings g) Cilia and flagella, if present, arise from
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basal bodies and contain microtubules

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of the cell surface membrane which

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act as sites of respiratory enzymes. that are arranged in a “9+2” pattern.
g) Granules of food stores are used as

respiratory substrates. The plant cell
Plant cells are eukaryotic and present in
organisms of the kingdom Plantae. They
1.3.2 Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus along with specialized
The term Eukaryote comes from two structures called organelles that carry
Greek words eu meaning ‘true’ and out different functions. Plant cells differ
karyon meaning ‘nucleus.’ Eukaryotic
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Cytology
from the cells of other organisms in a green pigment used for photosynthesis.
that they have cell walls, chloroplasts, Other vital organelles found in the plant
and central vacuoles. Therefore, the cells include mitochondria, endoplasmic
distinctive features of plant cells include reticulum, ribosomes and golgi vesicles.
the presence of cell walls containing Mitochondrion acts as a powerhouse of
cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin, and the cell; because it releases energy used
the presence of chloroplasts capable of for all cell activities.
performing photosynthesis.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a
Structure of the plant cell large folded membrane system found in
The general structure of the plant cell the cytoplasm of the cell. Some ER are
can be viewed by using an electron associated with ribosomes while others
microscope (Figure 1.4). A plant cell has are not. The ER that are associated
an outer layer surrounding the cell, called with ribosomes are known as Rough
a cell wall. It is composed of cellulose, Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER), whereas
which is a stiff carbohydrate. The cell wall those not associated with ribosomes are
provides protection, structural support known as Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
and mechanical strength to the cell. The (SER).
presence of cellulose also helps the plant
cell to maintain its regular shape. The Ribosomes are the organelle responsible
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cell wall has perforations that connect for protein synthesis within a cell. Hence,
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cytoplasm of the neighbouring cells called the RER provides a surface for protein
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plasmodesmata. Beneath the cell wall, synthesis while the SER provides a surface
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there is a cell membrane, which is semi- for transportation of liquids and nutrients
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permeable. Cell membrane controls the in the cell. There are small vesicles in the
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passage of materials in and out of the cell. cytoplasm called Golgi vesicles. These are
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The adjacent cells are usually bound to responsible for storage and transportation
one another by a thin layer called middle of secretions of the cells. In addition, the
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lamella. plant cell has a large central vacuole which

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is responsible for storage of nutrients and

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The cytoplasm is a fluid content that fills the water. The nucleus is a vital part of the
cell giving its shape; it contains proteins and cell, as it controls all cell activities such as
dissolved ions used in cellular activities. growth, cell division, DNA replication and
It is a place where all cell organelles its transcription to RNA. It also contains
are housed. Most of the plant cells have hereditary material which transmit traits
large organelles called chloroplasts. from parents to the offsprings.
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which is

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Middle lamella Cell walls of adjacent

Cell wall Plasmodesma cells
Nuclear pole
Nuclear envelope Free ribosomes scattered
through cytoplasm
Nucleus
(two membranes)
Rough endoplasmic
Nucleolus reticulum
Heterochromatin Chloroplast
Chromatin Euchromatin Chloroplast envelope
Smooth endoplasmic (two memberane)
reticulum Granum
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
Golgi vesicle
Golgi apparatus
Microtubule – often near Cell sap Vacuole
to cell periphery Tonoplast
Figure 1.4 A generalised structure of a plant cell as seen under electron microscope
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Activity 1.1 Observation of a plant d) Mount the specimen at the centre of

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cell under a light microscope the microscope slide.

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e) Add a drop of iodine solution.

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Materials f) With the help of a needle, place the

Onion bulb, a light microscope,
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cover slip gently. Make sure there are

microscope slide, slide cover, petri dish no air bubbles under the cover slip.
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or watch glass, iodine solution, water,

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forceps, a needle, and a knife or surgical g) Observe the specimen under the light
microscope at low, medium, and
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blade or scalpel.
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high power objectives. The images

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Procedure tend to be smaller under low power

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a) Slice the onion longitudinally into objective lens. However, if more

small parts by using a knife or magnification is needed, change
scalpel. objective lenses to medium and high
power. Structures such as nucleus,
b) Using forceps, remove the thin
cytoplasm, chloroplasts, vacuole,
transparent inner lining.
cell wall, and cell membrane can be
c) Put a specimen on a watch glass or clearly seen.
petri dish containing some water to
prevent shrinking.

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Cytology
Question cell, the cytoplasm of the animal cell

Draw what you have observed and is jelly-like fluid filling the cell and it
compare your diagram with that of houses all cell organelles. The cytosol
Figure 1.4. or cytoplasmic matrix is a fluid found in
the cell organelles, such as mitochondria
and ribosomes. The cytosol is a site of
Safety precaution metabolic activities in the cell organelles.
Be careful when working with sharp Mitochondria are called the powerhouses
objects such as needle, knife and of the cell; since they release energy in
surgical blade. the form of ATP through the process of
respiration. The produced energy is used
to run metabolic activities of the cell.
The animal cell The nucleus is the central part containing
Animal cells are eukaryotic cells with the hereditary (genetic) material. It also
a membrane bound nucleus. Unlike the controls cell activities such as growth, cell
eukaryotic cells of plants and fungi, animal division, DNA replication, and protein
cells do not have a cell wall. Animal cell synthesis.
comprises of different cell organelles and
Ribosomes are the smallest organelles
cell structures which perform specific
responsible for protein synthesis in the
functions necessary for the cell. The cell
cell. Some ribosomes are located on the
organelles have a vast range of functions
surface of the endoplasmic reticulum
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to perform. The animal cells contains
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which is a large folded membrane system

centrioles, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
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in the cytoplasm. Like plant cell, animal

apparatus, lysosomes, microfilaments,
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cell has rough endoplasmic reticulum and

microtubules, mitochondria, nucleus,
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Moreover,
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peroxisomes, plasma membrane,

the animal cell has small vesicles in the
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ribosomes, cilia, and flagella.

cytoplasm known as Golgi vesicles which
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are responsible for the storage of enzymes

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Structure of the animal cell

and formation of lysosomes. Lysosomes
The outer boundary of the animal cell
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are small structures in the cytoplasm which

is a cell membrane; which is selectively
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contain digestive juices responsible for

permeable to substances and controls the
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breaking down of old cell parts. There are

exchange of materials between the cell
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also long structures called microtubules or

and its environment. Beneath the cell
microfilaments. These are responsible for
surface membrane, there is a protoplasm
all cell movements, and they provide the
which is made up of cytoplasm and the
cell with cytoskeletal support.
nucleus (Figure 1.5). Like in the plant

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Micrivillus
Exocytosis of secretory product
Pinocytotic vesicle forming
BIOLOGY FORM 5 KIWANDANI.indd 10

Secretory vesicle or secretory granule Pinocytotic vesicle
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G GolgiRvesicles Microtubule
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Golgi
Free ribosomes
VEapparatusN
Two centrioles
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Mitochondrion
M E Nuclear envelops
(two membranes)
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Rough endoplasmic T SE
reticulum PR O Nuclear pores
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Nucleus
Heterochromatin
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Cytoplasm
Figure 1.5 A generalised structure of animal cell as seen under electron microscope
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Cytology
Activity 1.2 Observation of an animal Exercise 1.2

cell under a light microscope
1. a) Draw and label the structure of plant
Materials and animal cells as they are seen
A plastic spoon, a light microscope,
under high power magnification of
slides, cover slips, a needle, and
light microscope.
methylene blue.
b) Compare and contrast the two cells
Procedure in (a) above.
a) Gently scrub the inside of your cheek
with a plastic spoon to obtain a cell 2. Describe the composition of cell
sample. Plastic spoons are used to cytoplasm and its functions.
avoid damaging the cheek cells. 3. Explain how the discovery of the
b) Place the cheek cells sample on a electron microscope improved
clean slide. knowledge on cell structure.
c) Add a drop of methylene blue and 4. Describe the contribution of each
mix using a pointed needle. of the following scientists in cell
d) Cover the specimen with a cover biology:
slip. Make sure that there are no air a) Robert Hooke (1665).
bubbles under the cover slip. TYb) Theodor Schwann and Mathias
e) Observe the specimen under the light
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Schleiden.
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microscope at low, medium, and high

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power objectives. You will see that,

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Structure and functions of the cell

at the low power objective, the cells
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In general, a cell consists of cell

appear very small; in contrast, at the
membrane, the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
EN U
high power objective, they appear to

Every cell in the body is enclosed by a
M E
be relatively larger.
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cell membrane. The cell membrane is

Question the protective barrier that surrounds the
VE N
Draw what you have observed and

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cell, which separates the material outside

compare your drawing with that of
G R
the cell (extracellular), from the material

Figure 1.5.
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inside the cell (intracellular). It is the

barrier that maintains the integrity of a cell
Safety precautions and controls passage of materials into and
1. Be careful when working with sharp out of the cell. Apart from cell membrane,
objects such as needle, knife and other cells such as plant and fungal cells
surgical blade. have an additional outer layer called a cell
2. Do not share instruments used to wall. It is formed on the outside of the
obtain cell sample.
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cell membrane to give the cell an extra Structure of the cell membrane
support, protection, as well as efficiency The cell membrane is made up of proteins
and regulates exchange of materials. and lipids (phospholipids). Protein
molecules are embedded in the layers of
The nucleus is the largest cellular the phospholipids. Phospholipids form a
structure, located inside eukaryotic cell bilayer structure which is fundamental to
and acts as the control centre of a cell. the selective permeability function of the
The material between the cell membrane membrane. Each phospholipid molecule
and the nuclear envelope is known as
consists of a hydrophobic (water hating)
cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm lies
tail of two fatty acids and the hydrophilic
an intricate arrangement of fine fibres
(water loving) phosphate head. In the
and thousands of miniscule but distinct
cell membranes, phospholipids arrange
structures called cytoplasmic organelles
and cytoplasmic inclusion such as stored themselves in a layer of two molecules
nutrients, secretory products, droplets and thick (bilayer), with their hydrophobic tails
pigment granules. Cytoplasmic organelles pointing inwards, away from the water
are small structures that are suspended both inside and outside the cell, while the
in the cytoplasm of the cell. Examples hydrophilic heads face outwards. There
of cytoplasmic organelles include: are two models suggested to describe
endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, the structure of the plasma membrane,
TY
mitochondria, plastids, vacuole, lysosome, namely Danielli-Davson’s model (1935)
PE Y
O NL
microbodies, cytoskeleton, and Golgi and Fluid Mosaic model (1972).

R
apparatus. Each type of organelle has a

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definite structure and a specific role in the Danielli-Davson’s Model

T SE
cell. Cytoplasmic inclusions do not have According to Danielli and Davson, the
EN U
any membrane or specific shapes.

membrane is structurally composed of two
M E
R LIN
chemical substances made up of proteins

Plasma membrane
and lipids that form trilaminar layers
VE N
This is also called plasmalemma or cell

membrane. It surrounds most of the cell (Figure. 1.6). The outer and inner layers
O O
organelles, separates the contents of the are made up of protein molecules which
G R
FO
cell from the external environment, and sandwich the phospholipids bilayer. The
controls the exchange of materials. In heads of phospholipids are polar, oriented
animal cells, plasma membrane is the towards the protein layers to form the
outermost layer, whereas in plant cells it hydrophilic region.
is located beneath the cell wall.

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Cytology
Protein layer
Hydrophilic phospholipid head
Hydrophobic phospholipid tail
Phospholipid
bilayer
Figure 1.6 Model of plasma membrane as proposed by Daniel and Davson
The model explains the presence of polar The Fluid Mosaic Model
head (hydrophilic) and non-polar tail The model was proposed by Seymour
(hydrophobic) in the phospholipids. The J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson in
proteins bilayers are continuous and are of 1972. According to this model, protein
the same size. The model did not explain molecules are dispersed and inserted into a
how material enters or leaves the cell. The phospholipid bilayer, which is hydrophilic
TY
PE Y
model also indicate that the membrane is when exposed to water (Figure 1.7). This
O NL
R
static, never change its structure and water provides maximum contact of hydrophilic
PR O
passes freely between the adjacent protein regions and heads of phospholipids with
T SE
molecules. The protein bilayers are on the water while providing the hydrophobic
EN U
outside part, while phospholipids bilayers part with a non-aqueous environment.

M E
are at the middle part (intermediately). The Due to the fluid nature of phospholipids
R LIN
model explains the presence of proteins and the arrangement pattern of protein
VE N
and phospholipids. Moreover, this model molecules in the phospholipid bilayer, the
O O
does not explain how cell recognizes model is referred to as the Fuid Mosaic
G R
external signals and due to this weakness, Model.

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further studies were conducted and a new

model was developed. This was the Fluid
Mosaic Model.
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Glycoprotein (a branch of
carbohydrate attached to protein) Glycolipid (a branch of carbohydrate
attached to lipid)
Peripheral
protein Phospholipid head
Phospholipid layer
Phospholipid tail
Phospholipid
bilayer Cholesterol
Channel protein with pore

Protein on one side of the membrane
Trasmembrane protein
Figure 1.7 Structure of a plasma membrane as per Fluid Mosaic Model
Lipids and lipid-soluble substances are Functions of the plasma membrane

allowed to cross the hydrophobic region a) It covers the surface of every living cell
while non-lipids are not allowed to and acts as a barrier which separates
cross. Large molecules, such as glucose, the cytoplasm from extracellular
fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids environment.
are repelled by the hydrophobic region b) It allows passage of some materials
and therefore, they diffuse through in and out of the cells (selective
special transport proteins called channel permeability).
proteins and carrier proteins by facilitated
c) It facilitates the transmission of nerve
TY
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diffusion.
impulse in the nervous system.
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The strength of the model is that, it d) It functions as a receptor site for

PR O
realizes the presence of the phospholipid hormonal and neural transmission of

T SE
bilayer and protein layer. It also realizes chemical stimuli.

e) It aids cell-to-cell recognition when
EN U
the presence of pores in the membrane

membranes of two cells come together.
M E
and the presence of cholesterol in the

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membrane. The model explains the f) It serves as a base for attachment of

presence of polar head (hydrophilic) the cytoskeleton in some organisms
VE N
and as the cell wall in others. Thus, the

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and non-polar (hydrophobic) tail in

N
phospholipids. Furthermore, the model cell membrane supports the cell and
G R
maintains its shape.

FO
explains the presence of glycolipid, as

receptors that allow the cell to respond
to chemical messengers which regulate Adaptations of the cell surface
the activities of the cell. It is true that the membrane
membrane is a dynamic (ever-changing its The cell membrane is specialised to its
structure) with phospholipids in constant functions due to:
motion. The weakness of the model is that a) Presence of glycolipids, glycoproteins
it does not indicate or explain the presence and phospholipids for detection of
of electrolytes in the plasmalemma. stimuli, such as antigens and antibodies.

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Cytology
b) Presence of hydrophilic pores for Cell wall

passage of polar substances. Plant cells, fungal cells, and bacterial cells
c) The phospholipid bilayer facilitates are surrounded by fairly rigid, non-living
the passage of fat soluble substances. walls called cell walls (Figure 1.8). The
d) Presence of microvilli increases the chemical composition of cell walls among
surface area for absorption. these organisms differs. The plant cell wall
e) Presence of proteins with specific is made up of cellulose. The fungal cell
shapes makes the membrane a wall is made up of chitin. The bacterial
receptor site for chemical stimuli such cell wall, is made up of peptidoglycan
as hormones. called murein.
f) Presence of glycolipid and glycoprotein
enable the membrane to bind to the A cell wall is a protective layer around the
membrane of a neighbouring cell, that plasma membrane. It also determines the
is, cell-to-cell recognition. shape of plant cells. Originally, the cell
g) Presence of cholesterol disturbs wall in plants is a product of cytoplasm.
the close packing of phospholipids. The cytoplasmic organelles such as
This keeps them more fluid and the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
maintains stability and flexibility of apparatus play a very important role in the
the membrane over a wide range of formation of cell walls. The formation of
temperature. a new cell wall usually takes place in a
dividing cell immediately after the nuclear
division.
TY
Exercise 1.3
PE Y
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1. Describe the structure of a Structure of the cell wall

PR O
plasma membrane as proposed by Plant cell wall, which is made up of

Danielli-Davson model.
T SE
cellulose and strengthened by other

polysaccharides; is a protective layer
EN U
2. Describe the structure of a

cell membrane as envisaged around the cell surface membrane. The
M E
primary cell wall in plants is composed

R LIN
by Jonathan Singer and Garth

Nicolson in the Fluid Mosaic of cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin.
VE N
Model. This primary wall is laid down during cell

O O
division in plants. The primary cell wall

a) Explain why membranes are
G R
thickens into secondary cell wall. During

FO
generally referred to as fluids.

secondary thickening some cells undergo
b) Name the chemical constituents lignification (hardening) whereby lignin
of membranes and enumerate is deposited in all cellulose layers. Lignin
the role of each. cements and anchors fibres together,
making the cell wall very hard and
3. How is the cell membrane adapted
increases tensile strength. Suberin and
to its function?
cutin are also found in the cell wall during
secondary thickening. These are waxy
materials acting as a water proof coat
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which helps to prevent excessive water loss from the plant. Middle lamella is a thin
layer of pectin materials (calcium and magnesium) which joins neighbouring cell walls
together.
Close group of
plasmodesmata (primary
pit field) – primary cell
walls are thinner in this Adjacent primary cell walls of two cells
area as a result of slower
growth Middle lamela
TS before lignification
Plasmodesma
‘Pit cavity’
TS after lignification Secondary wall of lignin
Simple pit Primary cell walls
‘Pit membrane’ – middle

lamella plus two thin primary
walls TY
PE Y
O NL
R
Figure 1.8 Structure of a cell wall

PR O
Functions of the cell wall therefore, they allow movements of

T SE
a) It provides mechanical support and materials to long distances.

EN U
strength to cells and the plant as a f) Cell walls possess small pores or
M E
whole, due to presence of lignin. pits through which the materials can
R LIN
b) It maintains the shape of the cell, since pass from one cytoplasm to another
the cell wall is rigid. (symplastic movement).
VE N
O O
c) It prevents the osmotic bursting g) Cutin and suberin deposits prevent

G R
of the cell by inhibiting excessive loss of water from the cell surface
FO
endosmosis due to its capability to through evaporation.

resist expansion. h) The cell walls of root endodermal
d) It protects the plant cells against cells are suberized to form casparian
pathogens and water loss due to the strips. These, among other functions,
presence of waxy cutin on the cell regulate the amount of water to be
wall. admitted into the plant.
e) The walls of xylem vessels, tracheids i) Cell walls of some cells store food.
and phloem sieve tubes are tubular;

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Cytology
Cytoplasmic organelles
Exercise 1.4 Cytoplasmic matrix contains numerous
membranous internal structures called
1. Describe the composition of the
organelles. Organelles can be defined
cell wall in living organisms.
as tiny distinct parts with specialised
2. Explain the functions of lignin and structures and functions found inside
suberin in the plant cell. the cell. The organelles are sub-
cellular structures with characteristic
3. Give the name of the structure morphological forms, distinctive chemical
which joins neighboring cell walls. constitutions and definite functions. The
organelles perform specific functions
such as oxidative phosphorylation and
Cytoplasm and cytoplasmic organelles generation of energy in the form of ATP in
(sub-cellular units) the mitochondria, formulation and storage
The space between the cell membrane of carbohydrates in chloroplast, protein
and the nucleus is filled with translucent, synthesis in ribosomes of the rough
homogenous and colloidal fluid called endoplasmic reticulum and concentration
a cytoplasmic liquid. The latter is an and packing secretions in Golgi apparatus.
aqueous substance containing different Other functions include synthesis of lipid
types of cell organelles, water and mineral and hormones in smooth endoplasmic
salts. It also contains organic compounds, reticulum, degradation of macromolecules
such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, in the lysosomes, regulation of all cellular
TY
PE Y
nucleic acids and enzymes. activities by nucleus, and organisation of

O NL
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spindle apparatus by centrioles.

PR O
Functions of cytoplasm
T SE
a) It provides medium for chemical The nucleus

reactions such as glycolysis to take The nucleus is a functional unit of a cell.
EN U
place. It is a membrane-bound structure, located

M E
at the periphery of the cell membrane

R LIN
b) It stores useful materials such as

starch, glycogen, and lipids. more or less to the centre of the cell and it
VE N
c) It stores waste materials such as contains the cell’s hereditary information.

O O
nitrogenous wastes. It controls all cellular activities and is

G R
d) Movement of materials takes place the most prominent organelle in the cell.
FO
within the cytoplasm. The cell nucleus is bounded by a double

e) It harbours and organises cell membrane called the nuclear envelope.
organelles that perform different It is a selectively permeable membrane,
functions such as protein synthesis allowing some materials to pass in and out
in ribosomes and lipid synthesis in and separates the contents of the nucleus
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. from the cytoplasm. The envelope regulates
the flow of molecules into and out of the
nucleus through nuclear pores. The pores
allow exchange of substances between
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the nucleus and cytoplasm. The pore has Functions of the nucleus
a definite structure formed by fusion of a) It controls all metabolic activities of
the outer and inner membranes of the the cell.
envelope. The nucleus contains chromatin, b) It contains hereditary information of
consisting of DNA which is bounded by the cell, hence, it transmits genetic
basic proteins called histones. During information to the new cell.
nuclear division, chromatin stains more
intensely and becomes more conspicuous c) It takes part in the formation of
because it condenses into more tightly ribosomes and RNA, thus it controls
coiled threads called chromosomes. protein synthesis.
However, some remains tightly coiled d) It controls cell division when required
and continue to stain intensely and this is since DNA replication is essential for
called heterochromatin. It is seen as a dark cell division.
patch, usually occurring near the nuclear
envelope. The remaining loosely coiled
chromatin is euchromatin. It contains Exercise 1.5
DNA which is genetically active during
interphase. 1. Describe the structure of the
nucleus of a cell.
The nucleolus 2. Explain the role of nucleolus.
The nucleolus is a cellular structure
present in the nucleus of a eukaryotic 3. Why is the nucleus said to be the
cell. The nucleolus appears as a rounded TY controller of all cellular activities?
and darkly stained structure inside the
PE Y
O NL
nucleus. It contains nucleolar organisers

R
that synthesise ribosomes by transcribing

PR O
Endoplasmic reticulum
and assembling ribosomal RNA (Figure
The endoplasmic reticulum is a network
T SE
1.9). The nucleoli vary in number from

of flattened membranes bound sacs called
one to many nucleoli within a single cell
EN U
cisternae. Some of the endoplasmic

nucleus of a plant or an animal cell.
M E
reticula are encrusted with ribosomes

R LIN
Ribosomes and termed Rough Endoplasmic Reticula

(RER), while those without ribosomes are
VE N
Rough endoplasmic
O O
reticulum known as Smooth Endoplasmic Reticula

G R
Nucleolus (SER). The quantity of both rough and

FO
smooth endoplasmic reticula in a cell

Chromatin can slowly interchange from one type
Nucleoplasm to the other, depending on the changing
metabolic activities of the cell.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
envelope
The surface of the rough endoplasmic
Figure 1.9 Structure of a nucleus reticulum contains protein-manufacturing
ribosomes, giving it a “rough” appearance
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Cytology
(Figure 1.10a). However, the ribosomes the endoplasmic reticulum once a specific
bound to it at any one time are not a stable protein-nucleic acid complex forms in the
part of this organelle’s structure as they are cytosol. This special complex forms when
constantly being bound and released from a free ribosome begins to translate the
the membrane. A ribosome only binds to mRNA.
Ribosomes Cisternae
Cisternae
(a) (b)
Figure 1.10 The structure of endoplasmic reticulum (a) RER (b) SER
TY
Functions of rough endoplasmic which are involved in metabolism of
PE Y
O NL
reticulum lipids such as steroids and glycogen. The

R
The rough endoplasmic reticulum has the smooth endoplasmic reticula are generally
PR O
following functions: found in adipose cells, interstitial cells,

T SE
a) They are sites for protein synthesis, and glycogen storing cells of the liver.
EN U
due to the presence of ribosomes. They also occur in conduction fibres of

M E
b) They provide pathways for the heart, spermatocytes and leucocytes.

R LIN
transportation of materials through the The muscle cells are also rich in smooth
cell, such as proteins synthesized on endoplasmic reticulum known as the
VE N
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
O O
the ribosomes.
G R
c) They provide a large surface area for Functions of smooth endoplasmic

FO
chemical reactions to take place. reticulum

a) For synthesis, secretion, and storage
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) of lipids, carbohydrate and other non-
This type of endoplasmic reticulum protein products.
possesses smooth walls, because the b) It contains enzymes which breakdown
ribosomes are not attached to its membranes chemical substances in liver cells.
(Figure 1.10b). The smooth endoplasmic c) For synthesis of steroids which later
reticulum occurs mostly in those cells form hormones.
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d) It increases the surface area for although it can change from one form to
chemical reactions in the cell to take another depending on the physiological
place. conditions of the cells. The matrix contains
e) It is involved in the formation of Golgi few small ribosomes (70s), phosphate
bodies. granules, respiratory enzymes (such as
ATP synthase) and small mitochondrial
Exercise 1.6 DNA which is circular and naked (Figure
1.11).
1. Describe the structural differences Mitochondrial DNA

between smooth and rough Outer membrane
Ribosome
endoplasmic reticulum. Matrix
Phosphate granule
2. Outline the functions of endoplasmic Inter membrane space
Inner membrane
reticulum. Cristae
3. Explain how the RER and SER are Stalked particles

Porins in the outer
adapted to their roles. membrane
Figure 1.11 A structure of a mitochondrion

Mitochondrion
A mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is Functions of mitochondria
an organelle bound by double membranes a) It is a site for aerobic respiration, hence
and it is found in eukaryotic cells. releases energy in the form of ATP.
Mitochondria have been described as b) It is an intermediate site for synthesis
TY
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‘the powerhouses of the cell’ because of important biomolecules such as

O NL
R
they generate most of the cell’s chemical chlorophyll, cytochromes, steroids,

PR O
energy originally contained in respiratory and fatty acids.

substrates. This energy is liberated in the
T SE
c) The mitochondrion can store and

form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
release calcium ions when required.
EN U
Hence, it regulates calcium ion

M E
The structure of the mitochondrion

R LIN
concentration in the cell.

Each mitochondrion is bounded by two
highly specialised membranes. Thus, it is
VE N
a double membrane organelle. The outer Adaptations of mitochondria

O O
membrane is quite smooth, it has many The mitochondrion is specialised to its

G R
copies of a transport protein called porins, function because:

FO
which forms large aqueous channels a) The outer membrane contains lots
through the lipid bilayer. On the inside is of porins that allow the passage of
the inner membrane separated from the molecules for respiration.
outer membrane by a space, measuring b) The inner membrane is highly folded
6 - 8 nm. The inner membrane is deeply into cristae that increase its surface
folded into infolding known as cristae, area.
which project in the matrix space. c) The membranes are permeable to
Generally, the organelle has an oval shape, allow the passage of all diffusable

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materials. This allows raw materials in are subdivided into three different types,
and products out. namely amyloplasts, proteinoplasts,
d) The matrix contains appropriate and elaioplasts. Each of these has a
enzymes used in respiratory pathways distinctive function. For instance,
such as Kreb’s cycle. amyloplasts are responsible for storage
a) Presence of windows or fenestra in the of starch, proteinoplasts are responsible
membranes facilitates the passage of for storage of proteins, while elaioplasts
are responsible for storage of fats and oils
materials in and out.
which are needed by plants. They are also
used for synthesis of amino acids and fatty
Plastids acids.
These are membrane bound organelles
found in the cells of plants, algae, and Chloroplasts. These are most commonly
other eukaryotic organisms. They often known plastids which play an essential
contain pigments and the type of pigment role in enabling plants and some
determines the cell colour. They are algae to make their own food through
mainly responsible for activities related photosynthesis. They are found in green
to making and storing food. The plastids parts of plants, mainly leaves and in some
include chromoplasts, gerontoplasts, other organisms such as photosynthetic
leucoplasts, and chloroplasts. bacteria and green algae. The term
chloroplast comes from two Greek words:
Chromoplasts. Pigmented plastids found chloros, meaning ‘green’ and plast,
in flowers, aging leaves, and fruits such meaning ‘form’. It contains green pigment
TY
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as tomato and red pepper. They contain known as chlorophyll, enzymes and other
O NL
R
carotenoid pigments; mainly red, orange molecules that function in photosynthesis.

PR O
or yellow which give different colours

T SE
seen in different parts of the plant. They Structure of chloroplasts

assist in pollination and seed dispersal. The contents of chloroplasts are portioned
EN U
from the cytosol by an envelope consisting

M E
R LIN
Gerontoplasts. Plastids that develop from of two membranes separated by a very

the chloroplasts of the leaves or other narrow inter-membrane space. Inside
VE N
parts of the plant that are going through the chloroplast is another membranous
O O
the ageing process (senescence) or are system in the form of flattened sacs called
G R
converted into different organelles. This thylakoids or lamellae. In some regions,

FO
occurs when such parts of the plant are no thylakoids pile up like a stack of coins to
longer carrying out photosynthesis. form grana (singular, granum). The fluid
outside the thylakoids is the stroma, which
Leucoplasts. Colourless plastids found in contains the chloroplast DNA, ribosomes
non-photosynthetic parts of the plant such (70s), starch granules as well as many
as roots, seeds, and bulbs. They are used photosynthetic enzymes. The chlorophyll
for storage of starch, lipids, and proteins and carotenoids are present in thylakoids
particularly in roots and tubers. They and grana (Figure 1.12).
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Chloroplast Outer membrane

envelope Inner membrane Lipid droplet
Starch grain
Free ribosomes
Polysome
Stroma One granum
Chloroplast DNA
Thylakoid
Intergranal lamella
(one thylakoid)
Figure 1.12 Structure of the chloroplast
Functions of the chloroplast d) Proteins embedded in the grana hold

a) The chloroplast is the fundamental photosystems and their chlorophyll in
site for the photosynthesis process. proper position for harvesting light.
b) It is the site for protein synthesis, due e) The stroma contain enzymes needed
to the presence of ribosomes in the to catalyse the reactions in the light
stroma. independent phase of photosynthesis.
c) It stores starch and lipids for plant
TY f) Contains chloroplast DNA for self-
replication and inheritance.
PE Y
use.
O NL
R
g) They have ribosomes needed for

PR O
protein synthesis.
Adaptation of the chloroplasts
T SE
Chloroplasts are specialised for their

EN U
function as follows: Exercise 1.7

M E
a) They have permeable membranes

R LIN
1. What are the differences between

which allow movement of raw
mitochondria and chloroplasts?
VE N
materials in and products out.

O O
2. Explain why chloroplasts and

b) The presence of numerous grana
mitochondria are considered as
G R
provides a large surface area for

FO
prokaryotic cells in the eukaryotic

photosynthetic pigments, electron cells.
carriers and ATP synthase involved
3. Draw and label a diagram of each of
in the light dependent reaction.
the following organelles:
c) Arrangement of photosynthetic a) Chloroplast
pigments in photosystems allows b) Mitochondrion
maximum absorption of light energy.

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Cytology
Vacuoles cell (autolysis). Plant vacuoles

Vacuoles are membrane bounded sacs can function in the same way as in
which are found within the cytoplasm lysosomes of animal cells as they both
of a cell. The vacuoles of plant cells are participate in an automatic cell death
bounded by single membranes called by autolysis. This process occurs when
tonoplast. These vacuoles are formed the tonoplast ruptures and releases its
when vesicles released by the endoplasmic contents (enzymes) into the cytoplasm
reticulum and Golgi apparatus merge which digests the entire cell.
together. Young plants consist of a number d) They play vital role in primary growth,
of smaller vacuoles which during growth since the pressure exerted by fusion
and development, they fuse to form a large of small vacuoles leads to elongation
central permanent vacuole. Therefore, in a of the cells. Hence, this increases the
mature plant cell, cytoplasm is displaced length of a plant organ.
and seen as a thin layer near the periphery e) They contain anthocyanins which
of the cell surrounding the large central provide colour to flowers, fruits,
vacuole. The central positioning of the and buds. These pigments facilitate
vacuole push the nucleus more or less to pollination and seed dispersal.
the periphery or near to the cell surface
membrane. At this stage, the vacuole is
Ribosomes
filled with cell sap, which contains water,
Ribosomes are tiny organelles found in
phenol, mineral salts, alkaloids, pigments,
the matrix of mitochondria, chloroplasts,
sugars, and proteins. Animal cell lack
TY
and cytoplasm of the cells. They occur in
PE Y
vacuoles, but if present they are small

O NL
both, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In

R
and temporary, associated with storage of

prokaryotic cells they are found freely in
PR O
food and other materials to be secreted,

the cytoplasm, whereas in the eukaryotic
T SE
transported or removed. Example, food

cells they are either attached to the outside
vacuole or vesicle (phagocytotic or
EN U
of the endoplasmic reticulum (or nuclear

pinocytotic vesicles).
M E
envelope) or occur freely in the cytoplasm.

R LIN
Structurally, each ribosome is made up of

Functions of vacuoles
two sub-units, a small sub-unit and a large
VE N
Vacuoles in plant cells play the following

sub-unit (Figure 1.13). Basing on their
O O
roles:
size and sedimentation coefficient, there
G R
a) They support herbaceous plants and

are two types of ribosomes. These are:
FO
herbaceous parts of woody plants by

providing an osmotic system which a) 70s ribosomes: These are relatively
creates a pressure potential. smaller, with sedimentation coefficient
of 70s and molecular weight of 2.7x106
b) They act as temporary stores for
Daltons. They occur in prokaryotic
different substances, such as food,
cells, such as in blue-green algae and
enzymes, and waste materials.
bacteria.They also occur in eukaryotic
c) They have hydrolytic enzymes which cells organelles, such as mitochondria
destroy dead cells or the entire plant and chloroplasts.
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b) 80s ribosomes: These have the “translate” the message contained in

sedimentation coefficient of 80s the mRNA codes.
6
and the molecular weight of 40x10 c) They have enzymes that catalyse the
Daltons. The 80s ribosomes occur in synthesis of peptide bonds.
eukaryotic cells.
Lysosomes
The ribosomes of mitochondria and Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed
chloroplasts are always smaller than organelles that contain an array of enzymes
cytoplasmic ribosomes and are comparable capable of breaking down all types of
to prokaryotic ribosomes in both size and biological polymers proteins, nucleic
sensitivity to antibiotics. acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. The word
lysosomes come from the two words lyso
Large subunit means ‘digestive’ and soma means ‘body.’
They are also referred to as suicide bags
since they undergo self-destruction, hence
the digestion of the entire cell (autolysis).
They mostly occur in animal cells and
few or rare in plant cells. Lysosomes
are not present in bacteria and mature
erythrocytes, while a few of them occur
in muscle cells. Leucocytes, especially
TY
granulocytes, are particularly rich sources
PE Y
Small subunit
of lysosomes. In addition, they are
O NL
R
Figure 1.13 Structure of ribosome numerous in the epithelial cells of lungs

PR O
and uterus.
T SE
Functions of ribosomes
a) Ribosomes are sites of protein
EN U
Structure of lysosomes
synthesis; they provide surface Lysosomes are round, with vacuolar
M E
R LIN
area or space for polypeptide chain structure which remains filled with dense
construction and enzymes for the material and bounded by a unit membrane.
VE N
synthesis of peptide bonds between They consist of digestive enzymes,

O O
amino acid monomers. Hence, they which are synthesized in the ribosomes
G R
are known as protein factories. The of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The
FO
ribosomes are adapted for protein enzymes, which always have acidic pH,
synthesis, as they have ribosomal RNA are transported to the Golgi apparatus
(rRNA) which provides attachment for modification. The Golgi apparatus in
points for both messenger RNA the cytoplasm concentrates and packs the
(mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). modified enzymes in the Golgi vesicles,
b) Ribosomes have receptor sites on the which pinch off as lysosomes. Their shape
small sub-unit where mRNA binds and density vary greatly from cell to cell
itself and they are able to “read” and and time to time.

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Functions of lysosomes any other chemical aggregates and once

The main functions of lysosome include engulfed, they are contained within the
heterophagy, autophagy and autolysis. autophagosome (autophagic vacuole).
The latter can then fuse with lysosomes,
Heterophagy which result in the release of lysosomal
This is a process whereby lysosomes acid enzymes to degrade the contents of
perform the intercellular digestion of the autophagosome. The products of the
materials that are gathered from outside degradation include amino acids, among
the cell by endocytosis, which are other molecules and all of them are
pinocytosis (taking in liquid materials) and released back into the cytoplasm and re-
phagocytosis (taking in solid materials). The used in metabolism as well as in building
endocytotically ingested food material is macromolecules.
collected in a membrane bounded vesicle
called heterophagosomes (pinosomes or Autolysis
phagosomes) and eventually fuse with Autolysis is more commonly known
lysosomes to form phagolysomes in which as self-digestion, which refers to the
the engulfed material is digested. Example destruction of a cell through the action of
when bacteria are ingested by phagocytosis, its own enzymes. Lysosomes break down
the ingested bacteria are packed in a to release its contents (enzymes) which
phagocytic vesicle (phagosomes).This digest various organelles and finally the
vesicle fuses with a primary lysosome, entire cell in certain pathological conditions.
forming a secondary lysosome. Thereafter, This process is known as autolysis or self-
TY
PE Y
enzymes of the lysosome digest the bacterial destruction of the cell.

O NL
R
macromolecules.
PR O
Exocytosis or extracellular digestion

T SE
Autophagy Exocytosis is the process responsible

Autophagy allows the orderly degradation for breaking down damaged cellular
EN U
and recycling of cellular components. components and some unwanted proteins

M E
This process occurs when cytoplasmic which are expelled out of the cell. One
R LIN
components become enclosed in a double of the causes of aging is that, in long-

VE N
membrane (phagophore) to form a lived cells the types of metabolic waste

O O
compartment known as autophagosome that cannot be broken down accumulates

G R
for degradation (Figure 1.14). This is and lysosomes may release them outside
FO
the regulated mechanism of the cell that the cell by exocytosis. For example; the
disintegrates unnecessary or dysfunctional enzymes of lysosome are released during
components. Autophagy starts with the the replacement of cartilage by bone during
formation of a phagophore from the development. Also lysosomes of certain
membrane; this expands and engulfs the cells such as spermatozoa discharge their
molecules or “cargo” for degradation. The enzymes outside the cell during fertilization
cargo can include redundant organelles or process.
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Digestion
Phagocytosis
Autophagy
Food vacuole
Secretion of Lysosomes
hydrolytic
enzymes
Golgi apparatus
Transport vesicle
Plasma membrane
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Figure 1.14 Lysosomal functions
Lysosomes are adapted to their functions Microbodies

TY
PE Y
due to the presence of hydrolytic enzymes Microbodies are small, spherical organelles
O NL
R
which catalyse degradation of unwanted bounded by a single phospholipid bilayer

PR O
cellular substances. In addition, lysosomes membrane which contain a matrix of

T SE
have the membranes that isolate hydrolytic intracellular materials such as catalase
enzymes from the rest of the cytoplasm. (peroxidase) enzyme and other proteins
EN U
This prevents unnecessary autolysis. (Figure1.15). They are present in almost

M E
R LIN
all eukaryotic cells and are mostly seen near

Exercise 1.8 the ER, and sometimes near mitochondria
VE N
and plastids. They can be distinguished

O O
1. Why are lysosomes said to be from other cell organelles by their contents.
G R
suicide bags? Microbodies include peroxisomes,

FO
glyoxysomes, and glycosomes. Peroxisomes

2. Describe the structure and functions
of lysosomes. are particularly predominant in the liver and
kidney cells of vertebrates, while in plants
3. Giving reasons, mention the parts they are found mostly in plant cells where
of your body which are expected to photorespiration occurs. Glyoxosomes
have large number of lysosomes. are specialized microbodies found in
plants, particularly in fat storage tissues
of germinating seeds and in filamentous

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fungi. Glycosomes are microbodies which the peroxisomes. They are found in few
contain glycolytic enzymes in its matrix, species of protozoa such as Trypanosoma.
and they are believed to have evolved from
Figure 1.33 Structure of the zwitterion
Crystalline core
Lipid bilayer
Figure 1.34 Formation of dipeptide molecule linked by the peptide bond
Figure 1.15 Structure of microbody
Functions of microbodies d) Microbodies also help in conversion

a) Microbodies such as peroxisomes of stored lipid in germination oil
found in plant and animal cells TYseeds and liver cells into glucose in
are involved in the breakdown of the process called gluconeogenesis.
PE Y
O NL
poisonous hydrogen peroxide to

R
water and oxygen in the presence of Golgi apparatus

PR O
peroxidase enzyme. The name of this organelle was derived

T SE
from its founder, Camillo Golgi, in 1898.

EN U
He identified it in the nerve cells of the

M E
owl and cat. This happened long before the

R LIN
b) The peroxisomes contain enzyme discovery of the endoplasmic reticulum.

glycolic acid oxidase that oxidises Golgi apparati are involved in important
VE N
glycolic acid, a product of cellular functions, such as biosynthesis

O O
photosynthesis, to glyoxylic acid, by of polysaccharides, packaging of cellular

G R
the process called photorespiration.

FO
synthetic products, production of

c) In plants, there are special microbody exocytotic vesicles, and differentiation of
called glyoxysomes. These are the cellular membranes. It occurs in all cells,
centre for the glyoxylate cycle, except in the prokaryotic cells and in
which involves conversion of fats cells of certain eukaryotes, such as fungi
into carbohydrate, especially in and bryophytes. It also does not occur
germinating seeds. in cells of mature sieve tubes of plants,
spermatozoa, and in red blood cells.
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Structure of the Golgi bodies Golgi apparatus is associated with small,

It is disc-shaped; consisting of central, spherical sac-like structures called Golgi
flattened, plate-like, compartments or vesicles. These contain various secretions
cisternae (Figure 1.16). It is a modified such as hormones, mucus or enzymes, and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The they are future lysosomes.
Incoming
transport vesicle
Cisternae
Lumen
Secretory vesicle
Newly forming
vesicle
Figure 1.16 Structure of Golgi apparatus

TY
PE Y
O NL
Functions of the Golgi bodies Cytoskeleton

R
The functions of Golgi bodies include the These are complex network of protein
PR O
following: filaments and microtubules which exist

T SE
a) They form lysosomes. in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.

EN U
b) They concentrate and pack It anchors proteins or organelles, such

M E
secretions, such as enzymes. as nucleus to their fixed location. The

R LIN
c) They are involved in transformation cytoskeleton consists of microtubules,

microfilaments and intermediate filaments
VE N
of spermatids into mature

(Figure 1.17).
O O
spermatozoa.
G R
d) They are involved in formation of

FO
primary cell walls in plants.

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Microfilaments Intermediate filaments
Actin
α − Tubule Keratin
β − Tubule
Microtubes
Figure 1.17 Structures of the cytoskeletons
Microtubules Microfilaments
These are tubular structures made up of These are much narrower than microtubules,
arranged globular tubulin. They are found being only about 5-7 nm in diameter.
in the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells. They are thread-like structures, arranged
They occur in cilia, flagella, centrioles, in sheets or in bundles beneath the cell
the cortex of meristematic cells, and basal surface membrane. They are chemically
bodies. composed of a large amount of actin,
hence their name actin filaments. Actin
Functions of microtubules filaments, usually in association with
TY
a) They determine the shape of the cell. myosin, bring about many types of cell
PE Y
O NL
b) They form a framework along which movements. For example the contractile
R
proteins (actin and myosin) lead to

PR O
the plant cell wall is laid down.

c) In cilia and flagella, they help beating contraction and relaxation of muscles.
T SE
of rhythmic movements.
EN U
Functions of microfilaments
d) They bring about movement of
M E
a) They determine the shape of cells;

R LIN
chromosomes during anaphase in

since they offer a cytoskeletal support.
nuclear division.
VE N
e) Since they are tubular, they transport b) The cleavage of animal cells during
O O
materials from one part of the cytokinesis is brought about by the

G R
cytoplasm to another. constriction of a ring of microfilaments

FO
after nuclear division.

f) They are involved in the movements
of other cell organelles such as Golgi c) They are responsible for any
vesicles, lysosomes, and mitochondria. movement that the cell makes; due to
For example, the movement of Golgi the presence of actin and myosin that
vesicles towards the center to form cell influence muscle cells contraction and
plate during the formation of a primary relaxation.
cell wall in plant cells is brought about
by microtubules.
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Intermediate filaments centrioles in the cytoplasm which usually

These structures are found between lie at right angles to each other close to
microtubules and microfilaments. the nuclear membrane. In cross section,
They provide shapes of cells and act as each centriole is seen to contain nine
intercellular tendons, preventing excessive groups of microtubules with three tubules
stretching of the cells. in each group (Figure 1.18). During cell
division, the centrioles divide and migrate
Centrioles chromosome in opposite poles of the
A centriole is a cylindrical organelle cell where they act as a focus for spindle
found in animal cells, algal cells and formation. Centrioles also produce the
fungal cells, but not in cells of higher basal bodies from which cilia and flagella
plants. Animal cells contain a pair of develop.
TY
PE Y
O NL
(a) (b)
R
PR O
Figure 1.18 Structure of centriole (a) side view and (b) cross section
T SE
Comparison of prokaryotic and

EN U
Exercise 1.9 eukaryotic cells

M E
Common features which can be found in

R LIN
1. What do you understand by the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are as

follows:
VE N
term cytoskeleton?
a) Both have cell membranes that
O O
2. Explain the functions of microtu- separate the cell’s interior from its
G R
bules and microfilaments in plant surrounding environment.

FO
and animal cells. b) Both have a cytoplasm that consists

of a jelly-like region within the cell in
3. Describe the structure, location and which other cellular components are
functions of centrioles in animal floating.
cell. c) Both have ribosome particles that
synthesize proteins, and the genetic
material of the cell.
The prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells also
differ in many aspects as elaborated in the
Table 1.1.
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Table 1.1 Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Criteria/ Feature Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
Cell type Mainly unicellular (some Mainly multicellular (except kingdom

cyanobacteria may be Protoctista which have many
multicellular). unicellular organisms).
Nucleus Have no true nucleus. Have a true nucleus, bound by a

double membrane.
Double membrane Have no double Have many double membrane bound

bound organelles membrane bound organelles, such as mitochondria,
organelles. chloroplasts, and nucleus.
DNA Have circular DNA. Have helical or linear DNA.
Have naked DNA. Have DNA associated with proteins

known as histones and is organised
into chromosomes.
Ribosomes Have small and Have larger and more complex

simple ribosomes (70s ribosomes (80s ribosomes).
ribosomes).
Cytoplasm Have only one type of Filled with a large and complex
organelles, that is, the collection of organelles, many
TY
PE Y
ribosomes. of them enclosed in their own

O NL
membranes.
R
PR O
Cell size Small in size Relatively large in size.

T SE
Functional Have only one membrane Have many different functional

compartments (the plasma membrane) compartments divided by membranes.
EN U
enclosing all of the cell’s

M E
internal contents.
R LIN
Cell wall Mureinic cell wall. Cellulose or chitinous cell wall.

VE N
O O
Cilia and flagella Do not arise from basal Arise from basal bodies and have 9+2
G R
bodies and lack micro- arrangement of microtubules.

FO
tubules.
Cell division Involves binary fission or Involves mitosis, meiosis or both.

budding.
Reproduction No meiosis. Transfer Involves meiosis during gamete

of DNA is done by formation.
conjugation only.
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1.3.3 Cell differentiation Significance of cell differentiation

Cellular differentiation is the process Cell differentiation has the following
of cell transformation from one form to significance:
another. It leads to the development of a) It modifies cells to suit their functions
specialised types of cells for carrying out more efficiently. This means that,
specific functions. This process involves during differentiation the cell becomes
biochemical and structural changes. equipped with structural and/or
The differentiated cells become more chemical changes to enhance its
specialised than the undifferentiated ones.
efficient.
In most cases differentiation occurs Examples include:
during the development of a multicellular
i) Spermatozoa are packed with
organism, as it changes from a simple
numerous mitochondria and
zygote to a complex system of cell types
or tissues. The process continues to acrosomal enzymes. They also have
adulthood; as adult stem cells divide and flagella. All these features facilitate
create fully differentiated daughter cells efficient fertilisation of egg cells.
during tissue repair. Differentiated cells ii) Female gametes (egg cells) have
change in size, shape, membrane potential, numerous microvilli for absorption
metabolic activity, and responsiveness of food from follicular cells. They
to signals. Cell differentiation leads to also have a large proportion of
cell specialisation, which in turn leads to cytoplasm which contains food
division of labour that improves efficiency TY reserve for the developing embryo.
of the organisms. Examples of specialised
PE Y
iii) Nerve cells have features like

O NL
cells in animals are sex cells, nerve cells,

R
red blood cells, and epithelial cells; and myelin sheath and nodes of Ranvier,
PR O
in plants are xylem, phloem, root hair, which facilitate rapid transmission
T SE
and parenchyma cells. Figure 1.19 shows of impulses. The synaptic vesicles
contain neurotransmitters that aid in
EN U
root hair cell as an example of specialised

synaptic transmission of impulses.
M E
plant cell.
R LIN
iv) The cells in xylem vessels and

Cell wall tracheids are hollow, and have
VE N
lignified cell walls for efficient

O O
carriage of water and dissolved

G R
mineral salts.
FO
Cytoplasm
b) It enables cellular organization, as a
way of forming different tissues and
Vacuole
organs (organogenesis) through the
expression of a specific set of genes
Nucleus within the body to perform more
specialized and complex tasks.
c) It forms the basis for embryonic stem
Figure 1.19 Root hair cell cell research, whereby researchers

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can identify stem cells, which can Exercise 1.10

be used in the future to deal with the
conditions that require transplanting, 1. Explain features which are found
such as kidney transplanting. in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
d) It helps in the future treatment of cancer cells.
patients by enabling measurement of 2. Using examples, explain the concept
the cancer progress at cellular level, of cell differentiation.
where the cytopathologists term
‘grade’ is used as a marker to determine 3. Explain why cell differentiation is
how differentiated cell in a tumor is. generally referred to as a cellular
division of labour.
4. What is the importance of cell
Activity 1.3 Observation of a differentiation in animals and plants?
specialised root hair cell
Materials
Onion roots, surgical blade, iodine 1.4 The organic constituents of cells
solution, petri dish, dropper, light (Biochemistry)
microscope, and microscope slides. The cells are composed of water, inorganic
ions and organic molecules (carbon-
Procedure containing compounds). Water is the most
a) Take the onion root, and use a surgical abundant molecule which constitutes large
blade to cut it transversely into very part of cells, constituting about 70% of
TY
PE Y
thin slices. the total mass. It also interacts with other

O NL
R
b) Put a slice on the petri dish, and add constituents in the biochemistry of life. The
one drop of iodine solution using a
PR O
organic components of the cells include:

dropper.
T SE
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes,

c) Transfer the stained slice to the
nucleic acids and regulatory substances
EN U
microscope slide.
d) Observe the stained slice under a such as hormones and vitamins.
M E
R LIN
light microscope.
1.4.1 Carbohydrates
VE N
Questions Carbohydrates are among of the fundamental

O O
1. What conclusion can you make classes of macromolecules found in living

G R
from what you have observed? organisms. These are molecules which
FO
2. What are the features that contain the carbonyl compound (aldehyde
characterise a specialised onion and ketone derivatives). They are primary
cell? products of photosynthesis, and energy
providing substrates for various organisms
Safety precautions including mammals. Carbohydrates contain
three elements, namely carbon, hydrogen,
Observe safety precautions when working
and oxygen, in which hydrogen and oxygen
with sharp objects such as knife and
are in the ratio of 2:1 (two hydrogen atom
surgical blade.
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and one oxygen atom). This ratio or dihydroxyacetone, ribulose, and fructose
proportion of hydrogen to carbon is the sugars. Carbohydrates can be oxidised to
same as in water, hence the name hydrate yield energy. For example, the oxidation of
of carbon. The general empirical formula glucose during respiration.
for carbohydrates is Cx (H2O)y where by x
and y are variables. C6H12O6 + 6O6 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Properties of carbohydrates Aldoses and ketoses are reducing

They are either simple sugars or compound compounds; they have a tendency of
sugars. The latter are formed by condensation reducing Copper (II) in Benedict’s solution
of the former. For example; starch is formed into Copper (I), which precipitates as a red
by condensation of several glucose units. solid substance of Copper (I) oxide.
They have one hydrated carbon (CH2O),
hence the name carbohydrates. The ratio Classes of carbohydrates
of hydrogen to oxygen in a carbohydrate Carbohydrate can be classified according
molecule is always 2:1. They are derivatives to the number of basic sugars or saccharide
of polyhydroxyl alcohols and can be units present in a molecule. These classes
polyhydroxy aldehydes with an aldehyde include the following:
-
group H-C=O, examples are glyceraldehyde, a) Monosaccharides

ribose, glucose, and galactose sugars. b) Disaccharides
They can also be polyhydroxy ketones
c) Polysaccharides
with a ketone group (C=O), examples are
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
Table 1.2 Major types of carbohydrates and their sources

PR O
Type Examples Sources

T SE
Monosaccharides Fructose Sweet fruits and honey.

EN U
Glucose Fruits, such as grapes, coconut water, and sweet potatoes.

M E
R LIN
Galactose Milk and dairy product.

VE N
Disaccharides Sucrose Sugar cane and carrots.

O O
Lactose Milk.
G R
FO
Maltose Malt, such as radicles of germinating cereals.
Polysaccharides Starch Yam, irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, and green banana.
Cellulose Cell walls of various plant cells.
Chitin Cell walls of fungal hyphae, and the exoskeleton of

arthropods such as insects, crabs, and prawns.

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Monosaccharides (Single sugars) such as erythrose and threose.

These are the simplest carbohydrates, Their empirical formula is
having only one sugar or saccharide C4H8O4.
molecule, which cannot be hydrolysed Pentoses They contain five carbon atoms
into small molecules. They are classified in their molecules, examples
according to two different characteristics; are ribose, deoxyribose,
the placement of its carbonyl group and ribulose and arabinose. Their
the number of carbon atoms it contains. As empirical formula is C5H10O5.
for the first characteristic, if the carbonyl
group is an aldehyde, the monosaccharide Hexoses These are monosaccharides
is an aldose and if the carbonyl group is containing six carbon atoms in
a ketone, the monosaccharide is a ketose. their molecules, such as glucose,
Monosaccharide are further classified fructose, and galactose. Their
according to the number of carbon atoms empirical formula is C6H12O6.
they contain, therefore, monosaccharides They are the most common
with three carbon atoms are called trioses; monosaccharides.
those with four carbon atoms are called Heptoses They contain seven carbon
tetroses; those with five carbon atoms atoms in their molecules. Their
are called pentoses; and those with empirical formula is C7H14O7.
six carbon atoms are called hexoses.
These two systems of classification of
Properties of monosaccharides
monosaccharides are often combined.
TY
Most of the monosaccharides have a sweet
PE Y
For example, glyceraldehyde an

O NL
taste. They exist in a crystalline solid form at

R
aldotriose (a three-carbon aldehyde),

room temperature and are extremely soluble
PR O
ribose is an aldopentose (a five-carbon

in water; despite their high molecular
T SE
aldehyde), glucose is an aldohexose (a

weights. The presence of large number of
six-carbon aldehyde), dihydroxyacetone
EN U
OH groups makes the monosaccharides

is a ketotriose (a three-carbon ketone),
M E
much more water soluble than most other

ribulose is a ketopentose (a five-carbon
R LIN
molecules of similar molecular weight.

ketone) and fructose is a ketohexose (a
Moreover, all monosaccharides are reducing
VE N
six-carbon ketone).
sugars; as they have free aldehyde or ketone
O O
group. They reduce mild oxidizing agents,

G R
Trioses These are the smallest such as Tollens’, Fehling or Benedict’s

FO
molecules of monosaccharides reagents.

which contain three carbon
atoms in their molecules. Open chain and ring forms of pentose
Examples are glyceraldehyde and hexose sugars
and dihydroxyacetone. Their Pentose and hexose sugars can exist in both
empirical formula is C3H6O3. open chains (straight structures) and ring
Tetroses They are monosaccharides structures. Example furanose or furan ring
containing four carbon atoms has five membered ring, and pyranose or
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pyran ring has six membered ring structures. oxygen atom of carbon number 5 joins to
These aromatic ring forms are the most the carbon number 1 bearing the aldehyde
stable and used to form disaccharides and and transfer its hydrogen to it and break the
polysaccharides. The ring form occurs in bond to form the OH either above or below
polysaccharides.
aqueous solution The
andring
canform
form occurs in aqueous
two isomers solution
the ring. Theand can form
oxygen twoofisomers
is part the ringwhich
arewhich
alphaare(α)either
and alpha
beta (β) isomers.
(α) or beta (β) The α formand
isomers. is when
carbonthe hydroxyl
number (OH)upgroup
6 sticks out ofonthecarbon
atom
Thenumber
α form1isprojects
when the below the ring(OH)
hydroxyl while ring.
β form Theissame
whenprocess
the OHoccurs
groupinon carbon atom
galactose.
number
group 1projects
on carbonabove atom the ring.1Pentose
number projectssugars may difference
The only form the between
five membered
galactoseringandwhen
below the ring while β form is when the OH glucose is the different
their carbon atom number 1 joins with the oxygen atom of carbon number 4, an example is as orientation of their
group
shown in on carbon
ribose and atom numbersugars
deoxyribose 1projects
(Figurehydroxyl
1.21 a andgroup b).inThe
carbon
onlynumber 4 (Figure
difference that exists
above the ring. Pentose sugars may form 1.20 c and d). In fructose,
between ribose and deoxyribose sugar is that deoxyribose sugar lacks oxygen in carbon the carbonyl group
the five
number 2. membered
Hexoses can ring when
form boththeir
sixcarbon
and five is in carbon ring.
membered number For2,example
so the ring is formed
glucose can exist
in two isomers of six membered rings (α- glucose and β-glucose). The formation of ring5 form
atom number 1 joins with the oxygen atom by the oxygen atom of carbon number
is of carbon
when thenumber
oxygen4, atom
an example is as shown
of carbon number joining
5 joinswithto thecarbon number
carbon number2, leading
1 bearingto the
in ribose
aldehyde andand deoxyribose
transfer sugarsto(Figure
its hydrogen the formation
it and break the bond of tofuran
form ring.
the OHWhen the above
either OH or
1.20 a and b). The only difference that exists in carbon atom number 1 is projected below
below the ring. The oxygen is part of the ring and carbon number 6 sticks up out of the ring.
between ribose and deoxyribose sugar is the ring, it becomes α-fructose while when
The same process occurs in galactose. The only difference between galactose and glucose is
that deoxyribose sugar lacks oxygen in OH in carbon atom number 2 is projected
the different orientation of their hydroxyl group in carbon number 4 (Figure 1.21 c and d). In
carbon number 2. Hexoses can form both above the ring is β-fructose (Figure 1.20
fructose,
six andthe fivecarbonyl
membered group is in
ring. Forcarbon
example numbere). 2, so the ring
Fructose is formed
can also form theby pyronose
the oxygen as atom
of glucose
carbon number
can exist 5 joining with carbon
in two isomers of sixnumber 2, leading to the formation of furan ring.
in glucose.
When the OHrings
membered in carbon atomornumber
(α- glucose 1 is projected below the ring, it becomes α-fructose
β-glucose).
TY
PE Y
while
Thewhen OH inofcarbon
formation ring form atomisnumber
when the 2 is projected above the ring is β-fructose (Figure
O NL
R
1.21 e). Fructose can also form the pyronose as in glucose

PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
(a)
(a) (b) (b)
Figure 1.211.20
Figure Open
Openchain
chainand ringform
and ring formof of
(a)(a) ribose
ribose anddeoxyribose
and (b) (b) deoxyribose

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Figure 1.21 Open chain and ring form of (a) ribose and (b) deoxyribose DO NOT DUPLICATE
Cytology
Disaccharides (double sugars)

They are formed through condensation of
two monosaccharides; examples include
sucrose, maltose, and lactose. They are
composed of two monosaccharide units
bound together by a covalent bond known
as a glycosidic bond. They are formed
via dehydration (condensation) reaction
resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom
from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl
Figure 1.21 (c) Open chain and ring structures of glucosegroup from the other. The formula of
Figure 1.20 (c) Open chain and ring structures of
glucose
Figure 1.21 (c) Open chain and ring structures of glucose disaccharides is C12H22O11. Although there
are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a
handful of disaccharides are particularly
notable. Sucrose is the most abundant
disaccharide, and the main form in which
carbohydrates are transported in plants.
It is composed of one glucose molecule
and one fructose molecule. Lactose, a
disaccharide composed of one galactose
molecule and one glucose molecule,
occurs naturally in mammalian milk.
Other notable disaccharides include
TY
PE Y
maltose which is made up of two glucose

O NL
molecules linked by 1, 4 –glycosidic bond.

R
PR O
Figure
Figure1.20
1.21(d)
(d)Open
Openand
andring
ringform
form of
of galactose
Properties of disaccharides
T SE
galactose
Figure 1.21 (d) Open and ring form of galactose Disaccharides are composed of two
EN U
molecules of monosaccharides linked

to each other by glycosidic bond. Like
M E
R LIN
monosaccharides, disaccharides are sweet

in taste and crystalline water soluble
VE N
compound. All disaccharides cannot pass

O O
through the plasma membrane of the cell,

G R
since there is no carrier enzyme that can

FO
carry disaccharides to move across the

plasma membrane. Among disaccharides,
maltose and lactose are reducing sugars,
while sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
Figure 1.21 (e) Open chain and ring form of fructose
Figure
Figure 1.20Open
1.21 (e) (e) Open
chainchain andform
and ring ring of
form of
fructose Maltose (malt sugar)
fructose Maltose is a double sugar which occurs
naturally in roots and radicles of germinating
cereals, such as maize, sorghum and finger
tose (malt sugar)
ose
tose(malt sugar)sugar which occurs naturally in roots and radicles of germinating cereals,
is a double 37
seasismaize,
a double sugar which
sorghum occurs
and finger naturally
millet. in rootsitand
Artificially, radicles
is made of germinating
up by cereals,
chemical combination
as
womaize, sorghum
a-glucose
BIOLOGY and
units.
FORM fingerthis
5During millet. 37Artificially,
combination
KIWANDANI.indd -OHit isgroup
madeatupcarbons
by chemical
1 andcombination
4 of the two 10/10/2019 14:05
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millet. Artificially, it is made up by chemical a molecule of water is lost (Figure 1.21).

combination of two a-glucose units. During Maltose is a reducing sugar since it has
this combination -OH group at carbons a free aldehyde group in its molecule. In
1 and 4 of the two glucose residues, are one of the glucose units, the aldehyde at
involved in formation of oxygen covalent carbon 1 has been used in the formation of
bond called glycosidic bond. Since it is the bond, while in the second glucose unit,
formed between carbons 1 and 4, then the aldehyde at carbon 1 remained intact,
it is termed a 1, 4-glycosidic bond. This since the carbon involved in the formation
second glucose unit, the aldehyde at carbon 1 remained intact,
of the bond since
is that the carbon
at position 4. involved in
process involves condensation, therefore,
the formation of the bond is that at position 4.
second glucose unit, the aldehyde at carbon 1 remained intact, since the carbon involved in
the formation of the bond is that at position 4.
Figure 1.22 Chemical combination of two a-glucose units to form maltose

Figure 1.21 Chemical combination of two a-glucose units to form maltose
Sucrose (cane sugar)
Sucrose
This (cane
is a double
Figure sugar)
sugar
1.22that naturally
Chemical occurs in
combination reaction
of stems
two is also
of sugar
a-glucose condensation;
cane
units toplants. therefore,
It is made
form maltose up by
TY
PE Y
This is
chemical a double ofsugar
combination glucosethat(annaturally
aldose sugar) a molecule of water
and fructose is lost
(a ketose (Figure
sugar). 1.22).the
During
O NL
occurs in stems of sugar cane plants. It Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar because

R
reaction, the –OH group
Sucrose (cane sugar) at carbon 1 of glucose and that at carbon 2 of fructose contribute to the
isThis
made
formation aup
isof the by chemical
sugar that combination
1,2-glycosidic bond. The of in itstems
reaction lacks
is of any
also active
condensation; reducingIt is group.
therefore, upThe
a molecule
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double naturally occurs sugar cane plants. made by

glucose
of water is (an
lost aldose
(Figure sugar)
1.23). and fructose
Sucrose is a(a aldehyde
non-reducing group
sugar at carbon
because
chemical combination of glucose (an aldose sugar) and fructose (a ketose sugar). During the it 1 of
lacks glucose
any active
T SE
ketose
reducing sugar).
group.
reaction, The
the –OH During
groupthe
aldehyde reaction,
group1 at
at carbon the – 1and
of carbon
glucose and ketone
ofthat
glucose group ofat
and2ketone
at carbon carbon
group
fructose 2atofcarbon
contributefructose2 of
to the
EN U
OH
fructose group at the
have their
formation of carbon
–OH 1group
of glucose
1,2-glycosidic bond.andThethat
contributing to thehave
reaction theircondensation;
formation
is also –OH
of thegroup contributing
glycosidic bond.
therefore, to the
a molecule
atofcarbon
water is2 lost
of fructose contribute
(Figure 1.23). to isthe
Sucrose formation of
a non-reducing thebecause
sugar glycosidic bond.
it lacks any active
M E
R LIN
reducing group. The aldehyde group

formation of the 1,2-glycosidic bond. Theat carbon 1 of glucose and ketone group at carbon 2 of
fructose have their –OH group contributing to the formation of the glycosidic bond.
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
Figure 1.23 Chemical combination between glucose and fructose to form sucrose
Lactose (milk
Figuresugar)
1.23 Chemical combination between glucose and fructose to form sucrose
This is found Figure 1.22 Chemical
exclusively in thecombination between glucose
milk of mammals and inand fructose
milk to formLactose
products. sucrose is the only
carbohydrate
Lactose (milkof milk which is synthesized by mammary gland during lactation. It is derived
sugar)
fromThis
the iscondensation of galactose
found exclusively and
in the milk of glucose
mammalslinked
and inby 1, products.
milk 4 - glycosidic
Lactosebond
is the(Figure
only
1.24).
carbohydrate of milk which is synthesized by mammary gland during lactation. It is derived
38 the condensation of galactose and glucose linked by 1, 4 - glycosidic bond (Figure
from
1.24).
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Cytology
Lactose (milk sugar) during lactation. It is derived from the

This is found exclusively in the milk of condensation of galactose and glucose
mammals and in milk products. Lactose linked by 1, 4 - glycosidic bond (Figure
is the only carbohydrate of milk which 1.23).
is synthesized by mammary gland
Figure
Figure 1.241.23 Chemical
Chemical combination
combination betweengalactose
between galactose and
and glucose
glucosetotoform
formlactose
lactose
Polysaccharides (multi-sugars) monosaccharides, linked together by
Polysaccharides are polymer carbohydrate glycosidic bonds. They are large molecules
molecules, composed of long chains of which are often insoluble in water and exist
monosaccharide units bound together by in non-crystal form.
glycosidic bonds. On hydrolysis, they
give their constituent monosaccharides. Starch
TY
PE Y
They range in structure, from linear to Starch is a polymer of hexose sugar (α

O NL
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highly branched molecules, examples glucose) that can be extracted as a white

PR O
include storage polysaccharides such as powder. It is a major storage carbohydrate of

T SE
starch and glycogen as well as structuralplants, and it is a product of photosynthesis.

polysaccharides such as cellulose and Chemically, starch is a polymer of repeated
EN U
chitin. Starch is the main storage of a-glucose units that are bonded together
M E
polysaccharides in plants. It is made up of

by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide
R LIN
two polymers, amylose and amylopectin is a mixture of two substances; amylose

VE N
while in animals and fungi, glycogen is and amylopectin. Amylose unit is a linear,
O O
the main storage form of polysaccharides.helical chain which consists of around 500
G R
In plants, cellulose is a structural to 20,000 monosaccharides connected by a

FO
constituent of their cell walls while in (1-4) glycosidic bonds between the glucose
fungi and most arthropods, chitin is the units. Amylopectin differs from amylose in
structural constituent of the cell wall and
being highly branched, and has short side
exoskeleton respectively. chains of about 30 glucose units linked
with α (1-6) glycosidic bonds in addition
Properties of polysaccharides to 1,4-glycosidic bonds (Figure 1.24).
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrate Amylopectin molecules may contain up
polymers, consisting of several to two million glucose units.
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Branch
CH2OH CH2OH
O H O H
H H H H
O OH H O OH H
H OH H OH
O
-(1,4) Linkages -(1,6) Branch point
CH2
H2COH H2COH H2COH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
O H O H O H O H
OH OH OH H H H H H H H H
HO OH O OH H O OH H O OH H O OH H O
OH OH OH H OH H H
n OH OH H OH
α (1-4) glycocidic bond Main chain

a (1-4) glycocidic bond
(a) (b)
Figure 1.24 Structures of (a) amylose and (b) amylopectin
Glycogen from a pair of molecules of glycogen in a

Glycogen is the form in which protein which acts as a primer at the core of
polysaccharide is stored in animals and the structure. Glycogen can be converted
fungi. It is often called an animal starch, back into glucose when energy is needed
and it is stored mainly in liver and skeletal through the process called glycogenolysis.
muscles. Like starch, it is made up of Glycogen is easily converted back to
a-glucose molecules and exists as granules. glucose in order to provide energy for
Structurally, it resembles amylopectin, body activities. When glucose cannot be
except that it is more branched, and its stored as glycogen or used immediately
TY
PE Y
chains are shorter (Figure 1.25). The for relese of energy, it is converted into
O NL
R
glucose chains are organized globularly fat.

PR O
like branches of a tree. They originate

T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
Figure
Figure 1.25
1.26 Structure
Structure of glycogen
of glycogen molecule
molecule
Cellulose thousands of b-glucose units, joined

Cellulose is an important structural together by 1, 4-glycosidic bonds, to form
polysaccharide of plants, which largely long, unbranched chains. Many chains run
constitutes the chemistry of the cell wall. parallel to each other and have cross linkages
It is chemically composed of several between them (Figure 1.26). These help to

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Cytology
give cellulose its considerable stability to used for manufacturing of fabrics. Rayon,
make it a valuable structural material. It is a product of cellulose extract is used in
the major component of the plant cell walls, manufacturing of industrial belts, tyre cods
where it plays structural role. and clothing. Cellulose derivatives have
various uses, for example; cellophane is
Cellulose’s structural strength has made it used in packaging, and celluloid is used
a valuable raw material in manufacturing for manufacturing of photographic film.
various industrial products, such as cotton, Other cellulose products include paper
which is a pure form of cellulose. It is also and explosives.
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
PR O
T SE
Figure 1.26 Structure of cellulose

EN U
Figure 1.27 Structure of cellulose

M E
Chitin cellulose, has its repeating units joined in β

R LIN
Chitin is an extracellular structural (1,4) linkages. However, the two differ in

polysaccharide found in large quantities
VE N
that, the hydroxyl group (-OH) of chitin at

O O
in the body covering cuticle of insects carbon atom number two (C-2), is replaced by
G R
and exoskeletons of crustaceans. Chitin is –NH.CO.CH3 (acetyl-amino) group. It is

FO
also found in smaller amounts in sponges, thus a result of an amino sugar, glucose
molluscs, annelids and cell walls of fungi. amine, combining with an acetyl group
Also, been identified in the cell walls of (CH CO-). Chitin, is therefore a polymer
some green algae. Its structure and chemistry of acetyl, glucose and amine (Figure 1.27).
are similar to those of cellulose. Chitin, like
41
Figure 1.28 Structure of chitin
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Acetamide
CH2 CH2
Glucosamine ring
C O C O
CH2OH H N H CH2OH H N H
H H H H
H OH H H OH H
OH H H OH H H
H H H H
H N H CH2OH β-1,4-glycosidic H N H CH2OH
bond
O C O C
CH2 Chitin CH2
Figure 1.27 Structure of chitin
Chitin has also been proven to be useful Different methods can be used to test for
for several medical and industrial the presence of starch, reducing sugars and
purposes.Chitin is used as a flocculating non-reducing sugars (Table 1.3).
agent for waste water, wound-healing
agent, a thickener and stabilizer for foods a) Biochemical test for starch
and pharmaceuticals. Also, it used as a The presence of starch in biological materials
binder for dyes, fabrics, and adhesives, can be tested by using Iodine solution. The
and a sizing and strengthening agent for use of iodine to test the presence of starch
paper. In butterfly wing scales, chitin is is one of common experiments. A solution
TY
PE Y
often organized into stacks of nano-layers of iodine (I2) and potassium iodide (KI) in
O NL
R
or nano-sticks made of chitin nanocrystals water has a light orange-brown colour. If is

PR O
that produce various iridescent colours by added to a sample that contains starch, the
thin-film interference.
T SE
color changes to a dark blue (or blue black).

In the absence of starch, the orange-brown
EN U
Biochemical test for carbohydrates colour of the aqueous solution remains.

M E
Carbohydrates are carbon compound

R LIN
that have polyhydroxy aldehydes and The basis of the test

VE N
polyhydroxy ketones, with reducing The Iodine bound inside the helical structure
O O
properties. Carbohydrates may be present of the amylose forms a dark blue colour.
G R
as isolated molecules or they may be The reaction is due to the formation of

FO
physically associated or chemically bound polyiodide chains (complex) from the

to other molecules. The specific test for a reaction of starch and iodine. The amylose in
particular type of carbohydrate is based starch forms helices where iodine molecules
on the presence of specific component of are assembled, forming a dark blue colour
carbohydrate or the reducing properties (Figure 1. 28).
resulting from aldehyde or ketone groups.

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Cytology
Amylose
Iodine complex (iodide ions)
Figure 1.28 A helical structure of amylose bound the iodine molecule
b) Biochemical test for reducing sugars The common test for reducing sugar is
All monosaccharides and some disaccharides, Benedict’s test. Fehling’s reagent is not
including maltose and lactose (with commonly used because it is corrosive and
exception of sucrose), are reducing sugars; toxic. In this test, Benedict’s solution makes
use of the ability of these sugars to reduce
as one of the two units may have an open-
copper (II) into copper (I). The test involves
chain form with an aldehyde group.
the use of an alkaline solution of Copper
TY
This means that they carry out a type of
PE Y
(II) Sulphate (CuSO4) which is reduced to

O NL
chemical reaction known as reduction.

R
insoluble Copper (I) oxide (Cu2O). In the

The characteristic property of reducing
PR O
absence of reducing sugar, the blue colour

sugars is that, in aqueous medium, they of the Benedict’s solution remains.
T SE
generate one or more compounds containing

EN U
an aldehyde group. An aldehyde can be The basis of the test

M E
the source of electrons that reduces ions. Benedict’s solution contains copper
R LIN
The oxidizing agent must be capable of sulphate. Reducing sugars reduce soluble
blue copper sulphate; containing copper
VE N
oxidizing aldehydes, but not alcohols. Such

O O
oxidising agents include Benedict’s solution (II) ions (Cu2+) to insoluble red-brown
G R
(CuSO4/citrate), Fehling's reagents (CuSO4/ copper oxide containing copper (1).

FO
tatrate), and Tollen's reagent [2[Ag(NH3)2]+].

However, sucrose, in which the anomeric Cu2+ + e- Cu+
Blue solution Brick red ppt
carbons of the two units are linked together,

are non-reducing disaccharides since neither
c) Biochemical test for non-reducing
of the rings is capable of opening. Such
sugar
disaccharides do not have a free reducing
A non-reducing sugar is a carbohydrate that
group and are therefore non-reducing
is not oxidized by a weak oxidizing agent
sugars.
in basic aqueous solution.
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Table 1.3 Test for starch, reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar
Food
sample to be Procedure Observation Inference
tested
Starch Iodine test Blue-black colouration is Starch present.
observed.
Place 2 ml (cm3) of 1%
starch solution in a clean and
dry test tube.
Add 3 drops of iodine
solution (No heating is
required).
Alternatively, add the Iodine
solution to the solid form of
starch.
Reducing Benedict’s test The initial blue Reducing

sugar colouration of the sugar present.
Place 2 ml of a solution
mixture turns green,
containing reducing sugar
solution in a clean and dry then yellowish to
test tube. orange and may finally
form a brick- red
TY
Add 2 ml of Benedict’s
PE Y
precipitates.
O NL
solution, and heat gently to

R
boil.
PR O
T SE
Non- Place 2 ml of non- reducing The initial blue Non –

EN U
reducing sugar (such as sucrose) colouration of the reducing sugar

sugar solution in a clean and dry
M E
mixture turns green, then present.

R LIN
test-tube. yellowish to orange and

Add 1ml dilute hydrochloric may finally form a brick-
VE N
red precipitates.
O O
acid, heat gently, then allow to

cool.
G R
FO
Carefully, neutralize with 1 ml

of sodium hydroxide solution.
Add 2 ml of Benedict’s
solution and heat to boil.

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Cytology
In basic aqueous medium, non-reducing

sugars do not generate any compounds Procedure
containing an aldehyde group. Due to a) Prepare two solutions, one from
that, it cannot donate electrons to other sweet potatoes and another one
molecules; hence, cannot act as a reducing from coconut pulp.
agent. Sucrose is the most common non-
b) Carry out biochemical test using
reducing sugar. The linkage between the
the given reagents and apparati to
glucose and fructose units in sucrose, which
investigate food substances present
involves aldehyde and ketone groups, is
in each of the solutions.
responsible for the inability of sucrose to
act as a reducing sugar. A non-reducing Question
sugar does not reduce copper (II) sulphate; State roles of each food substance found
therefore, there is no direct test for it. in the tested solutions.
However, if it is first hydrolysed to its
constituent monosaccharides, it will then
give a positive Benedict’s test results.
Functions of carbohydrates
The basis of the test a) Monosaccharides, such as hexoses
A non-reducing sugar (sucrose) can are used to form disaccharides and
be hydrolysed by heating with dilute polysaccharides which are other types/
hydrochloric acid to give glucose and forms of carbohydrates.
fructose, both of which are reducing sugars. b) Carbohydrates are the chief energy
TY
PE Y
The solution is neutralized with dilute sources in living organisms because

O NL
R
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide they are oxidised to give energy. For
PR O
so as to give the reducing sugar results with example, glucose is the most common
T SE
the Benedict’s test on heat. respiratory substrate which when

completely oxidised, yields about 38
EN U
ATP.
M E
Activity 1.4 Biochemical test for

R LIN
c) Trioses such as glyceraldehyde

carbohydrates
and dihydroxyacetone are used
VE N
as intermediates in respiration,
O O
Materials
photosynthesis and other carbohydrate
G R
Sweet potatoes, coconut seed, apparati

FO
(test tubes, test tube racks, test tube metabolic processes. During
holder and brush, beaker, scalpel or respiration (during glycolysis),
surgical blade, measuring cylinder, six carbon sugar splits to form
droppers, mortar and pestle), reagents dihydroxyacetone phosphate and
(Benedict’s solution, iodine solution, phosphoglyceraldehyde which enters
dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sodium the cycle, whereas during dark
hydroxide solution, and distilled water), reaction of photosynthesis the formed
and a source of heat. phosphoglyceraldehyde becomes a
source of lipids and proteins.
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d) They are the sources of other food Activity 1.5 Biochemical test for
substances, such as a triose sugar in carbohydrates
plants.
1. Suppose you have been provided with
e) Pentose sugar, such as ribose and
the following for a practical work:
deoxyribose sugars used in the
a) Solution K containing starch
synthesis of nucleic acids. Ribose is a
b) Benedict’s solution
constituent of Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
and deoxyribose is a constituent of c) Dilute hydrochloric acid
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). d) Sodium hydroxide solution
f) Ribose sugar is also used in the e) Rubber bands for stimulating
synthesis of ATP and coenzymes, such saliva secretion
as NAD and NADP.
Questions
g) Carbohydrate such as ribulose (a
1. Show step by step, how you would
five carbon sugar) forms Ribulose
go about testing for starch.
biphosphate, which is used as
carbon dioxide acceptor during light 2. It is advised that, before collecting
independent stage of photosynthesis. saliva, one should rinse his or her
mouth with clean safe water. What is
h) In association with proteins and
the significance of this?
phospholipids, they form structural
parts of a membrane. 3. Comment on the final colour change
of the solution.
i) They form structural parts of
TY
PE Y
organisms, examples: cellulose in

O NL
R
plant cells and chitin in exoskeleton of

PR O
arthropods. Exercise 1.11

T SE
j) They are important constituents of

1. With illustrations, differentiate between
connective tissues in animals.
EN U
monosaccharides and disaccharides.

k) Cellulose fibres in edible fruits and
M E
R LIN
otherfoods help to prevent constipation 2. Explain the roles of carbohydrate in the

in humans. human body.
VE N
l) Flower nectar contains sugar, which is 3. Show how two glucose units are
O O
important in the process of pollination. combined to produce maltose. Give

G R
FO
details of chemical reactions involved

and the bond formed.
4. Can sucrose reduce Copper (II) in
Benedict’s solution? Give an annotated
description of your answer.
5. Show how the structure of α-glucose
is maneuvered to produce β-glucose,
galactose and fructose.

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Cytology
1.4.2 Lipids chemical composition as simple lipids,

Lipids are made up of carbon, hydrogen, compound lipids, and derived lipids.
and oxygen in which the content of oxygen
is always smaller compared to carbon and a) Simple lipids or homolipids
These are esters of fatty acids and various
hydrogen. Lipids are important constituents
alcohols. Such lipids include fats and
of the diet, because they are the source of
oils (whose alcohol is glycerol) and
high energy value. Natural fats and oils are
waxes which contain alcohols higher
compounds of glycerol and fatty acids. They
than glycerol. Fats differ from oils in that
are esters which are formed as the result they contain fatty acids with saturated
of the reaction between organic acids and hydrocarbon chain. In oils, fatty acids
alcohols. contain unsaturated hydrocarbon chains.
At room temperature, oil is liquid, while
Formation of lipids fat is solid. Fatty acids have a general
Lipids are esters formed by the reaction formula of CH3 (CH2)nCOOH where 'n' is
between fatty acids and alcohols. In simple a whole number. Stearic acid is a common
lipids such as fats and oils, the alcohol fatty acid in animals’ adipose tissue. The
involved in the reaction is glycerol. The fats and oils are triglycerides, formed
formation of lipids is by condensation by the combination of one trihydroxyl
reaction; therefore, a molecule of water alcohol, (glycerol), and three fatty acid
molecules. In this process, three molecules
TY
is lost. This forms a covalent bond called
PE Y
of water are lost and the ester bond is

O NL
ester bond.
R
formed (Figure 1.29).

PR O
Types of lipids
T SE
In the year 1943, Bloor proposed the

EN U
classification of lipids based on their

M E
R LIN
Ester bond
H O H O
VE N
H-C-O-H H - O - C- R H C O C R
O O
O O
G R
H-C-O-H H - O - C- R H C O C R + 3H20
FO
O O
H-C-O-H H - O - C- R H C O C R
H H
Glycerol + 3Fatty acids Triglyceride + 3Water

Figure 1.29 Formation of triglyceride
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b) Compound lipids or heterolipids compound lipids contain fatty acids,

These are esters of fatty acids with alcohols, and other compounds, such
alcohols that possess additional as phosphorous, amino-nitrogen and
groups which may be derived from carbohydrates as shown in table (1.4).
other acids other than fatty acids. The
Table 1.4 Compound lipids

Phospholipids or These contain a phosphate group. Their glycerol forms ester bond with
phosphatides phosphoric acid and two fatty acids (Figure 1.30). They usually contain
one hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails. They are called polar
lipids and are amphipathic in nature.
Glycolipids Glycolipids are compound lipids with carbohydrates. These lipids include
also certain structurally related compounds comprising of gangliosides,
sulpholipids, and sulfatides groups.
Sphingolipids or Sphingolipids occur mostly in the cells of the brain. They do not
phosphosphingosides contain glycerol in their molecules; instead, they contain amine alcohol
(sphingosine or sphingol). For instance, the myelin sheath of the
nerve fibres contains a lipid known as sphingomyelin, which contains
sphingosine and phospholipids in its molecules. Terpenes are mostly
found in plants. Examples of terpenes are natural rubber and gern oil.
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
Glycerol
Hydrocarbons (fatty acid tails)
PR O
Hydrophilic
H O head
T SE
H C O C
EN U
O
M E
H C O C
R LIN
O O Hydrophobic
tails
VE N
O P O C O C H
O O
O H
G R
FO
Figure 1.30 Structure of the phospholipid
c) Derived lipids Steroids. These do not contain fatty acids.

Derived lipids are substances derived from and are non saponifiable and not hydrolysed
simple and compound lipids by hydrolysis. on heating. They are widely distributed
The most common derived lipids are in animals, where they are associated
steroids, terpenes, and carotenoids. with physiological processes. Examples:
hormones, oestrogen, progesterone and
testosterone.
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Cytology
Terpenes. They are essential oils in plants Biochemical test for lipids
found particularly in conifers, citrus Lipids are nonpolar and do not dissolve
trees and some insects. They are used for in polar solvents, such as water. They
formation of aroma into medicine, such as only dissolve in nonpolar solvents, such
aromatherapy, perfume and food additives. as benzene, ether, absolute alcohols, and
These include certain fat soluble vitamins, chloroform. This property makes the lipids
such as vitamins A, E, and K. to be tested effectively by adding nonpolar
dye, which can easily be absorbed by a
Carotenoids. These are widely distributed nonpolar lipids. Lipids can be tested using
in both plants and animals. They are several methods, including that which
exclusively of plant origin. Due to the involves the use of Sudan III solution, the
presence of many conjugated double bonds, grease spot test and emulsification test
they are coloured red or yellow. Examples (Table 1.5).
are lycopene, carotenes, and xanthophyll
(oxygenated derivatives of carotenes). The basis of the tests
Fat globules are stained red with Sudan III
Properties of lipids solution. Being less dense than water and
Lipids are either liquids or non-crystalline insoluble in water, a red stained oil layer
solids at room temperature. Pure fats or oils floats on the surface of water. In addition,
are colourless, odourless, and tasteless. with grease spot test, fats or oil droplets
They are less dense than water and are create a translucent spots on the paper on
esters of alcohols and acids. Simple lipids, warming. As already known that, lipids are
TY
PE Y
such as fats are esters of fatty acids and immiscible with water, therefore addition
O NL
R
glycerol. Lipids are insoluble in water, of water to a solution mixture of lipids

PR O
but soluble in organic solvents such as and ethanol results into emulsion of tiny
T SE
ether, toluene and chloroform. They can droplets in the water, which reflect light,
be hydrolysed by alkaline compounds giving a white opalescent appearance.
EN U
into their constituents’ components by the Emulsification process is permanent and

M E
process known as saponification. Simple complete in the presence of emulsifying

R LIN
lipids such as fats and oils are hydrolysed agents, such as bile salts, soap and protein.
VE N
by the lipase enzyme into fatty acids and This process is important in fat digestion
O O
glycerol. Lipids contain either saturated or in the intestine, as the emulsifying agents
G R
unsaturated hydrocarbon chains and have (bile salts) lower surface tension of the
FO
a high calorific value due to the presence lipids and increase the surface area, hence
of large number of hydrogen atoms in their easily acted by digestive enzymes.
hydrocarbon chains. They are poor heat
and electric conductors. Forthis reason,
they are functional parts of nerve cells and
skin sub-cutaneous layer.
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Table 1.5 Biochemical test for lipids
Food sample to be Procedure Observation Inference

tested
Lipid (fat or oil) Sudan III test A red- stained oil Lipids
Put 2 ml of a solution containing layer separates present.
lipid in a clean and dry test tube. on the surface of
solution.
Add 3 drops of Sudan III solution
and shake vigorously. Then allows the
mixture to settle for 1 minute.
Grease spot test A permanent Lipids

Rub a drop of the sample on to a translucent spot on present.
piece of paper. the paper.
Allow time for any water to

evaporate. Warm gently in order to
speed up the process or reaction.
Emulsification test Lipids becomes Lipids

Put 2 ml of absolute ethanol in afinely divided present.
and is dispersed
clean and dry test tube, and then add
2 ml of lipid. in water when
shaken with water
Shake vigorously to dissolve the it forms a cloudy
lipids. Then add equal volume of white suspension
TY
PE Y
cold water. (emulsification).

O NL
R
PR O
Functions of lipids e) Since lipids are less dense than water,

T SE
a) They are structural component of they aid in buoyancy in the aquatic

EN U
membranes. Examples: phospholipids animals such as whales.

M E
and glycolipids. f) They are precursors of important body

R LIN
b) They insulate the body against heat requirements such as vitamin D and
loss. For example, fats found in the
VE N
sex hormones.
O O
subcutaneous layer of the skin are an

g) They protect internal vital organs such
insulating blanket.
G R
as heart and kidneys.

FO
c) They are sources of energy; therefore,

they are used as alternative respiratory h) They form protective layers against
substrates when carbohydrates are water loss for example waxes in plants.
completely exhausted. i) They facilitate fast conduction of
d) They are sources of metabolic water. nerve impulses, as they are integral
This is an important source of water parts of myelinated nerve fibres.
for animals found in arid and semi- j) They are components of some enzyme
arid areas such as camels. systems.

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Cytology
k) They form plasma proteins, such

as lipoproteins which facilitate Exercise 1.12
transportation of lipids in the aqueous
environment of the body. 1. Give an account on the properties
of lipids.
2. Classify lipids based on their
Activity 1.6 Biochemical test for lipids
chemical composition.
Materials 3. Describe the structural functions
Groundnuts, test tubes, test tube racks, of lipids in living organisms.
test tube brush, beaker, measuring
cylinder, droppers, mortar and pestle, 1.4.3 Proteins
reagents Sudan III solution and distilled Proteins are large biomolecules or
water. macromolecules, consisting of one or
more long chains of amino acids. A
Procedure
a) Prepare a solution from the nuts molecule contains carbon, hydrogen,
using the materials provided. oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and sometimes
phosphorous. The amino group (NH2)
b) Carry out a biochemical test to provides protein’s basic nature, and the
identify food substance(s) present carboxyl group (-COOH) gives the acidic
in the solution using the reagents
nature of the amino acid. The R-group is
provided.
TY
known as the side chain which represents
PE Y
O NL
c) Record your observations. the hydrogen atom or any other group such
R
as the alkyl group (Figure 1.31). Proteins

PR O
differ from one another, primarily in their

T SE
sequence of amino acids, which is dictated

EN U
by the nucleotide sequence of their genes

M E
and which usually results in protein folding

R LIN
into specific three-dimension structure that

VE N
determines its activity.

O O
N
G R
H H O
FO
H N C C OH
Amino group Carboxylic acid group
R
Side chain
Figure 1.31 Structure of the amino acids
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Properties of the amino acids ion and becomes positively charged. Each
They are colourless, crystalline solids which amino acid has its own pH value at which it
are soluble in water but insoluble in organic exists in its neutral zwitterionic form. This
solvent such as ether, chloroform, and pH at which the amino acids are electrically
acetone. They are amphoteric compounds as neutral is termed as an Isoelectric point
they have both acidic and basic properties. (I.E.P). In the alkaline medium, when the
In neutral aqueous solutions, they exist as pH of the I.E.P increases, the amino group
dipolar or zwitterions. On one side, the dissociates, releasing hydrogen ions, (H+),
acidic carboxyl group has a tendency of the amino acid thus becomes negatively
donating hydrogen ion (proton); therefore, charged. In the acidic medium, (when the
it dissociates, to release hydrogen ion and pH is lowered), the carboxyl group accepts
becomes negatively charged. On the other hydrogen ions, and the whole structure
side, the basic amino group has a high affinity becomes positively charged (Figure 1.32).
to hydrogen; therefore, it accepts hydrogen
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
PR O
T SE
Figure
Figure 1.32Structure
1.33 Structure ofofthethe
zwitterion
zwitterion
EN U
Formation of proteins combination of this type extends the

All proteins are formed by condensation length of the chain to form a polypeptide
M E
R LIN
of amino acids to give peptide chains. The chain, which usually contains hundreds of
condensation reaction occurs between amino acids. Polypeptides may be linked
VE N
the amino group of one amino acid and by other forces such as disulphide bridges,
O O
the carboxylic groupFigure

of other
1.33amino hydrogen
Structure bond, hydrophobic interaction
of the zwitterion
G R
acid to form a dipeptide molecule linked and ionic bonds.

FO
by peptide bond (Figure 1.33). Further
Figure 1.34 Formation of dipeptide molecule linked by the peptide bond
Figure 1.34 Formation

Figure of dipeptide
1.33 Formation of dipeptide molecule linked
molecule linked by peptide
by the the peptide
bond bond

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Structure of polypeptide bonds plays a considerable role in shape

The structure of polypeptide molecule is and stability of the polypeptide molecule.
determined by amino acids sequences and
its configuration. For each particular type Disulphide bond
of protein, the chain of amino acid makes This is formed between side chains of
up a polypeptide molecule of a specific cysteine (amino acid containing sulphur)
shape. This shape is very important in and keeps parts of polypeptide intact and
maintains its stability. If two molecules
the functioning of the protein, especially
of cysteine line up alongside with each
enzymes. The type and the three-
other, the neighbouring sulphur can be
dimension configuration of a polypeptide
oxidized to form a disulphide bridge.
molecule, is stabilised by the interactions A disulphide linkage may be formed
of five different types of bonds (Figure between the cysteine residues of the same
1.35). polypeptide chain or different polypeptide
chains of a functional protein. Disulphide
Peptide bond bonds stabilize the tertiary or quaternary
This is a bond formed between carboxyl structures of the protein.
group (-COOH) of one amino acid and
amino group (-NH2) of another amino Ionic bond
acid. A polypeptide molecule has a free
The bond occurs between the positively
amino group at one end, and a carboxyl
and negatively charged side chains of
group at the other end.
amino acids that come in contact with
TY
PE Y
Hydrogen bond each other. Normally ionic bond is

O NL
R
Hydrogen bond is a bond that is formed formed between ions of opposite charges
PR O
in the polypeptide chain between from ionized acid (-COO-) and basic
T SE
amino acid and side (R) groups. The (-NH3+) groups of the amino acids. The
bond is an electrostatic attraction availability of ionized carboxylic group
EN U
between the hydrogen atom and another (COO-) and amino group (-NH3+) at
M E
electronegative atom. Hydrogen bond the side chain of amino acid, and at the
R LIN
forms between the carbonyl (C=O) of one terminal of polypeptide chain may form
VE N
amino acid or the amino group (N-H) of ionic interactions, which help to make
O O
another amino acid. Hydrogen present in a polypeptide molecule of a particular

hydroxyl (-OH) group or amino group
G R
shape.
FO
(-NH2) of amino acids, become slightly

electropositive. Therefore, hydrogen Hydrophobic interaction
bond is a partially electrostatic attraction This is considered to be among the major
between the hydrogen (H) atom which is driving force for the folding of globular
covalently bound to a more electronegative proteins in aqueous environment. Some
atom or group, such as nitrogen (N) and R groups of amino acids are non-polar as
oxygen (O). Although hydrogen bonds they have equal number of charges from
are very weak, the absolute number of amino and carboxyl groups. The non-polar
R groups are hydrophobic and they repel
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from water. In a long polypeptide chain, usually insoluble in water as well as in

there are many such non-polar amino acids other aqueous media. Fibrous proteins
which may occur adjacent to each other. aid in protection and structural support.
In an aqueous environment such as inside Examples of fibrous proteins include
the cell, the linear polypeptide will fold collagen (tendons, bones, and other
into a particular shape that hydrophobic connective tissues), myosin (found in
amino acids come in contact with each muscles) and keratin (found in nails,
other, while excluding water due to its horns, hairs, fur, and feathers).
hydrophobicity.
Van der Waals interactions
(dispersion forces) act between
hydrophobic side branches
Hydrogen
Polypeptide backbone
bond
Disulphide
link
Ionic bond
Figure 1.35 Structure of fibrous proteins

Figure1.34 Bonds in a polypeptide molecule
TY (α-keratin)
PE Y
Globular proteins. These proteins have

O NL
R
Categories of proteins tertiary structure, in which the polypeptide

PR O
Due to their complexity, it is difficult to chains are tightly folded to form the
T SE
classify protein molecules into a single, spherical shape (Figure 1.36). They
well defined category. They can be classified are soluble in water. Examples of such
EN U
according to their structure, composition, proteins include enzymes, antibodies, and

M E
level of organisation, and functions. some hormones, such as insulin.

R LIN
a) Classification of proteins based on

VE N
O O
their structure
G R
Based on their structure, proteins are

FO
categorized as fibrous, globular, and

intermediate proteins.
Fibrous proteins. These proteins form

long polypeptide chains, cross linked at
intervals, forming long fibres or sheets
(Figure 1.35). Their shapes resemble
long ribbons or fibres. Fibrous proteins
are mostly found in animals, and are Figure 1.36 Structure of globular proteins

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Intermediate proteins. These are fibrous, Simple proteins. These are proteins made
soluble proteins. A good example of up of only amino acids, and are mostly
intermediate proteins is fibrinogen, which globular. When decomposed by acids,
forms an insoluble fibrin during blood these proteins liberate their constituent
clotting. amino acids. Examples of simple proteins
are albumins, globulins, and histones.
b) Classification of proteins based on
Conjugated proteins. These are proteins
their composition
made up of amino acids and other organic
Based on their composition, proteins can
compounds. They have a non-amino
be classified as simple and conjugated or acid group termed as prosthetic group.
complex proteins. Examples of conjugate proteins and their
prosthetic groups are shown in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6 Conjugate proteins, their prosthetic groups, and locations
Name Prosthetic group Location
Phosphoprotein Phosphoric acid Casein of milk and vitelline of egg yolk.
Glycoprotein Carbohydrate Cell membrane, and mucin (component of

saliva).
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
Nucleoprotein Nucleic acid Component in the structures

PR O
of viruses, chromosomes and

T SE
ribosomes.
EN U
Lipoprotein Lipid Cell membrane and lipids transported in

M E
blood as lipoprotein.
R LIN
VE N
O O
c) Classification of proteins based on the polypeptide chain (Figure 1.37). Its

G R
their level of organisation sequence is determined by the sequence of

FO
There are four types of proteins based nucleotide bases of the DNA in the genetic
on the level of structural organization, code. The amino acid sequence determines
namely primary, secondary, tertiary, and the positioning of different R-groups
quaternary structures of proteins. relative to each other. The positioning also
determines the way the protein folds and
Primary structure of proteins. The the final structure of the molecule.
primary structure of protein is a linear
sequence of amino acids that make up
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N-Terminus
(amino end) Gly Pro Thr Gly
Thr
H3N+
Gly
Glu
Ser
Pro Cys Lys
Leu
Met
Val
Lys
Val
Leu Asp
Ala Val Arg Gly
Ser
Pro
Ala COO-
C-terminus
(carboxyl end)
Figure 1.37 The primary structure of proteins
Secondary structure of proteins. The to produce the secondary structure. The

secondary structure of proteins refers to regular pattern is due to the hydrogen bond
the regular folding pattern of β-sheets and formation between atoms of the amino acid
α helix of the polypeptide chain (Figure and backbone of the polypeptide chain. It
1.38). The linear unfolded structure of the includes components of hairs, claws, nails,
polypeptide chain assumes a helical shape TY and the skin.
PE Y
O NL
Hydrogen bond
R
Hydrogen bond
PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
(a) (b)
Figure 1.38 The secondary structure of proteins (a) alpha helix and (b) beta plate
Tertiary structure of proteins. The of the polypeptide chain is folded into a

tertiary structure of proteins is the three- compact globular structure. The folding
dimensional structure formed by the of the polypeptide chain is stabilized by
bending and twisting of the polypeptide weak, non-covalent interactions. These
chain (Figure 1.39). The linear sequence interactions are hydrogen bonds and

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Cytology
electrostatic interactions. Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds, also contribute to the

are formed when hydrogen atom is shared formation of the tertiary structure.
with two other atoms. Hydrophobic Examples of tertiary structure proteins are
interactions, disulphide linkages and enzymes and antibodies.
+ -
-
- -
Figure 1.39 The tertiary structure of proteins

TY
Quaternary structure of proteins. haemoglobin which is the oxygen
PE Y
O NL
Some proteins contain more than one carrying component of the blood, is made
R
polypeptide chains. This association of up of four polypeptide chains; 2α-chains,

PR O
polypeptide chains refers to the quaternary each containing 141 amino acids, and 2β
T SE
structure of proteins and each polypeptide chains, each containing 146 amino acids
chain is called a subunit. The subunits (Figure 1.40).
EN U
can be similar or different. For example,

M E
R LIN
β-chain
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
Fe2+
Heme
α-chain
Figure 1.40 The quaternary structure of proteins
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d) Classification of proteins according or synthesis to the site of utilization or

to their functions storage and membrane transport proteins
Proteins can be classified into different which transport substances across the cell
categories depending on their physical and membranes.
chemical structures as well as their location
in the cell. They can also be grouped based Nutrient and storage proteins. These
on the metabolic functions they perform in are proteins which provide reservoirs of
the body as follows: essential nutrients to a growing embryo.
A good example is the albumin of an egg
Enzymes proteins. These are biological white, used as an amino acid source for the
catalysts which are mostly protein in developing embryo. Casein, the protein of
nature. They are the most varied and highly milk, is the major source of amino acids
specialised proteins with catalytic activity. for baby mammals. Ferritin is an iron-
Virtually, all the chemical reactions of binding protein; which stores iron in the
organic biomolecules in cells are catalysed liver. Moreover, plants store proteins in
by enzymes, resulting into increased reaction seeds, where seeds of many plants store
rate. Enzymes such as urease, catalase, and nutrient protein for growth of embryonic
lactase catalyse a variety of body reactions. plants such as wheat, rice, maize, and bean.
Structural proteins. These are proteins Contractile or motile proteins. These

which aid in strengthening or protecting proteins function in the contractile tissues.
biological structures. These protein act They include actin, myosin, and tubulin
TY
PE Y
as supporting filaments, cables or sheets proteins. They are important for movement
O NL
R
to give biological structure, strength, and of body parts. Contractile proteins are
PR O
protection. Collagen is an example of the responsible for undulation of the cilia and
T SE
structural protein of the bone and connective flagella, which propel many cells.
tissue. Collagen and elastin provide a fibrous
EN U
framework in animal connective tissues, Defence proteins. These are proteins which
M E
such as tendons and ligaments. Keratin is defend the body against invaders, such
R LIN
the structural protein of hairs, horns, fingeras antibodies, fibrinogen and thrombin.
VE N
nails, feathers and other skin appendages These are highly specialized proteins
O O
of animals. that recognize and combine with foreign

G R
substances like viruses, bacteria and destroy

FO
Transport or carrier proteins. These them. Fibrinogen and thrombin are blood
proteins are involved in transportation of clotting proteins which protect the body
ions and other substances. Examples of such against excessive bleeding.
proteins include haemoglobin, the iron-
containing protein of blood, which transports Regulatory proteins. They regulate
oxygen from the lungs to other parts of gene expression and cellular or metabolic
the body, serum albumin which transports activities of an organism. These include
fatty acids in the blood, lipoproteins, which hormones, such as, insulin hormone which
carry lipids from the site of absorption is secreted by the pancreas, helps in the
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regulation of the blood sugar concentration and (NH4)2SO4. Decrease in solubility

that regulates the metabolism of cells. occurs due to competition between salt
Transcription factors are proteins that and protein molecules for water as well
regulate gene expression. Some repress gene as a decrease in charge on the protein
expression by binding to target genes and molecule.
activating their transcription. The examples e) Proteins are also coagulated by heat and
of such protein include lac repressor and agents like strong acids, alkali, alcohol,
catabolite activator protein (CAP). Lac acetone, urea and salts of heavy metal.
repressor is a DNA-binding protein which
inhibits the expression of genes coding f) Proteins are specific in their reactions
for proteins involved in the metabolism of and substrates they act upon. This
lactose in bacteria, whereas CAP promotes property is clearly illustrated by
transcription at several sites as it affects enzymes.
the metabolism of sugars and amino acids,
protein folding, toxin production and pilus g) Proteins are colloidal in nature, that is,
synthesis. they can be hydrolysed into their amino
acid constituents.
Receptor proteins. Receptor proteins are h) They can be denatured or changed from
built into the membrane of a nerve cell their natural state by heat or chemicals.
and they detect chemical signals released
by other nerve cells. Other proteins act Denaturation of proteins
as chemical messengers within the brain
A protein is said to be denatured, if it loses
throughout the body. They are involved
TY
its natural three-dimension conformation
PE Y
in the cell’s response to chemical stimuli.

O NL
or shape. This change may be temporary

R
Properties of proteins or permanent, but the amino acid sequence

PR O
Proteins have the following properties: of the protein remains intact because
T SE
a) They are colourless, tasteless, and the peptide bonds are not cleaved.
EN U
amphoteric in nature as they have both Denaturation results in the alteration of

M E
acidic and basic properties derived from physical properties of a protein in terms of
R LIN
–COOH and –NH2 groups respectively. solubility and other criteria. However, the
b) They exhibit characteristic isoelectric protein in this situation can no longer carry
VE N
out its normal biological functions. The

O O
points and have buffering properties.

causes of this condition include heat and
G R
c) They are large molecules; hence,

FO
they have high molecular weight. radiation, organic solvents and detergents,
For instance, haemoglobin has the highly concentrated salts and strong acids
molecular weight of about 68,000 g/mol. and alkalis. Denaturation is also caused by
heavy metals, urea solution and mechanical
d) Proteins differ in their solubility in
forces.
water, some are insoluble, example
keratin while others are highly soluble
such as albumin. Soluble protein Heat and radiations, such as ultra violet
can be precipitated from solution by rays and infra-red. These supply kinetic
addition of certain salts example NaCl energy which causes strong vibrations
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of protein molecules. These result into For example, stretching of hair breaks
breaking down of ionic and hydrogen the hydrogen bonds in the keratin helix.
bonds that are weaker than peptide bonds, The latter is extended and the hair is
resulting into coagulation of such protein stretched. If released, the hair returns to
molecules. its normal length. However, if it is wetted
and then dried under tension, it keeps
Organic solvents and detergents. These its new length. This is the basis for hair
reagents disrupt hydrophobic interactions styling. Many liquid proteins denature
and form bonds with hydrophobic (non- and precipitate when they are vigorously
polar) groups. Consequently, this disrupts agitated because of incorporation of
hydrogen bonds resulting into denaturation. air bubbles and adsorption of protein
An example of such chemical substances molecules to the air-liquid interface.
is methyl alcohol, which is used as a
disinfectant to clean the skin before General functions of proteins
injection. The alcohol denatures proteins a) They are essential building materials
in bacterial cell walls. of the body. For that reason, they
are needed for proper growth and
Highly concentrated salts, strong acids,
development. This explains why
and alkalis. These compounds disrupt the
kwashiorkor victims experience
ionic bonds, resulting into coagulation of
proteins. If such proteins remain mixed stunted growth.
with these reagents for a long time, peptide b) They are used as alternative respiratory
TY
PE Y
bonds may also break down.

O NL
substrates when both carbohydrates

R
and lipids are completely exhausted.

PR O
Presence of heavy metals such as

T SE
mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), and lead c) They absorb excess fluids in the body.
(Pb). Cations of such metals tend to form For example, kwashiorkor victims
EN U
strong bonds with the negatively charged have swollen lower parts of their
M E
carboxyl groups on the proteins, leading to

R LIN
legs and some parts of hands due to

the disruption of ionic bonds. The protein’s
accumulation of excess fluids, this
VE N
polarity is reduced and its insolubility

O O
becomes high, hence precipitated as an condition is called oedema.

G R
insoluble metal protein. d) They form structural components

FO
of body parts. For instance, keratin

Urea solution. Urea tends to disrupt
is a structural protein of hair, horns,
hydrogen bonds. Being amide-like, it
hooves, and nails.
forms hydrogen bonds of its own via
distorting the unique configuration of the e) They are structural components of
protein molecule. membranes. For example, globular
protein and glycoprotein which form
Mechanical forces. Physical movement
the cell surface membrane.
of proteins may break hydrogen bonds.
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f) They take part in various metabolic Biochemical test for proteins

processes in the body, for example Proteins are complex organic structures
enzymes that catalyse different made up of polypeptide chains of amino
physiological activities in the body. acids, which have different amino
acid sequences and three dimensional
g) Proteins such as hormones have
configuration to define a particular type
the following roles: act as chemical
of protein. An amino acid is a class of
messengers and regulate body
organic compounds with a carboxyl
metabolites. Examples of such
group (-COOH), an amino group (NH2)
proteins are insulin and glucagon,
and a side group, all attached to a central
which regulate the level of blood
carbon atom. Proteins differ from each
sugar in mammals.
other in terms of their type, number and
h) Proteins such as anti-bodies protect
sequence of amino acids that make up
the body against infections.
the polypeptide backbone. Therefore,
i) Proteins such as myosin and actin are
different proteins have different molecular
contractile; therefore, they interact to
structures, nutritional attributes and
bring about contraction and relaxation
physiochemical properties. There are
of muscles, hence, the movement of
several methods used to test for proteins.
body parts and locomotion of animals.
The most common method is chemical
j) Proteins such as haemoglobin and
method. Chemical method relies on the
myoglobin transport oxygen in the
properties of amino acids or peptide bonds
blood.
that are common to all proteins. The biuret
TY
k) Proteins such as fibrinogen are
PE Y
test is a chemical assay that is widely used

O NL
important for blood clotting, hence,

R
to detect the presence of proteins and

they help in healing wounds by
PR O
amino acids in a sample. The test relies

forming fibres over injured parts to
T SE
on a color change to confirm the presence

prevent excessive loss of blood and
of proteins. If proteins are present, the
EN U
water, and entry of germs.

sample will turn violet (Table 1.7).
M E
l) Proteins such as ovalbumin of egg

R LIN
white and casein of milk are storage

The basis of tests
in function. For example albumin
VE N
Biuret test is the chemical test used to

O O
supplies food to a developing embryo.

detect the presence of peptide bond as a
m) Proteins help to build and improve
G R
general test for detection of proteins. In

FO
the body immune system. This

the presence of dilute copper (II) sulphate
explains why children suffering from
(CuSO4) in alkaline solution (medium),
kwashiorkor are vulnerable to various
nitrogen atoms in the peptide chain form
opportunistic diseases.
a purple complex with Copper (II) ions
(Cu2+).
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Table 1.7 Biuret test for protein
Food sample to be Procedure Observation Inference

tested
Protein Prepare a solution of egg albumen. A purple Protein
colour present.
Place 2 ml of egg albumen solution in a develops
clean and dry test tube. slowly
Add 2 ml of dilute Sodium hydroxide

solution and mix.
Then add 2 drops of 1% of Copper (II)

sulphate solution and shake (No heating
is required).
Activity 1.7 Biochemical test for 2. Explain the nutritional roles of the
proteins food substance(s) present in the
food sample.
Materials
Fresh milk, test tube, test tube rack, test
tube brush, beaker, measuring cylinder, Exercise 1.13
and dropper, 1% Copper (II) sulphate
solution, and dilute sodium hydroxide 1. Proteins are said to be amphoteric
TY
PE Y
solution. in nature, what is the biological

O NL
R
importance of this?
PR O
Procedure
a) You are provided with a beaker 2. Explain the medical importance of
T SE
containing fresh milk. protein denaturation.

EN U
b) Using the apparati and reagents 3. Classify proteins on the basis of

M E
structure and function.

R LIN
provided, design an experiment

and carry out biochemical tests to
VE N
identify the food substances present

O O
in it. 1.4.4 Enzymes

G R
Enzymes are complex, three dimension

FO
c) Tabulate your results in a usual way

globular proteins that are made up by living
to show the procedures followed,
cells. They are biological catalysts, since
observations made, and inferences
they alter the rate of different physiological
drawn.
processes in living organisms. They are
Questions also found in natural secretions, such as
1. What is the basis of test for the food plant juices, milk and the digestive juices
substance(s) present in the food where they catalyse several metabolic
sample provided? reactions or processes taking place in the

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living cells. A compound with which the reaction. By acting as catalysts, enzymes
enzyme combines is called a substrate. lower the activation energy. Activation
The substrate fixes itself in an active energy is the minimum amount of energy
site of the enzyme whose shape is ideal that is required to activate a substrate
for accommodating it. The active site molecule to a condition in which they can
is a group of amino acids comprising undergo biological transformation (Figure
the region of the enzyme into which 1.41).
the substrate fits in order to catalyse the
Activation energy (EA)

without enzymes
Activation energy (EA)

with enzymes
Free energy (G)
Energy of Change in
reactants free energy
(AG)
Energy of products
TY
Progress of reaction
PE Y
Figure 1.33 Structure of the zwitterion

O NL
R
PR O
Figure 1.41 Activation energy for an enzyme-catalysed and an un-catalysed reaction

T SE
Mechanisms for enzyme action enzyme - substrate interaction. The two

EN U
Several steps of enzymic action result in molecules form a temporary structure

M E
the formation of products. There are two called an enzyme-substrate complex as

R LIN
theories which explains the mechanism of an intermediate product of substrate to

VE N
enzymic action. These are the lock and key be converted into product. The products
O O
hypothesis and the induced fit hypothesis. have different shapes from the substrates;
G R
In the lock and key hypothesis,

Figure an enzyme
1.34 Formation therefore,
of dipeptide moleculeonce
linkedthe
by product is formed,
the peptide bond it
FO
holds the substrate as a lock holds the escape from the active site, leaving it
key, while the induced fit hypothesis, the free for accommodating other substrate
active site expands and contracts to form molecules.
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Lock and Key theory In this analogy, the lock is the enzyme and
The theory states that, as the key fits in the key is the substrate. Only the correctly
one lock, the same happens to a substrate sized key (substrate) fits into the key hole
which fits only in one active site of the (active site) of the lock (enzyme). Smaller
enzyme to form an enzyme-substrate keys, larger keys, or incorrectly positioned
complex (Figure 1.42). The specific action teeth on keys (incorrectly shaped or sized
of an enzyme with a single substrate can be substrate molecules) do not fit into the
explained using a Lock and Key analogy lock (enzyme). Only the correctly shaped
first postulated in 1894 by Emil Fischer. key opens a particular lock.
Substrate
Active site
Key (substrate) Enzyme

Lock (enzyme)
Lock-key
Enzyme substrate
TY
complex
PE Y
complex
O NL
R
Figure 1.42 A model explaining the lock and key hypothesis

PR O
T SE
EN U
Induced fit theory because the enzyme has been distorted too
M E
The induced-fit theory assumes that the much. Other molecules may be too small
R LIN
substrate plays a role in determining to induce the proper alignment. Therefore,

the final shape of the enzyme; thus, the they cannot react, since only the specific
VE N
O O
enzyme is partially flexible (Figure 1.43). substrate is capable of inducing the proper
G R
This explains why certain compounds alignment of the active site.

FO
can bind to the enzyme but do not react

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Enzyme
Substrate entering the active

site of enzyme
Free enzyme + Substrate

E S
Enzyme-substrate complex Enzyme-products complex Free enzyme + Products

ES EP E P
Figure 1.43 Model of induced fit theory
Factors governing rate of enzyme

Maximum reaction rate
activity
Several factors affect enzyme activities.
These include substrate concentration, Rate approaching
Rate of reaction
maximum rate
enzyme concentration, temperature, and
pH level. TY
Rate increases directly with
PE Y
substrate concentration
O NL
a) Substrate concentration
R
At fixed concentration of enzymes, an

PR O
Substrate concentration
increase in substrate concentration will
T SE
increase the rate of reaction. This is Figure 1.44 The effect of substrate
EN U
because more substrate molecules will concentration on the reaction rate of enzyme
M E
be colliding with enzyme molecules.

R LIN
Therefore, more products will be formed b) Enzyme concentration

at a time. However, after a certain The rate of any enzyme catalysed reaction
VE N
concentration, any increase will have

O O
directly depends on the concentration of the

no effect on the rate of reaction, since
G R
enzymes. Provided that, the temperature and

FO
all enzyme’s active sites have bound to

other conditions are suitable for reaction and
substrate, and the remaining substrate will
there are excess substrate molecules, the rate
be unable to bind to enzymes.
of the reaction is directly proportional to the
This point is called enzyme saturation concentration of enzymes. If the amount
point. Thus, extra substrates have to wait of the substrate is restricted, it may limit
for the enzyme to release the product the rate of the reaction. Likewise, addition
and become free to accommodate other of more enzymes cannot increase the rate.
substrate (Figure 1.44). Therefore, the graph tails off as shown in
Figure1.45.
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from fitting together exactly. Finally, the

enzyme will become denatured, and it will
Product concentration
With 2x enzymes no longer be functional, hence decreasing

the rate of reaction.
With 1x enzymes
With no enzymes
However, below normal temperature,
enzymes become less active due to
Time
reduction in speed of molecular movement.
Figure 1.45 The effect of enzyme concentration When the temperature is lowered below
on the reaction rate of enzyme controlled reaction or near freezing point, the enzymes are
said to be inactive. This condition will last
c) Temperature when the higher temperature above the
freezing point is restored.
Generally, increase in temperature
increases the kinetic energy that molecules
Therefore, as the temperature increases,
possess, implying more random collisions
the rate of reaction also increases due
between molecules per unit time. Since
to increased kinetic energy. There is a
enzymes catalyse reactions by randomly
temperature range at which the rate of
colliding with substrate molecules,
enzyme’s action is maximum. This is
increasing temperature will increase the
called an optimum temperature. Below
rate of reaction, leading to more products.
this temperature, enzymes are less active.
However, increasing temperature also
TY
Contrary, above the optimum temperature,
PE Y
increases the vibration energy that

O NL
enzymes are denatured. All enzymes work

R
molecules have; specifically in case

within a range of temperature specific to
PR O
of enzyme molecules which put strain

the organism. In human, the optimum
T SE
on the bonds that hold them together.

temperature for many enzymes lies around
EN U
As temperature increases, more bonds,

40 °C and denaturation occurs at about 60 °C
M E
especially the weaker hydrogen and ionic

(Figure 1.46). However, enzymes of some
R LIN
bonds, will break because of this strain.

other organisms have different optimum
Breaking of bonds within the enzyme will
VE N
temperatures. For example thermophilic

O O
cause the active site to change in shape.

bacteria such as Thermus aquaticus have
G R
This change in shape means that the active

optimum enzymatic temperature ranges
FO
site is less complementary to the shape of

from 51 °C to 80 °C and in Archaea the
the substrate; therefore, it is less likely
optimum enzymic temperature ranges from
to catalyse the reaction. The change in
41 °C to 122 °C.
shape prevents the enzyme and substrate

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Optimum temperature is usually

around 40 °C
Enzymes
denature at high
temperatures so
Rate of reaction
rate falls rapidly
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature °C
Figure 1.46 Effect of temperature on the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction
The effect of temperature on the rate of solutions have pH values below 7, and
reaction can be expressed as temperature basic solutions (alkalis) have pH values
coefficient, Q10. According to the Q10 rule, above 7 while the pH of 7 is termed as
the rate of a physiological process or ‘neutral’. Hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl
reaction doubles for every 10 °C rise in (OH-) ions are charged, therefore, they
temperature, if the temperature is within interfere with hydrogen and ionic bonds
the range that can be tolerated by a living that hold together an enzyme, since they
system. A mathematical expression is will be attracted or repelled by the charges
TY
PE Y
presented below: created by the bonds. This interference

O NL
causes a change in shape of the enzyme

R
Q10= rate of reaction at (X+10) °C and, consequently, its active site. Most
PR O
rate of reaction at X °C
enzymes are sensitive to pH and have
T SE
Where: X is the initial temperature specific ranges of activity. Different

enzymes have different optimum pH
EN U
Thus, within the range of 0 - 40 °C, Q10 of values; hence, the bonds within them are
M E
an enzyme controlled reaction is 2.

R LIN
influenced by H+ and OH- ions at different

This means that the rate of the enzyme’s pH value. Thus, the shape of their active
VE N
site is most complementary to the shape

action doubles for every 10 °C rise in
O O
of their substrate.
temperature.
G R
FO
d) pH At optimum pH, the rate of reaction is

The pH scale measures the acidity and maximum. Any change in pH, above
basicity of a solution. pH is a measure or below the optimum, will quickly
of hydrogen ion (H+) concentration. cause a decrease in the rate of reaction,
It is therefore a good indicator of the since more enzyme molecules will have
hydroxy ion (OH-) concentration. Its active sites whose shapes are not less
values ranges from 1 to 14. Lower pH complementary to the shape of their
values implies higher H+ concentration substrates (Figure 1.47). Slight changes
and lower OH- concentration. Acidic in pH above or below the optimum
do not cause a permanent change to
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the enzyme, since the bonds can be protein groups that are associated with the
reformed. However, extreme changes in enzyme are known as prosthetic groups.
pH can cause enzymes to be denatured Only apoenzyme and cofactor together are
and permanently lose their functions. active as a catalyst. The cofactor is either
Enzymes in different locations have inorganic ions, usually metal ions such
different optimum pH values, since their as Fe2+, Mg2+, Cu2+, Cl- or small organic
environmental conditions may differ. molecules such as haem, biotin, Flavine
For example, the enzyme “pepsin” adenine dinucleotide (FAD), Nicotineamide
functions best at pH value of around adenine dinucleotide (NAD). They may
2 and is found in the stomach which also be vitamins called coenzymes. Some
contains hydrochloric acid. “Carbonic enzymes need both, a metal ions and a
anhydrase” which is a key enzyme in all coenzyme to become active.
living organisms works best at pH value
of around 7, and “chymotrypsin” which Metal ion and/or coenzyme
is found in small intestine works best at pH
value of around 9.
Apoenzyme + Cofactor = Active enzyme
activity
(%)
100
Enzymes inhibitors
There are many molecules that can interfere
Pepsin Carbonic Chymotrypsin with enzymes activity either by reducing or
anhydrase
TY destroying their actions. These molecules
are called enzyme inhibitors. There are
PE Y
O NL
two main groups of inhibitors: competitive

R
and non-competitive inhibitors. In either

PR O
0
0 7 pH type, inhibitors are either reversible or
T SE
irreversible. Reversible inhibitors generally

EN U
Figure 1.47 The effect of pH on the rate of an bind to an enzyme with weak bonds, such
M E
enzyme-controlled reaction as hydrogen bonds, which are easily

R LIN
broken. The effect of these inhibitors to

VE N
Enzyme cofactors the enzyme is temporary, such that, when

O O
Many enzyme-catalysed reactions require they are detached, the enzyme regains its
G R
more than just an enzyme and its substrate. normal functioning. Contrary, irreversible
FO
Some enzymes require a particular inhibitors are strongly bonded to the

ion or even a small molecule known as enzyme in such a way that an enzyme and
cofactor. Cofactors are small, non-protein
the inhibitor cannot be separated without
components of enzymes that are needed for
their efficient activity. These substances are damaging the enzyme.
stable at high temperatures and vary from
simple inorganic ions to complex organic Competitive inhibitors resemble substrates,
compounds. In such enzymes, the protein therefore, they compete with the substrates
part is called an apoenzyme and the non- for the active site of an enzyme molecule

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(Figure 1.48a). When the inhibitor remains they neither compete for nor attach to
fixed to the active site, the enzyme is the active site of the enzyme. They fix
prevented from working normally, as the themselves elsewhere on the enzyme
substrate cannot move into the active molecule. In so doing, they completely
site. The substrate is then prevented alter the shape of the enzyme molecule
from binding to the same active site and in such a way that the active site cannot
therefore, decreases the enzyme affinity to accommodate the substrate. Since the
other substrates. The effects of competitive
inhibitor does not compete with the
inhibitors decrease with increased
substrates for the active site of the enzyme,
concentration of substrates. A good example
an increase in substrate concentration does
of the competitive inhibitors is malonic
acid, which competes with succinic acid not reduce the effect of the non competitive
for the active site of a respiratory enzyme,inhibitor. An example of non-competitive
succinic dehydrogenase. inhibitor is cyanide, which attaches itself
to copper prosthetic group of cytochrome
Non-competitive inhibitors are substances oxidases, thereby inhibiting respiration
that do not resemble substrates. Therefore, process (Figure 1. 48b).
Inhibitor Active site Substrate
Substrate
TY Enzyme
Enzyme
PE Y
Inhibitor
O NL
R
PR O
Substrate
Conformation
T SE
Inhibitor blocks change of active site

active site
EN U
M E
R LIN
(a) (b)
VE N
O O
Figure 1.48 Inhibitors (a) competitive (b) non-competitive

N
G R
FO
Enzyme regulation in which metabolic pathways in the cells

Regulation of enzymatic activity is an are regulated involve allosteric enzymes
important biological activity in controlling which are designed to change the shape
different metabolic processes. Enzymes and are regulated by the compounds
are important for regulation of different which act as non-competitive inhibitors.
metabolic activities, such as biochemical The regulation of these enzymatic
pathways, homeostasis, gastro intestinal activities includes; end-product inhibition,
digestion and growth. The common way zymogens and genetic control.
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End-product inhibition control. If a given they are synthesized, so that they cannot
physiological process involves several steps attack the pancreas.
and various intermediates, the end product
of the pathway may inhibit the enzyme at Genetic control. This is the regulation of
the start (Figure 1.49). In this example, the enzymatic activity by control of the synthesis
product “Y” acts as an inhibitor to enzyme of the enzyme. The synthesis of enzymes is
“a” (ea). If the level of product Y falls, the regulated by genes. Genes carry the code for
inhibition is reduced. If the level of Y rises making enzymes. These mechanisms, which
above normal, inhibition of “ea” increases; are controlled by hormones can accelerate
therefore, the level of Y is reduced. In this or decelerate enzyme synthesis. The genetic
way, homeostatic control of Y is achieved. control strategy is particularly useful for
This mechanism is termed as negative enzymes which are needed only at certain
feedback, because the information from stages of development. Depending on the
the end of the pathway which is feedback genetics and other environmental factors,
to the start has a negative effect; that is the the body can produce many enzymes during
high concentration of Y reduces its own a lifetime. As body ageing commences, the
production rate. The enzymes that are body tries to automatically conserve its
inhibited in this way are called allosteric decreasing resources and produces fewer
enzymes. These enzymes can have more enzymes of all types. When this lifetime
than one shape. One shape renders the enzyme potential is reached, the body can
enzyme active (by allosteric activator), no longer sustain life. Death occurs because
another renders it inactive (by allosteric nothing takes place in the body without
TY
PE Y
inhibitor). enzymes. Enzymes constitute the ‘`life

O NL
R
force” which powers the whole system in

PR O
Inhibition (negative feedback)

the organism’s life expectance.
T SE
Intermediate compounds
Properties of enzymes
EN U
(Substrate) U ae
V eb
W ed
X ed
Y (Product)
They are proteins (globular proteins) in
M E
nature and biocatalysts, as they lower

R LIN
Figure 1.49 End product inhibition of enzyme the activation energy of the reaction they
VE N
catalyse. They are never used up, never

O O
Zymogens (proenzymes) control. Some affected by the reaction they catalyse,

G R
enzymes are synthesized in inactive forms meaning that it remains unchanged at the
FO
that differ in composition from the active end of reaction. Since they are proteins,
forms. Activation of such enzymes, known enzymes are coded for by DNA. They
as zymogens or proenzymes, requires have active sites where the substrates are
a chemical reaction that either adds or accommodated; and the sites have specific
splits off part of the molecule. Some shapes which make them to be specific to
enzymes that digest proteins, examples: not only the substrates they act upon, but
trypsinogen, chemotrypsinogen, and also the reactions they catalyse. They are
proelastase are produced in the pancreas. sensitive to temperature and pH changes,
These enzymes must be inactive when and they can also be affected by enzyme
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and substrate concentration. They are very carbondioxide and water to form carbonic
efficient, thus, they are needed in a very acid in tissues where the concentration of
small amount; this means that a small carbon dioxide is high. In the lungs, where
amount of enzymes acts on large quantities the concentration of carbon dioxide is low,
of substrates. Enzymes work reversibly; the same carbonic anhydrase, catalyses the
meaning that they catalyse reversible dissociation of carbonic acid into carbon
reactions. For example, an enzyme carbonic dioxide and water.
anhydrase catalyses the combination of
Classification of enzymes
In 1964, the International Union of Biochemistry (IUB) introduced a system of classifying
enzymes based on the type of reactions they catalyse. This system recognised six major
functional classes of enzymes.
a) Oxidoreductases which catalyse redox reactions (biological oxidation and

reduction reactions) by the transfer of hydrogen, oxygen, or electrons from one
molecule to another. Example;
dehydrogenase
Ethanal + NADH + H+ Ethanol + NAD+
Hydrogen is simultaneously lost from NADH and gained by ethanal. NADH is
oxidised to NAD+ and ethanal is reduced to ethanol.
b) Transferases which catalyse the transfer of a group from one compound to another.
TY
Example;
PE Y
O NL
R
Glutamic asid + Pyruvic aminotransferase α-ketoglutaric acid + alanine

PR O
T SE
The R-group on the amino acid, glutamic acid, is exchanged with the R-group on a
keto acid, pyruvic acid. A new amino acid, alanine is formed along with a new keto
EN U
acid, α-ketoglutaric acid.

M E
R LIN
c) Hydrolases which catalyse the splitting of a large substrate molecule into two
smaller products in the presence of water (hydrolysis process).
VE N
Example;
O O
Lactose + Water Lactase Glucose + Galactose

G R
FO
The disaccharide, lactose, is broken down into two monosaccharide residues by

the lactase enzyme in the presence of water. All digestive enzymes fall under this
category.
d) Lyases which catalyse the removal of a chemical group by the process other than
hydrolysis.
Example;
Pyruvic acid decarboxylase Ethanal + Carbon dioxide
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Pyruvic acid is converted into ethanal and carbon dioxide by breakage of its
double bond.
e) Isomerases which catalyse rearrangement within a molecule, converting one
isomer to another. For example, glucose-1-phosphate is converted into glucose-
6-phosphate in the presence of the phospho-hexo-isomerase enzyme. The position
of the phosphate group in the glucose-1-phosphate molecule is changed to form the
isomer glucose-6-phosphate.
CH2OH CH2OPO32-
H O H H O H
Phospho-hexo-isomerase
H H
OH H OH H
HO O
OPOPO2-32- HO OH
3
H OH H OH
Glucose - 1 - phosphate Glucose - 6 - phosphate
f) Ligases which catalyse the joining of two molecules by forming a new chemical
bond, and it requires energy from the breaking down of ATP. An example of such
enzymes is amino acyl-tRNA systhetase which catalyses the formation of amino
acid-tRNA complex during protein synthesis.
1.4.5 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Exercise 1.14
TY
ATP is a nucleoside triphosphate used in
PE Y
O NL
cells, often called the “molecular unit of

R
1. Describe the factors governing currency” of intracellular energy transfer.

PR O
enzyme activity. It belongs to a category of high energy

T SE
2. Explain how the lock and key compounds that release energy when
EN U
hypothesis illustrates specificity of the bond between the second and third
M E
enzymes. phosphate is broken. The presence of

R LIN
3. Classify enzymes on the basis of these high energy bonds makes it possible
VE N
reactions they catalyse. for ATP to store and release energy for
O O
cellular reactions.
4. Explain why substrate concentration
G R
has no effect on non-competitive

FO
inhibition. Chemical composition

ATP consists of adenosine (composed of
5. Explain why at temperatures an adenine ring and a five carbon sugar,
above 40 °C, mammalian enzymes
ribose sugar) and three phosphate groups
do not function efficiently?
(triphosphate) (Figure 1.50). ATP is
highly soluble in water and is quite stable
in solutions with pH ranging between 6.8
and 7.4, but easily hydrolysed at extreme

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pH. Therefore, ATP is best stored as anis synthesised during light dependent
phase of photosynthesis. In this case,
anhydrous salt. It is also considered as
when light of appropriate wavelength
the energy currency of the cell and life,
strikes on the chlorophyll, its electrons
because all cells need this energy molecule
get excited, as they gain excess
in order to perform their functions in the
human body. energy. In this state, they are boosted
to high energy levels. As the electrons
Formation of ATP move downhill back to ground state,
One molecule of ATP contains three they lose the gained excess energy,
phosphate groups, and is produced by a which is used to combine ADP and
wide variety of enzymes, including ATP Pi to form ATP. This process is called
synthase, from adenosine diphosphate photophosphorylation (refer section
(ADP) or adenosine monophosphate 5.2).
(AMP) and various phosphate group b) Respiratory phosphorylation, which
donors. is the cellular process involving two
stages. The first stage is substrate
level phosphorylation in which ATP
is synthesised in the cytoplasm, by
Adenine glycolytic pathway. The second stage
is oxidative phosphorylation, which
occurs in the electron transport system
Phosphate groups in the inner mitochondrial membranes.
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
Roles of ATP
PR O
Ribose ATP provides energy for the following:

T SE
a) Synthesis of macromolecules, such as

Figure 1.50 The chemical structure of
polysaccharides from monosaccharides,
EN U
adenosine triphosphate
proteins from amino acids and DNA
M E
replication.
R LIN
Synthesis of ATP b) Active transport across the plasma

ATP is synthesised when an inorganic
VE N
membranes in the cell, example:

O O
phosphate, Pi, is energetically bonded to sodium-potassium pump.

adenosine diphosphate, ADP. The amount
G R
c) Cellular movements, such as cilia

FO
of energy required in this process is

30.6kJ. action in trachea and fallopian tubes,
spindle fibers during cell division and
Condensation
muscle contraction.
30.6 kJ + ADP + Pi ATP + H2O
d) Production of useful secretions by
vesicles.
The processes that yield ATP, therefore, e) Activation of important molecules,
involve phosphorylation. They are of two such as glucose, which is activated into
types: glucose-6-phosphate during respiration.
a) Photosynthetic phosphorylation, ATP
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relatively large amount of heat energy to

Exercise 1.15 freeze. Thus, this property is important in
maintaining natural states of cell contents.
1. What is ATP?
Water has a density of 1000 kgm-3 or 1 gcm-3 at
2. Briefly explain the process of standard temperature and pressure. However,
ATP formation. the density decreases with a decrease in
3. What is the importance of ATP in temperature. Thus, frozen water (ice) floats
our daily life? on liquid water. Water has a high surface
tension and cohesive force. Cohesive force
is the force by which individual molecules
1.5 Water as a constituent of the cell stick together.
Water is the most abundant molecule in
a cell, constituting about 80% of total Water being liquid at room temperature,
volume of cell. The liquid part of the cell provides a liquid environment inside the
is called cytosol. Generally, without water, cells. Example glycolysis and synthesis of
life would not exist on this planet as water proteins that take place in the cytoplasm.
supports metabolic reactions. Additionally, water has a high latent
heat of vaporisation. This means that
Properties of water water needs a lot of energy to evaporate
Water is an excellent solvent for polar hence, helps in cooling the body through
compounds such as ionic substances, like sweating.
salts, and non-ionic substances like sugars.
TY
PE Y
It has a high heat of vaporization due to Roles of water

O NL
R
hydrogen bonds which hold molecules The roles of water in living organisms can
PR O
together. Latent heat of vaporization means be categorized as follows:

T SE
a measure of the heat energy required to The metabolic role of water

overcome the attractive forces between
EN U
a) It is used for hydrolysis of many

molecules and make them to escape in
M E
substances, such as proteins into

R LIN
form of a gas (vaporize). This property is amino acids, fats into fatty acids and
significant in minimizing water loss from glycerol. In the hydrolytic processes,
VE N
the body and cooling it. water is brought in by enzymes or

O O
hydrolytic reagents such as mineral

G R
Water has high heat capacity which is the acids.

FO
heat required to raise the temperature of b) It is the medium for all cellular
1 kilogram of water by 10C. By having metabolic processes, for instance,
high heat capacity means that, increase in water is an important raw material for
heat energy can lead to relatively small photosynthesis.
rise in temperature. Also water has a high
c) It facilitates diffusion of materials
heat of fusion. It requires a relatively large
across surfaces; for example, for
amount of energy to melt its solid state (the
passage of food solutions into blood
ice). Conversely, liquid water must lose a
stream across the walls of the ileum.
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Water as solvent c) Water found in humours of the eye

Water is a universal solvent; it readily helps to maintain the eye’s shape.
dissolves other substances, hence it is d) The mammalian foetus is supported
used for the following purposes: and protected by an amniotic fluid,
a) For transportation of various which is largely water.
substances from one part of the body e) Water provides support (habitat) to
to another. These are carried by blood aquatic organisms such as fish.
and other fluids in solution.
b) For removal of metabolic wastes, such
Other functions
as nitrogenous waste products. These
Other functions of water include the
excretory wastes are removed from the
following:
body in the form of solution in water.
a) It controls body temperature in
mammals. Evaporation of sweat from
Water as a lubricant
the body surface has the cooling effect.
Due to its viscosity property, water takes
part in lubricating body parts which b) It is an agent for dispersal of seeds,
slide past each other. It makes various larvae, and male gametes of animals
lubricating fluids in the body; example: and lower plants such as Bryophytes.
mucus, which aids movements in animals c) In mammals, fluids in the inner ear are
such as snails. It also lubricates internal important for hearing and balance.
parts, such as gut walls in animals, TY
the synovial fluid (which lubricates
PE Y
O NL
movements in joints of vertebrates) and Exercise 1.16

R
pleural fluid (which lubricates movements

PR O
of lungs during breathing). 1. Explain the role of water in plants

T SE
and animals.
EN U
Supporting role of water

The supporting role of water is made clear 2. Water is said to be the universal
M E
solvent. Substantiate.
R LIN
in the following examples:

a) In animals such as annelids and 3. Explain the properties of water.
VE N
O O
nematodes, water exerts a hydrostatic

G R
pressure which helps to support and

FO
maintain their structure. This is known

as the hydrostatic skeleton.
b) Osmotic influx of water into plant
cells generates turgor pressure which
supports herbaceous (non-woody)
plants. The turgor pressure also
supports primary growth in woody
plants.
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Revision questions 6. Describe the difference in molecular

structure between cellulose and
1. Why is a mitochondrion said to be starch.
a cell within a cell? 7. Name the bond(s) formed between
2. Explain the prokaryotic nature of neighbouring glucose molecules in
the mitochondrion and chloroplast. starch and cellulose.
3. Chloroplast, mitochondria, and 8. Explain why amylase, the enzyme
bacteria have features in common. that catalyses the hydrolysis
Substantiate. of starch, will not catalyse the
hydrolysis of cellulose.
4. Explain the role of the following
cell organelles: 9. Compare the lock and key
hypothesis and the induced fit
a) Lysosomes hypothesis of enzymes’ action.
b) Endoplasmic reticulum
10. Outline the uses of ATP in the
c) Ribosome metabolic activity of the cell(s).
d) Golgi apparatus
5. With the aid of diagrams,

differentiate a bacterial cell from a
TY
PE Y
plant cell.
O NL
R
PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO

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Two
Chapter
Principles of
classification
Introduction
Planet Earth contains different kinds of organisms, ranging in size from microorganisms
to macroorganisms. Due to the existing diversity of organisms, it is difficult to clearly
understand their characteristics and how they are related in evolutionary terms.
Classification helps in identification of organisms that share common characteristics
and traits. In this chapter, you will learn about the concept of classification, classification
systems, categories of classification, taxonomic ranks, nomenclature and taxonomic keys.
2.1 The concept of classification The process of grouping organisms based

TY
PE Y
The science of classification of living on their common or shared characteristics

O NL
R
organisms dates back to 384-322 BC, is called classification. For organisms to be

PR O
when the first taxonomist, Aristotle classified uniformly across the world, a set
T SE
initially classified organisms into two of principles, procedures, and rules must be
major groups, namely animals and plants. observed. The principles of classification
EN U
With advances in science and technology, were pioneered by Carolus Linnaeus and
M E
classification has constantly been dynamic

R LIN
published in the 18th century in his book

and more refined. For example, by using
“Systema Naturae”. In that publication
VE N
electron microscope and molecular

a simple way of naming organisms was
O O
techniques, taxonomists have classified

organisms into five kingdoms namely also explained. The science of classifying
G R
organisms is termed taxonomy and the

FO
Monera, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae, and

Animalia. Considering the fact that the scientist who classifies organisms is known
number of organisms occupying the earth as a taxonomist. Taxonomy involves
is large, it has been difficult for scientists placing organisms into their respective
to study each individual organism. Since groups and sub groups called taxa without
related organisms share some common considering evolution. The science of
features, scientists group related organisms placing organisms in their respective taxa
together so that they can easily study their that reflect their evolutionary history is
characteristics. called systematics.
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Importance of classification of one species is named differently in

organisms different places. Zea mays is a scientific
The importance of classification of name for maize. In America, maize is
organisms is summarised as follows: also known as corn but in Britain corn
a) It helps to reduce large number of is wheat which sounds confusing.
groups of dissimilar organisms into However, Zea mays worldwide will
small number of manageable groups only refer to different names of what
of organisms with more features in we call maize in Tanzania.
common. For example, all species of d) It helps to show evolutionary
flower producing plants are placed relationship between organisms. The
under division Angiospermophyta. classification of organisms is mostly
Similarly, all species of non flowering based on evolutionary history and
plants are placed in division relationship among them. This makes it
Coniferophyta and all spore producing easy to understand how organisms are
plant species with conductive tissues related interms of their evolutionary
are placed in division Filicinophyta. history. A Leopard (Panthera pardus)
Once plant species are grouped in this and Lion (Panthera leo) which are
way, it makes it easy to understand both classified under family Felidae
their life cycle. and genus Panthera have a lot of
b) It makes easy to classify all known features in common. These are hairs,
organisms and predict the placement mammary glands, and other various
TY
morphological features. It is therefore
PE Y
of the yet to be discovered based on

O NL
most likely that they share a common

R
already known features. For example,

ancestor.
PR O
if a new plant species with flowers

is discovered today it will be placed e) Organisms grouped in the same taxon,
T SE
under division Angiospermophyta. such as at genus level, normally have

EN U
Similarly, if it produces flowers, leaves, many common features. For example,

M E
berries and stems with stipules as all plant species under genus Coffea
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those of coffee plants; it will be placed resemble coffee plants in many aspects,
under the coffee family Rubiaceae.
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such as leaf type, leaf arrangement

O O
Furthermore, if it has more features on stems, flower type, and stipules.

G R
in common with Coffea arabica it They all differ from members of

FO
will definitely be placed under genus cotton plants, genus Gossypium on the
Coffea, making its classification same features. This kind of grouping
simple and less time consuming. therefore simplifies description of
c) Classification simplifies communication organisms because understanding of
among taxonomists worldwide. This is features of just one individual within a
because, taxonomically, an organism certain group/taxon can give an insight
is assigned only one name, unlike into all other members within the same
the use of common names in which taxon.

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Principles of classification
f) It paves a way towards understanding Linnaeus in the 1700s. This taxonomist

other disciplines, such as ecology, retained the two major groups or kingdoms
medicine and pharmacy. For example, of organisms, Animalia and Plantae.
plants of the same genus may Linnaeus introduced several taxa under
have similar ecological or growth each kingdom to accommodate groups
requirements. Ecologically, all of organisms sharing more common
plants under the bean/legume family characteristics in which resemblance among
(Leguminosae/Fabaceae) have the
organisms increased hierarchically down
ability to harbour Nitrogen fixing
the groups. He classified organisms based
bacteria. Likewise, members under the
on their shared natural features.
same genus may produce secondary
metabolites or biochemicals with
similar medicinal or pharmacological Since then, classification has been very
properties. dynamic, and has gone through five systems.
These are artificial, natural, phyletic,
phenetics and phylogenetics or cladistics.
2.2 Classification systems
Organisms can be grouped in many ways In artificial approach, only one or a few
for convenience of studying them and observable characteristics were used.
to fully appreciate their comparative Natural approach grouped together
evolutionary relatedness. Traditionally, individuals reflecting how they occur
all organisms were grouped by Aristotle in nature. This approach did not reflect
TY
as either animals or plants with just evolutionary history though it used many
PE Y
O NL
a few sub groups in each group. This characteristics. Natural approach was
R
classification had shortfalls as it did not followed by phyletic approach based on

PR O
consider the evolutionary relationship Charles Darwin’s publication; “The origin

T SE
among organisms grouped together. For of species by means of natural selection”

EN U
example, grouping into one or single and the development of modern theory
M E
group of all flying animals such as birds, of chromosomes. In phyletic system

R LIN
bats, moths and butterflies, as done by

organisms were classified from simple to
Aristotle was taxonomically misleading.
VE N
complex, reflecting evolutionary history.

This is because bats are actually mammals
O O
However, assigning of ancestral or derived

with hairs on their bodies and they differ
G R
from birds which have feathers. They status was done subjectively. Phyletic was
FO
also differ from the butterflies, which are followed by phenetic approach. Phenetics
insects. A penguin which has feathers uses many characteristics and mathematical
would be difficult to classify it with birds algorithms to group similar organisms in
into the same group as it lacks the ability same cluster and different organisms in
to fly. different clusters. As in natural system,
phenetics does not consider evolutionary
The controversy of classification was history. The most recent approach is
partly resolved by the taxonomist Carolus known as phylogenetic. This approach
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bring together organisms that share derived from spore producing medicinal plants.
characters in groups called clades. Clades Thus, the medicinal value attached to these
thus are made up of organisms that share plants cannot suffice their placement in one
the most recent ancestor. group because they have no shared natural
features. This limits the application of this
The change from one approach to the next classification system despite its significant
was influenced by advances in science and merits. Artificial system cannot group
technology leading to use of new source individuals that are evolutionary related.
of taxonomic data, methods of analysis As a result all classfication systems that
and weaknesses observed in previous does not reflect evolutionary history are
approach. Phylogenetic approach use DNA considered to be artificial.
markers and different computer software
and analysis programs. Merits of artificial system of
classification
Types of classification systems a) It is simple to identify and classify
There are two major systems of organisms since newly discovered
classification; artificial and natural system organisms with just a few known
of classification. information can be easily fitted in. It
therefore takes short time in placing an
Artificial system of classification organism into its group.
This system of classification uses a few b) It is stable; it does not change with time
easily observable characteristics to classify
TY
or discovery of new organisms given its
PE Y
organisms for easy and quick comparison or

O NL
broad nature of classification.

R
study. Examples of artificial classification

PR O
could be when grouping all animals as fauna c) It is less expensive; since it uses
few observable features to group the
T SE
and all plants as flora, or when grouping all

organisms on the basis of their body size as organism.
EN U
microorganisms and macroorganisms. Other d) This system does not require special
M E
R LIN
examples are when grouping animals as classification techniques or skilled

flying and non-flying animals, edible versus personnel.
VE N
non-edible plants, spices versus non-spices

O O
plants, predators versus prey animals, and Demerits of artificial system of

G R
medicinal versus non-medicinal plants. As classification

FO
noted from the above examples, this system a) It does not consider evolutionary
of classification neglects natural relationship or phylogenetic relationship among
existing among these groups of organisms. organisms. Closely related organisms
For instance, birds and bats are all flying under the artificial system are most
animals, but the former have feathers while likely to be placed in different groups
the latter have hairs and mammary glands. while unrelated organisms such as bats
Similarly, medicinal plants producing and birds may be grouped together
flowers, seeds, and fruits are different because both have wings. This makes

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the system somewhat misleading Merits of natural system of

because, phylogenetically, organisms classification
belonging to one group would be a) It allows organisms which are
expected to have originated from a genetically and evolutionarily related
common ancestor. to be grouped in the same taxon, the
b) It provides only a limited characteristics evolutionary relatedness increases down
or information about each member. For the hierarchy. This clearly implies that
example, organisms such as viruses, organisms grouped together at genus
bacteria and some fungi are grouped level will be more evolutionarily related
as microorganisms because they than those grouped at family level.
are microscopic. This classification b) This classification system considers
has ignored other features like their homology of all characters of organisms
modes of feeding, reproduction, which makes it easy to predict
and cell structure. Use of these information about missing links in
features necessitate grouping of these the course of evolution of organisms
microorganisms in different groups. even though there is no fossil evidence
c) It does not allow the prediction of to substantiate the link. For example,
information, hence it limits recent some taxonomists have predicted
advancements in taxonomy. that flowering plants evolved from
Pteridosperms, a seeded fern which is
d) It does not incorporate new discoveries. not existing.
New species cannot be easily added to
TY
PE Y
the existing groups. c) It allows critical thinking and

O NL
R
development of inquiry minds.

PR O
Although description based on

The natural system of classification morphological, physiological, anatomical,
T SE
The natural system of classification and embryological features of a newly

EN U
is the system of grouping organisms discovered species has to be done before

M E
based on natural features they have in a decision on its proper placement to a

R LIN
common, particularly those that reflects taxon is reached.

VE N
the evolutionary relationship. Characters d) It is accurate, since it involves plenty

O O
that show evolutionary relationship are of scientific research to gather enough

G R
shared derived ones which are many and information before the actual placement
FO
are shared aross members of one group of an organism to a particular taxon is

With advances in science and technology, decided.
the natural system of classification has
incorporated anatomical, embryological, Demerits of natural system of
serology, physiological, and molecular classification
characteristics and techniques in grouping a) It makes classification of organisms
organisms. tedious, expensive and time
consuming. It is very difficult, since it
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requires much information to place the

organisms into their respective groups. b) Observe each specimen carefully
Newly identified organisms are thus and use the provided hand lens
not easily classified. where necessary, then answer the
questions that follow.
b) It is not stable; it changes with the
increasing diversity of organisms and Questions
new discoveries based on expanding
1. Record any three observable
knowledge, science and technology. features of each specimen.
It was the discovery of the light
microscope that led to the discovery 2. Classify all the specimens into two
of kingdom Protista. Later, with major groups, citing the criteria
the invention of the scan electron used to classify them.
microscope, it made it easy to separate 3. Using the features recorded in
Archaeae and Eubacteria into different number 1 above, classify the
groups within the same kingdom collected organisms into any three
Monera. broad groups and state the criteria
used to classify them.
c) Given the wealth of information,
knowledge, techniques, and skills 4. Classify all the specimens into
required to classify organisms, natural five groups. Give reason for your
classification is limited to taxonomic classification.
TY
PE Y
experts.
O NL
5. Give any two reasons to justify

R
the placement of the species in the

PR O
above five groups.

T SE
Activity 2.1 Classification of living

organisms 6. Briefly comment on the
EN U
evolutionary relationship among

M E
the organisms placed in the same

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Materials
Earthworms, a Pinus branch, a fern group as in question 5.
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plant (Dryopteris sp. or Pteridium

O O
aquilinum), a grasshopper, a butterfly,

G R
a young maize plant, mature bean Safety precautions

FO
plant, a mouse, grass (Panicum sp. or Necessary precautions should be

Hyparrhenia sp.), a housefly, tilapia, a observed when collecting specimens
hand lens, a note book, pen, and pencil. from the school surroundings and
nearby environment since there might
Procedure be dangerous organisms like snakes,
a) Collect the above mentioned bees, thorn plants, and allergens.
specimens.

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2.3 Taxonomic ranks Kingdom: Animalia

The classification system by Carolus
Linnaeus in 1700s introduced a systematic Phylum: Chordata
way of grouping organisms stepwise, from Class: Mammalia
a very broad group of organisms called
Kingdom to narrow level of individual Order: Primates
organism called species. Linnaeus, Family: Hominidae
recognizing the natural variations
existing among organisms divided them Genus: Homo
into five broad groups. He arranged Species: Homo sapiens
them hierarchically from the broadest to
the smallest in terms of the number of Figure 2.1 Classfication of human being
organisms in each. Originally, these groups
were Kingdom, Class, Order, Genus Organisms placed under the same taxon
(singular) Genera (plural), and Species. have features unique to that group; thus,
However, later on, two more groups were they can be used to describe the entire group.
introduced. The first introduced group For example, members of same species have
was called Family, which was created the largest number of characters that are
by Michael Adanson in 1763, and it was more similar and often reproduce fertile
allocated between order and genus. The offspring. Lions fall in the species Panthera
leo, leopard in Panthera pardus, and tiger
TY
second group termed Division or Phylum
PE Y
Panthera tigris. Thus lion, leopard and

O NL
(singular) phyla (plural) was introduced

R
by Ernest Haeckel in 1866 and it was tiger are different species in the same
PR O
assigned between kingdom and class, genus Panthera. The genus comprises of
T SE
relatively more closely related organisms

making seven hierarchical groups namely
with similar morphology, structure,
EN U
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family,

reproductive organs and most importantly,
M E
Genus, and Species (Figure 2.1), which

R LIN
evolutionary history compared to those

are still being used by taxonomists today. at the higher ranks. However, they can
VE N
Phylum is used in animal classification not interbred to produce fertile offspring.

O O
and Division in plant classification. The Members of different related genera fall in
G R
system in which organisms are classified one family, families is one order and related
FO
hierarchically from kingdom to species orders into one class. Related classes are
level is called a taxonomic hierarchy or placed in one phylum/division and related
taxonomic ranking. Any named group phyla in a kingdom. Kingdom Plantae,
or rank within the hierarchy such as for example, contains four divisions,
kingdom or phylum is referred to as taxon namely Angiospermophyta (Angiosperm),
(singular) taxa (plural). A taxonomic rank Coniferophyta (Gymnosperm), Pteridophyta
is therefore a level at which an organism or Filicinophyta (Ferns and their relatives),
is placed within the hierarchy. and Bryophyta (Moss).
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Kingdom Animalia is made up of Polifera, Exercises 2.1

Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda and
its relatives (the round worms), Annelida, 1. Differentiate between artificial and
Arthropoda, Molusca, Echnodermata, natural systems of classification.
Chordata and several other smaller phyla.
2. Explain the concept of “ranks” as
Organisms at the rank of kingdom have a
used in classification.
few features in common compared to the
organisms at lower ranks. This book will 3. Explain what would be the problem
focus on five selected phyla of Kingdom if organisms were not grouped into
Animalia, namely, Platyhelminthes, ranks.
Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, and
Chordata.
2.4 Nomenclature
Importance of taxonomic hierarchy in The process of assigning scientific names
classification to organisms is called nomenclature. The
a) It provides a standard method to be biological nomenclature uses two names
followed by taxonomists in assigning that is the generic name representing the
new scientific names to a newly name of the genus and specific name
representing the species name. The Swedish
discovered species. This makes it easy
taxonomist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-
to classify or group organisms.
1778) is acknowledged for using binomial
b) It provides a classification system system consistenty. The word binomial
TY
of living organisms which expresses is a combination of two Greek words bi-
PE Y
O NL
nomina which literally means ‘two-names.’

R
natural or evolutionary relationship

Binomial nomenclature follows a set of
PR O
among the members of the same group

and between various organisms. agreed rules and principles.
T SE
c) It provides smooth communication

EN U
2.4.1 Rules used in binomial

among the taxonomists, while avoiding
M E
nomenclature
R LIN
confusion and repetition of species Binomial nomenclature is governed by

names. nomenclatural codes, which provide
VE N
details of rules necessary in giving

O O
d) It simplifies access to information on

scientific names for various broad groups
G R
various organisms across the taxa. of organisms, such as animals, plants,

FO
fungi algae, bacteria, and virus. For

example, the code of nomenclature for
wild plants is called the International Code
of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) while
for animals is called the International Code
of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The
rules used in binomial nomenclature are
as follows:

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a) The name of an organism should come h) If the binomial name is cited more
from its generic and specific name. than once in a paper or report, the
For example human being belongs genus name can be abbreviated the
to genus Homo and species sapiens; second time it is written in the same
hence, its scientific name should be document. In this case, the first letter
Homo sapiens. Sweet potato belongs of the genus is written in a capital
to genus Ipomoea and species batatas; letter and separated from species
its scientific name should therefore be name by a dot. For instance, Panthera
Ipomoea batatas. lupus can be written as P. lupus or the
b) The full scientific name should bacteria Escherichia coli as E. coli.
include name of the author; the The abbreviation “spp.” is used to
person who was the first to publish represent several species. In this case,
the name effectively. For example, the genus, but not the abbreviation, is
italicized or underlined. For instance,
Rana temporaria L, where L stands
Hyparrhenia spp. implies several
for Linnaeus means Linnaeus was the species of the genus Hyparrhenia such
person who effectively published this as Hyparrhenia rufa, Hyparrhenia
name. collina, and Hyparrhenia variabilis.
c) A specific epithet may be taken from On the other hand, if the actual
any source and may even be composed specific name cannot be ascertained
arbitrarily. or specified, an abbreviation “sp”
followed by a dot is placed after the
d) An organism can bear only one correct generic name, but it is not italicised
scientific name, which is the earliest while the generic name is italicised or
TY
PE Y
effectively assigned to it, if several underlined, for example, Hyparrhenia

O NL
names had been given to it earlier. sp.

R
PR O
e) The first name of the binomial, that is

T SE
the generic name, always begins with Activity 2.2 Binomial nomenclature
a capital letter and the entire species
EN U
name is written in small letters as in Materials

M E
Pennisetum mezianum. Solanum incanum (thorn apple or

R LIN
bitter ball or bitter apple), Solanum

f) All binomial names should be written nigrum (black nightshade or Hound’s
VE N
in the Latin language. If the name is berry), Solanum tuberosum (irish

O O
hand written, it should be underlined potato plant).

G R
separately or italised in case of a print

FO
form. For instance, the scientific name Procedure

of a leopard can be written as Panthera a) Collect the following specimens
pardus when hand written or Panthera from the school surroundings or
pardus when printed. nearby environment: Solanum
g) Any scientific name is not legitimate, incanum, Solanum nigrum, and
unless it is accompanied by a suitable Solanum tuberosum.
description and a diagnosis which b) Name the genus in which the three
reflects only the unique characteristics
collected species belong.
of the species.
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c) Using a magnifying glass where curcas seeds and jatropha curcas

necessary, observe each of stem cuttings.
the collected plant specimens
and state any three natural a) Write correctly the names of
morphological features justifying the species to be ordered before
the placement in their respective submitting to TTSA.
genus. b) Using your knowledge on the
rules of binomial nomenclature
Questions
explain the violated rules in the
1. Which two features would you use
above names.
to justify the placement of each of
the three plants to their species? c) Provide a comprehensive list of
the species names to be submitted
2. What two characteristics
to TTSA.
differentiate the three species
from each other. 2. What do you understand by the
following terms:
2.4.2 Significance of scientific names a) Nomenclature
The use of scientific names is very b) Binomial nomenclature.
important for the following reasons:
3. Citing examples of species
a) They simplify communication
worldwide. This is because only one TY from your local environment,
valid name is used for each living outline the rules used in binomial
PE Y
nomenclature.
O NL
organism.
R
4. Explain the significance of

PR O
b) The system provides uniformity

in naming organisms worldwide. scientific naming of organisms.
T SE
This helps to avoid confusion and

EN U
ambiguity.
2.5 Taxonomic keys
M E
c) Scientific names are not influenced by There are several ways of identifying an
R LIN
language barrier or region as common unidentified organism. Identification is

VE N
names. naming an organism based on existing

O O
classfication. The easiest way is by

Exercise 2.2
G R
consulting and directly asking an expert such

FO
1. Assume that you are a taxonomist as a taxonomist with profound knowledge

and you want to order some plant and experience in identification. Also, by
species from Tanzania Tree Seeds comparing the unidentified organism with
Agency (TTSA) for the home authentically identified specimen stored
garden; the species to be ordered in museums for animals or herbaria for
are Lantana camara, Hibiscus sp. plant specimens. The other way is to use
with red flowers, any five panicum a local field guide in which pictures and/
species, delonix Regia, jatropha or drawings of organisms coupled with

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explanations are available for comparison. b) Each of the collected specimens is

Moreover, taxonomic keys may be used for carefully examined, and its easily
identification of unidentified organisms. observable features are identified and
recorded in a notebook.
Taxonomic keys are tools or devices used
c) A table listing the specimens in one
by taxonomists for a quick identification
column and characters to be studied
of organisms. The identification is based
in the other is created.
on permanent contrasting phenotypic
features. Phenotypic features, also known d) From the table, study the recorded
as morphological features, include features specimen features carefully and
such as hairs, stipules, shape, number of determine a general pair of exclusion
appendages, and segments. In order to character which can be used to
identify an organism using taxonomic divide the entire group of collected
keys, all readily observable features of specimens into two.
the unknown organisms are recorded first.
e) Subdivide each of the obtained
These are later matched with diagnostic
groups into two more groups using
features of a named taxon. shared or common features.
The diagnostic features are characteristics f) The second group is subdivided
unique to a particular taxon or rank. They further into two other smaller groups
differ from those of an organism belonging based on their common features.
to a different taxa. Diagnostic features TYg) The smaller groups are continuously
therefore depict natural phylogenetic or subdivided into two groups using
PE Y
evolutionary relationship, and they are contrasting pairs of statements or

O NL
R
reflective of features used in both artificial couplets until all of the specimens are
PR O
and natural systems of classification. identified.

T SE
h) If the constructed key is numbered,

Taxonomic keys enable organisms to be
EN U
allocate the number of couplet to be

identified into their appropriate taxon and considered next after each step to the
M E
it increases familiarity of taxonomist with

R LIN
last step in which the specimen is

the identified organisms; since it involves identified.
VE N
careful investigation of the presence

i) Write down the couplets in a special
O O
or absence of particular structures and

pattern to get a desired framework for
G R
manifestation of present characteristics. a particular key.

FO
Procedures for construction of

taxonomic keys Types of taxonomic keys
a) The organisms to be identified There are various types of diagnostic keys
are collected and displayed for a used in taxonomy. The most common
thorough observation of identifiable and simple key used for identification of
features. The collected organisms, organisms is called dichotomous key. This
such as, animals and plants are called type of key was pioneered by a French
specimens. taxonomist, Jean Baptiste Lamark in
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1778. Dichotomous is a Greek word which could be leaf shape, stem texture such as
literally means ‘divided into 2 branches’ or woody or herbaceous and flower-colour.
‘cut in half.’ This kind of key is constructed In constructing dichotomous keys, features
using two statements with contrasting used in describing organisms must be
features and mutually exclusive choices at permanent but not temporal or transitional
a branching point. The pair of statements is features, such as those emanating from
called leads or couplet, and they provide two seasonal variations or growth of an organism
alternatives at each branching, each leading
based on how couplets are organised in
to a subsequent statement until an organism
directing the user from one choice to the
is identified. As one moves down the key,
next. Two types of dichotomous keys are
a large group of organisms with diverse
recognised. These are indented key and
features is reduced to a smaller group and
bracketed or simple numbered key.
finally to an individual organism or taxon.
Indented dichotomous key
The couplets can be organised using
In indented dichotomous key pairs of
numbers as in numeric keys or letters. It is contrasting statements are successively
worth noting that the characteristics used indented, with equal distance from the left.
in dichotomous keys may be quantitative or Each statement (or lead) starts with the same
qualitative. The former can be examplified character being described, and they both
by features such as number of petals, leaf begin with the same noun, such as leaves,
size, and petiole size, while the latter TY corolla, and petiole.
PE Y
O NL
R
Example: Indented dichotomous key for five plant species

PR O
T SE
1a. Flowers present

EN U
2a. Leaves small Abelia grandiflora

M E
R LIN
2b. Leaves large

3a. Flowers red, petals free Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
VE N
O O
3b. Flowers red, petals connate into tube Delonix regia

G R
FO
1b. Flowers absent

4a. Tree with needle-like leaves Pinus sylvestris
4b. Shrub with leafy fronds Dryopteris filix-mas

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Bracketed dichotomous keys with a pair of lead for identification of

In bracketed dichotomous keys, sets of unidentified organism or taxon and is
couplets are kept together (bracketed), directed by numbers to a subsequent
and they start at the same level near the lead, if the selected lead does not provide
margin. The couplets must be assigned the answer.
numbers or letters. The user is provided
Example 1: Bracketed dichotomous keys for five plant species

1a. Flowers present................................................... 2
1b. Flowers absent.................................................... 3
2a. Leaves small........................................................ Abelia grandiflora
2b. Leaves large........................................................ 4
3a. Tree with needle-like leaves................................ Pinus sylvestris
3b. Shrub with leafy fronds....................................... Dryopteris filix-mas
4a. Flowers red, petals free....................................... Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
4b. Flowers red, petals connate into tube.................. Delonix regia
Example 2: Bracketed dichotomous keys for seven animal species (Figure 2.2)
TY
PE Y
O NL
1a. Organism has a backbone……………………….2

R
PR O
1b. Organism does not have a backbone……………3

T SE
2a. Organism has wings…………………………….4

EN U
2b. Organism does not have wings………………….5

M E
3a. Organism has antennae ……………………….. Grasshopper

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3b. Organism does not have antennae………………Spider

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4a. Organism has feathers…………………………..Bird

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4b. Organism has hair……………………………….Bat

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5a. Organism has legs………………………………6

5b. Organism does not have legs……………………Snake
6a. Organism has a shell…………………………….Turtle
6b. Organism does not have a shell………………….Frog
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(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f) (g)
Figure 2.2 Animals (a) grasshopper, b) frog (c) turtle (d) spider (e) bird (f) bat, and (g) snake
Revision questions 8. Why is scientific naming of

organisms important?
1. What is biological classification?
9. Citing one example for each,
2. Explain any four drawbacks of TY outline rules governing binomial
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artificial system of classification. nomenclature.

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3. Elucidate the advantages of natural 10. You are provided with fresh specimen
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system of classification. of (a) Phaseolus vulgaris (bean), (b)

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4. With examples, briefly explain why Solanum tuberosum (irish potato),

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it is important to classify organisms. (c) Solanum incanum (bitter ball),

(d) Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)
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5. Explain the significance of taxonomic and (e) Solanum aethiopicum (bitter

hierarchy in classification. tomato) with flowers (Figure 2.3).
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6. Explain with examples, scientific i) Examine characteristics of each

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and technological advantages plant species such as the stem

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paralleled with the taxonomic shift texture, leaf blade size, leaf
from artificial to natural system of blade margin, flower colour, size
classification. of calyx, and size of corolla.
7. Explain the challenges of assigning ii) Construct bracketed and

scientific name to a newly indented keys for identification
of the provided specimens.
discovered organisms.

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(a) (b)
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(c) (d)
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N
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(e)
Figure 2.3 Specimens for question number 10
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Chapter
Three
Comparative studies of natural groups of
organisms
Introduction
In comparative studies of natural groups, organisms are classified on the basis of

their shared characteristics and common ancestry. The grouping is done in relation to
physiology, embryonic development, and phylogenetic relationship. In this chapter, you
will learn the six groups of organisms, namely Viruses, Monera, Protoctista, Fungi,
Plantae, and Animalia.
3.1 General overview of classification In 1866, the third kingdom of unicellular

The natural groups of organisms are the organisms, Protista was put forward by
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broad categories of organisms formed Ernest Haeckel after its long placement
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by placing together organisms which under kingdom Animalia since it was first
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are naturally or evolutionarily related discovered by Antoine van Leeuwenhoek

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for comparative purposes. This enables in 1674. The discovery of the scanning
taxonomists across the world to compare electron microscope facilitated microscopic
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for various reasons how individual groups studies, and it made it possible to discern
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of organisms are related. The number of Eukaryotes (organisms with distinct

natural groups of organisms, for example nucleus) from Prokaryotes (organisms
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at kingdom level has been steadily lacking a clearly defined nucleus but have
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increasing since the 18th century, when their DNA lying free in the cytoplasm).
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Carolus Linnaeus introduced the natural This led to the establishment of kingdom
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classification system from which kingdom Monera, in which all types of bacteria were
Animalia (multicellular heterotrophs) and grouped. The placement of multicellular
Plantae (multicellular autotrophs) were eukaryotic saprophytic organisms such as
conceived. This system was adopted by mushrooms, yeast, and Rhizopus was still
many taxonomists and gained a wider contradicting, because they were erratically
popularity over the artificial system of classified under kingdom Plantae or Protista.
classification. This prompted Robert Whitaker to propose
kingdom Fungi in 1969 under which all

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Comparative studies of natural groups of organisms
multicellular saprophytes were grouped, Beijerink named the isolated extract ‘virus’
making five kingdoms. However, molecular a Latin word, meaning toxic or infectious.
studies by Carl Woese in the 1970s revealed Viruses are therefore infectious particles,
cellular structural differences among thought to have genomes detached out
prokaryotes based on membrane structure, of eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells. Thus,
ribosomal RNA, lipid compounds, among a virus can be defined as a fragment of
others. This necessitated the splitting of nucleic acid (single or double stranded
kingdom Monera also called Prokaryota DNA or RNA), surrounded by a protein
into Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. In coat and capable of replicating once
1982, about a decade later, Margulis and they are inside a living cell. Generally,
Shwartz proposed a classification system viruses are too minute; they are smaller
which adopted the five kingdoms, namely than bacteria and cannot be seen by a
the Prokaryotae and four Eukaryote light microscope, but they can be viewed
kingdoms. However, that was not the end, under the electron microscope. The latter
because recent molecular work has further has simplified an understanding on the
revealed phylogenetic relatedness among characteristics of viruses, including their
protists which lead to yet another kingdom, shapes and ways in which they interact
Chromista. with their hosts.
In 2015, Cavalier Smith and others introduced Characteristics of viruses

biological taxonomy of 8 kingdoms namely; a) They are the smallest organisms with
Eubacteria, Archaebacteria (Archae), size ranging from 17 nm to 300 nm. On
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Archezoa, Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, average, they are 50 times smaller than
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Plantae, and Animalia. Biological taxonomy bacteria, which range in size between
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of 8 kingdoms has introduced a taxonomic 0.1–10 µm.

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rank called domain above the kingdom. b) They are simple in structure with a
Three domains of life, namely domain
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fragment of nucleic acid which is either

Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya, are thus
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DNA or RNA, enclosed in a protein

recognised. Domain Archaea includes
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or lipoprotein layer. Most animal and

Archaea bacteria which are the most bacterial viruses have DNA, but other
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primitive bacteria with cell wall containing animal and plant viruses have RNA.
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pseudomurein but lacking a peptidoglycan

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cell wall. Domain bacteria consist of all c) Viruses lack cellular structure
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true bacteria, while Eukarya encompasses organisation, hence they are acellular.
all Eukaryotic organisms thus bringing d) Viruses can reproduce in a living cell
together the kingdoms Protoctista, Fungi, only, that is, inside the cell of a living
Plantae, and Animalia. host.
e) Most viruses are infectious; they can
3.2 Viruses
cause diseases to their hosts. They show
The first viruses were isolated in 1852
a high degree of host cell specificity, as
as infectious extract from tobacco plants
they can recognise and infect specific
suffering from tobacco mosaic. In 1898,
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types of host cells. For example, a a number of characteristics similar to those

virus causing disease in plants will of living organisms as follows:
not cause disease in animals and vice- a) They possess nucleic acid; either DNA
versa. However, the same viruses can or RNA, which is a genetic material
cause disease to different species in the helping the virus to produce identical
same group of organisms. A virus called copies of itself.
H5-N1 that causes a fatal bird’s flu was b) They penetrate through a host cell by
recently discovered to cause infection the help of enzymes derived from the
and death in humans. protein coat on the cell surface of the
f) In the absence of a host, viruses can host cell.
crystallize outside a living medium c) They are able to multiply or reproduce
and assume features of non-living inside the host cell.
organisms.
d) They are able to undergo mutation in
g) The ability of a virus to reproduce inside response to host internal changes, and
the cell and crystallize in the absence of they respond rapidly.
a living host places them between living
and non-living organisms. e) They possess capsid, which is a protein
coat embracing nucleic acids.
h) Viruses are obligate endoparasites
because they can live and replicate f) They show specificity to hosts and
inside their host cell only. have the ability to infect the host
cell and take control of its metabolic
activity.
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3.2.1 Classification of viruses
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Generally, classification of viruses has been

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Non-living characteristics of viruses

challenging due to their characteristics
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As non-living organisms, viruses have the

while inside or outside the host cell. Several
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following characteristics;
other attributes of viruses intensify the
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a) They do not replicate on their own and

difficulties experienced by taxonomists
lack cellular structures hence unable
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in classifying them because they are very

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to carry out any life processes when

microscopic nucleocapsids (they are smaller outside the host cell.
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than a molecule), lack cellular organisation

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(acellular) and lack certainty in evolutionary b) They do not have any enzyme system
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such as respiratory enzyme, hence

history despite having fragments of
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they lack energy releasing processes.

genetic materials such as DNA or RNA.
Thus, they do not fit precisely into the c) While outside the host cell, viruses
established biological classification system are inert, but retain their ability to
as they possess both living and non-living replicate, if they invade a host cell.
characteristics. Viruses are therefore crystalline in the
absence of a host cell. When they exist
Living characteristics of viruses as individual particles outside the host
While inside the host cell, viruses possess cell, they are called virions.

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d) They are filterable; therefore, they can Classification according to the host range
pass through a bacterial proof filter includes plant viruses which infect plants
paper. only. Examples include; Tomato leaf curl
e) They are resistant to very high virus that infect tomatoes and Tobacco
temperatures due to lack of enzymes. mosaic virus which infect plants like tobacco
Normally, at high temperatures, and other plants including tomato, potato,
enzymes are denatured and thus render orchid and blackcurrant, and cauliflower
them useless. mosaic virus which infect cauliflower plant.
In this type also there are animal viruses
Viruses can be classified based on a which infect animals only, examples include
number of factors including; phenotypic influenza virus and Herpes simplex virus
characteristics, such as type of nucleic acid, which infect human. Also, there are bacteria
host organisms, type of disease they cause, viruses that infect bacteria, for example;
mode of replication, and morphology. In the bacteriophage such as lambda (l) phage
classification according to type of nucleic (a lysogenic virus which is less virulent
acid, there are RNA and DNA viruses. whereby the host and a phage can exist
RNA virus is a virus that has RNA as its
together for many years), enterobacteria
genetic material, normally single-stranded
T2, and T4 phages (lytic viruses which
RNA, but some viruses may form double
infect the bacteria known as Escherichia
helix intra-stranded complimentary base
pair of RNA. Viruses infect both plants coli). Likewise, there are insect viruses
and animals, examples are Tobacco Mosaic which affect insects only, and these include;
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Virus (TMV) which infects plants, influenza Baculovirus, Sacbrood virus, Entomopox
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virus, hepatitis virus, and polio virus which virus and Granulosis virus.
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infect humans. A type of RNA virus known

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as Retrovirus has a peculiar character of Based on the type of disease they cause,
viruses can be classified as; measles virus;
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inserting a copy of its RNA into DNA of

cause measles, polio virus; cause polio,
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the host cell by reverse transcription process

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and changing the genetic material of that and rabies virus; cause rabies. According to
cell, example is Human Immunodeficiency morphology there are different categories
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based on the symmetry of capsid which

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Virus (HIV). On the other hand, DNA virus

is a type of virus whose genetic material include helical and icosahedral viruses,
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FO
is DNA rather than RNA. The DNA may the helical morphology consists of helical
be either double or single stranded. These array of capsid proteins wrapped around a
viruses infect animals and plants. Examples helical filament of genetic material, example
include herpes virus, smallpox virus, TMV, whereas in icosahedral the protein
chickenpox virus; which infect animals, subunits are arranged in a form of hollow,
and tomato yellow leaf curl virus; which quasi spherical structure, example; Herpes
infect plants. simplex virus.
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3.2.2 General structure of viruses with the genetic material (DNA or RNA),
Viruses are composed of fragments of constitute a nucleocapsid. Some viruses
genetic material (DNA or RNA), which may have additional envelope of lipoprotein
forms a nucleic acid core. The DNA (lipid rich protein) around the capsid. The
contains a few genes and can either be lipoprotein layer is usually derived from the
single or double stranded. The nucleic acid cell membrane of the host cell. The viruses
core is enclosed by a protein coat called with this layer are called enveloped viruses,
capsid as in bacteriophage. The capsid is examples are influenza and herpes viruses.
made up of small identical protein sub units Those with no envelope are referred to as
called capsomeres which are structures that naked viruses, for instance, bacteriophage or
enable viruses to crystallize and assume simply a phage; viruses that attack bacteria
a non-living matter. The capsid, together (Figure 3.1 a, b and c).
Capsid Envelope protein

Nucleic acid
(DNA) Nucleic acid
Viral envelope
Sheath Reverse
transcriptase
Base RNA Protein
Capsule protein
Matrix protein
Tail
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(a) (b) (c)

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Figure 3.1 Structure of (a) Bacteriophage (b) the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and (c)
PR O
Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)

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3.2.3 Viral replication (HIV) show uniqueness at a certain stage

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Viral replication involves formation of of their replication due to ability to convert

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viruses during the infection process, and they

their RNA back into a DNA copy. Some
replicate only when in living cells; that is the
viruses called lytic phages kill host cells
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viruses must first get into the host cell before

immediately after they enter. On the other
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viral replication can occur. Replication hand, other viruses such as lambda phages
G R
between viruses differ significantly and may remain dormant for a long time after
FO
depends on the type of genes in them. For inserting their DNA into the host DNA,
example, most DNA viruses gather in the but they may eventually be activated to
nucleus while most RNA viruses develop complete their life cycle. These types of
merely in the cytoplasm. viruses are described as lysogenic phage and
the dormant stage is called prophage. The
The life cycle of a bacteriophage viral replication therefore, occurs in two
In principle, viral life cycle is the same major stages or phases, namely; lysogenic
in all bacteriophages. Retroviruses such and lytic phases or cycles as summarised
as Human Immunodeficiency Viruses in Figure 3.2, and Figure 3.3 respectively.

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a) Lysogenic cycle divides. However, the phage is not virulent

When a phage contacts a bacterium, its tail at this stage but dormant, and bacterial cells
fibers attach to receptor sites on the bacteria may exist together with the dormant phage
and it sheds its protein coat outside the DNA for many generations. This dormant
host cell. The viral DNA is incorporated in or latent stage of the phage is also termed as
the bacteria chromosomes (simple circles prophage and the host’s cell as a lysogenic
of DNA) and is replicated along with it. cell. The viral DNA released may enter
Therefore, replicated copies of viral DNA a virulent pathway called lytic cycle, if
will be produced each time the bacteria cell activated (Figure 3.2).
Phage DNA
Phage
Bacterial cell The DNA of phage is injected into

the bacterial cell
Bacterial
cell DNA
The DNA of phage becomes incorporated
into bacterial DNA
The bacterial cells divided to produce
two cells whose DNA still incorporates
the DNA of the phage
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PR O
Each cell continues to divide many times to give large numbers of cells which may, under special
circumstances, enter a lytic phase whereby phage replication takes place. Then, cell bursts (lysis)
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and the phage particles escape.

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Figure 3.2 The life cycle of a lysogenic phage

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b) Lytic cycle cell machinery, replicates more repeatedly,

G R
FO
When a phage particle approaches the host and codes for its new coat proteins. New
cell, it attaches to the host wall and injects viral proteins and new virus particles are
its genetic material. Other lysogenic viruses assembled. As a large number of new
may be activated to enter the lytic cycle; viral particles is produced, the phage also
this occurs when their genetic materials are produces lysozymes containing digestive
already inside the host cell. They undergo enzymes which digest the host cell. This
replication and produce more phages, makes the host cell to burst and release
disrupting the host’s DNA as a result, the phages. Due to the digestion of the host
phage DNA takes control of the bacterial cell caused by the phage, this phase is
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termed as lytic phase from the word lysis with the bacteria DNA while in a lytic cycle,
meaning ‘digest’. The host cell lysis and the viral DNA and the host DNA replicate
release of phages mark the culmination separately within the host cell resulting in
of the lytic phase (Figure 3.3). The newly many copies of the virus being produced
produced phages are capable of infecting a very quickly. Also, the lysogenic cycle does
new bacteria and the cycle starts over again not lyse the host cell straight away while
as lysogenic cycle with or without a break in the lytic cycle, the host cell is lysed or
or dormant stage. destroyed.
The lysogenic and lytic cycles can be Phages that replicate using both lytic and
distinguished due to the fact that, in lysogenic cycles are called temperate phages
lysogenic cycles, the spread of the viral while phages that replicate only through the
DNA occurs through the usual bacteria lytic cycle are called virulent phages.
reproduction as their DNA has incorporated
Phage
Phage particle approaches bacterial cell
Bacterial cell
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Empty protein coat

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Phage attached to bacterial wall. DNA is

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Phage DNA injected into bacterial cell and protein ‘ghost’

is left outside
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Phage DNA inside bacterial cell multiplies

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using bacterial nucleic acid and other substances

absorbed by bacterium
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N
G R
FO
Phage DNA induces formation of protein

coat. Eventually bacterial cell burst (lysis)
releasing about 200 exact copies of original
phage
Figure 3.3 The life-cycle of a lytic (virulent) phage

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Retroviruses devastating epidemics in human societies,

These are special groups of viruses as they are highly infectious and relatively
that contain an enzyme named reverse easy to produce.
transcriptase, which is capable of
synthesizing a DNA copy from the virus Advantages of viruses
RNA. This is unlike the usual transcription a) Viruses are widely applied in
in which RNA is synthesized from a preparation of vaccines against
fragment of DNA. Literally, the term retro animal diseases. Currently, there is a
means ‘reverse or going back.’ Hence, number of vaccines against deadly
retroviruses were so named due to their human diseases such as poliomyelitis,
ability to undergo this reverse transcription measles, and yellow fever.
process in producing DNA copies from b) Viruses such as bacteriophages play
RNA. These copies can be incorporated a great role in marine ecology and
randomly into chromosomes of the host carbon cycling.
DNA. It is in this group where the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Hepatitis c) Viruses are important in the field of
B viruses and Herpes viruses belong. The molecular and cell biology; they help
retrovirus DNA is known as provirus. in manipulating and investigation
Provirus can be injected in the host DNA of cells, hence providing valuable
information about the aspects of cell
and remain dormant for a long time prior to
biology.
expression and formation of its new RNA. At
d) Some viruses are used in biological
this stage, the host does not portray any sign
studies. Example, the enzymes reverse
of infection. This explains why it sometimes
transcriptase discovered in retroviruses
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takes a long time for people infected with

are currently widely used in various
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HIV to develop AIDS symptoms. However, aspects in genetic engineering.

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when provirus is incorporated into the host

e) They stimulate the synthesis and
cell DNA, it may activate host genes to
T SE
release of interferon in the body. This

produce RNA which will be packaged suppresses the viral replication and
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inside the retrovirus particles and delivered stimulates the activity of cytotoxic
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together with retroviral RNA to the next cells.

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infected cell. The retrovirus binds on T- f) They are used in gene therapy through
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helper lymphocytes and destroys them and genetic manipulation of somatic cells
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cripples the immune system. of individuals as well as in production

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of transgenic plants and animals.

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3.2.4 Economic importance of viruses g) Certain pathogenic viruses can be used

Though viruses have some disadvantages; as a pests control agent.
as they cause diseases to organisms by being
endoparasites and infectious pathogens,
yet some have significant beneficial in Disadvantages of viruses
medical industry, biotechnology, research, a) Viruses are known to cause various
agriculture and ecology. Furthermore, diseases in living organisms, for
viruses have been used as biological example influenza, measles, ebola,
warfare (biological weapons) and cause AIDS, chickenpox, and herpes in
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human, potato mosaic and tobacco nucleus or without a true nucleus. Although
mosaic in plants, and newcastle in prokaryotes have no true nucleus, they still
poultry. have diffuse area(s) of nucleoplasm called
b) Some viruses can cause chronic nucleoid, containing genetic materials with
infections; for example, the virus can no distinct nuclear membrane or envelope.
replicate the entire life of the host, This is a very unique feature unifying all
regardless of the presence of the host’s prokaryotes. It makes them distinct from
defense mechanisms. This is common species of the other four kingdoms which
in Hepatitis viral infection and in HIV. have membrane enclosed nuclei. Lack
c) A host with chronic viral infections of membrane bounded nucleus makes
can be a carrier of an infectious virus prokaryotic organisms evolutionarily the
for lifetime. It can sometimes kill most primitive life forms. It is believed
many cells, causing the organism to that the oldest prokaryote evolved about
suffer ill effects. 3.5 billion years ago. Moreover, most
organisms under this kingdom have a cell
wall containing peptidoglycan (Refer to
Figure 1.3).
Exercise 3.1
Prokaryotic organisms are diverse, and
1. With examples, explain when and they constitute the largest group interms
why viruses are considered to be a of abundance of organisms it encompasses.
living and non-living organism. Studies show that a gram of soil may contain
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2. Describe the life cycle of a approximately 2.5 billion bacteria, while

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bacteriophage, showing the main a cubic centimeter of milk has more than
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events of viral replication. 3,000 million bacteria. Organisms belonging

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to this kingdom are very minute (1- 10 µm)

3. Briefly explain why vaccines to be seen without the aid of a microscope
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against many viral diseases are and are thus termed as microscopic. This
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currently available but HIV is the reason why kingdom Monera was
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vaccination is still a challenge to not among the two traditional kingdoms;

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medical biologists. Plantae and Animalia, as it was still difficult

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4. Giving reasons, briefly explain in to see, identify, and characterise them. The
G R
which phase of the life cycle does discovery of the Monerans, therefore, came
FO
HIV replication occur. following the discovery of the microscope,

particularly the electron microscope and
computer applications which revealed
3.3 Kingdom Monera the finer details of the Monerans. This
The kingdom Monera consists of unicellular simplified the understanding of differences
prokaryotes. Literally, the term prokaryote across members of this kingdom, leading to
is a combination of two Greek words, the recognition of the three major divisions,
pro meaning ‘before’ and karyo meaning namely; division Archaea, Eubacteria,
‘nucleus,’ which simply means before and Cyanobacteria. Earlier classification
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system splited Monera into two groups, methanogens (Methanobrevibacter

in this case, all Archaea bacteria were ruminantium) which produce methane gas
grouped under kingdom Archaebacteria in anoxic conditions in ruminant’s digestive
while Cyanobacteria and Eubacteria were systems. These similar bacteria produce
classified under kingdom Eubacteria or methane gas from cow dung which is used
Prokaryota. as biogas, which is one of the renewable
sources of energy.
The members of kingdom Monera
are cosmopolitan in distribution and 3.3.1 Characteristics of monerans
predominant in all habitats, ranging from a) They are very microscopic unicellular
aquatic; that is marine, brackish and fresh organisms, with an average diameter
waters to terrestrial environments; such of 0.1-10 mm.
as in the air, dust, soils, on plants and
animals. They also range from parasitic, b) Their cells lack a well organised
free living and symbiotic bacteria to animals nucleus, since they have no nuclear
and plants. Some bacteria are saprophytes, membrane, and the nuclear materials
especially decomposers, which are very are freely suspended in the cytoplasm.
important in nutrient cycling. Nitrogen
c) They lack cytoskeletons and
fixing bacteria are found in symbiotic
membrane bound organelles, such as
association with leguminous plant roots
while the cyanobacteria form symbiotic mitochondria, plastids, and chloroplast.
relationships called lichens with fungi. The photosynthetic Moneras have
Parasitic prokaryotes include infectious
TY photosynthetic lamella instead of
PE Y
bacteria such as Salmonella typhi that chloroplasts.

O NL
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causes typhoid and Vibrio cholerae which d) They have few and smaller ribosomes,
PR O
causes cholera, spend part or their entire 70s ribosomes.

life in their hosts as facultative parasites
T SE
or obligate parasites respectively. The free e) They have small, circular DNA that
EN U
living bacteria are capable of synthesizing lacks the histone protein coat.
M E
their own food using energy obtained f) Most of physiological processes, such
R LIN
from light or chemicals. The former is

as respiration and food synthesis (for
called photoautotrophic bacteria such as
VE N
the autotrophs), occur in membrane

Purple sulphur bacteria, while the latter
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is called chemoautotrophic bacteria such systems.

G R
as Iron bacteria (Ferrobacillus). Some g) The cell wall is composed of a

FO
prokaryotes such as Archaebacteria have carbohydrate-protein complex called

interesting features such as the ability to murein or peptidoglycan.
survive in extremely harsh environments,
such as very low oxygen concentration h) Most prokaryotes move using a beating
(anoxic condition), high alkaline or flagella, gas vesicles, and gliding
acidic media, high salt concentration, and mechanisms. Flagella, if present, lack
extreme temperatures (in hot springs and an internal 9+2 fibril arrangement
volcanic domes) where other organism have pattern.
completely failed to inhabit. For example,
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i) They reproduce asexually by binary are temperature-loving and acid-loving

fission and sexually by conjugation, no archaeans (acidophils). They are found in
mitotic and meiotic divisions, hence no hot springs and acidic conditions such as in
spindle formation. hot springs and phosphoric or arsenic ponds.
The third group is the extremohalophiles
3.3.2 Classification of Monera which are salt loving archaeans found in
The microorganisms in kingdom Monera salt lakes. Other classification systems
are considered as primitive organisms and treat Archaebacteria as a kingdom and
the most ancient living forms on earth. This place the groups of archaea into distinct
kingdom is divided into two main groups phyla or divisions while the entire group
which are Archaebacteria (Extremophiles) of Archaebacteria in this text is regarded
and Eubacteria (cyanobacteria and true as a division.
bacteria). In this text, much emphasize
will be devoted to Eubacteria. Division Eubacteria
These include the true bacteria and the
Division Archaebacteria cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green
Under this group, bacteria are the most bacteria or blue-green algae, which are
primitive and ancient members of kingdom photosynthetic. Members of this division
Monera. Their cell wall chemistry differs lack true nuclei and they have a strong and
from eubacteria as they lack peptidoglycan. rigid cell wall containing a polysaccharide
Instead, they have lipids which are different called murein cross-linked by short chains
TY
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in composition from other bacteria due to of amino acids. They have a variety of
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the presence of long chains of fatty acids shapes ranging from spherical, rod-like,
PR O
with glycerol attached to it by ester linkage. and spiral or comma shaped. Additionally,
T SE
Another unique feature of these bacteria is some are heterotrophs, living as pathogenic
their ability to inhabit extreme environments parasites while others are free living
EN U
in which other organisms cannot survive. autotrophs. Furthermore, eubacteria have

M E
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These habitats include environments simple circular DNA which is not associated
with extreme temperatures, saline, and with proteins to form chromosomes and
VE N
acidic conditions. Others can survive in they use mesosomes for respiration.
O O
oxygen deprived or anoxic conditions.

G R
Cyanobacteria are grouped in the same

FO
Because of their ability to survive in

division with other true bacteria, because
extreme conditions, Archaebacteria
they share many features. For example,
are grouped into methanogens, which both possess prokaryotic cell structures,
produce methane by reducing carbon- reproduction by binary fission, their cell
dioxide, for example, methanogens wall contains peptidoglycan (murein), and
(Methanobrevibacter ruminantium) have mucilaginous sheet.
found in ruminants’ digestive system. The
other group is hyperthermophiles which

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In other classification systems, cyanobacteria This staining based classification of bacteria

form a division of their own called Division was invented by Hans Christian Gram, a
Cyanobacteria. This is because, unlike Danish microbiologist in 1884, and was
bacteria, they have chlorophyll a for therefore named “Gram stain’s test.” This
photosynthesis and they produce oxygen simple test classifies bacteria into two broad
during photosynthesis which resembles groups namely; Gram negative and Gram-
algae more than bacteria. In addition, their positive (3.4 a and b). The Gram-positive
chlorophyll lamellae and DNA lie free in bacteria appear blue to purple, because they
the cytoplasm. Cyanophytes can occur as retain the crystal violet colour of the dye
free living cells or as colonies. They have used to stain them. In contrast, the Gram-
specialised cells called heterocyst which are negative bacteria do not retain the colour
capable of fixing Nitrogen. These bacteria of the stain (crystal violet).
form blooms in ponds. Sometimes, they
are found in symbiotic association called The staining differences are based on
lichen with fungi. variation in the cell wall chemistry,
particularly in the amount of peptidoglycan.
Classification of bacteria The Gram-positive bacteria have a
Bacteria are single celled microbes, simple cell wall with a thick layer of
with a simple cell structure that has no peptidoglycan (polysaccharides and
nucleus or membrane bound organelles. protein). Moreover, due to differences
Although genetic divergence specifies in cell wall constituents, the Gram-
positive bacteria cell wall is susceptible
TY
the evolutionary relationships of bacteria,
PE Y
to lysozymes and antibiotics. The Gram-

O NL
reaction to Gram stain, mode of nutrition,

R
morphological, motility, and biochemical negative bacteria are resistant to antibiotics

PR O
features of bacteria remain important in and lysosomes. This is because, although

T SE
the identification and classification of these they have thinner cell walls, they are more
complex, by having additional outer layer
EN U
organisms. Three major ways can be used

on the outside of murein layer which is
M E
to identify bacteria; based on their cell wall

R LIN
chemistry or composition which makes thin, smooth membrane-like containing

them respond differently to Gram stain, lipid and polysaccharides that protect the
VE N
bacteria from host’s lysozyme, as well

O O
difference in morphology of their cells, and

N
mode of nutrition. as antibacterial enzymes found in tears,

G R
saliva and other body fluids. Examples of

FO
Classification of bacteria based on Gram-positive bacteria include Bacillus

their staining properties sp., Clostridium sp., Streptococcus sp.,
In this case, the bacterial cell is smeared on and Staphylococcus sp., while Gram-
a microscope slide and stained with crystal negative bacteria include Escherichia coli,
violet solution followed by iodine solution, Chlamydia sp., Neisseria sp., Salmonella
and later washed with organic solvent such as sp., Treponema sp., and Azotobacter sp
acetone or ethanol and counterstained with (Figure 3.4).
a red dye called safranin or carbolfuschin.
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Outer Gram-negative bacteria

Gram-positive bacteria
membrane
Peptidoglycan
Cell wall
Peptidoglycan
Plasma
membrane
(a) (b)
Figure 3.4 Structure of a bacterial cell wall (a) Gram-positive and (b) Gram-negative bacteria
The framework of the protein that makes diffusion of the staining solution (see the
the peptidoglycan materials of the cell three dimensional detailed view of the
wall is a porous network that allows Gram-positive bacteria in Figure 3.5).
TY Cell wall
PE Y
Plasma membrane
O NL
R
Protein
PR O
T SE
Figure 3.5 Structure of a bacterial cell wall (detailed view of the cell wall)
EN U
M E
R LIN
Activity 3.1 Identification of Gram- solution or gentian violet, and let it

VE N
positive and Gram-negative bacteria stand for one minute.

O O
c) Decolourise by adding alcohol, drop

G R
Materials
by drop until no further stains come
FO
Dried smears of bacteria, gentian violet out.

or iodine solution stain, alcohol, red
dye (safranin/ carbolfuschin), and d) Counterstain by flooding the smear
watch glass. with a red dye such as safranin or
Procedure carbolfuschin and let it stand for
about 40-45 seconds.
a) Place an air dried smear on a watch
glass. e) Observe the colour change and
explain your results.
b) Gently flood the smear with iodine

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Classification of bacteria based on binary fission simultaneously. Four shapes

their morphology of bacteria exist, namely cocci, bacilli,
Bacteria can be classified according to spirilla, and vibrio or comma-shape.
their morphology or shapes, which are
diverse, ranging from rod-like to comma- Cocci (singular coccus)
like shapes. They can exist singly or These are spherical-shaped bacteria.
in a series of interconnected individual They may exist as a single cell, while
cells called colonies. This should not be others may exist in pairs, forming a
confused with multicellular organisms, double-celled (diplococcus) organism.
because each cell is capable of carrying out The diplococus may be surrounded by a
all its essential life processes, and each can capsule, for example the pneumococcus
survive independently if separated from bacteria (Diplococcus pneumoniae) a
the colony. The cells normally associate to causative agent of pneumonia. They may
form a colony after binary fission, as the also occur in chains of interconnected
two resulting cells adhere to each other. individuals or in bunches (cluster cells)
Some bacteria cells associate in tubular such as Streptococcus and Staphylococcus
sheaths, forming filaments which undergo respectively (Figure 3.6 a, b, c, and d).
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
(a) (b) (c) (d)

PR O
T SE
Figure 3.6 Structures of cocci bacteria (a) single-celled (b) double-celled (c) colon and (d) chain
EN U
M E
R LIN
Bacilli (singular bacillus) forming endospores with various shapes,

These are rod-shaped bacteria which may position and size, examples include oval
VE N
O O
occur singly as in Escherichia coli; a common spore without swelling at the center like
G R
gut-living symbiont and Salmonella typhi in Bacillus anthracis, and spherical spore
FO
which causes typhoid fever. The bacilli may with a swollen terminal like in Clostridium
occur in chains as seen in Nitrogen fixing tetani; the causative of tetanus or with sub-
bacteria (Azotobacter) and the anthrax terminal swollen example Clostridium
causing bacteria (Bacillus anthracis). botulinum the causative of botulism (Figure
The bacilli usually have a tendency of 3.7 a, b and c).
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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.7 The structure of bacilli bacteria (a) single rods (b) chained rod and (c) Bacilli with endospores
Spirilla (singular spirillum) Vibrio

Bacteria in this group have a long cylinder This group of bacteria includes various
curved bacteria which appear superficially
cell, coiled into a spiral or helical body.
like a comma. That is why they are
The individuals under this group are also
sometimes named as comma-shaped
called spirochaetes; their name came bacteria. These bacteria possess a single
from the fact that they contain distinctive flagellum which is used in locomotion as
double membrane, and most of which seen in Vibrio cholerae (Figure 3.9).
have long helically coiled structure
(corkscrew-shaped or spiraled). They are
also characterised by presence of unique
TY
PE Y
axial filaments composed of flagella,

O NL
R
running from one end of the cell, where

PR O
they are directly attached to the cell wall.

T SE
The flagella are used for locomotion.

Bacteria under this group include free
EN U
living bacteria found in water and muds

M E
as well as parasitic spirochaetes such as

R LIN
Figure 3.9 The structure of a comma-shaped

Treponema pallidum that causes syphilis bacterium
VE N
in humans (Figure 3.8).

Classification of bacteria based on
O O
their mode of nutrition

G R
FO
Bacteria obtain their food from their

environment in different ways. Some of
them can synthesise their own food using
energy from the sunlight, while others
use chemicals as their energy source.
Some of the bacteria cannot synthesize
their own food and they rely on other
organisms as their source of food. Thus,
Figure 3.8 The structure of a Spirillum bacterium
in this regard, bacteria are classified into

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photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, and are pathogenic as they obtain their foods

chemoheterotrophs. by living in or on other organisms thereby
causing diseases and even death of their
Photoautotrophs hosts. Some bacteria live permanently
Photoautotrophs bacteria need light as on or in their host (obligate parasitic
their source of energy in manufacturing bacteria), while other bacteria’s life cycles
their food. The light is trapped with the depend on multiple host (facultative
aid of chlorophyll 'a' and carotenoid parasitic bacteria). Other bacteria live in
pigments. This type of photosynthesis a mutual (symbiotic) relationship with
is much simplified compared to that of other organisms where by both partners
plants. Examples include blue-green benefit from the association. Examples of
bacteria. symbiotic association include; Rhizobium
bacteria that live in the root nodules of
Chemoautotrophs leguminous plants, and also have ability
These bacteria acquire their energy by to fix nitrogen into useful compounds
oxidising simple inorganic substances, but like nitrates which are needed by these
not from sunlight as in photoautotrophs. plants, and Escherichia coli which live
The obtained energy is used to synthesise symbiotically in the human gut and
food in the presence of carbon dioxide. contribute to the formation of vitamin B
Important nitrogen fixing bacteria such as and K.
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter belong to
this group. Others include Iron bacteria 3.3.3 Bacterial reproduction
TY
PE Y
which oxidise Iron two (Ferrous Iron) to Bacteria reproduce both sexually and
O NL
R
Iron three (Ferric Iron), and the energy asexually; sexual reproduction involves
PR O
released from oxidation is utilised during two organisms/cells exchanging their

T SE
food synthesis. genetic materials (not gametes, as they

have no reproductive structures) and
EN U
Chemoheterotrophs produce daughter cells which differ in their

M E
All bacteria which cannot manufacture genetic materials from that of the parental
R LIN
food on their own as they lose the ability to cells. Sexual reproduction involves the
VE N
photosynthesize in the course of evolution process of genetic recombination through

O O
are heterotrophs (heterotrophic bacteria). cell to cell contact (Conjugation), while in

G R
They are named “chemo” heterotrophs, asexual reproduction the cell divides by
FO
when they obtain energy for their growth binary fission to form two daughter cells
from organic compounds such as proteins with similar genetic materials as that of
and glucose. Chemoheterotrophs can the parental cell.
be further categorised into saprotrophs,
parasites and mutualists. The saprotrophs Asexual reproduction in bacteria
obtain their food from dead and decaying Most bacteria reproduce asexually. A
organic matter, majority of them are single bacterium can reproduce asexually
decomposers, which are very important by binary fission which involves division
in nutrient recycling. Parasitic bacteria of one bacterium into two bacteria (Figure
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3.10). In this process, the dividing cell Sexual reproduction in bacteria

elongates and if the cell is spherical, the Sexual reproduction in bacteria is primitive
elongation is very much restricted. A rod- in the sense that it does not involve union
shaped bacterium elongates to almost of gametes as commonly seen in other
double its size. Then, the protoplasmic organisms, particularly the eukaryotes.
mass divides into two equal halves by a The reproduction simply involves
transverse wall or constriction. The cell combination of genetic material by the
division is preceded by the replication of process called genetic recombination.
DNA. The two daughter cells soon grow This process involves the primitive form
to maturity and divide further. of sexual reproduction called conjugation
(the transfer of DNA between two cells
Cytoplasm
Parental cell with its circular which are in direct contact). One of the
DNA
DNA
Cell wall two cells (male) donates while the other
Cell replicate its DNA (female) receives genetic material. The
ability to donate the genetic material is
The cytoplasm elongates
separating the daughter DNA controlled by the bacterial gene found
molecules in a special type of plasmid called sex
Cross wall start to be formed factor which also codes for the formation
of a small tubular structure called pilus,
Cross wall completely formed connecting the two bacterial cells. Through
this pilus, the genetic material is injected
Two daughter cell are
to one or more recipient(s) at a time. This
TY
PE Y
formed
kind of exchange is essential especially
O NL
R
during unfavorable condition, and they

PR O
Figure 3.10 Bacterial reproduction by binary produce more resistant cells (Figure 3.11).
T SE
fission
EN U
Donor Recipient
Pilus
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
1. Formation of pilus 2. Pilus connects cells

FO
4. Fragment of donor DNA 3. Donor DNA replicated by rolling

incorporated into recipient cycle method and transferred
Figure 3.11 Sexual reproductions in bacteria

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3.3.4 Economic importance of monerans such as leaf litter, dead logs and animals
Bacteria have a wide range of economic into simple substances like nutrients which
importance; ranging from beneficial to can be easily absorbed by other plants.
detrimental effects to humans and other This process is called decomposition and
organisms. Furthermore, many bacteria it ensures nutrients recycling. It is vital to
serve important roles in both industries nature because it unlocks nutrients locked
and agriculture. in dead bodies of other organisms and
makes them available to others.
Advantages of monerans
a) Production of vinegar e) Treatment and purification of
Some bacteria, such as those of genera waste water or sewage
Acetomonas and Acetobacter are used in Bacteria can be used in treating and
making vinegar (for vinegar fermentation), purification of water or sewage in
whereby ethanol is partially oxidised into oxidation pond, by reducing the bulky of
ethanoic acid (vinegar). wastes and converting them into simpler
forms which can be easily handled in the
b) Manufacturing of dairy products subsequent stages in a stabilisation ponds
In this case, bacteria such as Streptococcus (lagoon). Examples of decomposers
lactis are employed in preparation and include Streptomyces sp. and Bacillus sp.
preservation of commercial butter, cultured
milk, and cheese from cream milk. The
f) Making flavour, aroma and curing
TY
bacteria species Streptococcus thermophilus
PE Y
of agricultural products
O NL
and Lactobacillus bulgaricus are frequently

R
used in preparation of yoghurt by inoculating Bacteria are used for production of different
PR O
fresh milk with a starter culture containing dairy flavour compounds, such as butyric
T SE
Brevibacterium linens in order to produce acid, lactic acid and diacetyl in mixed
EN U
the appealing smell in cheese. cultures of Lactobacillus acidophilus and

M E
Pediococcus pentosaceus. Some bacteria

R LIN
c) Manufacturing of amino acids, such as Bacillus subtilis have been used to

proteins, and starch bring about several physio-chemicals and
VE N
O O
In the manufacture of amino acids, some sensory changes in soybean foods to make
N
bacteria such as Monococcus glutamis are it highly digestible and nutritious. Bacillus
G R
FO
used. Industrial proteins such as amylase subtilis which dominate traditionally

are produced by bacteria such as Bacillus fermented soy foods have typical taste,
polymysa. texture and aroma which is popular in
Asian and African countries. Certain
d) Decomposition of organic matters
bacteria such as Bacillus megaterium
Most bacteria are chemoheterotrophs
can be used in curing off the bitterness in
which obtain their food from dead or
decaying organic matter. In so doing, such leaves of tea and tobacco.
bacteria reduce heaps of dead substrates
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g) Nitrogen fixation and nitrification bacteria of genus Pseudomonas are used

in the soil in cleaning oil-contaminated water as they
Some bacteria, besides being decomposers feed on oil spills.
are important in fixing atmospheric nitrogen
into a form that can be utilised by plants j) Biodiversity studies
by the process known as nitrogen fixation. Bacteria may be one of the most abundant
Examples of nitrogen fixing bacteria are and species-rich groups of organisms,
Azotobacter, Clostridium, and Rhizobium. that mediate many critical ecosystem
Some bacteria convert ammonia into processes. They contribute significantly
nitrates in the soil by the process known to the global biodiversity, given the
as nitrification. Nitrosomonas convert existence of numerous species of bacteria.
ammonia into nitrite which later gets The position and role of each species
oxidised to nitrates by Nitrobacter. The in the ecosystem cannot be underrated.
two processes are important in agriculture, Cyanobacteria initiated early life on land
because nitrogen is one of the elements as they were the first organism to produce
required by plants in large quantity for oxygen from photosynthesis. Such oxygen
growth and other physiological processes. was used by early aerobic organisms.
Nitrogen contributes largely in improving
agricultural yields. k) Medical application
Some bacteria such as Streptococcus are
h) Bioindicator in detecting water used in the process of manufacturing
pollution antibiotics, such as Streptomycin.
TY
PE Y
Cyanobacteria blooms in ponds can Streptococcus lactis ferments milk to

O NL
R
be used as bioindicator, since they are produce lactic acid which prevents growth
PR O
sensitive to water pollution. Changes in of harmful bacteria in the stomach, by

T SE
abundance of cyanobacteria in aquatic maintaining the acidic environment in the

ecosystems can serve as indicators of stomach. Lactic acid prevents bacterial
EN U
water pollution. vaginosis, thus preventing urinary tract

M E
infection (UTI). Starch, in the form of

R LIN
i) Biotechnology and genetic amylose, is produced for industrial uses

VE N
engineering by bacteria. For example Escherichia coli

O O
Bacteria can be used to alter and replicate or E. coli are used in the mass production
G R
genes that are then introduced into of asparaginase enzyme which has also
FO
plant or animals. Bacterial systems lend a medical application in chemotherapy

themselves to genetic manipulation in part against lymphoblastic leukemia.
because of their rapid reproduction rates.
Thermus aquaticus (Taq) is a thermal stable l) Symbiotic association with other
bacterium which is used to produce DNA organisms
polymerase. DNA polymerase enzyme is Some bacteria such as cyanobacteria live in
used in amplification of short segments of
association with fungi in which the former
DNA through polymerase chain reaction
synthesise food through photosynthesis
(PCR). Some genetically engineered
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and supply it to fungi, while fungi provide b) In farm animals, some diseases such as
support and protection from dehydration anthrax in cattle, avian tuberculosis in
to cyanobacteria. Some non-pathogenic poultry, and black leg in sheep, goat and
bacteria live on human skin and are cattle are caused by bacteria including
important in destroying the bad bacteria Bacillus anthracis, Mycobacterium
that live in symbiotic association with avium, and Clostridium chauvoel
human. For example, Staphylococcus is respectively.
among skin microbiota (skin flora) that live c) Some bacteria cause diseases in
symbiotically with human skin, protecting plants, resulting into crop destruction,
the host from pathogenic bacteria.In for example; corky root in lettuce,
addition, Ruminococcus bacteria that live halo blight in beans, and bacterial
symbiotically with ruminant animals, pith necrosis in tomatoes are caused
breakdown the plant fibres (cellulose) into by bacteria such as Rhizomonas
monosaccharides, and E.coli in human suberifaciens, Pseudomonas syringae
intestines synthesises vitamin K. Pv. Phaseolicola, and Pseudomonas
corrugate respectively.
m) Biological control
Bacteria are potentially used in several d) Foods with high protein content are
biological control methods in agriculture often decomposed by bacteria leading
and public health programs as bio into food spoilage. For example, the
pesticides. For example, some bacteria are smell coming from rotten eggs or any
TY
PE Y
soil dwelling Gram-positive, commonly other protein-containing foods results

O NL
R
used as biological pesticides. They from decomposition of protein by

PR O
infect and kill the destructive organisms, proteolytic bacteria.

T SE
including caterpillar of some butterflies

and larvae of some insects. An example of e) During the process of bioleaching,
EN U
a soil dwelling Gram-positive bacterium some bacteria such as Thiobacillus

M E
is Bacillus thuringiensis. oxidise sulphides to form sulphuric

R LIN
acid and Hydrogen ions (H+) which

VE N
Disadvantages of monerans can leak into the ground and turn

O O
a) Pathogenic bacteria cause diseases in surface and ground water into acidic,
G R
humans. For instance; Vibrio cholerae hence water pollution; which is an

FO
cause cholera, Treponema pallidum; environmental destruction.

syphilis, Shigella dysenteriae;
shigellosis, Salmonella typhi; f) Bacteria called Clostridium botulinum
typhoid fever, Entamoeba histolytica; can release toxin in imperfectly canned
dysentery, Mycobacterium tuberculosis; food.
tuberculosis, and Escherichia coli cause
urinary tract infection (UTI).
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Exercise 3.2 celled eukaryotes constituted kingdom

Protoctista.
1. Briefly explain why the Carolus
Linnaeus classification system Recent phylogenetic studies have shown
was silent about kingdom Monera. that even Protoctista is no longer a group
2. Describe the general and of naturally related organisms. This makes
distinctive features of division it difficult to clearly define kingdom
Eubacteria. Protoctista. For example, protoctists such
as algae have chloroplasts; hence, they are
3. Citing the significance of each, photoautotrophs. Amoeba is a heterotroph,
explain two ways by which while slime molds and water molds
bacteria reproduce. are saprophytes sharing many features
4. Give any four reasons to justify in common with fungi than with other
the placement of cyanobacteria protoctists. It is for this reason, kingdom
under division Eubacteria. Protoctista is deemed controversial by
contemporary taxonomists. This is why the
5. Why some taxonomists separate
classification system has advanced from
Cyanophytes from division
five to eight kingdoms. Members under
Eubacteria and place them in
kingdom Protoctista have been separated
division Cyanobacteria.
into two kingdoms, namely Protozoa and
6. Using relevant examples, explain Chromista. More recently, they have been
the ways in which bacteria are TY separated into three kingdoms: Protozoa,
ecologically and economically Chromista, and Archezoa. However, this
PE Y
O NL
important. text will focus on Protoctista as a kingdom

R
for convenience.
PR O
7. Explain with examples, why

bacteria are said to be successful
T SE
Protoctists can be defined as unicellular

colonisers. eukaryotic organisms other than fungi,
EN U
plants, and animals. Evolutionarily,

M E
R LIN
3.4 Kingdom Protoctista members in high kingdoms such as Fungi,

In the early classification of living organisms Plantae and Animalia, have their ancestors
VE N
into four kingdoms, all organisms which in the Protoctista kingdom. Therefore,
O O
could not fit into kingdoms Fungi, Plantae protoctists are eukaryotes consisting of
G R
and Animalia were placed under kingdom unicellular and multicellular members.
FO
Protista. This made kingdom Protista very The multicellular protoctists consist of an
diverse, as it accommodated both unicellular assembly of similar cells such as Spirogyra.
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Later, with the The major difference between protists and
use of molecular taxonomy, prokaryotes protoctists is that the former consists of
were separated from Protista to form a only unicellular microscopic organisms
group of unicellular organisms lacking a (protozoans) while the later is the mixture
well organised nucleus. These were placed of unicellular and multicellular organisms.
under kingdom Monera, while all single- Studies based on the base sequence of

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mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA indicate majority of protoctists, although some

that members of kingdoms Fungi, Plantae members lack sexual reproduction.
and Animalia have their ancestors in the Asexual reproduction occurs by binary
kingdom Protoctista. fission (in which one nucleus divides),
multiple fission (in which many nuclei
Characteristics of protoctists divides into multiple daughter cells),
a) Organisms under this kingdom are or budding (in which a new cell grows
nucleated; that is, all are eukaryotes. on the surface of the mother cell).
b) Some protoctists are unicellular while During all these types of asexual
others are multicellular. reproduction, an organism replicates
c) They lack tissue differentiation. its nucleus and divides to form new
d) Protoctists are adapted to both, aquatic organisms. Sexual reproduction in
and terrestrial habitats. protoctists is still primitive, given that
it is mainly a recombination of genetic
e) They have various types of vesicles
material.
that perform different functions.
These include their increased surface i) Some protoctists are parasites, while
area to facilitate exchange of materials others are free living organisms.
needed for their survival. For instance, The free living members are either
contractile vacuole helps protoctists autotrophs (such as Spirogyra)
to discharge excess water taken by or heterotrophs (such as Amoeba
osmosis. They also have food vacuole, TY proteus).
as in Paramecium, which helps them
PE Y
O NL
in digestion of engulfed food particles. Classification of protoctists

R
PR O
f) Their cell surfaces are diverse, ranging Classifying protoctists has been a
from just a plasma membrane as in difficult task due to their high diversity.
T SE
Amoeba, to a stiffer surface as in Traditionally, protoctists were subdivided

EN U
Euglena to ensure the integrity of the into several groups based on their physical
M E
cell.
R LIN
similarities to higher kingdoms of

g) Many protoctists are involved in Animals, Plants and Fungi. This text will
VE N
endo-symbiotic relationship with deal with six selected phyla of Protoctista

O O
other organisms. A good example namely; Rhizopoda, Zoomastigina,

G R
is a radiolarian which harbors other Apicomplexa, Euglenophyta, Oomycota,

FO
photosynthetic protoctists. These and Chlorophyta.

protoctists, through photosynthesis,
synthesise food that is shared by Phylum Rhizopoda
both, while the radiolarian in turn Rhizopoda is a broad group of protozoan
confers protection and provide some amoeboid organisms placed in kingdom
metabolites to the other symbiont. Protoctista. The shape and organization
h) Both asexual and sexual types of of pseudopodia are among the main
reproduction are common in the characteristics that are used to classify
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members of phylum Rhizopoda. This f) They possess contractile vacuole that

phylum comprises of all forms of amoeba carries out osmoregulation. Normally,
including parasitic and free living amoeba. fluids in the amoeba cell are relatively
Parasitic amoeba include Entamoeba more concentrated which allow more
hystolytica which feeds on cells of water to flow to their body in response
the human colon, and cause amoebic to osmotic gradient. Amoeba in turn
dysentery also (amoebiasis). The disease pumps out this water using their
is characterised by abdominal pains, contractile vacuole.
nausea, vomiting, erosion of blood vessels
of the gut and diarrhoea containing blood. Distinctive features of phylum
Rhizopoda
General characteristics of phylum Members of the group Rhizopoda have
Rhizopoda the following features which distinguish
They are found in sea water, fresh water, them from the rest of the protoctists.
and in the soil. They can also be found
a) They have pseudopodia, which are
in a mud shallow pond and slow flowing
used for both locomotion and feeding.
streams containing plenty of decaying
Such pseudopodia are constantly
organic matter.
changing as amoeba moves and feeds.
a) They are single-celled eukaryotes and Food particles and small organisms
their cells have no definite shape. are engulfed using pseudopodia and
b) They are unicellular whose bodies
TY digested in the food vacuoles. The
digested food is assimilated into the
PE Y
are surrounded by membranes. Their

O NL
rest of the body. This type of feeding

R
cytoplasms have two distinct regions,

is called phagocytosis. Ingestion is
PR O
the plasmasol (inner) and plasmagel

(outer). by endocytosis and egestion is by
T SE
exocytosis.
c) Most of them are free living, forming
EN U
important links in the food chains. They b) The food vacuole and the oil droplets of
M E
amoeba confer a granular appearance

R LIN
feed on plant and animal materials.

In contrast, others are parasitic or to the endoplasm.
VE N
infectious to animals, including human

O O
c) They possess a contractile vacuole,

being; some human pathogens such as
which carries out osmoregulation.
G R
Entamoeba histolytica cause amoebic

FO
When the contractile vacuole reaches

dysentery.
a certain size, it fuses with the cell
d) They reproduce asexually by binary membrane where water is released
fission. outside the cell.
e) They move by using pseudopodia; d) Their cytoplasm has two distinct
hence, amoeba and other protoctists regions; viscous outer layer ectoplasm
using this mode of locomotion are (plasmagel) and more fluid internal
called pseudopods. endoplasm (plasmasol).

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Structure of Entamoeba histolytica low oxygen concentration, since they

Entamoeba histolytica has a regular body live in areas with low oxygen supply
which changes constantly. The body in the large intestine.
is covered by a thin semi-permeable e) They have rapid binary fission and
membrane called plasmallema or plasma production of a large number of
membrane; and it is differentiated into cysts to ensure their existence and
two distinct portions; an outer ectoplasm perpetuation in alternative hosts.
(plasmagel) and an inner endoplasm f) They can feed on various foods,
(plasmasol). In the endoplasm, there is ranging from bacteria to blood cells,
a prominent nucleus which is enclosed and digest them with their enzymes.
by a nuclear membrane. They possess
pseudopodia for locomotion and feeding
Exercise 3.3
by engulfing food substances (Figure
3.12). 1. Give reasons as to why some
taxonomists consider Protoctista
Ectoplasm Food vacuole
Endoplasm
as an obsolete kingdom.
Nucleus
Pseudopodia 2. Explain the reason why both
Ingested
bacteria Monera and Protoctists are single-
Plasmalema Ingested red celled organisms but belong into
blood cells
TY different kingdoms.
PE Y
Figure 3.12 Structure of Entamoeba histolytica 3. Describe any five features which
O NL
R
make Amoeba a specialised form

of protoctists.
PR O
Adaptations of Entamoeba to its mode

T SE
of life 4. What is the economic importance

Some amoeba such as Naegleria are free of Entamoeba?
EN U
living; they can live in different habitats

M E
such as on the bottom of ponds and lakes,

R LIN
whereas others like Entamoeba exhibit a

Phylum Zoomastigina
VE N
parasitic mode of life. Parasitic amoeba

This phylum consists of flagellated
O O
have the following adaptations to their

mode of life. parasitic protoctists. It contains free-
G R
living organisms, some are symbionts,

FO
a) They can form cysts which resist

digestive agents in the stomach. such as protozoans which live in the gut
of termites and digest cellulose in the
b) They lack contractile vacuoles, since
wood eaten by the termites, and some
they live in isotonic state with the
are parasites. Examples of parasitic
host’s gut fluid.
organisms found in this phylum include
c) They live where there is a plenty of Trypanosoma gambiense; a parasite
food supply from their host. causing African sleeping sickness.
d) They are physiologically tolerant to
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General characteristics of phylum Structure of Trypanosoma

Zoomastigina The genus Trypanosoma contains a large
a) The phylum Zoomastigina contains number of parasitic species which infect
organisms such as Trichonympha and wild animals, domesticated animals and
Trypanosoma, which have one or two humans. Trypanosoma is divided into
flagella. several sub-genera based on morphological
b) The members of this phylum are differences. Different species of
heterotrophic; single-celled organisms. trypanosomes are transmitted by insects.
c) It comprises of both free-living and Examples include; Trypanosoma cruzi,
parasitic organisms. Free-living Trypanasoma brucei and Trypanosoma
Zoomastigina are found in ponds and gambiense which is a causative agent of
puddles with plenty of organic matter sleeping sickness in humans. This parasite
while a few such as Trypanosoma are is common in west and central Africa, its
parasites. vector is a tsetse fly, Glossina palpalis. It is
about 15µm long, and 1µm wide, pointed
d) Some have undulating membrane.
at both ends and bears a prominent ovoid
e) Most of them reproduce by a simple nucleus in the central region. It is enclosed
binary fission. in a strong pellicle which maintains the
f) The body is overlaid by a semi-rigid body shape. The entire body is covered
pellicle. by a wavy undulating membrane. Along
the edge of the membrane is a flagellum
Distinctive features of phylum attached posteriorly to a small granule
TY
PE Y
Zoomastigina known as a blepharoplast (basal body).

O NL
R
Zoomastigina species differ from the other Anteriorly, the flagellum projects in front
PR O
members of the kingdom Protoctista by of the body as a short, fine slash, and
T SE
being the only heterotrophic unicellular immediately posterior to the basal body,
eukaryotes with one or more flagella. there is a prominent granule, a parabasal
EN U
body (Figure. 3.13).

M E
R LIN
Free flagellum
VE N
Kinetoplast
Undulating membrane
O O
N
G R
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Parabasal body
Pellicle Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Figure 3.13 Structure of a Trypanosoma

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Adaptations of Trypanosoma spp. to Phylum Apicomplexa

their mode of life This phylum consists of eukaryotic
Trypanosoma spp. are highly adapted to unicellular organisms, which are spore
forming parasites of animals. They are
parasitic mode of life in their hosts due
also known as sporozoans; an example
to possession of the following adaptive is the parasite Plasmodium which cause
features: malaria in humans.
a) They have large surface areas to General characteristics of phylum
volume ratio. This is important for Apicomplexa
absorption of oxygen and food from a) Most of them possess a unique type of
their hosts. plastid called an apicoplast, used for
b) They live isotonically within the piercing host cells.
blood plasma of their hosts. They b) They are unicellular and spore
lack contractile vacuoles and forming organisms. Almost all species
osmoregulation does not take place. are obligate endoparasites of animals,
c) They have rapid reproductive rate by except nephromyces which live
binary fission which ensures that large symbiotically in marine animals.
number of parasites are produced. c) They have an infectious stage known
Large number of these parasites as sporozoite.
is potentially important especially
d) They reproduce asexually by
in adverse conditions where some
schizogony and sexually by sporogony.
TY
parasite formed die, but some will
PE Y
e) The parasite changes its shape

O NL
remain.
R
depending on the host it inhabits.

d) They have a hard pellicle that protects
PR O
For instance, it is sickle shaped in

cytoplasmic structures and restricts
T SE
salivary glands of mosquito, while it

action of digestive agents of the host.
is spherical or amoeboid in liver cells
EN U
e) They are able to remain dormant in of humans.

M E
their host’s cells of liver and spleen

R LIN
f) They are non-motile.

during adverse conditions. This
ensures existence of the species. g) They form resistant spores after
VE N
fertilisation.
O O
N
G R
Exercise 3.4
FO
Distinctive features of phylum

1. Explain the distinctive features of Apicomplexa
the phylum Zoomastigina. Organisms in the phylum Apicomplexa
differ from other groups by the following
2. Describe the structure of a features:
Trypanosoma. a) They have a plastid called apicoplast,
3. Normally, areas infested by tsetse which is used for piercing host cells.
flies are not suitable for human b) They reproduce asexually by
settlement. Justify. schizogony in the human body and
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sexually by sporogony in the mosquito. Life cycle of Plasmodium

c) They change their shapes depending The parasite in the form of sporozoites
on the host it inhabits. For instance, enters the blood stream of the human
plasmodium is sickle shaped in being after a mosquito bite. It then travels
salivary glands of mosquito, while it is to the liver and invades it (Figure 3.15).
amoeboid in liver cells of human. The sporozoites grow, divide and produce
many haploid forms called merozoites or
Structure of Plasmodium schizozoites in liver cells. The merozoites
The Plasmodium is oval shaped, and in the liver cells exit and re-enter blood
lacks contractile vacuoles and locomotory stream, where red blood cells are invaded.
organs. The apical end is a bridged cone- The merozoites multiply in the red blood
shaped projection demarcated by the polar cells by asexual reproduction. In the red
rings. A single mitochondrion is generally blood cells, they develop into schizonts
present at the posterior end and the Golgi (feeding stage), which rupture the cells,
apparatus is unremarkable. Just beneath releasing newly formed merozoites which
the inner membrane, there is a row of then invade other red blood cells. Some
microtubules which originate from the of the merozoites in infected blood cells,
polar end of the apical end and continue to leave a cycle of asexual replication.
the posterior end. Attached to the nucleus, Instead of replicating, the merozoites
there is an endoplasmic reticulum, a in these cells develop into sexual forms
network of membranous tubules within TY of the parasite called male and female
the cytoplasm (Figure 3.14). Additionally,
PE Y
gametocytes. The cycle in mosquito

there are the rhoptries, which are the
O NL
R
starts when the mosquito bites an infected

specialized secretory organelles. human and ingests gametocytes. The male
PR O
and female gametes fuse to form diploid

T SE
zygote, which develops into moving

EN U
ookinete. The ookinete burrows in the

M E
Golgi apparatus
midgut wall of mosquito, forming oocyst
R LIN
Nucleus
on the other side. Growth and division
VE N
Endoplasmic reticulum of each oocyst produce numerous active

O O
Mitochondrion haploid forms called sporozoites. After 8

G R
to 15 days (depending on the species), the

FO
Rhoptries oocyst bursts, thus releasing sporozoites

into the body cavity of the mosquito,
Microtubules from where they travel to, and invade
the mosquito salivary glands. The cycle
of human infection re-starts when the
mosquito taking a blood meal injects the
Figure 3.14 Structure of a Plasmodium sporozoites from its salivary glands into
the human blood stream.

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Sporozoites to
salivary gland Hepatic cell
Oocyst Mature liver schizont

Merozoites
Mosquito Erythrocyte
midgut
Ruptured
Zygote erythrocyte
Erythrocytic schizont
Macrogamete
Microgamete
Gametocyte
Figure 3.15 The life cycle of a Plasmodium
Adaptations of Plasmodium to its mode blood, mosquito’s crop, haemocoel and

of life salivary glands assures their existence
Plasmodium, a parasite that causes malaria in the mentioned parts.
invades the human red blood cells as an e) They have gametocytes which can resist
essential step of its complex life cycle; it
TY
mosquito’s digestive enzymes, and they
PE Y
has the following adaptive features to its

O NL
have adapted to high reproductive rate

R
mode of life: by schizogony in liver cells, repeated

PR O
a) Presence of a well developed chemotactic schizogony in red blood cells, and

T SE
responses which enable them find sporogony in the mosquito salivary

EN U
their way to the liver cells, then to the glands, to ensure their survival.
M E
human red blood cells, gut epithelium,

R LIN
and eventually, to the salivary glands

of mosquitoes. Exercise 3.5
VE N
O O
b) They have enzymes which enable them 1. Distinguish between Apicomplexa

G R
to penetrate through the host cells such and other protoctists.

FO
as liver and red blood cells of human 2. Describe the reproductive cycle of
as well as crop and salivary glands of a Plasmodium.
mosquitoes.
3. Plasmodium is able to survive in
c) Plasmodium has an extremely simple its two different hosts. Justify.
structure, which enhances its sheltered
life within the bodies of the two hosts.
d) The ability to adjust their osmotic
pressure in relation to the mammalian
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Phylum Euglenophyta Distinctive features of phylum

This phylum comprises of unicellular aquaticEuglenophyta
algae, most of them live in freshwater; Members of the phylum Euglenophyta
many possess flagella and are motile. The are distinguished from other phyla by the
outer part of the cell consists of firm but following features:
a) They have pyrenoids for storage of
flexible layer called a pellicle or periplast,
which cannot properly be considered a cell starch.
wall. Some euglenoids contain chloroplasts b) They have eye spot (photoreceptor)
that contain chlorophyll 'a' and 'b'; the for detection of light intensity.
photosynthetic pigments, as in the phylum c) They possess both plant and animal
chlorophyta. Others are heterotrophic and characteristics (Figure 3.16). Plant
can ingest or absorb their food. Food is characteristics include; presence of
stored as paramylon. Reproduction takes chloroplasts containing chlorophyll,
place by longitudinal cell division. The pyrenoids, and utilization of nitrites
most common organism in this phylum is or ammonia as sources of nitrogen.
photosynthetic protozoan such as Euglena, Animal characteristics include;
usually found in water bodies like ponds. possession of myonemes (muscle- like
strands), and flagella for locomotion
General characteristics of phylum (euglenoid movement), utilization of
Euglenophyta amino acids, peptones or polypeptide
a) They have chloroplasts which contain as a source of nitrogen, presence of
chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
TY
gullet with sphincter and reservoir for
PE Y
b) Most of them are found in fresh water;

O NL
ingestion of food.
R
only few are marine dwellers.

PR O
c) They are protected by pellicle which Flagellum

T SE
surrounds the cytoplasm, since they Eye spot

Reservoir
EN U
lack cell wall. This enables the cells Contractile

M E
to change shape because they move vacuole

R LIN
around by euglenoid movement by the

aid of myonemes. Chloroplast
VE N
Nucleus
O O
d) They have two flagella. One of them

N
is short, while the other is long; these

G R
FO
arise from the bottom of a reservoir. Pellicle

e) They have eye spot (photoreceptor)
for detection of light intensity.
Figure 3.16 Structure of the Euglena
f) They have pyrenoids for storage of
starch.
g) They sometimes feed heterotrophically
by using the gullet.

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Adaptations of Euglena occur as saprotrophs; living on decayed

Euglena is able to survive freely in its matter or parasites living on higher
environment due to presence of the plants and can be aquatic, terrestrial or
following adaptive features: amphibious. Oomycetes play an important
role in the decomposition and recycling
a) It has chloroplast which contains of decaying matter. Members of this
chlorophyll for photosynthesis. phylum are fungi-like protoctists such as
b) It sometimes behaves as heterotroph Phytophthora, Puccinia and Pythium.
due to possession of a gullet with
sphincter and reservoir. General characteristics of phylum
Oomycota
c) It can swim using flagella.
a) They are filamentous protoctists
d) It has a flexible pellicle for maintenance which must absorb their food from
of shape and aiding in euglenoid the surrounding water or soil, or may
movement. invade the body of another organism
e) It possesses contractile vacuole for to feed.
osmoregulation. b) They are mostly parasites of plants,
f) It has a high (rapid) rate of multiplication example Phytophthora infestans
during favorable conditions and forms which causes serious diseases such as
cysts under unfavorable conditions to potato blight disease.
ensure survival. TY c) They reproduce sexually by oogamy
in which male and female gametes
PE Y
g) It has a photoreceptor for detection of

fuse to form an oospore.
O NL
R
light conditions.
d) The general body is organised into
PR O
mycelia with aseptate or coenocytic

T SE
hyphae.
EN U
Exercise 3.6 e) They have cell walls made up of

M E
cellulose.
R LIN
1. Euglena is believed to be the

origin of both plants and animals. f) They have a tubular structure called
VE N
Explain. a haustorium used for absorption of

O O
nutrients from the host (Figure 3.17).

2. Draw a well labelled diagram of
G R
FO
Euglena.
Distinctive features of phylum Oomycota
3. Explain the adaptations of Euglena Oomycota can be distinguished from other
to its mode of life. members of the group by the following
features:
Phylum Oomycota a) They have sporangia which produce
The phylum includes fungus-like zoospores.
organisms, which are also referred to as b) Zoospore have two flagella attached to
“water molds”. Normally oomycetes may a ventral groove; the anterior flagellum
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is a tinsel while the posterior one is a angles. The mycelium grows both intra- and
whiplash type. intercellularly. During intercellular growth,
it develops finger like haustoria inside the
Structure of Phytophthora
neighbouring host cells, which are normally
The vegetative body of Phytophthora
the mesophyll cells of the plant leaves.
consists of mycelium which is abundantly
The haustoria absorb nutrients from the
branched where septa may develop in the
leaf cells. The hyphae possess sporangium
older parts and at the base of sex organs.
which produces spores (Figure 3.17).
The mycelium branches arise at right
Haustorium Leaf mesophyll cell
Intercellular hyphae Lower epidermis
Guard cell
Sporangiophore
Stoma
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
Sporangium
PR O
T SE
Figure 3.17 Structure of Phytophthora infestans, growing on an infected potato leaf

EN U
Adaptations of Phytophthora to its mode c) It has haustoria with a large surface

M E
R LIN
of life area for penetration into the plant cells

The Phytophthora have the following and absorption of nutrients from them.
VE N
adaptations to their mode of life: d) The haustoria secrete enzymes which

O O
a) Formation of cysts during unfavourable help the parasite to penetrate its host
G R
conditions ensures its survival. cell.

FO
b) Ability to reproduce both sexually and e) It has spores which withstand the
asexually, with a high reproductive adverse conditions, such that, under
output, increases its chances of favourable conditions, they germinate
survival. to Phytophthora infestans.

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Chlorophytes are heterogeneous in their

Exercise 3.7 pigmentation, shapes, and size. They range
from microscopic, simple and unicellular
1. Outline the general characteristics of such as Chlorella and Chlamydomonas to
Phytophthora infestans. giant multicellular macroalgae. Although
2. Why does Phytophthora infestans they resemble eukaryotic plants in many
belong to kingdom Protoctista? ways, they have no true roots, stem or leaves
and do not produce seeds. The simplest
3. Explain the effects of Phytophthora
structure is unicellular, but they may exist
infestans to plants and show how
in colonies or in filaments of several distinct
the spread of this parasite can be
cells. Others may be multinucleated with
controlled.
interconnected cells that lack cross walls
as in Volvox and Oedogonium respectively.
This section will focus on the characteristics
Phylum Chlorophyta
of chlorophytes, structure, and adaptations
Members of this phylum were formerly
of Spirogyra.
classified as plants. They include
unicellular non motile alga (Chlorella
General characteristics of phylum
and Acetabularia), a unicellular motile
Chlorophyta
alga (Chlamydomonas), filamentous alga a) They are adapted to aquatic
(Spirogyra) and a thalloid marine alga, environments ranging from fresh to
(Ulva). In other classification, chlorophytes marine water, for example, their sexual
TY
PE Y
are placed under kingdom plantae, since reproduction relies on water as they
O NL
R
they are more phylogenetically related to produce motile sperms which have to
PR O
plants. They are regarded as ancestors of move in water medium to fertilise the
T SE
plants, because they have photosynthetic egg.

pigments such as chlorophyll 'a', 'b' and 'β' b) They are photoautotrophs and have
EN U
carotenoids as well as xanthophylls, which chlorophyll 'a' and 'b' and other
M E
R LIN
are characteristics of plants. Additionally, photosynthetic pigments such as

they possess photosynthetic apparatus called carotenoids used in photosynthesis.
VE N
pyrenoid for condensation of glucose to c) They have cell walls made up of

O O
starch, which is the same as photosynthetic cellulose.

G R
FO
product in plants. Under this phylum there d) They store carbohydrates in the form
are important species of high economic of starch.
importance including sources of agar and e) They possess large vacuole for
phycocolloids, which are widely used in osmoregulation.
textile, pharmaceutical, and food industries. f) They occur in a great range of sizes
Chlorophytes are primarily aquatic, and are and forms, including unicellular,
the primary source of energy and oxygen filamentous, colonial and thalloid
to marine heterotrophs. Few are found in forms.
special habitats in terrestrial environments.
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g) They reproduce both sexually and Distinctive features of phylum

asexually; sexual reproduction involves Chlorophyta
specialised cells called sporocytes Chlorophytes are distinguished from other
which undergo meiosis to produce species of Protoctists by the following
haploid motile or flagellated cells called features
zoospores. These grow mitotically to a) They have spiral chloroplasts with
form a gamete producing body called pyrenoids.
gametophyte, capable of producing b) They have central suspended nucleus
either male or female reproductive with cytoplasmic strands.
cells (gametes). Female gametes c) They show an isomorphic and
can be either larger than male ones haplontic alternation of generations.
(anisogamous) or similar (isogamous)
morphologically. Female and male Sturcture of Spirogyra
gametes are flagellated, they can swim Spirogyra is a genus of filamentous green
and unite to form a diploid zygote which algae which have helical or spirally
settles and grows mitotically to form a arranged chloroplast as a characteristic
multicellular body called sporophyte feature of this genus. They have thin strands
which can again produce sporocytes. of cytoplasm in which the prominent
The gametes, if not fertilised, lose their nucleus is suspended, and their spiral
flagella and grow into a new gamete- TY chloroplasts embedded in the cytoplasm
producing body. Asexual reproduction bear the structure called pyrenoid for starch
PE Y
O NL
occurs by vegetative fragmentation storage. The cell wall contains cellulose

R
where individual cell or short chains at the inner layer, and the outer layer
PR O
of cells separated from the main body contains pectin, which is responsible for
T SE
are capable of growing into a new body. the slippery surface of algae. Surrounding
EN U
h) Life cycle of chlorophytes is diverse. the cell wall, there is mucilage, which
M E
For instance, Ulva shows an thickens the cell membrane, store water
R LIN
isomorphic alternation of generations and food. Moreover, Spirogyra has long,

VE N
in which sporocyte-producing body unbranched filaments with cylindrical

O O
called sporophyte generation is cells that are joined end to end. Each cell
G R
morphologically identical to gamete- has a central vacuole. The cells are long
FO
producing body called gametophyte and thin filaments, and sometimes these
generation. Ulothrix shows haplontic filaments develop root-like structures for
life cycle, in which sporophyte attachment to the substrate (Figure 3.18).
and gametophyte generation are
morphologically different.

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Cell membrane
Cell wall Pyrenoid
Cytoplasm
Procedure
a) Collect fresh Spirogyra from fresh
water ponds or slow moving water
streams, and put it into a watch
glass.
b) Add a drop of water on a clean slide
using a dropper, and using an office
pin pick a few threads of Spirogyra
and mount them on the slide.
Mucilage Nucleus Vacuole c) Separate the strands using a pin to
Chloroplast remain with a few threads. Cover
your specimen with a coverslip.
Figure 3.18 Structure of a Spirogyra
d) Place the slide under a light
Adaptations of Spirogyra to its mode of microscope for observation.
life
e) Notice the wide variety of
Spirogyra is able to live and thrive in its
chloroplast types and the small,
environment due to the following adaptive
round, colorless pyrenoids on some
features:
or all the larger chloroplasts.
a) It has pyrenoids for storage of starch.TY
PE Y
b) It has a large vacuole for osmo f) Based on your observation, draw

O NL
R
regulation. and label the diagram of Spirogyra

PR O
c) It has chlorophyll 'a' and 'b' for showing the pyrenoids, spiral
T SE
photosynthesis, hence it is an autotroph. chloroplast, mucilage, cytoplasm,

d) It has mucilage layer to protect it from and nucleus.
EN U
desiccation and infection.

M E
R LIN
e) It has a cellulose cell wall for strength

Exercise 3.8
and protection.
VE N
1. Draw and describe the structure of

O O
Spirogyra.
G R
Activity 3.2 Observation of Spirogyra

FO
2. Describe ways in which Spirogyra

under a light microscope is adapted to its mode of life.
Materials 3. Explain the role of Spirogyra in

oxygen balance in fresh water
Fresh Spirogyra, microscope, slides, habitat.
slide cover, dropper, office pin, watch
4. With examples, explain why
glass, and beaker containing water.
taxonomists sometimes regard
Spirogyra as a plant.
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Economic importance of kingdom f) Algae species produces oxygen useful

Protoctista for aerobic respiration, particularly
Protoctista are mostly aquatic organisms in the aquatic environment which is
found in sea, fresh water and moist soil. utilised by other aquatic organisms.
Many are also found in the form of g) Some are used in agriculture as good
plankton and some live in the bodies of sources or fertilizer. For example,
animals as parasites. Some members of liquid extracts from the brown algae
the kingdom Protoctista plays an essential supply potassium and trace elements
role in the ecosystem that can benefit such as zinc.
humans and other creatures. However, h) Some algae serve as a source of agar,
some members are important pathogens used in the pharmaceutical industry
and can bring harm to living organisms. In in preparation of culture media for
some cases, Protoctista might be a source growing microbes, such as bacteria
of pollution in lakes and coastal shores. and fungi.
i) Some protoctists such as algae are
Advantages of kingdom Protoctista
milled or ground to obtain powder
Protoctists have the following economic
which is used as a thickener, binder,
importance:
gelling or stabilising agents in the
a) Algae are edible and nutritious to
manufacture of various products such
humans and other animals. Some
as cosmetics, paints, tooth paste, and
species are cultivated and harvested
ice cream.
for consumption by human being. Red
TY
PE Y
algae are rich in vitamins and minerals. j) Some protoctists such as Entamoeba
O NL
R
Carrageenan, a polysaccharide coli; a non-pathogenic species of genus

PR O
extracted from red algae, is used as Entamoeba, can exist as a commensal

parasite in the human gastrointestinal
T SE
thick agent in ice cream and other

foods. tract and feed on pathogenic bacteria.
EN U
b) Giant kelp forests (Large brown algae)

M E
Disadvantages of kingdom Protoctista

R LIN
are rich ecosystems, providing food

and shelter for many organisms. a) They cause pollution; the red algae
VE N
cause water pollution called the algal

c) Trichonymphs are flagellates that live
O O
bloom which may hinder boating and

in the intestines of termites. These
G R
recreation.
protozoans break down cellulose in
FO
wood into carbohydrates that termites b) They cause diseases to human beings;
can digest. for instance, Amoebiasis is caused
by Entamoeba histolytica, malaria is
d) Algae and Euglena are primary
caused by Plasmodium species (like
producers in aquatic ecosystems. Most
Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium
species are primary sources of food for
vivax, and Plasmodium falciparum).
aquatic organisms such as fishes and
zooplanktons. c) Some members of the kingdom
cause diseases to animals; for
e) Some Protoctists are used as fish baits.
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example Trypanosoma brucei causes parasitic or saprophytic. Fungi produce

Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) extracellular enzymes which digest almost
to humans, Trypanosoma vivax causes everything including protein and starch. The
Nagana disease in cattle. end products of digestion are absorbed by
d) Some members cause diseases special structures called haustoria (plural)
to plants. A good example is or haustorium (singular). Some fungi are
Phytophthora infectans which infect parasites, as they obtain nutrients directly
tomato and potato plants. from other living organisms such as plants
and animals. They have cell walls made up
3. 5 Kingdom Fungi of chitin, unlike plant cell walls which are
Organisms belonging to this kingdom are made up of cellulose. Organisms under this
those originally placed in kingdom Plantae kingdom store carbohydrate in the form of
under the two kingdom classification glycogen like animals, but not starch, as in
system. The early placement of fungi chlorophytes and plants.
under kingdom Plantae was due to the
morphological appearance of some fungi, They have a variety of shapes and sizes
particularly the mushrooms which resemble extending from microscopic to macroscopic.
plants. The microscopic fungi were not Sexual reproduction in fungi involves two
yet known by then, since the microscopes haploid nuclei of compatible mating hyphae
were not yet invented. It was discovered strains that unite to form a zygote which
later that fungi differ from plants in several later grows into a new fungal body. Asexual
reproduction is accomplished by production
TY
ways, hence they were placed in their own
PE Y
of asexual spore which, under favorable

O NL
kingdom, and most of them had economic

R
importance. Through mycology (a study of conditions, germinates and grows to form

PR O
fungi), over 100,000 species of Fungi have new haploid fungal hyphae. Examples
T SE
been described. It is estimated that there are of organisms in this kingdom include
mushrooms, yeasts, Penicillium, bread
EN U
over 1million species of Fungi waiting for

mould, and toadstool.
M E
identification.
R LIN
Fungi are eukaryotic, unicellular or Position of kingdom Fungi

VE N
multicellular multinucleate organisms, As explained earlier, the position of fungi in

O O
made up of a mass of branching and delicate classification was one of the controversial
G R
thread-like structures called hyphae, which arguments. It was previously not clear
FO
collectively constitute fungal bodies called whether fungi should be classified as an

mycelium. Depending on the species, some animal or as a plant, because they have
hyphae may have cross walls called septa, some features in common for both plant
dividing hyphae into many cells with one or and animal groups.
more nuclei. In some species, the cytoplasm
is continuous without cross walls. Fungi Similarities between fungi and animals
are thallophytes, lacking chlorophyll, Similar to animals, fungi have the
hence nutrition in these organisms is either following features:
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a) They have chitin as a structural Phylum Zygomycota

carbohydrate in the cell wall. This is Fungi belonging to this phylum produce
a feature typical of animals such as asexual resting spore called zygospore,
arthropods; example insects. which is produced when two opposite mating
b) They store carbohydrates in the form strains come close together and their haploid
of glycogen. nuclei unite. The zygospores are resistant
c) They are heterotrophs. Thus, they to breakage but they are light, hence they
cannot manufacture their own food can be dispersed by wind and water. The
since they are either saprophytes or structure of zygospore is capable of keeping
parasites. The parasitic fungi can be the fungus over a long period of dormancy.
facultative or obligate. Cells within the zygospore undergo meiosis
to form haploid spores and when released
in favorable conditions they germinate
Similarities between fungi and plants
to form a new hyphae or mycelium. This
Similar to plants, fungi have the following
phylum comprises of saprophytic fungi
features:
such as Mucor and Rhizopus stolonifer; a
a) Their cells have cell wall. common bread mould. Zygomycetes can
b) Some fungi have vegetative bodies also reproduce asexually by spores born
that are superficially differentiated out of sporangia. Some zygomycetes are
into shoot-like and root-like systems. parasites in plants, insects, and animals.
c) Most fungi’s growth is restricted to
apical cells.
TY
General characteristics of phylum
PE Y
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d) They are non-motile. Zygomycota

R
e) They reproduce sexually by formation a) They produce a characteristic sexual

PR O
of spores such as ascospore in yeast resting spore called zygospore.

T SE
and basidiospores in mushrooms. Some b) They are eukaryotic organisms,

EN U
fungi reproduce asexually by producing with aseptate hyphae that have

M E
spores such as sporangiospore. well developed branching mycelia.

R LIN
f) They lack centrioles in their cells. Aseptate means without septa or

cross walls, and are sometimes called
VE N
coenocytic.
O O
Fungi are heterogeneous kingdom

c) They undergo both sexual and asexual
G R
consisting of several phyla. However,

reproduction. Sexual reproduction is
FO
despite many ways in which fungal by conjugation; this involves fusion

organisms are distinct, the major criterion of two haploid nuclei from the two
used in grouping them into their respective mating hyphae or strains to produce
groups is their reproductive structures. zygospores. Asexual reproduction
Within the kingdom Fungi there are three occurs via haploid spores released
phyla, namely; Zygomycota, Ascomycota, from sporangia.
and Basidiomycota.
d) They are saprophytes since they feed
on dead decaying organic matter by

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undergoing extracellular digestion. c) They undergo sexual reproduction

However, some zygomycetes are involving two gametangia to produce
parasitic on plants, animals, and a resting spore known as zygospore.
insects.
e) Their hyphae have three distinct parts, Structure of Rhizopus
namely sporangiophore, stolon, and The body of Rhizopus consists of branching
rhizoids. mycelia composed of three types of hyphae;
stolons, rhizoids, and normally branching
Distinctive features of phylum sporangiophores (a stalk that arises from the
Zygomycota vegetative hypha), and sporangia (asexual
Members of the phylum Zygomycota have spore-forming structures) arise from stolons
the following features that differentiate opposite to rhizoids (Figure 3.19). Stolons
them from other phyla: are the horizontal creeping hyphae that
a) They have aseptate hyphae which interconnect the upright growing hyphae.
lack cross walls between adjacent The sporangiospores are produced inside
cells. They are therefore coenocytic in the spherical structure called sporangium
structure. which is supported by the columella.
b) Their cytoplasm is continuous and
multinucleate.
TY
PE Y
Sporangium
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Collumela Sporangiospores
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Apophysis
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Sporangiophore
M E
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VE N
O O
Stolon
N
G R
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Mycellium
Rhizoids
Figure 3.19 Structure of a Rhizopus
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Adaptations of Rhizopus to their mode

of life Activity 3.3 Observation of Rhizopus
Members of Rhizopus are saprophytic, and
can grow and survive on various organic Materials
substrates including bread, mature fruits, Bread, petri or dissecting dishes, hand
and vegetables. They are able to acclimatize lens or light microscope, and slides.
themselves to their environment due to the
presence of the following adaptive features: Procedure
a) Pressure in columella makes the a) Take one slice of bread in a dish.
sporangium burst to release haploid b) Leave it exposed on a bench for five
spores. Each individual spore upon to seven days, until black hairy-like
falling on conducive environment can structures appear on the slice.
germinate to a new hyphae body. These c) Use a hand lens or a light microscope
asexual spores are produced in large to observe the specimen on the slice.
quantities; even in harsh conditions Carefully observe the upright hyphae
when the environment is dry, they ensure with black spherical structures at
a quick spread of the species. their tips.
b) They have rhizoids for anchorage on the
Questions
substrate and absorption of nutrients. 1. Draw a well labelled diagram of
TY
c) Their hyphae show chemotropism; in the observed specimen.
PE Y
O NL
response to the digested food substances.

R
2. State the functions of each

structure in the diagram you have
PR O
d) They produce thick-walled resistant,

drawn.
T SE
dormant zygospore. This enables the

spores to withstand unfavourable and 3. Identify the specimen by its
EN U
adverse conditions. common name.

M E
R LIN
e) The wall of sporangium is so brittle that

it easily breaks off to release the spores Phylum Ascomycota
VE N
O O
and ensure their multiplication. These are ascocarp forming fungi such as
G R
f) Under asexual reproduction, they yeasts (Saccharomyces), Aspergillus, and

FO
produce large number of spores to Penicillium. The ascocarp are cup-like

ensure survival of the species. structures containing small sacs which
produce spores known as ascospores,
g) The spores are small and very light, resulting from sexual reproduction. Besides
and the sporangia are raised up to aid sexual spores, ascomycetes produce asexual
dispersal of spores by wind. spores called conidia, which develop at
the tips of specialised hyphae called
conidiophores. This is the most diverse
group with about 30,000 described species.
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Organisms in this phylum form many c) They have a fruiting body containing
colourful cup shaped growths called morels several sac-like structures called asci
on decaying logs of trees, fruits, crops, (singular ascus) which produce haploid
and foods. Most ascomycetes have highly spores called ascospores. These spores
branched hyphae. They are thus mycelia can germinate to form new haploid
except yeasts, which are unicellular. hyphae.
d) They possess conidia which are
Yeast shows a number of differences in
found at the apex of hyphae called
morphology, reproduction, and cell structure,
conidiophores which produce millions
when compared to other ascomycetes.
of resistant spores used in asexual
Besides lacking hyphae, yeast does not
reproduction.
have ascocarp, hence they are sometimes
referred to as hemiascomycetes; meaning e) Sexual reproduction is accomplished by
“half ascomycetes,” to distinguish them mating of compatible hyphae forming a
from euascomycetes or true ascomycetes dikaryotic hyphae; that is hyphae with
that have hyphae and ascocarp. They two nuclei in their cell. The nuclei will
extracellularly secrete and produce enzymes fuse only after the formation of ascus.
such as protease (protein digesting enzymes) The diploid nucleus will later undergo
and cellulase (cellulose digesting enzyme). meiotic and mitotic divisions to form
These kinds of enzymes make this group ascospores.
very destructive to animals, and plants.
However, some ascomycetes such as yeast f) Some ascomycetes such as yeasts are
TY
PE Y
are widely used in brewing industries for unicellular and reproduce asexually by
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R
production of alcohol through fermentation, budding (new cells form on the surface
PR O
while others are used in bakery and textile of the old ones).
T SE
industries.
Distinctive features of phylum
EN U
General characteristics of phylum Ascomycota

M E
Ascomycota The following are the distinctive features

R LIN
of the phylum Ascomycota:

VE N
a) Their mycelium is made up of tightly a) They have specialised spore producing

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woven septate hyphae except yeasts, structures called ascocarps.

G R
which are unicellular.

FO
b) They reproduce asexually using conidia

b) They are heterotrophic saprophytes; in formed on the tips of conidiophores; in
contrast to other members are parasites. some members asexual reproduction is
For example, Candida albicans are through budding.
infectious ascomycetes which cause
mouth thrush. In plants, they are c) Some are unicellular heterotrophs,
responsible for powdery mildew which and lack typical hyphae, for example
infects cereal grains. Saccharomyces.
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Structure of Saccharomyces apparatus, vacuoles and ribosomes which

Saccharomyces are flat, smooth, and are found within the cytoplasm (Figure
moist. They are unicellular, and they lack 3.20). The cell walls of Saccharomyces
hypha. They have eukaryotic organelles are elastic, determine the shape of the
such as mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi cell, and provide osmotic and physical
protection.
Scar of attachment Cell wall

to parent cell Vacuole
Cytoplasm
Nucleus Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
Chitin cell wall Nucleus
Mitochondrion Food reserves such
New cells attached
as glucose and oil
Vacuole to parent cell
(a) (b)
Figure 3.20 Structure of Saccharomyces (a) a single cell (b) a budding cell
Adaptations of Saccharomyces to its e) Spores’ ability to remain dormant in

mode of life TY unfavourable conditions ensures their
PE Y
Saccharomyces species have the following existence.

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adaptive features that enable them suit to f) Some Saccharomyces are facultative
PR O
their mode of life: anaerobes. They have an ability to

respire anaerobically or aerobically,
T SE
a) They store carbohydrates in the form

which ensures survival in both aerobic
EN U
of glycogen for use during shortage of

and anaerobic conditions.
food supply.
M E
R LIN
b) They have permeable cell walls to allow

Activity 3.4 Observation of yeast cells
entry of nutrients that are obtained
VE N
under light microscope

O O
from external digestion. Thus, they

N
can absorb simple monosaccharides

G R
Materials
FO
and vitamins directly from their

environment. Yeast cells, water, beaker, stirring rod,
c) They secrete extracellular enzymes dropper, slides, and microscope.
such as sucrase and cellulase for
digestion of carbohydrate, and Procedure
protease for digestion of protein. a) Put some yeast in a beaker contain-
d) They have high reproductive rate ing small amount of water, then stir
through budding, to produce new cells to get a suspension.
hence increase in number.
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b) Add a drop of suspension using a cereals, among other plant species.

dropper, put it on a clean slide. Saprophytic basidiomycetes include the
c) Observe the specimen under a light edible mushroom Agaricus campestris while
microscope. others like Amanita virosa are poisonous.
In addition, symbiotic association called
Questions mycorrhizae are common between
basidiomycetes and roots of higher plants.
1. Draw and label a diagram of the speci-
men under observation. This phylum got its name due to the
presence of a characteristic club shaped
2. Classify yeast to phylum level.
structure known as a basidium (plural
basidia) from which basidiospores are
produced. Basidiospores are characteristic
sexual reproductive structures of
Exercise 3.9
basidiomycetes. Individual basidia
1. In which ways are Ascomycetes are fused to form basidiocarp, which
similar to and yet different from is the most spectacular and familiar
Zygomycetes? stage of most basidiomycetes such as
2. With examples, explain why yeast mushrooms. Species in this phylum have
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is not septate hyphae with distinct small pores.
a good representative of phylum Haploid hyphae of basidiomycetes like
mushrooms fuse to form a dikaryotic
TY
Ascomyota, but it is still classified
PE Y
under the same phylum. mycelium called stipe, growing upright

O NL
R
and culminate into an umbrella-like cap

3. Describe the adaptations of yeast to
PR O
called basidiocarp in which the hyphae

its mode of life.
T SE
are tightly packed. The hyphae tips are

4. In which ways are Ascomycetes swollen forming a characteristic club-like
EN U
economically important in our daily structure (basidia) in which the dikaryotic

M E
life? nuclei fuse and later meiotically divide to

R LIN
form four haploid basidiospores. These

VE N
Phylum Basidiomycota are ejected out of the basidia through four

O O
This phylum consists of basidiomycetes fingerlike projections at the tip of each

G R
which contains about 25,000 species. It basidium. Each spore can germinate to
FO
is the most common and widely known form new haploid hyphae. Evolutionarily,
phylum of kingdom fungi. Organisms in basidiomycetes are more closely related to
this kingdom include mushrooms, bracket ascomycetes than to the other phyla. The
fungi, puffballs, smuts, rust and toadstools. basidia function in a similar way as ascus.
Some basidiomycetes are parasites, while
others are saprophytes. Bracket fungi cause General characteristics of phylum
damage to plants. For example Puccinia Basidiomycota
graminis causes wheat rust; smuts infest a) They have a characteristic cap-like
structure called basidiocarp, which
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contains numerous club-like structures b) Hyphae have septa with distinctive

known as basidia from which pores.
haploid, sexually reproduced spores
(basidiospores) are produced. Structure of Agaricus
b) Sexual reproduction in most Members of Agaricus consist of a stalked
basidiomycetes results into the fruiting body with pileus on its top (a
formation of dikaryotic hyphae fleshy cap), which in turn bears numerous
c) They have septate hyphae. radially arranged gills on its basement. The
d) Some basidiomycetes are saprophytes vegetative mushroom body is also called
while others are parasites. mycelium. The underground hyphae have
minute threads called rhizoids, as a group
Distinctive features of phylum are also known as mycelium threads. They
Basidiomycota are located underneath the fruiting body,
Members of phylum Basidiomycota and they store and supply the nutrients to
possess some features which differentiate the mushroom. These structures anchor
them from the other phyla. These features the mushroom to the substrate, while the
include: stipe (stem) make it stand upright (Figure
a) Basidium formed at the tips of hyphae is 3.21). Cup (volva) is found below the
a characteristic sexual spore producing
stem while the ring (annulus) surrounds
structure in which union of dikaryotic
the stem.
nuclei occurs, followed by meiosis to
TY
PE Y
produce haploid basidiospores.

O NL
R
PR O
Cap (pileus)
T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
Ring (annulus) Gills (lamellae)

VE N
O O
Stem (stipe)
G R
FO
Cup (volva)
Mycelium thread
(rhizoid)
Figure 3.21 Structure of an Agaricus

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Adaptations of Agaricus to its b) Observe the specimen using a hand

saprophytic mode of life lens or under a low power of the
Members of the genus Agaricus are light microscope.
adapted to saprophytic mode of life. The c) Take note of the gills radiating out
adaptations of Agaricus to its mode of life from the stalk (stipe) like the spokes
are as follows: of the wheel.
a) They have ability to secrete a variety d) Examine part of the gill under high
of hydrolytic enzymes for extracellular power and note the presence of tiny
digestion of various organic matters. club-shaped basidia lining one side
b) They possess rhizomorphs which are of the gill. Sometimes, small finger-
responsible for absorption of nutrients like projections at the tips of basidia
from the substratum. are visible in which black spots
c) They have stipe for upward transport ‘basidiospores’ are found.
of nutrients to reach cap cells.
d) They store carbohydrates in the form Questions
of glycogen for use during shortage of 1. Draw and label the structure
food supply. under observation.
e) They are able to grow and survive on
2. Outline the adaptive features of
different substrata to increase chances the specimen to its mode of life.
of survival. TY
PE Y
f) They produce large numbers of very

O NL
R
tiny and resistant basidiospores which

PR O
are easily dispersed and resistant to

Safety precaution
harsh conditions.
T SE
g) They have pileus or cap made up Some mushroom species are poisonous
EN U
of closely packed hyphae to confer when consumed, so be careful when

M E
protection to the gills. dealing with mushrooms.

R LIN
VE N
Activity 3.5 Observation of a mushroom Economic importance of Fungi

O O
Although some fungal species are

G R
Materials
FO
Fresh or preserved mushroom, hand lens pathogenic that may cause disease in plants
or light microscope, petri dish, and a and animals. Most fungi are saprophytic
pair of gloves. and not pathogenic to plants and animals
Procedure are important to human life at many levels.
a) Wear a pair of gloves on your hands Fungi play an important role in medical
and collect a fresh or preserved industry, agriculture, research and in the
specimen of mushroom and put it in
ecosystem.
a petri dish.
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Advantages of kingdom Fungi which is used in many aspects of

a) Some members of the kingdom cell biology and biochemistry to
Fungi such as Agaricus species are elucidate various molecular events
source of food to human being. For involved in epigenesis, cell fusion and
example Agaricus bisporus are the development.
most important edible mushroom i) Fungi, particularly the genetically
commercially cultivated world-wide. engineered ones, can be used in
They are rich source of nutrients such bioremediation to degrade some
as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, pollutants in the environment.
minerals, fibres, and vitamins. They They are useful in detoxification of
can be used as nutritional supplements poisonous substances such as cyanide
to humans. They can also be used for which is removed from cassava by
medical therapy: as antimicrobial, moulds, such as Rhizopus.
anticancer, and antioxidant roles. Other j) Saprophytic fungi are used as
animals such as ants and millipedes scavengers in sewage treatment to
feed on fungi. clean the environment. Some fungi
b) Yeasts are used in fermentation to with the ability to digest cellulose are
produce alcohol in brewing industries. used in waste papers’ disposal.
c) Fungi are important in production of k) Some fungi are grown for commercial
organic acids and organic solvents production in order to extract pigments
such as acetic acid, lactic acid, amyl, which are used in the preparation of
isoamyl alcohol, and glycerol. various dye materials.
d) Saprophytic fungal communities are l) Some fungi can be used in biological
TY
PE Y
important in the soil as they decompose control as they obtain their food
O NL
R
dead organic matter and recycle by destroying other organisms like

PR O
nutrients locked in dead plants and amoeba, rotifers, and nematodes. In

animals thereby improving soil fertility. addition, entomogenous fungi are
T SE
e) Some members of the kingdom parasitic on insects and other small

EN U
Fungi are used in producing medicine anthropods such as mites and spiders.
M E
(antibiotics) such as penicillin from m) They are involved in symbiotic

R LIN
Penicillium sp., and ephedrine extracted mycorrhizal association with roots

from yeast. of vascular plants in which they
VE N
increase the plant roots’ surface area

O O
f) They are sources of important hormones

such as gibberellins obtained from for absorption of nutrients of nutrients,
G R
while, in turn, the fungi get some of

FO
Gibberella fujikuroi. This hormone

regulates vegetative and fruit growth the photosynthesized food from plants.
in plants. n) They are used in biological studies
g) They are important in cheese industry as specimens, for instance Rhizopus,
and in production of some enzymes Saccharamyces, and Agaricus.
such as amylase.
h) They are used in research such as Disadvantages of kingdom Fungi
biochemical genetics; a good example a) Some fungi produce toxins that can
is Neurospora crassa (ascomycetes) affect plants and animals, for example

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some fungi are so poisonous that

when consumed by mammals they can 4. Explain why the placement of
cause death. An example of poisonous fungi under the kingdoms Plantae
mushrooms is Amanita. and Animalia was confusing early
b) Some fungi cause diseases, for example, taxonomists.
ringworms (dermatophytosis or tinea) 5. Briefly explain why ascomycetes
are fungal skin infection in animals and
and basidiomycetes are evolutionarily
smuts in plants.
related.
c) Foods such as grains, tubers, and fruits
can be destroyed by saprophytic fungi
such as Mucor and Rhizopus if not well
stored. 3.6 Kingdom Plantae
Plants can be broadly defined as
d) Saprophytic fungi deteriorate organic
materials such as leather, natural multicellular eukaryotic photoautotrophs.
fabrics, and damp timber, example They contain chloroplasts which have
mold leather, mildew and wet rot fungi. chlorophylls 'a' and 'b'. Some plants contain
e) When accidentally consumed in food, photosynthetic pigment called carotenoid
some fungal species affect the nervous which is used for photosynthesis. Their
system and may cause hallucinations, cells have cell walls made up of cellulose
example an invasive fungus called and have large permanent vacuoles. Plants
Cryptococcus may cause a serious store carbohydrates in the form of starch.
inflamation of brain and spinal cord,
TY
They reproduce sexually by production of
PE Y
the condition known as cryptococcal

O NL
spores and vary from primitive to advanced

R
meningitis.
plants. The most primitive plants such as
PR O
f) Some fungi such as the Penicillium,

which are used in pharmaceutical and Bryophytes produce spores which are of
T SE
cheese industries, cause various types the same kind and size (homospores) and
EN U
of allergic conditions to some people. the plants are termed homosporous. On the
M E
other hand the advanced plants, including a

R LIN
few species of ferns and all seed producing

Exercise 3.10
VE N
plants are heterosporous, as they produce

O O
1. With examples, explain how two types of spores: micro and macro spores.
G R
mycology and its application Plants exhibit alternation of generations in

FO
can be an important step towards which a haploid gamete producing phase

industrial revolution in Tanzania. called gametophyte generation alternate
2. Give reasons to justify the position with the diploid spore producing phase
of fungi in their kingdom. called sporophyte generation. Plants are
sessile, meaning that they have limited
3. What is the single important factor
considered in classifying fungi locomotion but show curvature movements.
into different phyla? Give an Their vegetative body is divided into root
example for each phylum. and shoot systems.
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Plants are believed to have evolved from to produce seeds, and flower formation.
an aquatic ancestor which was probably Among others, these features have led to the
Ulotricales algae stocks. Life on land started classification of plants into four divisions,
about 0.5 billion years ago when the earliest namely Bryophyta, Filicinophyta (or
plants started to establish their life on land. Pteridophyta), Coniferophyta (or Pinophyta)
The earliest plants were very tiny and were and Angiospermophyta.
not well differentiated in roots, stem, and
leaves. In addition, they had no vascular 3.6.1 Division Bryophyta
tissues. Water was absorbed to their bodies Bryophytes are the most primitive terrestrial
by simple diffusion. They produced motile plants. They resemble the most advanced
sperms which restricted their habitats to wet algae species in certain ways especially their
areas or seasonally wet areas. dependence on water in sexual reproduction
and lack of conducting tissues. Unlike algae,
Early plants slowly adapted to terrestrial they form a zygote which is protected in
habitat by developing features such as the female reproductive structure called
cuticle to protect them from desiccation, archegonium that safeguards the zygote
development of roots and vascular against physical damage and desiccation.
system for water uptake and movement, Most bryophytes have poor vegetative
and translocation of food. Furthermore, differentiation because they are thallose
in sexual reproduction, fertilisation was (or thalloid). The lack of conducting tissues
taking place inside the female reproductive (xylem and phloem) in bryophytes, unlike
structure called archegonia, within which in other divisions of plants, is a challenge
TY
PE Y
zygote development occurs. This was in terrestrial environments where water is

O NL
R
important to protect the delicate zygote limited.

PR O
from desiccation. The most advanced

T SE
plants overcome dependence on water in However, water can simply be absorbed over
reproduction by producing special tubes their surface as they have various structural
EN U
called pollen tube to carry sperms to the features to ensure the absorption of water
M E
female reproductive organs for fertilisation.falling on their surface. For instance, their
R LIN
Plants can reproduce asexually in various leaf-like structures are overlapping, and
VE N
ways, including through the use of gemmae have small warts on them to delay escaping
O O
as in bryophytes, and using various other water. In addition, they do not grow tall,
G R
types of vegetative reproduction such as hence, water can rise by capillarity, and
FO
fragmentation and cuttings. they also have rhizoids for anchorage and
easy absorption of water and mineral salts
Members of the kingdom Plantae are from the soil surface. Bryophytes include
heterogeneous in many features. Among mosses, hornworts, and liverworts.
key aspects used in the classification of
plants is alternation of generation. The Traditionally, bryophytes were classified
features characterising each phase of into two classes, namely Musci and
generation are: types of spores, spore Hepaticae. Members of class Musci include
producing features, vascular tissue, ability moss plants (Funaria sp.), while members
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of class Hepaticae include liverworts (Pellia h) Asexual reproduction is by

sp). A recent classification splits bryophytes fragmentation in which a small part
into three classes, namely Hepaticopsida can detach from the mother plant to
(Liverworts), Bryopsida (Mosses), and form green multicellular reproductive
Anthoceropsida (Hornworts). bodies of different shapes called
gemmae. Gemmae is formed in gemma
General characteristics of division cups on the leaf surfaces, stem apex
Bryophyta or inside the cells. Each gemmae can
a) They show alternation of generations germinate to form a new gametophyte
in which the haploid gametophyte upon falling on a suitable substrate.
generation is dominant over the diploid i) They contain photosynthetic pigments
sporophyte generation. (chlorophyll) as that of higher plants.
b) The sporophyte is attached on the
gametophyte generation, and it depends Distinctive features of division
upon it for support and nutrition. Bryophyta
c) The gametophyte generation is Bryophytes possess the following features
anchored by filamentous rhizoids which differentiate them from members
which provide support and used for of other divisions:
absorption of water and mineral salts.
a) They lack conducting tissue such as
d) They lack vascular tissue, meaning xylem and phloem.
that they have no xylem and phloem.
TY
PE Y
b) They do not possess true stem,

O NL
e) They have a thallus body which shows leaves, and roots. They have rhizoids
R
low level of differentiation; hence, instead of roots and they also lack
PR O
they lack true leaves, stems, and roots. cuticle; therefore, absorption of water
T SE
f) They have a sporophyte generation, and mineral salts in species such as

EN U
which produces homospores. Upon liverworts takes place over the whole
M E
landing on a conducive environment, surface of the plant by diffusion.

R LIN
the spores can germinate to form c) They have a dominant gametophyte

VE N
the gametophyte generation on generation, on which sporophyte

O O
which male and female reproductive generation is attached and depends on

G R
structures develop. They undergo gametophyte for food and support.

FO
sexual reproduction which involves d) They are homosporous and their

multicellular sex organs called haploid spores germinate into
antheridia (male sex organs) and a characteristic structure called
archegonia (female sex organs). protonema, which are filament of cells
that later grow to form gametophytes.
g) They are found mainly in damp and
shady environment because their sexual
reproduction depends on water, which
facilitates mobility of their sperms.
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Structure of Funaria sp. water and mineral salts. The greenish part
A mature Funaria plant is structurally of the plant (that is the stem-like structure
erect, measuring only a few centimetres and leaf-like structure), and the rhizoids
above the ground. It is clearly constitute a gametophyte body (Figure
differentiated into stem-like and root-like 3.22). The sporophyte has a capsule which
systems. The stem-like structure bears encloses the spores and their sex organs
leaf-like structures that are arranged (antheridia and archegonia) which are
spirally along it. At the base of the “stem” borne at the tips of stem-like structures.
are tuft of adventitious rhizoids that are Funaria hygrometrica is the most common
used for anchorage and absorption of moss species.
Capsule
Annulus
Peristome
Spores
Sporophyte (2n)
Operculum (capsule lid)
Calyptra
Seta
TY Leaves
PE Y
Gametophyte (n)
O NL
R
Main axis
PR O
Rhizoids
T SE
EN U
Figure 3.22 Structure of a Funaria

M E
R LIN
Reproduction of Funaria on the surface. The sperms produced have

A mature gametophyte of genus Funaria two flagella (bi-flagellate spermatozoids);
VE N
O O
consists of short stem-like structure in hence, they can swim towards the egg
which antheridia and archegonia are (oogonium) located in the archegonium.
G R
FO
borne at the tips of the male and female Fertilisation takes place inside the
stems respectively. Sexual reproduction archegonium to form a diploid zygote.
requires water which is an essential It keeps growing while still inside the
medium for sperm swimming from the archegonium to form a stalk-like structure
male gametangium (antheridium) to called seta which is a young sporophyte.
female gametangium (archegonium). This structure later matures and produces
Normally, when it rains, these small stem- capsule on its tip. This means the entire
like structures become flooded, saturated, sporophyte (seta and capsule) grows on
swollen, and they burst to release sperms the gametophyte, where it is supported and

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supplied with food. The capsule produces spores which, once released, can germinate
to form another gametophyte. The cycle repeats over again (Figure 3.23).
Meiosis
Sporangium
Spores Leaf gametophyte
Seta (n)
Sporophyte (2n)
Protonema
(n)
Gametophyte
Gametophyte (n) Gametophyte
Antheridium
sperm (n) Rhizoid
Embryo
(2n)
Sperm
Egg
Fertilization Egg (n)
TY Archegonium
Archegonium
PE Y
O NL
R
PR O
Figure 3.23 The life cycle of a Funaria

T SE
EN U
Activity 3.6 Observation of moss plant greenish part and a small stalk
M E
growing on it; bearing a small club-

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Materials like structure at the top.

VE N
Moss plant, hand lens or light

O O
microscope, and petri dish. Questions

G R

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Procedure what you have observed.

a) Collect fresh moss plants from damp 2. Compare your diagram with that
areas, wet walls, or tree barks. of Figure 3.22.
b) Take a single moss plant and put it
on a petri dish.
c) Observe the specimen using hand
lens or light microscope. Note the
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Adaptations of Funaria to its mode of

life Exercise 3.11
Members of Funaria have the following 1. Briefly explain how bryophytes

adaptive features: have managed to overcome
various challenges in terrestrial
a) They have chlorophyllous “leaf-like
habitats.
structures” for photosynthesis.
2. Explain why bryophytes are
b) They have limited heights to overcome
regarded as amphibious plants.
problems associated with lack of
vascular tissues. Water and mineral 3. Outline the distinctive features of
salts can move up by capillarity in division Bryophyta.
their short stems.
c) They possess rhizoids for anchorage 3.6.2 Division Filicinophyta
on soil as well as absorption of water (Pteridophyta)
and mineral salts. Members of division Filicinophyta
d) Male gametes, antherozoids, are are called pteridophytes. Examples of
biflagellate for swimming into pteridophytes include ferns. Pteridophytes
archegonia. inhabit damp shady environments, such
as on the floor of moist forests and river
e) They produce small and light spores
banks. About 1100 species of ferns are
that are easily dispersed to allow
currently identified. Ferns are related to
TY
colonization of new areas.
PE Y
bryophytes in several ways, indicating

O NL
R
f) The spores are tolerant to long that they might have probably descended
PR O
periods of unfavorable conditions from bryophytes. For example sexual

T SE
due to the presence of a thick wall reproduction in pteridophytes depends on

with sporopollen in one of the major water like in bryophytes. Moreover, like
EN U
chemical component (polymers) on bryophytes, the pteridophytes’ zygotes are

M E
the outer wall of the spores. retained and develop inside the multicellular
R LIN
g) They have elongated seta to expose archegonium. However, unlike bryophytes,

VE N
the capsule to air for easy dispersal of pteridophytes exhibit alternation of

O O
spores. generation in which the sporophyte

G R
generation is dominant over gametophyte

FO
h) Archegonia secrete chemical generation which is relatively reduced and

attractants which attract antherozoids dependent on sporophyte. Ferns are also
to swim towards the egg during heterogenous in size and shape, ranging
fertilisation. from filiform ferns to tree like ferns which
can grow to approximately 20 metres tall
and with broad leaves known as fronds. A
fern tree called Cyathea manniana is very
common in most parts of the eastern arch

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mountain forests of Tanzania such as the or petiole. Characteristically, the young

Udzungwa scarp forest reserve. This fern leaves show a tightly rolled structure
can grow to a height of about 5 metres. called circinate leaves or croziers which
Ferns have conducting tissues (xylem and later unroll to reveal fronds with a stalk
phloem) which are not well developed and or petiole at the base. The bases of the
are sometimes termed as tracheophytes. fronds are covered with dry brown scales
While most pteridophytes are homosporous, called ramenta for protection of young
some of the fern species produce two types leaves against drought. The frond has a
of spores (heterosporous). Besides the midrib called rachis, which bear leaflets
pteridophytes, which are regarded as true called pinnae on both sides and small
ferns, other plant species called fern allies rounded sub-divisions of pinnae called
are not true ferns, though they relatively pinnules (Figure 3.24).
resemble pteridophytes in various ways. For
example they disperse by shedding spores The mature frond bears specialised
to initiate an alternation of generation. An reproductive structures called sori (clusters
example of a common fern is Dryopteris of sporangia) on the lower surface of the
filix-mas, found in damp woods and other frond. The sporangia contain spores;
shady places. therefore, sporangia bearing leaves are
called sporophyll (sporo meaning spore
Structure of Dryopteris sp. and phyll meaning leaves). The Dryopteris
A mature fern plant has an underground species have poorly developed vascular
creeping stem called rhizome. This bears tissues with simple xylem elements for
adventitious true roots for anchorage and the mechanical support and transport of
TY
PE Y
absorption of water and mineral salts from water and mineral salts, while phloem
O NL
R
the soil. It has broad leaves called fronds elements are mainly for the translocation
PR O
attached to the rhizome by a long stalk of synthesized food.

T SE
EN U
M E
Leaflet (Pinna)
R LIN
VE N
O O
Sorus
G R
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Fronds
Rachis
Crozier
Young leaf Petiole (stalk)
Rhizome
Adventitious roots
Figure 3.24 Structure of Dryopteris sp. showing sori at the lower side of the frond
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Reproduction in Dryopteris (antheridia and archegonia), and rhizoids.

The diploid sporophyte generation have The archegonia produce female gametes
a cluster of sporangia (sori) in which while the antheridia produce flagellated
the spore mother cell undergoes meiotic male gametes which swim to the archegonia
division to produce haploid spores. When in the presence of water to fertilise the egg,
the sporangia mature they break and release forming a zygote. The zygote develops
the spores. In favorable conditions, the to form a sporophyte generation with a
spores germinate into a small green heart- horizontal stem (rhizome) and leaves. The
shaped structure called prothallus forming gametophytes shrink and degenerate (Figure
a haploid gametophyte generation, bearing 3.25).
male and female reproductive structures
Prothalus
Spores Young
Meiosis
gametophyte Antheridium
Sporangium
Archegonium
Eggs
Zygote Sperm
TY
Mature
PE Y
New sporophyte
sporophyte Fertilization
O NL
R
Young fern
PR O
Gametophyte
T SE
EN U
M E
Figure 3.25 The life cycle of a fern plant (Dryopteris)

R LIN
VE N
Adaptations of Dryopteris to its mode of c) They have stomata which facilitate

O O
life gaseous exchange.

G R
Dryopteris possess the following features d) They have xylem responsible for
FO
which enable them to adapt to their transportation of water and dissolved

environment: minerals and also they have phloem for
a) They have chloroplasts containing translocation of manufactured food.
chlorophyll for capturing light energy e) Rhizomes play part in storing food
needed for photosynthesis. and propagating new plants, and can
b) They have roots for anchorage and remain viable in the soil for a long time
absorption of water and mineral salts. to ensure survival.

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f) They have a well-developed and

independent sporophyte generation, Exercise 3.12
since the gametophyte withers and
1. You are consulted by a friend who is
dies as the young leaves of sporophyte
raising ferns in his garden for the first
grow.
time. He needs your advice on what
g) They have cuticle in their leaves to appropriate measures he should take
prevent excessive water loss. to rescue his fern plants, that appear to
h) Archegonia secrete chemical which have a lot of dust brown spots on the
attracts antherozoids to swim towards lower side of the leaves, which were
the egg during fertilization. not there when they were young. Based
on your knowledge of ferns, advice him
accordingly.
Activity 3.7 Observation of fern plants 2. Give reasons as to why ferns are
Materials considered to have evolved from
Mature fern plant (Dryopteris sp.) and bryophytes.
hand lens or light microscope. 3. In which ways are ferns more adapted
Procedure to terrestrial environment than
bryophytes?
a) Collect a mature fern plant
(Dryopteris sp.) from a damp
shaded area such as in the forest, TY 3.6.3 Division Coniferophyta
floor or water canal or river bank. Coniferophyta is a division of kingdom
PE Y
O NL
Plantae which belongs to a broad group of

R
b) Uproot the plant with a small part non-flowering seed bearing plants, referred
PR O
of the rhizome and roots.

to as gymnosperms. The word gymnosperms
T SE
c) Carefully examine the collected originated from a combination of two Greek

EN U
fern plant. Take note of the fronds words Gymno meaning ‘naked’ and sperma
M E
(leaves) arising from the horizontal meaning ‘seed.’ Theophrastus was the first
R LIN
stem (rhizome). person to use this term in his book “Enquiry

VE N
d) Turn the frond and observe its lower into plants” referring to plants producing
O O
side with the aid of a hand lens or a naked seeds. Under gymnosperms, there
G R
light microscope. Note small dark are four groups namely:

FO
or brown patches on the lower side a) Conifers; the cone bearing plants such
of mature fronds. Each discrete as cypresses; example: Cupressus
patch is called sorus. species (Figure 3.26), pines; example:
Question Pinus sylvestris, and Spruce; Picea
Draw a diagram to show the morphology species, which are the most abundant
of the specimens provided and indicate Gymnospermous species.
the sporophyte, frond, sorus, rhizome,
and rhizoids.
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b) Cycads, the palm like plants. along the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro in
c) Gingkos, examplified by only one Tanzania. Globally, coniferophytes are
extant species, the Gingko biloba, common in the North-western part of the
which is regarded as a living fossil, United States, the northern hemisphere,
because the majority of species in this and China.
division are extinct.
d) Gnetos such as Welwitschia sp. Characteristics of division
restricted to deserts in Namibia and Coniferophyta
Angola. a) They are non-flowering, seed bearing
plants, producing naked seeds which
are not enclosed in ovaries or fruit
tissues.
b) Sexual reproduction involves
microspores (male gametophyte) and
megaspores (female gametophyte)
which are found in male and female
cones or strobili respectively.
c) Fertilisation does not require water;
instead, they develop pollen tubes
which carry sperms to the ovule for
fertilisation.
d) They have poor xylem with only
TY
PE Y
tracheids as conducting elements but

O NL
R
no vessel elements. This is the reason

PR O
why most coniferophytes produce soft

T SE
wood.
e) Their phloem tissues lack companion
EN U
cells; instead, they are associated with

M E
Figure 3.26 A photo of cypress tree among the

albuminous cells.
R LIN
popular Christmas tree

f) Leaves are reduced into spiny or
VE N
Source: TAFORI, 2019

needle-like leaves to minimize water
O O
loss through transpiration. Exceptions

G R
Species belonging to this division are are Gingkos and Cycads.

FO
evolutionarily, more advanced than

pteridophytes. They have more advanced Distinctive features of division
vascular tissues, and they do not require Coniferophyta
water for fertilization. The presence of Presence of the following features in
a highly reduced gametophyte and seed
members of division Coniferophyta
formation also makes them evolutionarily
differentiate them from members of other
more advanced than ferns. Coniferophytes
divisions:
are very abundant in the cold and moist
regions such as the southern highlands and
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a) The plants bear cones from which annual rings of the xylem. The constituent
microspores (pollen grains) and tissues of these species have resin canals
megaspores (ovules) are produced. which run vertically and laterally along
b) The pollen grains are winged to the stem. The bark, has secondary phloem,
provide buoyance, hence they are which is relatively thick and does not have
wind pollinated. companion cells, but albuminous cells that
c) They have seeds which are not perform the same function as the companion
enclosed within the ovary; thus, no cells.
ovaries, and no formation of fruits.
d) Their xylem lacks vessel elements but The trunk has a tap root system with
has only tracheids as the conducting lateral roots in different directions. Roots
elements. of some Pinus form symbiotic association
e) Their phloem tissues are associated (mycorrhizae) with fungi. Young shoots
with albuminous cells instead of have two types of leaves; small scaly
companion cells. leaves on the main stem and leaves on the
f) The majority produce resin in special dwarf shoots. In addition, the plant has
ducts called resin canals. Such resin is foliar spars which develop into normal
useful in wound healing and deterring branches. The fertile plant bears female
browsers. and male reproductive cones which are
g) Most are evergreen plants with needle- distinct when mature. The male cones
like shaped leaves. are relatively soft or herbaceous and
small while female cones are woody and
TY
PE Y
Structure of Pinus relatively larger. Usually, male cones are

O NL
R
The sporophyte consists of roots, stem and borne on the lower branches while female
PR O
branches, bearing needle-shaped leaves cones are borne on the upper branches
T SE
which appear in clusters of two to five. (Figure 3.27(b)). The leaves enclosing the
These clusters are called fascicle. Their cones are called sporophylls. For instance,
EN U
leaves are dark green with cuticle, sunken microsporophylls are associated with
M E
stomata, and resin canals in the mesophyll. male cones, whereas megasporophylls are
R LIN
Their stems develop relatively wider associated with female cones.

VE N
O O
N
G R
Female cone
FO
Female cone Seed
Male cone
(a) (b)
Figure 3.27 General structure of (a) female cone and seeds and (b) Pinus plant
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Reproduction of Pinus female cones, mainly through the process

The sporophyte generation is dominant, called pollination.
more pronounced, and varies in form
or habit. They include shrubs and trees, Once the pollen grain has landed on the
consisting of roots, stems and leaves- female cones, the pollen tube is formed
bearing branches. The gametophyte and grows, carrying two male sperms to
is highly reduced (only a few cells). the archegonium and penetrate the ovule
via a small hole called micropyle. In female
They are heterosporous, producing
cones inside the ovule, the megasporocyte
microspores which are pollen grains
produces four haploid nuclei through
(male gametophyte) and megaspores
meiotic division. One of these cells develops
(female gametophyte). Male cones bear
into megaspore. The nucleus of megaspore
microsporangium with microsporocyte
undergoes mitotic division to form a small
which produce microspores by meiotic
female gametophyte where by two or three
division, which give rise to light winged
archegonia are present; each with one egg
pollen grains (microspores). The nucleus
cell. During fertilisation one of the sperms
within the pollen grain divides mitotically
fertilises the egg to form a zygote while the
to form a pollen tube nucleus and a
other sperm degenerates. The zygote later
generative nucleus which later divides by
develops to form a seed embryo which is
mitosis to form two sperm nuclei. These
a sporophyte in resting condition (Figure
pollen grains are transferred to mature
TY 3.28).
PE Y
O NL
Seed
R
Stored food
PR O
Ovule
T SE
Seed coat Seed cone scale

Embryo Wing
EN U
Sporophyte Megasporangium
M E
R LIN
Microsporangium Megasporocyte
Zygote
Integument
Microsporocyte
VE N
Fertilization Meiosis
O O
Microspore
Microgametophyte
G R
Pollen grain
Sperm
FO
Pollen tube
Pollination
Megaspore
Archegonium
Megagametophyte
Figure 3.28 The life cycle of Pinus plant

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Adaptations of Pinus to its mode of life

Pinus are able to adapt to their environment Activity 3.8 Observation of Pinus
due to presence of the following features: sporophyte and reproductive
structures
a) The root and shoot systems are
well developed to provide the plant
Materials
with a good contact to the soil and
Branches of pine (Pinus) plants with
atmosphere.
male and female cones, hand lens or
b) They have roots for absorption of microscope.
water and nutrients from the soil.
c) The plant has mechanical tissues Procedure
for support and vascular tissues for a) You are provided with branches of the
transportation of water and food. Pinus species, with male and female
cones. Examine the mature female
d) They have an elaborate mechanism
for reducing water loss through cones which are relatively woody.
transpiration. This becomes possible At the base of each cone are two
due to presence of thick cuticle, winged seeds; however, they might
needle-like leaves to reduce their sometimes be missing, because they
surface area and a reduced number of fall off when mature, especially if
stomata pores. Additionally, their bark the cones are disturbed by wind or
is coated with waxy material called any other mechanical force. If seeds
suberin to reduce water loss. TY are missing, two small depressions,
showing the mark of where the seeds
PE Y
e) They produce lighter pollen grains,

O NL
each with two wing-like structures were attached should be seen.

R
which make them to float in air,

PR O
hence easily to be carried by wind for b) Carefully examine the male cones
T SE
pollination. which are relatively small and much

EN U
f) They can reproduce sexually without herbaceous compared to the woody

M E
necessity of using water, because the female cones. Normally, male cones
R LIN
transfer of male gametes to female are borne in clusters at the axils of

gametes is through pollen tube, which lower branches. Take some pollen
VE N
ensures reproduction in terrestrial grains from the male cones and

O O
environment where water is limited. mount a few in a drop of water on a

G R
slide for examination under the light

FO
g) The seeds are winged; hence, they can

be easily dispersed by wind. microscope to observe the wings on
each.
Questions
1. Draw a diagram of the male and
female cones.
2. Draw a diagram of the pine pollen
grain and show the wings.
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filiformis are parasitic, hence they rely on

Exercise 3.13
other plants. Others grow as epiphytes on
1. Outline ways in which other plants without causing any harm.
coniferophytes are advanced Angiosperms are the dominant plants in all
compared to filicinophytes. habitats, ranging from terrestrial to aquatic
2. Explain the distinctive features of environments, where plants such as water
gymnosperms. lilies and sea grasses are abundant. Based on
3. Explain the importance of wind in duration, flowering plants are classified as
the life cycle of coniferophytes. annual, biannual or perennial. Annual plants
are normally herbs and grasses that live only
in one season. Biannual plant live for two
3.6.4 Division Angiospermophyta seasons growing vegetatively in the first
Angiospermophytes are flowering plants
season and flowering in the second season.
which are the most advanced and adapted
to terrestrial life. The word angiosperm
Perennial plants live for three or more
is a combination of two Greek words;
Angeion which means ‘vessels’ or ‘carpels’ seasons. Example of perennial plants
and sperma which means ‘seeds.’ They are trees. The angiosperm sporophyte
produce seeds enclosed in the ovary, which is dominant with gametophytes entirely
later matures to become a fruit. Thus, their confined in it. The sporophyte consists of
fruit is a mature ovary and the seeds in it
TY roots, the stem, branches, and leaves. The
are fertilized ovules. Angiosperms resemble gametophyte generation is represented only
PE Y
O NL
coniferophyta in many aspects such as the by flowers in which the male and female
R
ability to produce seeds. However, the gametophytes are confined. They have well
PR O
presence of flowers and seeds enclosed in developed vascular tissues with xylem
T SE
the fruit makes them distinct. Flowers and containing tracheids and vessels which
EN U
fruits have contributed significantly to the make the angiosperm wood harder than
success of angiosperms in their ecosystems.
M E
those of coniferophytes. The phloem on

R LIN
Flowers are diverse in colour, aroma and

the other hand contains companion cells
morphology. These have made it easy to
VE N
and sieve tubes.

attract different pollinators, instead of
O O
relying solely on the wind. The ability to

G R
produce seeds enclosed in the fruit is also Angiosperms are heterosporous. They
FO
an adaptation to seeds’ dispersal by animals produce microspores (male gametophyte)

which feed on such fruits. and megaspores (female gametophyte).
Actually, the male gametophyte is the
The number of angiosperm species is over germinated pollen grain which is highly
257,000, existing in various sizes, shapes reduced into three nuclei, namely two male
and forms, such as grasses, herbs, shrubs, nuclei and a pollen tube nucleus. Whereas,
vines, liana, suffrutescents and trees. Some the female gametophyte is found in the
of these plant species such as Cassytha ovule’s embryo sac; the ovary is reduced into

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eight nuclei, namely three antipodal nuclei, Class Monocotyledoneae, such as maize,
two polar nuclei, and an egg contained grass, millet, and sugar cane plants. Class
between two nuclei called synergids (Figure Dicotyledoneae, such as bean plant,
3.29). Following pollination, the pollen mango, and orange plants.
grain on the stigma develops a pollen tube A recent estimate of the number of
carrying two sperm nuclei which grow flowering plant species globally is
approximately 400,000, distributed into
down to the embryo sac via micropyle. One
about 393 families. When partitioned
of the sperms fertilizes a haploid egg to form
into their old two broad classes, a larger
a zygote which later develops to form an
number of species are dicots, represented
embryo. The second sperm fertilizes the two by 336 families. In contrast, monocots are
polar nuclei forming triploid nutritive tissue represented by about 57 families.
called endosperm. This process is called
double fertilization, because fertilization Distinctive features of class
occurs twice. A fertilized ovule becomes a Monocotyledoneae
seed surrounded by two integuments (seed The following features possessed by
coat) and the ovary develops into a fruit. members of the class Monocotyledoneae
(Figure 3.30) differentiate them from
Germinating pollen grain those of class Dicotyledoneae.
Stigma
Style a) Leaf venation is parallel in monocots
Pollen tube and the leaf blade or lamina is elongated
with dorsal and ventral surfaces more
TY
PE Y
Ovary wall
Nucellus or less identical.
O NL
R
Embryo sac b) The stem anatomy shows vascular

PR O
Antipodal nuclei
Polar nuclei bundles scattered in the ground tissue
Synergids
T SE
Ovum and closed as they lack vascular

Micropyle
cambium, hence no secondary growth.
EN U
Tube nucleus Sperm nuclei

M E
c) They have a fibrous root system which

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Figure 3.29 An ovary arises at the base of the stem replacing

the primary root.
VE N
Classes of division Angiospermophyta

O O
d) The monocot seed’s embryo bears one

Old system of classification recognised cotyledon.
G R
two classes based on the number e) Flower parts are usually trimerous (in
FO
of cotyledons; Monocotyledon and threes or multiple of threes).

Dicotyledon.
f) Pollen grains in the monocots mostly
have one aperture.
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Tassel
Leaf
Brace root or prop root
Styles
Silk Node
Stalk
Roots
Figure 3.30 Structure of a monocot plant showing root and shoot systems
Distinctive features of class vascular bundles are open, that is, they
Dicotyledoneae have a strip of cambium which gives
Members of the class Dicotyledoneae rise to secondary growth.
TY
PE Y
(Figure 3.31) differ from those of class c) The primary root system is a persistent
O NL
R
Monocotyledoneae due to presence of the

and becomes thick tap root which
PR O
following features:
develops lateral roots.
T SE
a) Dicot leaves have net like or reticulate d) Their seed embryo has two cotyledons.
venation with the dorsal and ventral
EN U
e) Floral parts are normally tetramerous

surfaces of their leaf blade being
M E
or pentamerous (in four or five or

distinct.
R LIN
multiples of four or five).

b) Their stems have vascular bundles
VE N
f) Pollen grains in dicots mostly have

which appear in a ring form. The
O O
three apertures.
G R
FO

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Flower
Leaf
Bean pod
Stem
Tap root (Primary root) Bean seed
Figure 3.31 Structure of a dicot plant showing root and shoot systems
Activity 3.9 Observation of cross Questions

section of the stem and morphology of 1. Summarise in a tabular form
monocot and dicot plants the morphological differences
Materials TY between the two classes of the
collected plants.
PE Y
Monocot plant (grass or maize), dicot

O NL
plant (beans or Hibiscus) plants with

R
2. Draw and label each of the two

their flowers intact, light microscope,
PR O
plants to display their root system,

surgical or razor blade, and slides. stem, leaf venation and flower(s).
T SE
Procedure 3. Draw diagrams of the observed

EN U
a) Collect some monocot and dicot stem sections, indicating the

M E
vascular bundles.
R LIN
plants with their flowers from the

school environment. Make sure that 4. What are the differences between
VE N
you uproot the entire plant carefully the stem sections observed in (c)?
O O
in order to display their root system

G R
FO
clearly.
Safety precautions
b) Observe the morphological structure 1. Handle with care sharp objects like
of the two classes of plants collected. surgical or razor blade to avoid
cutting your fingers or hands.
c) Make a thin cross section of the stem
2. Be aware of some dangerous
of monocot and dicot plants. Place
animals such as piercing insects
them on slides and observe one at a
and snakes while collecting
time using light microscope.
monocot and dicot plants.
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Structure of the flower Tulipa genera. They may be separate or

A flower is interpreted as a modified leaf fused into a single outer sheath collectively
of a plant which is highly specialised called calyx.
for reproduction (Figure 3.32). It can be
bisexual or unisexual, depending on a plant c) Petals
species. Bisexual and unisexual flowers
These are normally located inside and
are called complete and incomplete
above the sepals, are brightly coloured
flowers respectively. Flowers have the
following major parts: and expand to form the most conspicuous
part of the flower. As such, they serve to
a) Receptacle attract pollinators such as insects and birds,
This is a swollen tip of a pedicel on which which are essential for accomplishing the
all floral parts are borne or attached. It has reproductive process. The petals may
limited growth, which ceases as the last be separate or united in a single tube or
floral part is formed. The receptacle varies united in several groups. The collective
in shapes between members of one species term for petals is corolla. In some flowers,
and another. The floral parts are arranged both calyx and corolla are united to give a
in whorls around the receptacle, as rings of structure termed as “Perianth.”
calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
When all these whorls are present, the d) Androecium
flower is termed as a perfect or complete This is a collective term for the male part
flower, example, and flowers of cherries, of the flower, and includes anther and
roses, and orchids. In contrast, when one filament. Anthers are usually bright orange
TY
PE Y
of the four whorls is missing, the flower or yellow in colour. The anther and filament
O NL
R
is termed as incomplete flower. Examples together is termed stamen. The transverse

PR O
include; flowers of sweet corn and most section of the anther shows that it is made
T SE
grasses. The floral parts are inserted in the up of 2-4 pollen sacs containing pollen
following order from the base to the apex of grains or microspores. The whole stamen
EN U
receptacle; the first whorl is for the calyx, can be regarded as microsporophyll bearing
M E
the second whorl is for corolla, the third microsporangia. The fertile microsporangia
R LIN
whorl is for androecium, and the fourth are born as pollen sacs at the distal end
VE N
whorl is for gynoecium. of the filament. When mature, the pollen

O O
sac ruptures to release pollen grains

G R
b) Sepals (microspores or male gametophyte) which

FO
These are the lowermost or outermost develop into male gametes.

structure, which are usually green, leaf-
like in structure, protecting the developing e) Gynoecium
flower whilst the flower is still a bud. As the This refers to the female reproductive
inner parts of the flower grow and expand, parts of the flower which consists of the
sepals are pushed outwards. In some stigma, style, and ovary. These three parts
instances, they may become expanded are collectively called pistil or carpel.
and brightly more coloured, like petals. Gynoecium shapes vary in different
Examples include the flowers of Aloe and species as some have a single carpel or a
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number of separate carpels, or a number characteristic of angiosperms. They

of carpels fused in a variety of ways. The contain an embryo sac in which the female
carpel is either single or united in a closed gametophyte is found. The distal end of the
hollow container housing (ovary), with ovary bears a prolonged structure known as
one or more ovules. The ovules which are style, which terminates in a sticky surface
enclosed within the ovary bear a peculiar called stigma.
Stigma Anther
Androecium
Carpel Style Filament
Ovary Petal
Receptacle Sepal
Pedicel
Figure 3.32 A generalized longitudinal section of an angiosperm flower
Flowers have the basic parts mentioned both gynoecium and androecium parts,
above, but morphological variations TY while others have only one part.
are common across plant species. These
PE Y
O NL
variations are based on the following Position of floral whorls at the receptacle
R
attributes: As pointed out earlier, the position of floral

PR O
a) The manner of insertion of the parts. parts at the receptacle varies across the
T SE
b) The number of floral parts: Some species. Based on the arrangement of the
EN U
flowers have all four whorls while floral leaves at the receptacle in relation
M E
others have less than four whorls. to the position of the ovary, three types of
R LIN
flowers are recognised:

c) The freedom or fusion of floral parts:
VE N
Some parts in some flowers may be

O O
a) Hypogynous flower
fused while other parts may not.
In this flower, the calyx, corolla, and
G R
d) The relative position of the floral parts androecium arise from the lower position
FO
on the receptacle; may be above or of the ovary. This means that the calyx,
below the receptacle. corolla and androecium are inserted below
e) The symmetry of the flower: some the ovary that is the ovary is positioned
flowers have radial or bilateral above them. The ovary is therefore said
symmetry while others are to be superior as it occupies the highest
asymmetrical. position in the receptacle (Figure 3.33).
f) The distribution of the sexual parts Examples of hypogynous flowers include
within the flower: Some flowers have Hibiscus, tulip and tomato flowers.
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Anther
Petal
Ovary
Sepal
Thalamus
Figure 3.33 Structure of a hypogynous flower
b) Perigynous flower stamens, and the ovary is said to be half

In this type of a flower, the margins of inferior. Examples include cherry and rose
the thalamus grow upwards to form a cup flowers. The term “perigynous” emanates
shaped structure called the calyx tube that from the nature in which other floral parts
encloses the ovary. However, it remains appear to enclose the ovary (Figure 3.34).
free from it, carries with it sepals and
TY Anther
PE Y
O NL
Ovary
R
Petal
PR O
Sepal
T SE
Thalamus
EN U
M E
R LIN
Figure 3.34 Structure of a perigynous flower

VE N
O O
c) Epigynous flower
G R
In this flower, the calyx, corolla, and Anther

FO
androecium arise above the ovary and Petal

completely enclose it. The ovary is therefore Sepal
said to be inferior, while the rest of the
Ovary
floral parts are said to be superior (Figure
3.35). Examples of epigynous flowers
include the cucumber, apple, guava, and
passion flowers.
Figure 3.35 Structure of an
epigynous flower

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Flower symmetry
A flower can be dissected longitudinally
to expose its internal parts for clear
examination. One of the fundamental
Line of
aspects of a flower plan is its overall symmetry
shape which is described as symmetry.
A symmetrical flower is the one that
can be divided along at least one plane
in relation to perianth into two or more
identical parts which are mirror image of Figure 3.36 Structure of an actinomorphic
each other. Although most flowers have flower
a certain kind of symmetry, few flowers
b) Bilateral symmetry
have no symmetry and are referred to as
A flower is said to have bilateral symmetry
asymmetrical flowers. Three categories of
when it can be split into two identical halves
flowers’ symmetry are therefore recognized
in one plane only. This type of symmetry
namely, radial symmetry or actinomorphic
is caused by differences in size and shape
flower, bilateral symmetry or zygomorphic
of petals and or sepals as can be noted
flower and asymmetric flower.
in pea and bean flowers. Additionally, in
some flowers, some whorls may be fused
a) Radial symmetry TY or some parts of an individual whorl may
A flower is said to have a radial symmetry
PE Y
have different sizes compared to others in

O NL
when it can be split vertically through the

R
the same flower (Figure 3.37). Bilaterally

centre in any one of several planes to produce
PR O
symmetrical flowers are said to be irregular

identical parts which are mirror images of
T SE
or zygomorphic. Example sweet pea. The

each other. This type of symmetry applies
symbol used to represent them is ●|●.
EN U
when each part of the whorl is identical

M E
with all other parts. Normally each side

R LIN
can have one sepal and one petal. Radially

VE N
symmetrical flowers are said to be regular

O O
or polysymetric or actinomorphic (Figure

G R
3.36). Literally, actinomorphic means star

FO
like because the flower can be divided into

three or more identical parts. Most flowers
have actinomorphic symmetry, for instance
the Hibiscus flower. The symbol used to
denote this type of symmetry is .
Figure 3.37 Zygomorphic flower
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c) Asymmetric flowers Floral diagrams

These flowers have no plane of symmetry, A floral diagram is a diagrammatic
they cannot be divided into two equal halves representation of the transverse section of
in any plane; this is because their parts are a flower. It shows a plan of the flower as
spirally arranged, and good examples are viewed from above with each of its floral
flowers of Cacti, Canna indica, and ginger. whorls represented by a series of centric
cycles showing their number, arrangement,
Methods of recording floral structure relative position and fusion. The axis of
Flower features can be represented to the inflorescence is represented by a small
reveal the arrangement and relationship of cycle at the top of the diagram which is
the parts using three methods. These are then regarded as the posterior position
a half-flower diagram, floral formula, and of the flower and bracts, if present. In
floral diagram. principle, floral diagrams are never
labelled, but standard symbols are used
A half flower diagram (Figure 3.38b). Although such symbols
This is a schematic representation of may not be representing physical structures,
a flower cut longitudinally along the they carry additional floral information
median plane in relation to the main stem such as symmetry and orientation. Floral
to provide an elevation view of the flower. diagrams are useful in the identification
Normally, in regular flowers, cutting along of flowers, comparison of angiosperm
this plane will result into two identical and taxa, reconstruction of fossil flowers and
opposite halves of the flower. A half cut understanding the ontogeny and phylogeny
TY
PE Y
flower diagram shows exactly how the of angiosperms.

O NL
R
floral parts are arranged in relation to each

PR O
other (Figure 3.38a).

T SE
Plant axis
EN U
Anther
Petal
M E
Filament
R LIN
Style Sepal
VE N
O O
Ovary Petal
G R
Sepal
FO
Stamen
Figure 3.38 Representation of flower features (a) a half-flower diagram (b) floral symbols

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Procedure for construction of a floral h) The edges of fused sepals or petals are
diagram connected by lines.
a) In drawing a floral diagram, it should i) The two lips of bilabiate calyx or
be noted that different floral whorls are corolla are joined by bulging lines.
always represented in concentric circles
starting with sepals on the outermost j) In epipetalous flowers, where stamens
circle, followed by petals, stamens and are fused with petals, both whorls are
carpels towards the inner side. linked with small radial lines.
b) Examine mature floral buds and pluck k) Count the number of stamens; note
them off the mother axis after noting their cohesion and adhesion to other
the anterior and posterior sides. floral parts and position in relation to
petals, introse or extrose position; and
c) The floral parts are drawn in a floral draw them inside the petals in the floral
diagram, as they would appear in their diagram. Stamens are represented by
transverse sections below the mother transverse sections of anthers (Figure
axis. A small circle is drawn above the 3.39). Introse stamens face towards the
floral diagram to designate the mother centre while extrose ones face towards
axis; however, for the terminal flowers, the petals. Staminodes are represented
this circle is not shown. by an asterisk (*) or by a cross (x).
d) In flowers associated with bracts
(bracteate flower), a section of bract is
TY
Posterior side
PE Y
drawn. In contrast in bracteolate flower;

O NL
Plant axis
R
Diagonal plane
bracteoles are drawn in section on the
PR O
Gynaecium
left and right sides of the diagram.
T SE
e) The number of sepals and their Androecium

EN U
Lateral or
arrangement in relation to the mother transverse Corolla
M E
axis or aestivation are drawn in

R LIN
transverse sections. The odd number Calyx

of sepals and petals are drawn either
VE N
O O
posterior or anterior to the flower (that Bract

is, opposite the mother axis or opposite
G R
FO
the bract, respectively) with its sepals

and petals alternating. Figure 3.39 The floral diagram with labeled
f) In zygomorphic flowers, sepals and symbols
petals with unequal sizes are drawn.
Floral formula
g) The spurred sepals or petals are shown This is a representation of various floral
by drawing a loop at their respective parts using standardized symbols and
back. numbers. It depicts floral information
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pertaining to symmetry; floral whorls and corolla are fused and cannot be
namely calyx, corolla, androecium and differentiated.
gynoecium; their numbers; and how they A Represents Androecium or stamens.
relate to each other. Symbols used in The letter A is followed by the number
construction of floral formulae and their of stamens like A(5)+5 indicates a total
respective meanings are as summarised of ten stamens in which five are free
below: and five are fused. A means five free
5
Represents radially symmetrical stamens. If the stamens are attached
flower (actinomorphic). to petals, their symbols are united
with an arc line above them as in C͡ A.
●|● Represents a flower with bilateral
symmetry (zygomorphic).
∞ Represents a large and variable
number of whorls. It is used when
♂ Represents unisexual male or the number is more than twelve in a
staminate flower. flower. Example A∞ means many free
♀ Represents unisexual female or stamens and A(∞) means many fused
pistillate flower. stamens.
Represents bisexual (hermaphrodite) G Denotes Gynoecium or pistil. Each G

flower. is followed by the number of carpels
like G1 or G2, which means one carpel
Br Represents flower with bracts and two free carpels respectively. The
(Bracteate). TY carpels may also be fused as in G(2)
PE Y
Ebr Represents flower without bracts or free as in G4 implying two fused

O NL
R
(ebracteate). and four free carpels respectively. A

PR O
small line under the letter G indicates

Brl Represents flower with bracteoles
T SE
superior ovary while a small line

(Bracteolate).
above it, such as Ḡ, indicates an
EN U
K Represents calyx; each K is followed inferior ovary.

M E
by a number indicating the number

R LIN
of sepals; for example K5 represents The following examples highlight how floral
VE N
five free sepals. If this number formula are constructed and interpreted.
O O
appears within brackets as in K(5), it

G R
denotes five fused sepals.

FO
C Represents corolla; each C is followed The above formula indicates that the
by the number indicating number of flower has radial symmetry, and it is
petals for example C5 depicts five bisexual. It further implies that the flower
free petals. If this number is enclosed has five sepals, five petals, numerous
by brackets as in C(5) it denotes five
stamens and five carpels. The flower has
fused petals.
no bracts and all whorls are free from each
P Is used if sepals and petals are other that is, not fused.
replaced by perianth. That is, calyx
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Floral formula of Lathyrus is;
Floral formular of Ipomoea is;
The Lathyrus flower is zygomorphic,

hermaphrodite, calyx with five fused
sepals, corolla with five free petals,
androecium with ten stamens (nine fused
stamens and one free stamen); and a
superior ovary with one free carpel.
The Ipomoea flower is actinomorphic,

bisexual, calyx with five free sepals,
corolla with five fused petals, androecium
Figure 3.40 A photo of a common Hibiscus plant
with five free stamens united with petals,
and gynoecium is superior with two fused found in several places of Tanzania
carpels.
TYThe floral formula of Hibiscus flower
Floral formulae and floral diagrams of derived from the individual with bracts
PE Y
(bracteate) and bracteoles (bracteolate),

O NL
R
a selected flower
radial symmetry, bisexual, fused five
PR O
The Hibiscus is a genus that belongs to sepals (calyx), free five petals (corolla)
T SE
the family Malvaceae (Figure 3.40). The fused with infinite androecium, and five
genus is quite large, comprising of several fused gynoecium (hypogynous).
EN U
M E
hundred species that are native to warm

R LIN
temperate, subtropical and tropical regions Floral formula of Hibiscus

throughout the world. Several species are
VE N
O O
widely cultivated as ornamental plants for

G R
their showy flower.

FO
Floral diagram of Hibiscus

The schematic cross-section of Hibiscus
flower is presented in structular form to
express the arrangement of floral parts as
projected in transverse or horizontal plane
(Figure 3.41).
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(a) Activity 3.10 Observation and

recording flower structures
Materials
Corolla Hibiscus flower, common bean flower,
maize flower and elephant grass flower,
Stamens Calyx hand lens, and surgical or razor blade.
Stigma Epicalyx
Pedicel Procedure
a) Collect two flowers from each of
Leaf
the following plants; Hibiscus,
common bean, maize, and elephant
grass.
b) Carefully observe each flower using
(b) a hand lens and state with evidence
Corolla the classes to which each of the four
plant species belongs.
c) Use a surgical or razor blade to
make a transverse section of each
Style flower and examine its parts.
d) Draw a transverse section of each flower
Ovary Calyx TY and state their symmetry.
PE Y
O NL
Pedicel Epicalyx e) Prepare a longitudinal section of the

R
second flower for each plant and draw

PR O
(c) well labelled diagrams.

T SE
f) Write the floral formulae of bean,

EN U
elephant grass, and maize flowers.

M E
g) From your observation, what features

R LIN
do the four flowers have in common?

VE N
h) Explain the main differences

O O
between Hibiscus and grass flowers

G R
FO
Figure 3.41 Hibiscus flower (a) vegetative Safety precaution

morphology (b) half flower diagram (c) floral
Be careful when using surgical or razor
diagram
blades.

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Adaptation of Angiospermophytes to For instance, some flowers can

live on land be pollinated by insects with long
Angiosperms are the most recently proboscis or birds with long narrow
evolved plants and are relatively the most beaks, only as they secrete nectar at
adapted plants to terrestrial environment. the base of a narrow floral tube which
Several factors have contributed to their is the right size of their corresponding
survival, hence success on land; such pollinators.
factors include: d) Stamens have also become modified
a) Flowers have contributed to the through time to prevent self-
diversification of angiosperms fertilisation in order to increase
throughout the time with adaptations genetic diversity that will eventually
to specialised pollination conditions. enable them to inhabit a wider range
The adaptations exhibited by any of habitats. Additionally, closed carpel
given flower depend on the type of allows adaptations to specialised
pollinators the flower is designed to pollination conditions and controls
attract, and have evolved features to self-fertilisation.
enable pollinators to recognise and e) The male gametophyte in angiosperms
locate them quickly. For instance, is highly reduced into three nuclei
bees can only see yellow, blue, and (a tube nucleus and two sperm
ultraviolet (UV) colors; therefore, bee nuclei). This evolved to shorten the
pollinated flowers are yellow, blue or duration of time between pollination
TY
PE Y
UV but not red. Butterflies detect red; and fertilisation. Thus, unlike
O NL
R
accordingly, they can pollinate red Coniferophytes, which takes about a

PR O
flowers. Moths, which are nocturnal, year for fertilisation to take place after
pollination, in angiospermophytes
T SE
pollinate brightly white coloured

flowers, which can standout against begins fertilisation soon after
EN U
darkness. pollination, which translates into seed

M E
swift, seed formation, and species

R LIN
b) Most plants have ability to make

perpetuation.
and supply some food in the form of
VE N
nectar and advertise their presence to f) Their male gametes are transferred
O O
the pollinators by producing fragrant through a special tube (pollen tube)

G R
scent. They also have a way of putting to the female gametes for fertilisation.
FO
pollen on the pollinators and easily The ability to reproduce sexually

transferred to the flower of the next without necessarily requiring water
plant. is an important feature in terrestrial
c) To ensure pollination, angiosper- environment, where water is limited.
mophyte flowers have evolved ways of g) Fruits produced by angiospermophytes
preventing non beneficial pollinators are adaptations for dispersal by various
from visiting their flowers while agents such as wind, water, animals,
embracing the beneficial pollinators. and bursting. Animal dispersed
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fruits have fleshy mesocarp which in all plant leaves. In addition, stems
is edible or produces edible seeds or of monocots restrict excessive water
have various kinds of hooks. Wind loss.
dispersed fruits have structures for n) Deciduous trees shed their leaves
buoyancy, such as wings. These have during dry season to reduce the rate
provided angiosperms an opportunity of transpiration, hence, limiting water
to increase their domination in the loss.
terrestrial ecosystem. o) Asexual reproduction by vegetative
h) Seeds produced by angiospermophytes propagation ensures rapid growth and
have a highly nutritive tissue called maturity.
endosperm, which provides food for
Economic importance of plants
the developing embryo, cotyledons,
Plants are very important to the survival
and sometimes, for the seedling when
of other organisms; without plants our day
it first appears.
to day life would have been impossible.
i) They have developed extensive root Animals’ life is dependent on plants
system for anchorage on land and directly and or indirectly. However, there
absorption of water and mineral salts. are some plants with detrimental effects
Some plant roots have developed to life of animals. The following are
symbiotic relationship described as advantages and disadvantages of plants.
mycorrhizae with Fungi to increase
the root surface area for absorption of Advantages of kingdom Plantae
TY
PE Y
nutrients and water from the soil. a) Species in this kingdom are the chief
O NL
R
source of food for heterotrophs. Primary

j) They have an advanced and elaborated
PR O
consumers such as browsers and

vascular system for transportation of
T SE
grazers depend on angiospermophytes

materials. For example, xylem has
as their sole source of food. Likewise,
EN U
both vessel and tracheids for efficient

human beings obtain various types
M E
water movement.
R LIN
of food such as vegetables, potatoes,

k) They have stomatal pores for sugar, cereals, and fruits from plants.
VE N
transpiration and gaseous exchange. b) They are important atmospheric

O O
These are modified in various ways to purifiers due to their ability to sequester
G R
reduce excessive water loss.

FO
carbon dioxide (CO2), thus reducing

l) Control of evapotranspiration, its concentration in the atmosphere.
depending on the environment in Carbon dioxide is one of the
which a particular species is adapted greenhouse gases; hence its reduction
to live. For example, xerophytes have in the atmosphere will in turn reduce
sunken stomata; most of them are the risks of global warming. Through
restricted on the lower side. photosynthesis, plants produce oxygen
m) They have cuticle, a thick waxy which is used by most of the organisms
material covering the epidermal cells for respiration.

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c) Plants such as legumes have symbiotic fibres from plants such as sisal are used
relationship with nitrogen fixing bacteria to manufacture mattresses and carpets.
in their root nodules. These bacteria are White pines are extensively used for
capable of fixing unavailable nitrogen making boxes, furniture, floor, and
from the atmosphere into available panel.
forms, which can be absorbed by plants.
k) Resins from pines are used for making
d) They help to conserve water in the soil premier paints and varnish solvents
by preventing excessive evaporation. ointments, wax, and shoe polish.
For example, plant leaves and grasses
l) They provide timber for various
are used as mulching materials covering
purposes such as furniture making,
the soil surface to conserve water.
poles for houses construction and
e) Grasses and some trees have important electric supply.
catchment value, because they have
m) Forests attract tourists and thus aid in
matted root networks that reduce lateral
generating national income.
flow of water, evaporation, and soil
erosion. n) Plant leaves such as grass, banana and
coconut leaves, are used in thatching
f) Plant communities or vegetation such
houses.
as grasslands, woodland, and forests
provide habitats for wild animals. o) Fern rhizome, root bark, and rhizome
Additionally, bird species use plant TY bark of certain species are used for
PE Y
materials for construction of their nests. growing Orchids.

O NL
R
g) They are used in research and biological p) Some plants are source of medicine for
PR O
studies. example Neem trees

T SE
h) Plants are sources of traditional fuel

EN U
such as charcoal and firewood. In Disadvantages of kingdom Plantae

M E
Africa, for instance, approximately a) Some plants can produce metabolites

R LIN
90% of the population use charcoal as or accumulate toxic or poisonous

a source of domestic energy. products which are dangerous to
VE N
O O
consumers (animals). Cassava plants

i) Ferns and most Angiospermophytes are
G R
can accumulate cyanide, which

grown as ornamental plants for indoor
FO
is toxic, if consumed by humans.

and outdoor decoration, examples: true
ferns, Hibiscus, cacti and roses. Jatropha curcas produces a toxic
protein called curcin. Tea and coffee
j) They provide raw materials for produce caffeine which in high doses
industrial purposes. Examples are may cause hypertension in humans.
cotton for making clothes, latex for
b) Weed plants compete with food crops,
making rubber, cellulose for making
fiber products such as ropes, and wood leading into low crop yield.
pulp for making paper. Additionally, c) Some plants are parasites to other
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plant species. For instance, Cassytha Animals are mobile, they can move from
filiformis is a parasitic weed in crops one place to another in search for food,
such as mango, orange and cashewnut shelter, mates, and safety. Mobility in
trees; they cause serious crop loss and, animals include movement of organs.
consequently income loss. For example corals are sedentary animals
d) Some aquatic weeds can colonise but their organs move to trap food.
water bodies and affect ecosystem as In most animals, body activities and
well as hindering fishing and boating responses are coordinated by the nervous
activities. and endocrine systems. Higher animals
reproduce sexually, involving haploid
gametes. Most animals are triploblastic
Exercise 1.14 organisms, meaning they have three body
1. Describe the distinctive features layers (outer layer; an ectoderm, middle
of the kingdom Plantae. layer; mesoderm, and endoderm as an
inner layer); Examples of such animals
2. With the aid of diagrams illustrate include all multicellular animals, with
the differences between the two the exception of certain invertebrates
classes of flowering plants. such as the cnidarians and sponges. Some
3. Outline the distinctive features of are diploblastic, consisting of two layers
of cells (ectoderm and endoderm); for
the division Angiospermophyta.
example cnidarians (jellyfish, corals and
4. With the aid of a well labelled TY sea anemones). Their body symmetry
diagram, describe the structure of is bilateral, except phylum cnidaria
PE Y
O NL
a flower. that have radial symmetry and phylum,

R
Porifera example sponges whose body

PR O
5. Briefly explain how Hibiscus

regularly lack symmetry. Most animals
flower is adapted to cross
T SE
have anterior and posterior ends, with oral

pollination. and anal openings.
EN U
M E
Kingdom Animalia is divided into

R LIN
3.7 Kingdom Animalia

about twenty eight phyla including
Animals are a diverse group of organisms
VE N
Polifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes,

that make up the kingdom Animalia. This
O O
Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca,

kingdom comprises of animals, which
Echnodermata, Chordata and other smaller
G R
are multicellular eukaryotic organisms.

FO
phyla. The first eight phyla fall under the

Most of them have high level of tissue
group of invertebrates (animals without
differentiation and specialised body
a backbone) while the ninth phylum,
organs. They undergo heterotrophic
Chordata, includes some invertebrates
mode of nutrition; that is, they depend
and vertebrates (animals having a
on other organisms directly or indirectly
backbone). This book will deal with five
to obtain organic food. They digest food
selected phyla, namely Platyhelminthes,
internally, particularly in the gut and store
Nematoda (Aschelminthes), Annelida,
carbohydrate in the form of glycogen.
Arthropoda, and Chordata.

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3.7.1 Phylum Platyhelminthes Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke). Most

This is a group of flatworms. The worms members of this phylum are parasites
can be free living or parasites. One of the while others are free living, for
best-known example of flatworms is the example: Planaria.
tapeworm.
Classification of Platyhelminthes
General Characteristics of phylum Common Platyhelminthes, fall into three
Platyhelminthes classes namely; class Cestoda, Trematoda
a) They are dorsoventrally flattened and and Turbellaria. Class Cestoda consists
some are unsegmented worms. Most of of endoparasite animals such as the
them have mouth and gut with no anus. tapeworms, including Taenia solium (the
pork tapeworm), Dipylidium caninum (the
b) They have flame cells in the mesoderm
dog tapeworm) and Taenia saginata (beef
for excretion and osmoregulation.
tapeworm). Class Trematoda comprises
c) They are hermaphrodites with a of the flukes; example, Fasciola
complex reproductive system, which hepatica (Liver fluke) and the blood
prevents self-fertilisation, but favours flukes Schistosoma haematobium and
cross-fertilization. Schistosoma mansoni. Class Turbellaria
d) They are triploblastic acoelomate consists of the free living worms such as
animals, which have three body layers Planaria. They are flat worms.
(ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm)
Structure of a tapeworm
TY
without a body cavity or coelom.
PE Y
An adult tapeworm for example Taenia,

O NL
R
e) Some have cilia on their outer surface consists of a knob-like head or scolex,
PR O
for locomotion, for example Planaria, equipped with hooks and suckers for
T SE
others have cilia in larval stage, for attachment to the intestinal wall of
example miracidium larva in flukes, the host; a neck region; and a series
EN U
but lack cilia in adult stage. of flat, rectangular body segments (or
M E
R LIN
f) They exhibit bilateral symmetry. proglottids), generated by the neck

(Figure 3.42). The chain of proglottids
g) They have a very simple nervous
VE N
may reach up to 15 or 20 ft (4.6–6.1 m)

O O
system, with two nerve cords which run

long. Terminal proglottids break off,
G R
down on either side of the body. They

and are egested in the feaces of the host.
FO
have two simple brains called ganglia,

Nevertheless, the new ones are constantly
which are simple bundles of nerves.
formed at the neck of the worm. As long
h) Some have two eyespots that help in as the scolex and the neck are intact, the
sensing the presence of light. worm is alive and capable of growing.
i) Some platyhelminths have hooks and Rudimentary nervous and excretory
suckers for attachment. Examples of systems run the length of the worm,
platyhelminths are Taenia solium, through the proglottids. However, there is
Taenia saginata (tapeworms), and no digestive tract; the worm absorbs the
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host’s digested food through its cuticle or g) It is well adapted to osmotic pressure
outer covering. changes in the host’s body.
h) It has flame cells, which collect
Rostellum
Mature proglottid excretory material from all parts of
Hook
the body.
Scolex
Structure of a liver fluke
Suckers Morphologically, an adult liver fluke, for
Neck
example Fasciola, has a flattened leaf
shaped appearance (Figure 3.43). In the
Immature proglottid anterior part, there is a triangular projection
with a mouth surrounded by oral suckers
Figure 3.42 Structure of a Taenia at its apex. Ventrally, at the base of the
projection, there are ventral suckers; and
Adaptations of Taenia to its mode of life.
between the two types of suckers, there is
Taenia exhibits various special adaptations
a genital pore. Posteriorly, there is a minute
to its parasitic mode of life as follows:
excretory pore. The body is enclosed in
a) It has scolex (head) with hooks and
a tough cuticle, which is extended into
suckers for fixation and attachment on
backward directed spines. Their muscle
the host’s gut wall
fibres have small glands with minute ducts.
b) It lacks alimentary canal because it TY The mouth runs into the oesophagus which
absorbs digested food materials from
PE Y
branches into two blind parts.

O NL
its hosts.
R
Mouth
PR O
c) It has a thin and flattened body, which Oral sucker

Head Genital pore
T SE
provides a large surface area for

Acetabulum
gaseous exchange and absorption of
EN U
(ventral sucker)
digested food.
M E
Flattened body
R LIN
d) Its body is covered by a living

epidermal layer called the tegument
VE N
which produces antienzymes to protect

O O
it from hosts’ digestive enzymes.

G R
Excretory
FO
e) It has a large number of ploglottids, pore

which ensures production of a large
Figure 3.43 Structure of a liver fluke
number of eggs, hence high chance of
survival.
Adaptations of the liver fluke to its
f) It can respire anaerobically; therefore, mode of life
it is able to live under low oxygen Liver fluke possesses the following features
concentration, for example in the host’s that facilitate a parasitic mode of its life in
gut. the host:

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a) It has suckers that provide a means of b) Some members of Platyhelminthes

attachment to the host. are used in biological studies as
b) It has tegument with spines that specimens; for example, Taenia and
prevent it from being washed away by Fasciola.
bile; and also help the parasite to erode
liver cells. Disadvantages of phylum
Platyhelminthes
c) The tough tegument and secretions
Some members are parasites, which cause
from the glands prevent the worm
diseases to man and domestic animals.
from the effects of the host’s toxins.
Examples include:
d) The parasite secretes enzymes that
a) Taenia causes taeniasis; an intestinal
help it to penetrate the liver cells at
tapeworm infection caused by eating
various stages of its life cycle.
raw or undercooked contaminated
e) It has mechanisms and chemicals beef (Taenia saginata) or pork (Taenia
that suppress the actions of the host’s solium).
digestive enzymes.
b) Fasciola hepatica causes fascioliasis,
f) It has a high reproductive potential
which results into liver rot in sheep,
and different multiplication phases
cattle, and humans.
that balance its high mortality rate.
c) Schistosoma haematobium and
They have two hosts, namely primary
Schistosoma mansoni cause
hosts (example: sheep and humans)
urinary and interstinal bilharzia
and secondary host (example: fresh
(schistosomiasis) respectively.
water snail called Lymnea sp.).
TY
PE Y
They have several larval stages

O NL
R
(miracidium, sporocyst, redia, cercaria 3.7.2 Phylum Nematoda

and metacercaria) which increase
PR O
(Aschelminthes)
the chances of survival and more
T SE
Nematodes or round worms are the most

perpetuation. numerous multicellular animals on earth,
EN U
and inhabit a wide range of environments.

M E
Economic importance of phylum Many of them are parasites of animals

R LIN
Platyhelminthes (including humans) and plants. They may

VE N
Some members of phylum Platyhelminthes cause serious diseases that are deleterious to
O O
play an important role in marine, freshwater human health and agricultural productivity.
G R
and terrestrial ecosystems, while several The free-living species inhabit marine and
FO
species are harmful parasites to humans freshwater environments, as well as the soils
and other animals. and sediments of all of the various types of
terrestrial biomes. Examples of Nematodes
Advantages of phylum Platyhelminthes include: Ascaris lumbricoides (the pig and
a) Some species of Platyhelminthes feed human nematodes), Wuchereria bancrofti
on dead bodies of large organisms; (infecting human lymphatic system), hook
therefore, they decompose organic worms (blood-feeding parasite of human
matter in the soil; for example, free and other animals) and Meloidogyne
living Planaria. incognita (plant root knot nematode).
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Structure of Ascaris from being digested by the enzymes of

Ascaris are round, slender unsegmented the alimentary canal of the host.
worms with tapering bodies at both ends. b) It produces chemicals, which act as
They are characterised by being tubes anti-enzymes to the digestive enzymes
within tubes, referring to the alimentary of the host.
canal, which extends from the mouth on the c) It has an alimentary canal, which opens
anterior end to the anus, located near the at the mouth and anus. This enables the
tail (Figure 3.44). They possess digestive, parasite to take food from the hosts’
nervous, excretory and reproductive digestive system.
systems, but they lack distinct circulatory d) It possesses digestive enzymes in its
and respiratory systems. The male and digestive system for the completion of
female Ascaris differ in morphology, as male partially digested food from the hosts’
is smaller and more curved at its posterior alimentary canal.
end than the female. They lack locomotory e) It has sensory papillae around its
organs; movement is by undulating bodies mouth for detecting food present in the
in dorso-ventral waves. elementary canal of the host.
f) It respires anaerobically, and have low
Mouth
metabolic rate; hence, they are able to
live inside the host’s intestine.
Excretory g) It has high reproductive potential; thus,
pore by producing large number of eggs, it
TY
PE Y
Female ensures its survival and existence.

O NL
R
gonopore
h) The pharynx has valves, which prevent
PR O
regurgitation of the ingested food.

T SE
Lateral Cloaca aperture

line
Economic importance of phylum
EN U
Penial spicules
Aschelminthes
M E
Anus Curved tail

R LIN
Members of Aschelminthes are associated

Straight tail with both advantages and disadvantages
VE N
as follows:
O O
(a) (b)
N
G R
Figure 3.44 Structure of Ascaris lumbricoides

Advantages of phylum Aschelminthes
FO
(a) female and (b) male

a) Nematodes, such as Ascaris are used
in biological studies in different ways;
Adaptations of Ascaris to its mode of for instance, in laboratory practical
life studies.
Ascaris possesses some adaptive features b) Some nematodes are used as biological
that enable it to adapt to its parasitic mode control agents for pest insects. They
of life. Thus: attack insects and kill or hinder their
a) It has a tough cuticle, which protects it development.

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Disadvantages of the phylum f) They have a lip like extension on

Aschelminthes the first segment above the mouth
Some Aschelminthes are parasites and cause (prostomium).
diseases in plants and animals. Examples g) They have nephridia as typical
include:
excretory organs.
a) Wuchereria bancrofti that causes
h) They have central nervous system,
elephantiasis. This disease infects the
with paired cerebral ganglia in which
human lymphatic system by blocking
paired commissures around the gut
it; resulting in the accumulation of the
lead to a double ventral nerve cord,
lymph in legs, hands, and/or scrotal
expanded to form a ganglion in every
sacs.
segment.
b) Ascaris lumbricoides causes ascariasis
in humans that may lead to obstruction
Body plan of coelomates
in the gut and anaemia.
In annelids and other coelomates there is
c) Meloidogyne incognita causes
an extensive internal space or body cavity
root knot galls in plants that drain
called a coelom. This is the space between
photosynthetic products; hence, affect
the body wall and the alimentary canal
plant growth and reduce yield.
(Figure 3.45).
3.7.3 Phylum Annelida

Functions of the coelom
Members of this phylum are known as ringedTYThe coelom has the following biological
or segmented worms. This is a large phylum
PE Y
significance to an organism:
O NL
comprising of lugworms, earthworms, and

R
a) It contains coelomic fluid which acts

leeches. The species are adapted to various as a hydrostatic skeleton. This is found
PR O
habitats; some members are aquatic, living in such organisms as earthworms.

T SE
in marine and fresh water, and others live b) It separates the alimentary canal from
EN U
in moist terrestrial environments. the body wall so that the functions of

M E
the two parts take place independently.

R LIN
Characteristics of phylum Annelida c) It allows the animal to grow larger.

a) They are triploblastic, coelomate
VE N
d) The coelomic fluid may function as a

O O
organisms.
circulatory medium for transportation
G R
b) They have bilateral symmetry. of food, gases, and excretory wastes.

FO
c) They are metamerically segmented. e) It provides space for enlargement of

internal organs.
d) They have a definite outer covering
called cuticle f) In some animals, it plays an
osmoregulatory role.
e) They have chitinous hair-like structures
called chaetae (except in leeches), the
chaetae of polychaetes are found on
structures known as parapodia.
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Ectoderm
Body Somatic
wall mesoderm
Coelom
Peritoneum
Gut Splanchnic
mesoderm Gut Wall
Endoderm
Gonad or Excretory organ

Mesentery Tubes leads to
the exterior of
reproductive
system
Figure 3.45 Transverse section of a generalised coelomate
Classes of phylum Annelida the length of its body. It has a thin wet
The phylum has three classes namely: skin through which gaseous exchange
Class Polychaeta, which includes the takes place. There is a double transport
TY
PE Y
marine bristle worms with many chaetae system composed of coelomic fluid that
O NL
R
and parapodia, examples are Nereis (the moves within the fluid-filled coelom. The
PR O
ragworm) and Arenicola (the lugworm). circulatory system is simple and closed.
Class Oligochaeta which includes; the
T SE
The worm has a central and peripheral

earthworms and fresh water worms, that
nervous systems. The central nervous
EN U
have few chaetae without parapodia,

system consists of two ganglia above
M E
for example Lumbricus (the common

R LIN
the mouth, one on either side, connected

earthworm), Tubifex (fresh water earthworm
to a nerve cord running back along its
VE N
sometimes called sludge worm, or sewage

length to motor neurones and sensory
O O
worm). Another class of annelida is class

cells in each segment. A large number of
G R
Hirudinea which includes segmented worms

chemoreceptors are concentrated near its
FO
with fixed number of segments, and have

mouth. Circumferential and longitudinal
neither chaetae nor parapodia; an example
muscles on the periphery of each segment
is Hirudo (the leeches).
enable the worm to move. Similar sets of
muscles line the gut and their actions move
Structure of earthworm
the food towards the worm’s anus.
An earthworm is an elongated, tube-shaped,
metamerically segmented organism (Figure Earthworm is a hermaphrodite, meaning
3.46). Its digestive system runs through that, the organism has both male and

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female reproductive organs. Has an are openings of the vasa differentia (male
opening of spermotheca, which is found opening). Additionally, earthworm has
in segments 9, 10, and 11. Seminal fluid clitella (singular clitellum) which secret
from another worm is passed through a cocoon in which eggs are deposited.
the opening during copulation. Ventrally, The mouth is overhang by a flap called a
on segment 14, there are very small prostomium. Movement is by means of
slits, which are openings of the oviducts paired chaetae.
(female opening) and on segment 15; there
Segments
Head Anus
Clitellum
(saddle)
Figure 3.46 Structure of the earthworm
Adaptations of earthworm to its mode f) They are omnivorous; as they feed on

of life live plant matters, fungi, bacteria and
TY
PE Y
a) They have ideal shapes with chaetae microscopic animals. They also feed
O NL
R
for burrowing. on dead organic matter from plants and

PR O
b) They have gizzard for breaking up animals. This feeding habit ensures
T SE
sustainable food supply.

plant tissues.
EN U
g) Under natural conditions, earthworms

c) They have clitellum, which holds
M E
are less active; this limits oxygen

together earthworms during copulation
R LIN
consumption.
and forms an egg depositer structure
h) They have looped surface vessels,
VE N
called cocoon to ensure efficient

O O
which facilitate absorption of oxygen

provision of offspring during
over a short diffusion distance.
G R
unfavourable conditions.
FO
i) Their haemoglobin has high affinity to

d) The mucus secreted helps to bind the oxygen.
walls of burrows and helps the worm
j) The head is less elaborate. The worm
to pass through smoothly. has tactile and photoreceptive cells for
e) They can thrust the earth aside when it locating food at night and sensing light
is loose and consume it when it is tight. during the day respectively.
This ability ensures burrowing under k) They have chaetae that are used for
both conditions. movement.
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Economic importance of Annelids pollutants from the soil and clean the
Annelids are both ecologically and environment by transforming organic
economically important; even though on wastes during feeding as a way of
the other side, they have some drawbacks. waste management.
f) Their excretory wastes in form of
Advantages of Annelids
casts increase cementing effects of
a) They improve soil aeration, drainage
soil particles; hence, increase water-
channels and increase depth of the top
holding capacity.
soil through burrowing and mixing of
soil layers. g) They are used as specimens in
biological studies.
b) They are used as bait in fishing
industry, for example earthworms.
Disadvantages of Annelids
c) They are used as source of nutritious a) They increase soil porosity and
food rich in proteins and vitamins for aeration, which is detrimental to paddy
fish and carnivorous birds. fields (rice plants in the field).
d) They are ecological decomposers; b) They damage young roots of the
hence, they contribute to nutrient growing plants.
circulation; since they feed on c) Leeches are harmful to mammals,
decaying organic matter. reptiles, and fishes as they suck blood.
e) They are used for removing soil TY
PE Y
O NL
R
Activity 3.11
PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
S1 S2 S3
Figure 3.47 Specimens S1, S2, and S3

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Examine the external features of c) They have segmented bodies, which

specimens S1, S2 and S3, (Figure 3.47) are arranged into regions, called
and then answer the questions that tagmata comprising of the head,
follow. thorax, and abdomen. The head of
1. Identify the specimens by their some arthropods such as arachnids and
common names. crustaceans is fused with the thorax to
2. In what kind of habitat would you form a structure called cephalothorax
expect to find specimen S3? (prosoma).
3. What are the observable features; d) Their body plan is bilaterally symmetrical.
which make specimens S1, S2 and S3 e) They have a ventral nervous system
differ from each other? and open circulatory system, which is
4. Name the phylum and classes dorsally positioned.
to which each of the observed f) They are triploblastic coelomate
specimens belong. animals, which are metamerically
segmented.
g) Their coelom is reduced and confined
3.7.4 Phylum Arthropoda to cavities of excretory organs and
This is the largest group in the Kingdom reproductive ducts during their
Animalia, with high species diversity. development and form another cavity
Arthropods represent about three-quarters
TY called haemocoel.
PE Y
of all known living organisms. Some of the h) They have an open circulatory system.
O NL
R
well- known arthropods include insects,

PR O
crustaceans, and arachnids. Arthropoda Classification of Arthropods

T SE
comes from two Greek words arthro that Arthropods are classified into five classes
means ‘joint’ and podos that means ‘foot’. namely; class Crustacea, which include
EN U
Therefore, all arthropods have jointed crabs, class Arachnida, which include
M E
R LIN
appendages. Arthropods are found in almost spiders and scorpions, class Chilopoda, for
every known environment including marine, example centipedes, class Diplopoda, for
VE N
freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems. instance millipedes, and class Insecta, which
O O
They vary extremely in their habitats, life include cockroaches and grasshoppers.
G R
histories, and feeding habits.

FO
Class Crustacea
Characteristics of phylum Arthropoda Crustaceans form a large group of arthropods
a) They possess a chitinous and that include familiar animals such as crabs,
sometimes calcareous exoskeleton, lobsters, prawns, shrimps, barnacles, and
which may be rigid, stiff or flexible; crayfish. Most crustaceans are marine
shed during growth in some organisms. aquatic animals, other are found in fresh
b) They have jointed, paired appendages water habitats, and a few are terrestrial,
such as legs and antennae.
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for example woodlice (Isopota) found in g) They have variable number of legs,
leaf litter. sometimes up to ten legs and can
be modified for swimming. Unlike
Distinctive features of class Crustacea other arthopods, the legs and other
Crustacea have distinctive features that appendages of Crustacea have two
make them unique among other arthropods branches (they are biramous).
as highlighted below:
a) They possess two body division, which Structure of a crab
are cephalothorax (the head fused with A crab is covered with a thick exoskeleton
thorax) and abdomen. (carapace) composed of calcium carbonate.
b) They have carapace or an exoskeleton This means they are well protected against
hardened with calcium salts which predators (Figure 3.48). The body is divided
acts as a protective shell. into two parts: the cephalothorax and
c) They have heads bearing two pairs of abdomen. The abdomen is entirely hidden
antennae. under the carapace; it may not be visible at
all, unless the crab is turned over. The head
d) They have a pair of compound eyes at
bears two pairs of antennae. The animal
the ends of movable stalks.
is equipped with a pair of claws (pincers)
e) They have at least three pairs of which are the most important weapons with
mouthparts. at least three functions: seizing, eating and
f) Gills are used for gaseous exchange, subduing the prey. If the food is a shellfish,
TY
PE Y
which are the outgrowth of the body then the pincers can exert force to open or
O NL
R
wall or limbs. break the mollusc’s shell. Males also use

PR O
pincers for or during fighting.

T SE
EN U
M E
Antennae
R LIN
Cheliped
VE N
O O
Eye Propodus
G R
Carpus
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Merus
Walking legs
Carapace
Figure 3.48 Structure of a crab

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Class Arachnida Structure of a spider

The arachnids represent the second The spider has two main body parts: a fused
largest group of terrestrial arthropods head and thorax, called cephalothorax
after the insects. The class includes the and abdomen (Figure 3.49). Most
animals whose bodies are organised into external appendages are attached to the
two tagmata called cephalothorax or cephalothorax. The appendages are legs,
prosoma (fused head with thorax) and chelicerae, mouthparts, and pedipalps. On
abdomen (opisthosoma). Most of them
the ventral part of the abdomen are two
are carnivores, except the mites, which are
hardened plates covering the book lungs.
herbivores. Members of this class include
The spinnerets, which produce silk, are also
spiders, mites, ticks and scorpions.
located in the abdomen.
Distinctive features of class Arachnida
Arachnids can be distinguished from other
members of the phylum Arthropoda by the
Pedipalp
following features: Chelicerae
a) Their bodies are divided into two Walking Carapace
legs Pedicel
regions; prosoma and opisthosoma, Abdomen
separated by a narrow waist-like Spinneret
constriction.
b) They lack antennae; alternatively, TY Figure 3.49 Structure of a spider
PE Y
they use pedipalps to detect external

O NL
R
stimuli. Adaptations of spider to its mode of

PR O
c) They lack compound eyes, they only life

have simple eyes. Spiders live in almost every habitat. They
T SE
d) They lack true mouthparts; instead, are adapted to different environments

EN U
they have two pairs of appendages born because:

M E
from prosoma. One pair, the chelicerae

R LIN
a) They have pairs of chericerae which

or poisonous fangs, is used for killing produce silk for capturing preys.
VE N
preys or defending themselves; the

O O
b) They have pedipalps for sensation.

other pair called pedipalps holds the
G R
c) They have four pairs of legs for

prey in place when the animal injects
FO
poison. locomotion.The hairy spiders have

stings used to paralyse prey and defend
e) Usually they have four pairs of
themselves.
walking legs.
f) Their respiratory structures are book
Subphylum Uniramia
lungs or book gills or trachea. The centipedes (Chilopoda), millipedes
(Diplopoda) and insects (Insecta) form
a closely related group of arthropods.
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They have three features that distinguish a) They have a flattened body with a
them from other arthropods. The first is distinct head. However, other body
possession of a single pair of antennae segments are similar, the trunk is not
(crustaceans have two pairs and arachnids obviously divided into thorax and
have none). The second is the presence of abdomen.
strictly uniramus (unbranched) appendages. b) They have one pair of legs per segment.
Thirdly, the cuticle is hardened using c) They are carnivores, feeding mainly
tanning process involving chemicals on insects and worms.
known as hydroquinones. It is made
d) Their first trunk segments have
waterproof using wax, and never has
appendages, which are modified into a
calcium carbonate. For these reasons,
pair of poisonous fangs.
the three classes are nowadays grouped
together under "Uniramia".
Structure of centipede
Class Chilopoda Centipedes have a head bearing eyes, well-
This class consists of organisms found in developed one pair of mouthparts (jaws),
terrestrial environment. They are terrestrial and one pair of antennae (Figure 3.50). The
animals abundant in moist areas, such as body consists of many segments, each of
leaf litters, under logs or rocks. An example which bears one pair of legs. The legs of
of chilopoda are centipedes. the first body segment are modified into
poisonous claws, and are used for defence
Distinctive features of class Chilopoda
TY
as well as for capturing and paralysing
PE Y
The following features distinguish

O NL
preys. They have tracheae used for gaseous

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centipedes from other members of the

exchange.
PR O
phylum Arthropoda:
T SE
Segment
EN U
Leg Antennae
M E
R LIN
VE N
Eye
O O
N
G R
Poisonous jaw
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Last pair of leg with

hooks for defence
Figure 3.50 Structure of a centipede
Adaptations of the centipede to its a) They are fast moving animals; this
mode of life helps them to catch their prey.
Centipedes are adapted to a wide range of b) They feed on insects, spiders, and
habitats because: worms, which they hunt and paralyse
with a bite of their poisonous claws.
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c) They have antennae for sensation. Structure of millipede

d) They have poisonous claws for defence The millipede has elongated and cylindrical
and hunting. body in which each body segment bears
e) They have legs for locomotion. two pairs of legs. Millipedes are made up of
f) The last pair of legs has hooks for a series of segments, whose number varies
defence. greatly from one species of millipedes
to another (Figure 3.51). Many of the
segments contain special glands that secrete
Class Diplopoda
a noxious chemical to repel predators.
The class Diplopoda consists of members
The first segment behind the head does
with many legs; usually two pairs of legs
not have legs, but the rest of the segments
per body segment. An example of a member
have legs. Towards the end, some of the
of class Diplopoda is a millipede. The head
segments have no legs. The number of
bears one pair of antennae and a pair of
legless segments varies from one millipede
mouthparts (jaws) while the trunk is not
to another. Some species of millipedes have
divided into thorax and abdomen. They are
hair or spiny appendages protruding from
scavengers that feed on decaying organic
their bodies. Its head is on one end of its
matter, like leaves and compost.
body, and is about the same diameter as
the adjacent segment. Also the head has a
Distinctive features of class Diplopoda
pair of antennae that helps the millipede to
Diplopods have unique features, which
sense the surrounding environment. One
differentiate them from other Arthropods.
pair of mouthparts (jaws) is on the front
TY
a) They have round bodies with clearly
PE Y
part of its head and the eyes are fixed above

O NL
defined head, followed by other similar

R
its jaws. Most millipedes have simple eyes

segments.
PR O
that provide basic vision, but not all types

b) They have many legs; with two pairs
T SE
or species of millipedes have eyes.

of legs per segment.
EN U
c) Most millipedes are herbivorous,

M E
feeding mainly on decaying vegetation.

R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
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Figure 3.51 Structure of a millipede
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Adaptations of the millipede to its Activity 3.12

mode of life
Millipedes have the following features that
make them adapt to their environment:
a) They have many, short and strong legs
that enable them to burrow into the
soil.
b) They produce special secretions, S5
which help them to moisturize dead
organic matter on which they feed
upon.
c) A millipede tends to curl up into a tight
flat coil for self-defence, and protect
their delicate legs inside an armoured
exoskeleton.
d) Millipedes produce an offensively S6
odorous fluid (repugnatorial fluid)
when provoked, this acts as a defence
against predators.
Class Insecta
The class contains all insects and is the
TY
S7
PE Y
most diverse group of organisms on

O NL
earth. Members of this class are found in

R
all environments including fresh water Figure 3.52 Specimens S5 , S6 , and S7

PR O
aquatic and terrestrial environments, but

T SE
very few are found in marine habitats.

Study specimen S5 , S6 , and S7 (Figure
EN U
They differ in morphology and feeding

3.52) carefully, then answer the
habits. Although members of this group
M E
questions that follow:

R LIN
vary greatly, they have some common

characteristics, which make them to 1. Identify specimens S5 , S6 , and S7 by
VE N
belong into the same class. Members of their common names.

O O
this class have three pairs of walking legs,

2. Name the classes to which
G R
three distinct body parts or regions and

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one pair of antennae borne on the head. specimens S5 and S6 belong.

The antennae are used as sense organs 3. List the observable features that
for detection of odour molecules in the have enabled you to place the two
air, changes in the concentration of water specimens in (2) above into their
vapour, sounds, and gauging air speed. respective classes.
Examples of insects include grasshopper,
butterfly, house fly, cockroach, beetle,
bees, ant, wasp, and termite.

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Distinctive features of class Insecta mesothoracic legs and metathoracic legs

Insects have the following features that respectively). The thorax also bears two
differentiate them from other arthropods: pairs of wings in most adults insects. The
a) Their bodies are divided into three body is covered by a rigid exoskeletons
main regions or tagmata, namely the (cuticle) secreted by the epidermal layer.
head, thorax, and abdomen. This occurs in jointed sections or plates to
b) They have three pairs of walking legs allow body movement. The exoskeleton
on the thorax (one pair per thoracic is made up by a structural protein known
segment). as chitin. It is coated with wax, which is
c) They usually have one or two pairs of impermeable to water. The exoskeleton
wings on the thorax, some members provides attachment for body muscles.
may lack wings. Cockroaches are mostly dark brown or
d) They use the tracheal system as their reddish in colour. Male cockroach has a
respiratory surface with segmental
narrow abdomen an expanded tergum of
spiracles.
the last visible segment, and has a pair of
e) They undergo metamorphosis during
styles at the end of abdomen, while the
their development through the molting
process. female cockroach has a wide abdomen
f) They have a pair of compound eyes with a large podical plates used to carry
and simple eyes. the ootheca, and lacks styles (Figure 3.53
g) They usually have three pairs of a, b and c).
TY
mouthparts, which are maxillae,
PE Y
O NL
mandible, and labrum.

R
3.7.4 Body systems in arthropods

PR O
Like other animals, arthropods have

Structure of a cockroach
T SE
various body systems which enable them

The body of a cockroach is elongated and to perform and sustain their life processes.
EN U
segmented, divided into a head, thorax, These include: respiratory, circulatory,

M E
and abdomen. The thorax is subdivided

R LIN
digestive, nervous, reproductive and

into three parts; prothorax, mesothorax excretory systems. In this text, digestive
VE N
and metathorax and each segment and reproductive systems will be dealt
O O
bears one pair of legs (prothoracic legs, with.

G R
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Antennae
Head
Compound eye
Thorax segments
Fore wing
Abdomen segments
Jointed legs
Hind wing
Cercus
(a)
Antennae Antennae
Head Head
Compound eye Compound eye
Mouth parts Mouth parts
TY
PE Y
Walking leg Walking leg

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R
Abdomen
PR O
Abdomen
Cercus Cercus
T SE
Anal style
EN U
(b) (c)
M E
R LIN
Figure 3.53 Structure of a cockroach (a) dorsal view (b) male ventral view (c) female ventral view
VE N
Digestive system of a cockroach and pharynx) are found inside the head
O O
The alimentary canal of the cockroach is capsule and not visible in the dissected
G R
FO
long and coiled tubular structure starting at cockroach, while the other three part
the mouth opening. It is divided into three are visible. The gizzard is muscular
main parts, namely foregut (stomodaeum), and internally provided with six cutical
midgut (mesenteron or ventriculus), and pointed teeth, for crushing the food.
hindgut (proctodaeum). The foregut is
differentiated into five parts: Buccal The midgut is short and tubular lined with
chamber, pharynx, oesophagus, crop, and glandular endoderm. At the anterior end
gizzard. The fist two parts (buccal cavity of midgut there are eight blind glandular

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hepatic caeca (digestive/mesenteric Eye

Salivary duct
caeca) which increase the surface area for Salivary
absorption. The cells lining the mesenteron gland
Oesophagus
secrete enzymes. Most of the food nutrients Salivary
receptacle
are digested in the mesenteron and the end Crop
products of the digested food substances Gizzard
are absorbed by the cells of mesenteron Hepatic caeca
and digestive caeca. The distal end of the Mesenteron
Malphigian Rectum
midgut is indicated by the presence of tubules
Ileum Anal cercus
malpighian tubules which are excretory in Colon Tenth abdominal tergum
function (Figure 3.54).
Figure 3.54 The digestive system of a female
cockroach
The hindgut comprises of the ileum,
colon, and rectum. The ileum is short Reproductive system of a male
and narrow and receives the openings cockroach
of the malpighian tubules. On the other The male cockroach has a pair of anal styles;
hand, colon is wider and longer than the the external structure which differentiate
rectum. The wall of the rectum is provided the male cockroach from female. Testes
with six rectal papillae, which help in are small lobed masses (lobules) lying
the absorption of water and salts. The laterodorsally in the fourth and fifth
digestive system terminates with the anal abdominal segments. There are two testes
(one on the right and the other on the left),
TY
opening (anus) through which undigested
PE Y
each joined to a slender vas diferens (plural

O NL
material is removed in process known as

R
egestion. vasa diferentia) which connect to the wider

PR O
ejaculatory duct.
T SE
Lobules of testes
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
Vas deferens
Mushroom gland
O O
Ejaculatory duct
G R
Right phallomere
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Ventral phallomere
Cercus Pseudo-penis
Anal style
Figure 3.55 The reproductive system of a male cockroach
The testes produce sperms which transfered called spermatophore (sperm pouch).
through the vasa differentia to the seminal There are three asymmetrical chitinous
vesicle. All sperms from a seminal vesicle structures, called male gonapophyses or
are collected together into a large bundle phallomeres; the right phallomere, the
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left phallomere (largest) and the ventral chamber. A genital pouch or gynatrium is
phallomere (smallest). These, together with divisible into a genital chamber in front and
the pseudo-penis, form the organ used to the oothecal chamber behind.
transfer the sperm pouch to the female
during copulation (Figure 3.55). Female gonapophyses consist of three pairs
of chitinous rods hanging from the roof
Reproductive system of a female of the oothecal chamber into its cavity.
cockroach They help in shaping the ootheca and
The female organs consist of ovaries, depositing eggs in it. The ootheca of the
oviduct, vagina, genital chamber, cockroach contains sixteen fertilised eggs,
spermathecae, collateral glands, and female coated with the secretions (protein, and
gonapophyses (ovipositor processes).
dihydroxyphenol) of the colleterial glands.
Ovaries of the cockroach are located
The eggs are lying in two rows, each with
laterally in the abdominal segments four,
eight eggs. The female cockroach carries the
five and six. Each ovary consists of eight
ovarioles. (Figure 3.56). ootheca for several days and finally protrude
more and more until it is deposited to the
One oviduct from each side open into a dark crevice, and for about six weeks, the
genital chamber at a slit-like aperture. A pair young cockroaches hatch out and grows
of collateral glands also open in the genital into adult.
Ovaries
TY
PE Y
Filament
O NL
R
PR O
Egg chamber
T SE
Pedicel
EN U
Oviduct
M E
Common oviduct
Left collateral Spermatheca
R LIN
gland Right collateral gland

Genital chamber
VE N
O O
Oothecal chambers
N
G R
Figure 3.56 The reproductive system of a female cockroach

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Dissection of a cockroach organism and on accurate descriptions of

Animals are dissected to analyse the structure the body parts. Dissection involves attentive
and function of their body components. isolation and removal of individual organs,
Dissection provides the crucial opportunity
accessing the area in which the organs are
for students and other scientists to develop
scientific observational skills. The methods situated, and systematically removing the
of investigating gross structure depend on anatomical connections of organ to its
careful dissection or cutting apart, of an surrounding.

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Dissection of a cockroach allows learning while the dorsal side (tergum) is facing
of the location and appearance of internal upwards.
organs; distinguishing among different e) Allow the wax to cool, and then the
types of tissues within an insect body insect will be fixed (Figure 3.57).
and to describe the major body systems.
The following practical guidelines in
dissecting a cockroach, permits the
studies of internal features of the insect,
including its heart, circulatory, digestive and
reproductive systems. Materials necessary
for the dissection of a cockroach include
dissection kit, dissecting tray or board, a
piece of thread, dissecting pins or office
pins, scissors, fine-point forceps gloves
and chloroform.
General procedure for dissecting a

cockroach
a) Melt little wax in the centre of
dissecting tray.
Figure 3.57 Cockroach fixed for dissection
b) Wear a pair of gloves.
f) Since cockroach’s heart is on its dorsal
TY
c) Cut the insect wings, antennae and legs
PE Y
close to their base. side attached inside the terga and

O NL
R
nervous system is on its ventral side,

d) Place the cockroach in the melted wax
PR O
when dissecting, cut either on its left or

or use dissecting pins, to place the
T SE
right lateral side (pleural) from the last

cockroach on its ventral side (sternum)
segment of the abdomen to the thorax.
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
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(a) (b)
Figure 3.58 Fixed cockroach showing (a) lifted aside terga (b) pined terga
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g) Carefully lift the last abdominal tergum i) Remove fats to expose the gut and
using a forcep, then cut one side of the other organs in the body cavity.
abdomen. Work forward by lifting j) Cover your dissection with water to
aside the terga with forceps and cut bring the organs float up, prevent them
around the edge with small scissor from drying up and to enable them
or scalpel up to the base of the head being seen clearly.
(Figure 3.58a).
k) Loosen the gut, deflect to one side and
h) Place a pin to hold the terga aside (you pin it to display all the systems (Figure
can use an optical pin to clearly pin it 3.59).
and ease observation of all parts in the
terga as well as those of the abdominal
cavity (Figure 3.58b).
Salivary
gland
Receptacle
Oesophagus
Crop
Gizzard
Hepatic Digestive caeca

Mesenteron
TY
PE Y
Colon
O NL
Rectum
R
Malphigian tubule
PR O
Ileum
Anal cercus
T SE
EN U
Figure 3.59 General view of the dissected cockroach

M E
R LIN
l) Make sure the body wall is neatly Safety precautions

VE N
pinned aside, the dissection is generally 1. Care should be taken when working
O O
neat with all required features; avoid with live specimens and apparatus,
G R
damaging the organs and blocking the including dissection kit tools.
FO
ducts.
2. The working area, equipment and
m) Carefully examine all internal parts instruments used must be thoroughly
using a hand lens. cleaned and decontaminated after
use, by using appropriate methods.
3. Good hygiene practices should be
observed all the time; hands should be
kept away from the mouth, nose, eyes,
and face during and after dissection.
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Hands should be thoroughly washed 2. State the function (s) of each

with soap or disinfectant immediately labelled part.
after conducting a dissection practical
session. 3. Explain how the central location
of a gizzard helps the organism in
4. All other safety laboratory rules
should be observed; the teacher or digestion.
laboratory technician should guide 4. Differentiate the crop from the
the students. digestive caeca.
Note:
Activity 3.13 Dissection of a 1. The diagrams should be well drawn,

cockroach to display the digestive large enough, generally neat and
system accurate.
Materials 2. The caption should be well indicated;

Fresh male or female cockroach, when written on top of the diagram it
dissection kit, chloroform, dissecting should be capitalised and underlined,
tray or dish with wax intact, source of while when written below the diagram,
heat, and water. the first later should be upper case and
TY should not be underlined.
Procedure
PE Y
3. Label lines should be indicated in

O NL
a) Collect a fresh male or female

R
pencil; should be straight without

cockroach.
PR O
arrows; and should not cross each

T SE
b) Prepare a dissecting tray or board other.

and chloroform for anaesthetizing
EN U
the specimen. 4. Labelling words should be on the

M E
required parts and written using blue

R LIN
c) Dissect the cockroach in a usual or black ink.

way; deflect the gut to your right
VE N
O O
hand side, to fully display the 5. The magnification of the diagram

should correspond to the real
G R
digestive system.
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specimen.
Questions
1. Draw a diagram of your dissection

and label only the parts of the
digestive system. Compare your
diagram with that of Figure 3.59.
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Activity 3:14 Dissection of a cockroach a) They possess a cuticle, which prevents

to display the reproductive system water loss and makes them resistant
to desiccation, predators, invasion
Materials by parasites, as well as physical and
Fresh male or female cockroach, mechanical injury.
dissection kit, chloroform, dissecting b) They have modified and specialised
tray or board with wax intact, source of mouthparts according to their
heat, and water. feeding habits; their mouthparts have
mandibles for cutting and chewing,
Procedure piercing, and sucking as in mosquitoes.
a) Collect a fresh male or female c) They have a well developed and
cockroach. With reasons identify efficient respiratory system extending
the sex of your specimen. towards the individual cells in which
b) Prepare a dissecting tray or dish gaseous exchange takes place.
and chloroform for anaesthetizing d) They possess flexible jointed
the specimen. appendages which facilitate rapid
c) Dissect the cockroach in a usual movement with minimum utilisation
way and deflect the gut to the left of muscles.
hand side of the animal, to fully e) They possess sensory organs such as
display the reproductive system. antennae, compound eyes, and cerci,
which are capable of detecting slight
TY
PE Y
Questions movements, sounds, or chemicals.

O NL
R
1. Draw a well labelled diagram of f) They undergo moulting (ecdysis)

PR O
your dissection. Compare your process during development by

T SE
diagram with that of Figure 3.55 or removing their hard covers, and
Figure 3.56. become soft to facilitate growth.
EN U
2. State the role(s) of each labelled g) Their small and flattened body shapes
M E
R LIN
part. enable them to hide into small cracks

and crevices, where they live.
3. Classify the organism to the class
VE N
h) They possess coloured cuticle, which

O O
level.
provides camouflage against predators.
G R
FO
i) Wings help them in dispersal and

Adaptations of Arthropods to their colonization of new habitats.
environment
Arthropods are the most abundant and Economic importance of Arthropods
diverse group of organisms on earth. They Arthropods play an important role in the
possess the following adaptive features, world. However, not all arthropods are
useful; some are harmful to other living
which help them to be a successful diverse
organisms.
group:

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Advantages of Arthropods c) Some arthropods destroy crop plants;

a) Insects such as bees and butterflies examples include locusts and the
are useful in agriculture; as they act caterpillars of butterflies and moths.
as pollinators; many plants depend on d) Some arthropods are parasitic to
insects for pollination. mammals. Good examples of such
b) They are used in industries for arthropods are ticks, jiggers, and
production of honey and wax bedbugs, which grip themselves on
materials; for example honey bees. human skin and suck blood.
c) Insects are used in biological control
of pests; in certain cases, insects have 3.7.5 Phylum Chordata
been very effective predators to reduce This is the third largest phylum in the
the number of pests. For example, lady kingdom Animalia. The phylum comprises
beetles are used to kill aphids (the pest of all animals that at some point during
their lives, possess a hollow nerve cord
insects that transmit viruses to plants).
and notochord.
d) Many arthropods are used as food;
they are a good source of protein for General characteristics of phylum
humans and other animals. Example Chordata
include shrimps and lobsters, crabs, a) They have a notochord at some stages
edible grasshoppers, locusts and of their development. Notochord is
grasshoppers, and many larvae of a stiff, flexible rod located dorsal to
beetles and moths. TY the gut and ventral to the nerve cord.
PE Y
e) Insects are used in research and In most chordates the notochord

O NL
R
biological studies. is replaced by a vertebral column

PR O
f) Insects such a as butterflies are valued (backbone) during adulthood.

b) They have visceral clefts which are
T SE
for their beauty.

g) Many arthropods are used as indicators slits perforating the body wall in the
EN U
of the quality of environment. pharynx. They are useful in fishes

M E
and tadpole larva of amphibians for

R LIN
gaseous exchange as they use gills. In

Disadvantages of Arthropods adult amphibians, reptiles, aves and
VE N
a) Some insects are vectors of animal

O O
mammals, the visceral clefts never

and plant diseases. For example,
G R
develop gills.
mosquitoes carry Plasmodium, which
FO
cause malaria, and tsetse flies carry c) They have endoskeletons made up of
Trypanosoma, which cause sleeping bone and cartilage.
sickness to human beings. Whiteflies d) They have post-anal tail.
carry Tomato yellow leaf curl virus e) They have a dorsal hollow nerve cord
which cause chlorosis in plants. found above the notochord and below
b) Some arthropods such as scorpions
the epidermis. In higher chordates,
and centipedes bite human beings,
the anterior part forms a brain and the
release their poisons causing severe
pains. posterior part forms a spinal cord.
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f) They have ventrally positioned heart, Distinctive features of class

which is a pumping organ as it pumps Chondrichthyes
blood. Moreover, they have closed Members of the class Chondrichthyes
circulatory system. have the following unique features,
g) They are triploblastic, coelomate which distinguish them from other fishes.
animals with bilaterally symmetrical a) They possess placoid scales (tooth-
body. like) covering their skin.
h) They have two pairs of pentadactyl b) They have cartilaginous endoskeleton.
limbs or fins formed from more than c) They have five pairs of visceral clefts
one body segment. In higher chordates as separate gill slits for gaseous
they are attached to the rest of the exchange,with no opercula or gill
skeleton by pelvic and pectoral girdles. covers.
i) Some members (cartilagenous fish, d) They have ventral mouths.
bony fish, amphibians and reptiles) e) They have heterocercal tail fins
are poikilothermic organisms, in that (asymmetric in shape), which prevent
their body temperature depends on the them from sinking as they lack swim
environmental temperature changes bladder for buoyancy.
while others (birds and mammals) f) They have paired fleshy pectoral and
are homeothermic organisms, as their pelvic fins for swimming.
body temperature remains constant g) They undergo internal fertilisation.
regardless of the changes in external
environmental temperature. Structure of a shark
TY
PE Y
The body is more or less completely

O NL
R
Classes of phylum Chordata covered by placoid scales and has a

PR O
There are six classes of chordates namely; lateral line that runs along the side of its
T SE
Chondrichthyes (cartilagenous fish such body for detecting water currents and
as shark and rays), Osteichthyes (bony wave intensity. Its pectoral fin is anterior
EN U
fish such as tilapia and tuna), Amphibia to the pelvic fins; usually the latter has
M E
(amphibians such as frog and toad), claspers (pterygopodes) which are used
R LIN
Reptilia (reptiles such as lizard, crocodile, as copulatory organs in males, and the
VE N
and snake), Aves (birds such as hen, caudal fin is heterocercal in shape. The
O O
parrot, eagle, and pigeon) and Mammalia mouth is located ventrally with teeth,
G R
(mammals such as human, mouse, bat, which are constantly replaced. It has small
FO
rabbit and monkey). eyes, which have lower lids used to cover
the eyes during feeding (Figure 3.60).
Class Chondrichthyes The gill slits are naked (no operculum)
All members of this class have paired fins, and has a spiracle which is a modified
paired nares, jaws, and a two chambered gill slit on top of the head that provides
heart. Additionally, they have scales oxygenated blood directly to the eye and
and endoskeletons made of cartilage. brain through a separate blood vessel.
Members of class Chondrichthyes The intestine is short but with absorptive
include dogfish, sharks, skates, and rays. features increased by spiral valves.
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Lateral line
Dorsal fin
Eye
Caudal fin
Mouth
Gills openings Anal fin

Clasper (males)
Pectoral fin Pelvic fin
Figure 3.60 Structure of a shark
Class Osteichthyes as separate gill openings covered by

The class includes all bony fishes, such opercula.
as tuna, tilapia, rainbow fish, herring and f) They produce eggs and undergo
catfish. They are all aquatic organisms external fertilisation.
found in marine and fresh water bodies. g) They have swim bladder, which is
in the abdominal cavity next to the
Distinctive features of class backbone. This helps them to rise and
Osteichthyes TY sink (buoyancy) in water at particular
The following features differentiate
PE Y
depth without using much energy.

O NL
members of the class Osteichthyes from h) They have a terminal mouth.

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other fishes.
PR O
T SE
a) They have thin, round, and cycloid Structure of Tilapia

scales (made up of bones) on their
EN U
The body is laterally flattened and

skins, which are impermeable to water,
M E
tapered at both ends. Has a streamlined

hence reducing water loss in marine
R LIN
shape to overcome water resistance

environment, and restrict entry of water
during swimming. Its body surface is
VE N
in fresh water fish.

covered by cycloid scales, which point
O O
b) They are bony fish, as they have bony backwards in order to reduce resistance
G R
skeletons.
FO
during swimming. The fish has a lateral

c) They have paired pectoral and pelvic line that runs along the side of its body.
fins, supported by bony rays for The lateral line is a series of sensory
swimming. organs called neuromasts that helps
d) They have homocercal (symmetrical) the fish to sense vibrations and water
tail fins. pressure for navigating and locating prey
e) They have four pairs of visceral clefts (Figure 3.61).
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Dorsal fin
Caudal fin
An eye Lateral line

Mouth
Operculum
Pectoral fin Anal fin
Pelvic fin
Figure 3.61 Structure of a tilapia
Class Amphibia amphibians are “tied” to water bodies in

This class includes amphibians such order to survive and reproduce. Normally,
as frogs, toads, caecilians as well as amphibians undergo metamorphosis from
salamanders. Amphibians are tetrapod a juvenile as an aquatic larval form into a
with the exception of caecilians, which terrestrial adult.
are limbless. All amphibians lay eggs
with the exception of some caecilians and Distinctive features of class Amphibia
some toads. For example members of the Amphibians have the following distinctive
caecelian genera Scolecomorphus and features:
Schistometopum give birth to live young. TY a) They dwell both in water and on land, as
Also the toad genus Nectophrynoides; they depend on water for reproduction,
PE Y
O NL
the members of this genus also give hence the name amphibian, which
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birth to live young. In the latter genus means double life.

PR O
of Nectophrvnoides there is the Kihansi b) Amphibians’ offspring begin their life

T SE
Spray Toad (Nectophrynoides asperginis); cycle under water and breath by means
EN U
a small toad endemic to Tanzania with this of gills. As they grow to adulthood
M E
unique characteristic of giving birth to they move to terrestrial and breathe by

R LIN
live young toadlets. means of either skin or lungs.

VE N
The word amphibia refers to “double life”, c) They have soft moist skin without
O O
or life in water and on land. Amphibians scale, used for gaseous exchange to
G R
are cold-blooded (ectothermic) supplement lungs and buccal cavity.

FO
vertebrates whose body temperature is not d) Amphibian eggs have a jelly structure,
regulated by internal mechanisms. They which is prone to dehydration when
inhabit a wide range of habitats, ranging exposed to air.
from terrestrial to aquatic environments.
e) Amphibian’s fertilization takes place
Most amphibians spend a part of their
outside the female body (with the
life in aquatic environment and another
exception of some caecilians and some
part in terrestrial environment. Due to
toads including the Kihansi spray toad
their life cycle and physiology, many
which give birth to live young).
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f) They have two pairs of pentadactyl fore limbs, whereas in female frogs these
limbs for locomotion. The forelimbs are absent. Moreover, the abdomen of the
have less musculature, while the male frog is much slender than that of the
hind limbs are webbed and long with female frog.
powerful muscles for jumping.
g) They have long and protruding eyes Structure of Kihansi spray toad
for viewing preys widely and for The Kihansi spray toad is a tiny toad of
avoiding enemies. just about two centimetres in length,
h) They have sticky tongue, which helps endemic to a two hectare area of Kihansi
them in capturing prey. Gorge, of the Udzungwa Mountains, in
the southern central of Tanzania. The
i) They undergo metamorphosis for
toad is a highly specialized toad species,
development from larval to adult stage
in their life cycle. adapted to giving birth to a fully formed
toadlet. Currently it is one of the very
few amphibian species known to give
Structure of a frog
birth to fully formed toadlets. The overall
The body of the adult frog is divisible
background colour of Kihansi spray toad
into the head and trunk. The neck and tail
is golden yellowish, with yellow and
parts are absent. The head is blunt, and
brown speckles on the dorsal surface, or
the mouth is terminal, with two flexibly
dark lateral bands with adjacent lighter
movable jaws. The head bears external
TY
striping (Figure 3.62b). Ventrally, the skin
PE Y
nares, a pair of nostrils that lead into nasal

O NL
is translucent, whitish near the throat and

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passages. The eyes are large, bulged and

posterior, with the liver, fat bodies, and
PR O
covered by a nictitating membrane that

intestines visible through the ventral skin.
T SE
protects them while in water. Behind the

Moreover, these toads have flaps over the
eye, there is a circular patch, a tympanum
EN U
nostrils that may be a special adaptation

or eardrum, which receives sound signals.
M E
for living in the spray zone of waterfalls.

R LIN
On the feet, toes are partially webbed,

The trunk widens in the middle, but
VE N
with no external tympana.

tapers towards the end; four legs help in
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swimming and jumping. The hind limbs

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Body systems of chordates

FO
end in five digits and are larger and more

Chordates have a number of body systems
muscular than the fore limbs that end in
which enable them to perform various
four digits. In both, fore and hind limbs,
physiological processes. Digestive and
the digits are webbed for swimming
urinogenital systems of a frog or toad and
purpose (Figure 3.62a). Frogs exhibit
rat or mouse will be emphasized in this text.
sexual dimorphism in that male frogs
have sound producing vocal sacs and
copulatory pads on the first digit of the
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Nostril
Warts Eye
Mouth
Tympanum
Hind limb
Fore limb
Webbed toes Fore finger digits
(a) (b)
Figure 3.62 A photo showing the structure of (a) a frog (b) Kihansi spray toad
Source: UDSM, Zoology and Wildlife Conservation
Digestive system of a frog into the stomach to support swallowing

The alimentary canal of a frog consists and ensure that small food particles are not
of the mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, retained in the anterior parts. The stomach
oesophagus, duodenum, ileum, and the is thick walled, folded and elongated to
rectum, which open into the cloaca at the increase the surface area for secretion of
anus. The mouth is wide for ingestion of gastric juice used for digestion.
large pieces of food material. They have
flattened buccal cavity that emerges with The duodenum lies parallel to the stomach
TY
PE Y
the pharynx and it contains small, conical and receives the secretions of bile and
O NL
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and sharp pointed teeth which are similar pancreas via hepato-pancreatic duct. The
PR O
(homodont) used for cutting and crushing internal surface of the duodenum has many
T SE
the food particles. Close to the angles of folds, which increase the surface area for
EN U
the jaws, there are two small openings, one secretion and absorption. The duodenum
M E
on each side, known as eustachian tubes. connects to the ileum, which has several
R LIN
These tubes are used for balancing pressure coils, and longitudinal internal folds,
in the inner ear while the frog is swimming. where most of the digested food substances
VE N
O O
Ventrally in the midline there is a narrow are absorbed here. The alimentary canal
G R
longitudinal slit (glottis) which leads into terminates in a rectum, which is short, and
FO
the larynx. wide. Rectum is the place where feaces

accumulate, and later pass periodically
They have a short oesophagus that bears through the anal sphincter into the cloaca
longitudinal folds, which close to prevent and eventually egested out of the body.
entry of air into the stomach and allow The liver consists of two large lobes (the
dilation during swallowing of food. Buccal left lobe and the median lobe). The median
lobe is smaller than the left lobe. The gall
cavity, pharynx and oesophagus have cilia,
bladder (lies between the liver lobes)
which constantly drive the mucus backward
and the bile duct run into the duodenum
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through the pancreas. The pancreas lies and later discharge into the duodenum. In
between the stomach and the duodenum. the mesentery near the duodenum lies a
The secretions are discharged into the bile spherical red structure called spleen, which
duct, which become hepato-pancreatic duct has no digestive role (Figure 3.63).
Oesophagus
Stomach
Liver
Gall bladder
Pacreas
Duodenum Mesentery
Ileum
Rectum
Cloaca
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
Figure 3.63 The digestive system of a frog

PR O
Urinogenital system of a male frog fluids possibly secreted by the blood

T SE
A male frog is slender, with nuptial pads vessels from its wall, which acts as a
EN U
on the first finger which is one of the reserve of water during dry seasons.
M E
morphological features that distinguish Cloaca is an outlet that serves as the

R LIN
it from female frog, which is fat, with an only opening for digestive, reproductive
expanded abdomen due to the presence and urinary tracts. Also, a frog has two
VE N
of eggs in the ovisacs. A male frog has testes, each suspended by a double fold
O O
two kidneys, which are dark red, oval, of mesorchium. They lie ventrally below
G R
FO
and somehow flattened, located near the front part of the kidneys, and from
to the testes, ventrally and below the them there are several fine vasa efferentia
ureter. The ureter passes along the outer that cross the mesorchium and enter the
border of each kidney, and opens into the anterior kidney tubules which convey
cloaca. The bladder is a thin sac arising sperms to the ureter. In both left and right
as a ventral outgrowth, the cloaca, with ureter, there is a pouch-like gland situated
its outlet closed by a sphincter. Since on each side of the male urinary bladder
the ureter is not opening to the bladder, (vesicula seminalis) which store sperms
it is not a urinary bladder, but contains until the breeding period (Figure 3.64).
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Fat body
Right testes
Vasa efferentia in
the mesorchium Kidney Left testis
Vesicula seminals
Ureter
Bladder
Cloaca
Figure 3.64 The urinogenital system of a male frog
Urinogenital system of a female frog

Female frog has left and right ovaries, lying in the same position as the testes, each
TY
PE Y
suspended by a mesovarium and overlie the kidneys.

O NL
R
PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
Right lung
R LIN
Right liver lobe

VE N
Fat body
O O
Mesovarium
Right ovary
G R
Kidney Left ovary

FO
Right oviduct Left oviduct

Ureter
Ovisac
Bladder
Cloaca
Figure 3.65 The urinogenital system of a female frog

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The ovaries have flattened and numerous

half black and half white eggs which
can be seen through epithelium. They
are connected to a long thin tube called
oviduct. Each oviduct is dilated in its
posterior region to form an ovisac, which
store eggs until the laying period. The
kidneys are connected to a tube called
ureter that is used solely as a urinary duct,
while in male frogs it passes both, sperms
and urine. The ovisac and ureter open to
the cloaca (Figure 3.65).
Figure 3.66 Positioning the frog or toad for
Dissection of a frog or toad dissection
Dissecting a frog or toad is a common and
important experience in the structural and f) Pin the frog down on the tray through
anatomical studies of a typical vertebrate. the fore and hind limbs; the pin on
The inside of a frog represents the general each hand and foot should be at an
form for a vertebrate; as the organs present angle to the tension put on it.
in a frog and the way they are laid out are g) Use forceps to lift the skin of the
similar enough to that of other animals. TY abdomen and use scissors to make a
slit in the mid ventral line, and then
PE Y
General procedure for dissection of a

O NL
insert one blade of the scissors into the

R
frog or toad slit (Figure 3.67).

PR O
a) Put on a pair of gloves.

T SE
b) Wet a piece of cotton wool with

chloroform and put it inside an airtight
EN U
container such as desiccator.

M E
R LIN
c) Put a live frog or toad inside the

container, containing wet cotton wool,
VE N
and leave it for about four to five

O O
minutes to anaesthetize it.

G R
FO
d) Take the frog or toad from the airtight

container using forceps, place it on the
dissecting tray or board and leave it for
about 30 minutes to allow evaporation
of chloroform.
e) Lay the frog or toad on its dorsal
side (back), leaving the ventral side Figure 3.67 Opening the body cavity of an
(abdomen) facing upwards (Figure anesthetized frog or toad
3.66).
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Cut the skin forward to the level of j) Lift the abdominal vein by using
the lower jaw; cut transversely at the forceps and cut alongside it to the
level of each arm as far as the elbows. breast bone (xiphisternum). Then,
Similarly cut the skin back to the level hold the loose piece of the abdominal
of the pelvic girdle and cut towards wall up and cut across the centre of
the side of each hind limb down to the the xiphisternum. Grip the cut piece,
knee. loosen it as far as the ligatured part and
h) Hold the skin with forceps and loosen cut it close to that part; be careful not
the skin from the underlying muscles to cut the vein.
using the surgical blade, turn the skin k) Cut through the pectoral girdle on
flap back and pin it. either side of the mid-line and remove
the central piece of the girdle to expose
i) Ligature the ventral abdominal vein at
the heart, and then cut the body wall
two sides. Use scissors to make two transversely below the arms.
small slits and insert a loop of thread
through the slits by using forceps and l) Turn the tray in such a way that the legs
are facing away from you, cut the body
grip between their points; pull the
wall on either side of the mid-line to
thread through the slits and cut the
the pelvic area, remove the portion of
loop, and then tie the threads apart
the body wall and cut transversely to
in order to prevent bleeding and cut
each leg. Pin aside the body wall and
between the ligatured points (Figure
turn the tray to its original position.
TY
3.68).
PE Y
At this point the body cavity will be

O NL
R
already opened up.

PR O
m) Remove any debris and leave the

T SE
dissection clean.
EN U
n) Cover the dissection completely with

M E
Sting
water to avoid the drying of the organs
R LIN
and enhance clear observation.

VE N
A hole o) With the help of a hand lens, observe

O O
ligature the visceral (general) view of the

G R
dissected frog and note the position

FO
and shape of the organs (Figure 3.69).
Figure 3.68 Ligaturing of the a frog

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Lung Heart
Gall bladder Liver
Anterior part of anterior Stomach
abdominal vein
Ileum Duodenum
Rectum
Posterior part of anterior Bladder
abdominal vein
Figure 3.69 General view (visceral) of the dissected frog or toad
p) In displaying the digestive system, pin r) In case of a female frog; pin the right
out the stomach to either side of the ovary on top of the left ovary, loosen
animal. Pin out the lungs, and turn the and pin out the right oviduct and pin
liver lobes forward and hold them in the bladder aside.
place with pins and grip the ileum to s) For the nervous system; remove
TY
cut the mesentery and loosen the coils, the pins from the skin of the head
PE Y
O NL
but do not cut the mesentery of the and remove the floor of the mouth
R
duodenum and rectum. Rearrange the by cutting through angle of the jaw
PR O
duodenum in position to expose the to expose the first spinal nerve (the
T SE
pancreas and pin out the ileum to your hypoglossal nerve) which curves
the pharynx and proceeds forward
EN U
right hand side to make all features

ventrally around the floor of the mouth
M E
visible.
to supply the tongue.
R LIN
q) In displaying the urinogenital system, t) Remove the flesh from both fore limbs
VE N
the cloaca should be opened by around the shoulders and remove the
O O
removing the ventral portion of the pins from the lungs and the stomach.
G R
pelvic girdles. This should be done Cut through the oesophagus and
FO
by inserting one blade of the scissors remove the lungs, heart, stomach and
through the girdle, followed by cutting other parts of the alimentary canal.
through the girdle as near to the mid u) Remove the reproductive and excretory
line as possible, and lastly cutting on parts, when removing the kidney. Take
each side and removing the central care not to cut the aorta.
portion of the girdle. Care should v) Remove any remaining membranes
be taken to avoid cutting the blood surrounding the abdominal lymph sacs
vessels. in order to expose the second spinal
nerve called the brachial nerve (which
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receives branches from the first and

third nerve to form the brachial plexus) Activity 3.15 Dissection of a frog/toad
and other 3rd to 10th spinal nerves. to display the visceral or general view
w) Trace the sympathetic cords on (in situ) and digestive system.
either side of the aorta, notice the
sympathetic ganglia and identify the Materials
rami communicanes between the Fresh male or female frog or toad,
spinal nerves and the sympathetic dissecting kit, dissecting tray or board,
ganglia. a piece of thread, chloroform, water, a
x) Cut the flesh of the pelvic girdles pair of gloves, and cotton wool.
through both thighs and trace the sciatic
plexus (formed as an interconnection Procedure
of the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth) a) Dissect the frog or toad in a usual
and the sciatic nerve (which passes way, open up the body cavity and
down the leg close to the femur, and pin aside the body wall to display the
composed of the mainly joined eighth
visceral (general) view of the animal
and ninth nerves).
in an undisturbed condition.
Safety precautions b) Deflect the alimentary canal to your
right hand side; which is the left hand
1. Care should be taken when working side of the animal and pin it to fully
with live specimens such as frogs and display the digestive system.
or toads, also chemicals like
TY
PE Y
chloroform, as well as apparatus and

O NL
Questions
R
equipment including the dissection

1. Draw a large, neat well-labelled
PR O
kit tools.
diagrams of the following:
T SE
2. The working area, equipment and

instruments used must be thoroughly a) Visceral/general view.
EN U
cleaned after use using appropriate b) Digestive system.

M E
R LIN
methods. Good hygiene practices c) Compare your diagrams with

should be observed at all times; that of Figures 3.63 and Figure
VE N
keep hands away from the mouth, 3.69.

O O
nose, eyes and face during and 2. Explain the significance of ligaturing
G R
after dissection; and wash hands and flooding the specimen with
FO
thoroughly using an antiseptic or water.

soap immediately after conducting a
3. State the role(s) of each part of the
dissection practical session.
digestive system.
3. All other laboratory safety rules and
regulations should be adhered to 4. Classify the frog to class level.
under the supervision of a teacher
or laboratory technician whenever
working in the laboratory.

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regulate their body temperature by

Activity 3.16 Dissection of a frog to behaviour, either by basking in the sun
display the urinogenital system to warm themselves or by hiding under
cover to cool their body. Most of them
Materials are tetrapods, with claws on their toes.
Fresh male or female frog or toad, Reptiles such as snakes and some lizards
dissection kit, dissecting tray or dish, a are legless, although they are descendants
piece of thread, chloroform, water, and
of four-limbed ancestors.
cotton wool.
Distinctive features of class Reptilia
Procedure
Reptiles possess the following unique
a) Dissect the frog or toad in a usual features, which differentiate them from
way to open up the body cavity. other chordates:
b) Deflect the alimentary canal to your
a) They have dry scaly skin with horny
right hand side and pin it to fully,
scales.
display the urinogenital system.
b) They have two pairs of pentadactyl
limbs, except some members, such as
Questions
snakes, which have no limbs.
1. With reasons, state the sex of your
c) They undergo internal fertilization and
specimen.
their fertilized yolky eggs are laid on
2. Draw a large well-labelled diagram land or retained until hatching.
of your dissection. Compare your TY d) They lay amniotic eggs that have a
diagram with that of Figure 3.64 and
PE Y
leathery shell to prevent rapid water

O NL
Figure 3.65. loss.

R
3. Outline the role (s) of each of the

PR O
e) Their eyes are located at the front of

labelled parts. the head to facilitate binocular vision.
T SE
4. How does the urethra of a male Some reptiles can move each eye
EN U
differ from that of a female? independently, and this helps them to

M E
find food and escape from predators.

R LIN
Class Reptilia
VE N
The class comprises a group of animals Structure of a lizard

O O
including turtles, crocodiles, alligators, Lizards have dry scaly skin, and most of
G R
chameleons, tortoises, snakes, and lizards. them have clawed feet and external ear
FO
Most of them have four limbs while others openings. Most lizards are small, with
do not have limbs. Reptiles are found in four legs and a long tail that, in many
diverse habitats, such as deserts, mountains, species, is fragile and easily broken but
rocks, treetops and in water. They are mostly regenerate later (Figure 3.70). The legs
terrestrial with few aquatic members such of some lizards are greatly shortened or
as turtles and terrapins. They are cold- vestigial, making animals such as the
blooded (ectothermic) vertebrates. Their glass lizard or a slow worm have a snake-
body temperature fluctuates according to like appearance. They are distinguished
the environmental temperature. Reptiles from true snakes by their movable eyelids.
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Head
Tail Trunk
Nostril
Mouth
Short leg Ear
Toe with claw
Figure 3.70 Structure of a lizard
Class Aves have large eye to body ratio; and large

The class Aves includes all birds. It is an eyes give birds good and keen eyesight
extremely distinctive and successful class. important in flight. Birds can migrate during
Aves are bipedal feathered and warm- harsh conditions, since they have wings
blooded (homoeothermous) animals, as that enable them to move fast. Birds are
they are able to maintain a constant body widely spread all over the world; some are
temperature. They have unique “one-way” found in very cold snowy environments and
breathing system. They have light, yet others in dry and hot environments.
strong hollow bones, forming a skeleton
in which many bones are fused or lost and Structure of a pigeon
TY
PE Y
have powerful flight muscles. Birds have The body is spindle shaped and the size
O NL
R
evolved specific adaptations to enable varies from 20-25 cm. The body is divided
PR O
them fly. They have fused hollow bones into the head, neck, trunk, and tail. Most
T SE
making birds have light weight, have a parts of the body are covered by feathers.
large keel for attaching flight muscles and The head is small and rounded (Figure
EN U
have large chest muscles used for flight. 3.71). It is anteriorly pointed into a short
M E
R LIN
Birds also have their fore limbs modified beak. On the lateral side of the head, there is
for flight and have feathers which are used a pair of prominent eyes. The ear comprises
VE N
for flying. They have also developed long of small apertures on the posterior side of
O O
flight feathers on the wings and tail to help the eyes. Each aperture remains covered by
G R
birds attain balance and steer. Birds have a special group of feathers called auricular
FO
developed air sacs connected to the lungs feathers. Each aperture leads to a canal
enabling them to extract more oxygen to called external auditory meatus, which is
release more energy to power flight. Also closed below by the tympanic membrane.
they have four chambered heart that enable The trunk is the greatest and widest part of
them get more oxygen and avoid mixing the body. It is boat-shaped and bears a pair
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Birds of wings and a pair of legs. The entire foot is
have well developed brain enabling them covered with horny epidermal scales. At the
to have quick reaction during flight. They hind end of the trunk is the cloaca aperture.

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Eye Neck
Beak
(bill)
Wrist Contour feathers
Greater wing coverts

Flight feathers on tail
Tibia
Finger digit
Claw
Figure 3.71 Structure of a pigeon
Distinctive features of the class Aves become waterproof. Ostrich and parrot
Aves are different from other chordates lack oil gland.
due to possession of the following h) Their alimentary canal has additional
features: chambers called crop and gizzard. The
a) Their bodies are covered by crop stores and softens the food, while
overlapping feathers. the gizzard helps in crushing and
b) They lost teeth; instead, they have churning the food.
modified mouthparts into different i) Birds are capable of flying except for a
types of beaks (bills). Beaks are TY few species such as ostrich, penguins,
adapted for many different feeding and kiwi.
PE Y
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habits, such as seed crushing, fruit

R
scooping, flesh tearing, nectar sipping, Class Mammalia

PR O
and wood chiseling. The class Mammalia consists of all animals

T SE
c) They have cylindrical, long necks with mammary glands. It is an extremely

diverse and very advanced group in the
EN U
connecting heads and trunks.

kingdom Animalia. Members of the class
M E
d) They have two pairs of pentadactyl

R LIN
Mammalia include: human, mouse, rabbit,

limbs. The front limbs are modified
cow, lion, bat, whale, and donkey.
into a pair of wings, which bear quill
VE N
O O
feathers for flight, while the hind limbs

Distinctive features of class mammalia
G R
are covered by scales and are adapted

Mammals are different from other chordates
FO
for perching, walking or swimming.

because:
e) They undergo internal fertilisation and a) They have fur or hair that cover their
produce eggs with calcareous shells. skin. The skin is glandular, with two
f) Their sternum forms a sharp ventral types of glands, namely, sebaceous
keel, providing muscles attachment and sweat glands.
for flight. b) Females (mothers) have mammary
g) They have oil gland above the cloaca, glands, which produce milk for their
which preens the feather so that they newborn.
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c) They have external ears called pinna animals like kangaroo, which bear
in addition to middle and inner ears, immature young ones and duck-billed
which are used for collection of sound platypus, and echidna which lay eggs.
waves and leading them to ear canal.
The middle ear has three small soft
Structure of a mouse
bones called ear ossicles namely;
Structurally, an adult mouse has an average
malleus, incus, and stapes.
length of 7.5-10 cm. Its body is divided
d) They have heterotrophic mode of
into head, neck, and trunk. The head bears
nutrition with different types of teeth
external ear flaps called pinnae, eyes,
(heterodont dentition) for different
functions, depending on the mode of nostrils and a mouth. The latter has long,
feeding. hair extensions called vibrissae or tactile
e) They have highly developed brains. whiskers (Figure 3.72). The neck is short
and wide, connecting the head to the trunk.
f) They have muscular diaphragm, which
The trunk bears four walking legs, two
separates the thorax from abdominal
cavity. short hind legs and two long front legs,
each with five digits. The trunk also bears
g) They are viviparous (give birth to
a long tail which is either hairless or has
young ones). The developing foetus is
sparse covering of hair. The whole body
held in the uterus, and gets nourishment
of the mammal is covered by fur (pelage).
through placenta, except in primitive
Hairless ear
Eye
TY
PE Y
Sensory
O NL
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whisker
PR O
T SE
Tail with fur

EN U
Hind limb
Short legs clawed feet
M E
R LIN
Figure 3.72 Structure of a mouse

VE N
O O
Digestive system of a mouse pieces. Down from the mouth, there are
G R
FO
The alimentary canal of a mouse starts oesophagus, stomach, pancreas, and small
from the mouth to the anus. The mouth intestine. The small intestine has three
consists of sixteen teeth; twelve molar and segments (duodenum, jejunum and ileum),
four incisors (two on the upper jaw and the followed by the large intestine, with four
other two on the lower jaw). The lower segments namely: caecum, colon, rectum
incisors teeth are more developed, pointed, and anus. The stomach is a hollow organ
sharp and longer than the rest, and are used (pouch-shaped) lying in the ventral part of
for cutting the food into small chewable the abdomen, and is partly covered by liver

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lobes. It is concerned with the digestion of food and temporary storage before further
digestion in the small intestine (Figure 3.73).
Bile duct
Oesophagus
Stomach
Hepatic portal vein Pancreas
Pancreatic ducts Jejunum
Duodenum
Hepatic portal Ileum
vein from rectum
Rectum Chain of lymph nodes
Colon covering hepatic portal vein
Spermatic cord Tributary of hepatic portal
vein in mesentery
Caecum
Appendix
Figure 3.73 The digestive system of a mouse
The liver has four lobes; one on the left, two which pass through the numerous small
on the right, and one in the centre. The liver
TY pancreatic ducts that enter the duodenum for
PE Y
has two functions in digestion: secretion digestion. The main functions of the small
O NL
R
of bile and receiving the absorbed food intestine are digestion and absorption of
the products of digestion. Duodenum is the
PR O
from the small intestine through hepatic

portal vein. It lacks gall-bladder, instead first part of the small intestine, connected
T SE
the cystic ducts from the liver lobes join to the stomach by a pyloric sphincter;
EN U
to form the bile duct which conveys bile to which receives and digests the released
M E
the duodenum. The hepatic portal vein runs food from the stomach using bile and
R LIN
from the liver to the intestines; covered by other digestive juices. Jejunum and ileum
are similar in both structure and function.
VE N
a chain of lymph nodes and form branches

O O
in the mesentery (plural mesenteries) and They are both involved in digestion of
G R
other parts of the intestine. food as well as absorption of nutrients. The

FO
overall functions of the large intestine is to

The mesenteries are the continuous set of complete absorption of water mainly from
support tissues, which attach the intestines undigested food particles, manufacture of
to the posterior wall of the abdomen. They certain vitamins, formation of feaces and
support efficient digestion and maximum expelling faeces from the body through
absorption of digested food by helping in the anus. The main role of caecum is the
storage of fat and allowing lymphatics, blood absorption of water and salts remained
vessels, and nerves to supply the intestines. after completion of digestion in the small
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes, intestine, as well as mixing and lubricating
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its contents using the mucus secreted from fertilization and their developing foetus
its internal thick wall of mucous membrane. or embryo.
Rectum connects the colon to the anus,
which aids in temporary storage of feaces The kidneys are bean shaped structures
before its release (when the sphincter found on the back of the abdominal cavity
contracts), and aids their release through on either side of the spine and are embedded
the anus (when the sphincter relaxes). in the fats. On top of each kidney are small
glands called adrenal glands (Figure 3.74).
Urinogenital system of a male mouse In addition, a small and delicate tube called
The urinary and reproductive systems are ureter is attached to each kidney, which
integrated in some ways and are usually leads the urine to the urinary bladder. The
studied together as urinogenital system. urinary bladder is connected to the urethra,
However, the excretory system eliminates which carries urine from the bladder to the
waste product and the reproductive system urethral orifice then to the outside through
produces sperms in male and eggs in female the penis.
and provide conducive environment for
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
PR O
Adrenal gland
T SE
Kidney
Fat
EN U
Ureter
M E
Spermatic cord
R LIN
Lumber lymph node Vesicular seminalis

Coagulating gland
VE N
Bladder
O O
N
G R
FO
Cut
Figure 3.74 The urinogenital system of a male mouse
Males have two openings on the pelvic area; genital opening and the anus. The genital
opening passes both urine and sperms via a penis hanging out from or between the two

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scrotal sacs. The scrotal sacs protect the Urinogenital system of a female mouse
testes (singular testis). The testes (which The female pelvic area has three openings;
secrete sperms) are connected to a coiled urethral opening, genital (vaginal) opening
tube called epididymis which collects and the anus. The kidney and ureter have
the produced sperms and store them. The the same composition as in males, except
epididymis is very long twice the length of that the urethra, which passes both urine
the testis. It has caput, corpus, and caudal and sperms in males, in females the urethra
regions and it is connected to the tubular passes only urine conveyed from the bladder
vas deferens which transports sperms from and passes to the outside environment
the epididymis to the urethra. The urethra through urethral opening. The vagina
not only carries the urine, but also sperms terminates to the long duplex tubes one
through the penis to the outside of the body. on each side called uterus, which later
On the left and right of the urinary bladder accommodates multiple developing foetus.
there are folded glands called the seminal At the tip of each uterus is an ovary (eggs
vesicles (vesicula seminalis) bearing a producing gland) which is enclosed within
coagulating gland, and below the urinary a thin-walled ovarian sac surrounded by
bladder, which store urine. There are other fats. Each ovary is connected to the uterus
glands known as prostate glands at each via a single small undulating coils called
side of the urethra and Cowper’s glands, fallopian tube (Figure 3.75).
which are small ovoid structures, found at
the root of the penis. There are two preputial
glands, each wrapped on one side of the
TY
PE Y
ventral wall.
O NL
R
PR O
T SE
EN U
Adrenal gland
M E
R LIN
Fat
Kidney Ovary
VE N
O O
Uterus
Ureter
G R
Mesovarium of oviduct
FO
Bladder
Vagina
Cut pelvic girdle
Vagina
Anus
Clitoris
Figure 3.75 The urinogenital system of a female mouse
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Dissection of mouse or rat

A mouse or rat is a typical vertebrate
animal whose many aspects of structural
organisation are similar to those of Pinned limb
other mammals, including human being.
Moreover, mice or rats are also important
research tool for modeling human disease
progression and development in the
laboratory. They have also helped to speed Point to
up the progress of research and enabled start a cut
the development of important new drugs.
Therefore, by examining the physiology,
anatomy and metabolism of a mouse or rat, Figure 3.76 Positioning the mouse or rat
for dissection
scientists can gain a valuable insight into
how human system functions. Despite the
d) Lift the skin in the mid-ventral line
differences in their body size and appearance,
using forceps, and cut to make a small
Mice/rats share a distinct genetic similarity
slit (Figure 3.77). Cut forward to the
to humans; and their ability to reproduce
level of the lower lip and backwards
and mature quickly make them efficient
around the penis and between the
and economical candidate mammals for
scrotal for a male specimen while for
scientific studies.
the female cut the skin backward as
The purpose of conducting rat or mouse TY far as the anus, passing either side of
dissection is to explore and study the urinary and genital apertures.
PE Y
O NL
internal organs and systems of the basic

R
mammalian anatomy.
PR O
T SE
General procedure of dissection of a

mouse or rat
EN U
a) Put on a pair of gloves.

M E
R LIN
b) Place a live male or female mouse

or rat in a container with a lid and
VE N
anaesthetize it using chloroform soaked

O O
in a small roll of cotton wool for five Penis

G R
minutes.
FO
Scrotal sac
c) Lay the mouse or rat on the dissecting
tray or dish, with the ventral side
(abdomen) facing upwards (Figure
Figure 3.77 Opening the body cavity of an
3.76). Pin it down on the tray through
anesthetized mouse or rat
the fore and hind limbs, make sure that
the pins face outwards. e) Use fingers to pull the skin aside,
loosen it from the body wall, stretch
it and pin it back.
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f) Lift the abdominal wall using forceps, i) When displaying urinogenital system,
make an incision and cut up to the the alimentary canal should be removed
xiphoid cartilage and down to the left first followed by the removal of fats
and right ribs. Stretch the body wall from the kidneys using blunt forceps
and pin it aside (Figure 3.78). Examine and clear the ureter.
the contents of the abdominal cavity j) In male mouse, open the scrotal sac
in undisturbed condition (in situ or by cutting its ventral wall to expose
visceral/general view) and draw a well the testes, caudal and caput epididymis
labelled diagram. as well as the vas deferens. Lay the
bladder, seminal vesicles, coagulating
Mouth glands and prostate glands on one side.
Eosophagus k) In female mouse/rat grip the clitoris,
pull it gently so that the urethra is
held away from the pelvis, and cut
the ventral part of the girdle. Lift the
Liver
oviducts and remove the mesovarium
Small Spleen
to expose ureters on both sides, remove
intestine
Stomach the fat bodies from the kidneys and
Pancreas
Large ureter, but leave them around the
intestine ovaries (the ovaries are enclosed
Caecum
within the thin walled ovarian sac and
TY
PE Y
connected to a very small and much

O NL
Rectum
R
coiled fallopian tube) and observe the

PR O
very long tube called fallopian tube

Anus
near to the uterus.
T SE
EN U
Figure 3.78 General view of the dissected mouse

Safety precautions
M E
or rat
R LIN
1. Consider issues such as allergies or

g) To display the digestive system, adjust
sneezing from loose rat or mouse furs.
VE N
the positions of the alimentary canal

O O
by moving the bulk of the intestine to 2. Rat or mouse may bite a person
and cause pains, so be careful when
G R
the left hand side of the specimen to

FO
dealing with live a rat or mouse.

expose the duodenum and the colon.
3. Good hygiene practices should be
h) Grip the duodenum and colon, pull observed all the time; keep hands
them apart to expose hepatic portal away from the mouth, nose, and eyes
vein and turn the bulk of the intestines and face during and after dissection
over to untwist them, rearrange the and wash hands with antiseptic
digestive structures and draw a well soap immediately after a dissection
labelled diagram. practical session.
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4. Other safety laboratory rules and Revision questions

precautions should be adhered to
under the supervision of a teacher or 1. With example(s) categorize viruses
laboratory technician. based on the nature of their genomes
and morphology of their capsids.
2. What are the advantages and
Activity 3.17 Dissection of a rat or disadvantages of viruses?
mouse to display the digestive and 3. Classify bacteria on the basis of the
urinogenital systems following:
a) Morphology
Materials
Fresh male or female rat or mouse, b) Gram stain test
dissection kit, dissecting tray or dish, 4. Account for the advantages and
chloroform, and cotton wool. disadvantages of members of
kingdom Monera.
Procedure
5. Explain the adaptations of
a) Collect a live male or female rat or
Entamoeba histolytica to its mode of
mouse; put it in a container with lid
life.
and anaesthetize it with chloroform
soaked in a small roll of cotton wool 6. Explain how Plasmodium is able to
for about five minutes.
TY exist in humans and mosquitoes.
PE Y
b) Dissect a mouse in the usual way, to 7. Describe the general and distinctive
O NL
R
fully display the digestive system and features of phylum Apicomplexa.

PR O
urinogenital system. 8. Euglena is an ancestor of plants and

T SE
animals. Explain.
Questions
EN U
9. How is Phytophthora adapted to

M E
1. Draw well labelled diagrams of its mode of life?

R LIN
the displayed systems in (b) above.

Compare your diagrams with those 10. Spirogyra resembles plants.
VE N
of Figures 3.73, 3.74 and 3.75 Explain.

O O
respectively. 11. Explain with examples the

G R
2. Explain the role(s) of each labelled advantages and disadvantages of

FO
part. Protoctists.
3. How does the urethra of a female 12. Describe the general and distinctive
rat or mouse differ from that of a features of basidiomycetes.
male?
13. Explain the advantages and
4. Classify the organism to class level. disadvantages of fungi.
14. Differentiate between coniferophytes
and angiospermophytes.

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15. Explain the economic importance

of kingdom Plantae.
16. Arthropods are the most successful
animals on the earth. Justify.
17. How are Aves adapted for flight?
18. Classify the following organisms
to their class level; moss plant,
monkey, cactus, blood fluke,
snake, mite, housefly, sugarcane,
earthworm, Kihansi spray toad,
shark, and bean plant.
19. Explain the distinctive features of
amphibians.
20. How are the following organisms
adapted to their mode of life?
a) Fern plant
b) Earthworm
c) Kihansi spray toad.
TY
PE Y
O NL
21. Explain the adaptive features of

R
mammals.
PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
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Chapter
Four
Coordination and
irritability
Introduction
In organisms the body parts work together for various roles, resulting into a coordinated
body. Animals have two systems of coordination namely nervous coordination and
endocrine coordination, while plants have hormonal coordination. Nervous coordination
is accomplished by the nervous system composed of nerve fibres, brain and spinal
cord, whereas hormonal coordination is accomplished by endocrine system which is
composed of the endocrine glands. In plants, responses are in the form of slow modified
growth or movements called turgor movement. In this chapter you will learn about
nervous coordination in mammals, hormonal coordination in mammals, coordination
TY
in plants, and phytohormones (plant hormone).
PE Y
O NL
R
PR O
4.1 Nervous coordination in mammals sensory and relay neurones, while those
T SE
As in other animals, nervous coordination nerves which transmit signals from the
EN U
in mammals is accomplished by the brain are called motor or efferent nerves.

M E
nervous system. The mammalian nervous Nervous coordination enables a mammal

R LIN
system consists of a central nervous to respond rapidly to external and internal

system and peripheral nervous system. stimuli.
VE N
The central nervous system is made up

O O
of the brain and spinal cord, whereas the Nervous tissue

G R
FO
peripheral nervous system is made up of The nervous tissue is a specialized tissue

the nerve fibres. The nerve fibres branch made up of nerve cells (neurones). A
from the central nervous system and extend neurone is the basic unit structure of
to all parts of the body. Coordination is the nervous tissue which consists of the
accomplished through a set of signals cell body, dendrites and axon. Nervous
channeled into a series of nerve cells. tissues make up the Central Nervous
The nerves that transmit signals from the System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous
body to the central nervous system are System (PNS). The central nervous
called afferent nerves, and they include system consists of the brain and spinal

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Coordination and Irritability
cord, while the peripheral nervous system Types of neuroglia

comprises of the cranial and spinal There are six types of neuroglia, four
nerves, which are packed together with of which are found in the CNS and two
their motor and sensory endings. Nervous in the PNS. The neuroglia found in the
tissue is the main tissue component of the CNS include astrocytes, microglial cells,
nervous system and it consists of closely ependymal cells and oligodendrocytes,
packed nerve cells or neurones with very while those found in PNS include satellite
small intercellular spaces. Nervous tissue cells and Schwann cells (Figure 4.1 a to f).
contains two types of cells, namely; The collection of glia cells residing within
neurones and neuroglia. Neurones are the walls of intestinal tract, beginning in
specialized nerve cells which generate the oesophagus and extending down to
and conduct nerve impulses. Neuroglia the anus are known as enteric glia. The six
are non-neuronal cells which assist in types of neuroglia are explained below:
propagation of the nerve impulses and
provision of nutrients to the neurones. a) Microglial cell
Neuroglia also serve as supporting cells These are the smallest neuroglial cells
that provide electrical insulation and (Figure 4.1a). They are macrophage cells
remove debris. Cells of the neuroglia that make up the primary immune system
produce myelin sheath that increases the for the CNS. These phagocytic cells help
speed of impulses along the axon of the to remove bacteria and waste (cleaning
neuronal fibres and offers protection for neuronal debris).
the axon.
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
(a) (b) (c)

VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 4.1 Types of neuroglia (a) microglial (b) astrocytes (c) oligodendrocytes (d) ependymal
(e) schwann and (f) satellite cells
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b) Astrocytes Examples of effectors include a muscle

These are star-shaped macroglial cells with and a gland.
many processes (Figure 4.1b). They are b) The cells of the nervous tissues are
the most abundant glial cells in the CNS. tightly packed for effective working of
Their roles are to provide metabolic and the tissue.
structural support to the neurones. c) The cells of the nervous tissues have
large number (high concentration) of
c) Oligodendrocytes mitochondria which help to generate
These are cells with very few processes energy. This is important because
(Figure 4.1c). They are found in the CNS. nervous tissues require large amount
They form myelin sheath on the axons of a of energy for efficient functioning.
neurone which have lipid-based insulation d) They have neuroglia (glial cells) that
for increasing the speed at which the action provide protection and support to the
potential can travel down the axons. tissues.
e) The cells in the PNS are capable of
d) Ependymal cells
regenerating themselves. This is due
These are ciliated cells which line up the
to the presence of neurolemma (also
central cavities of the brain and spinal cord
known as neurilemma).
where they form a fairly permeable barrier
between cerebrospinal fluid that fills these f) The cells in the nervous tissues
cavities (Figure 4.1d). produce neurotransmitter chemicals
which act as conveyors that carry
TY
PE Y
e) Schwann cells impulses from one neurone to another

O NL
R
These are equivalent to oligodendrocytes across the synaptic gap.

PR O
(Figure 4.1e). They surround nerve fibres g) Nerve cells or neurones have nodes
T SE
in the PNS. They help to maintain axons of Ranvier and fatty myelin sheath
and form myelin sheaths in the PNS. which facilitate rapid transmission of
EN U
impulses.
M E
f) Satellite cells
R LIN
They line the surface of neuronal cell The Central Nervous System (CNS)
VE N
bodies in ganglia within the PNS (Figure The CNS, which consists of the brain and
O O
4.1f). They are analogous to astrocytes. the spinal cord has the grey matter and
G R
white matter. The grey matter is comprised

FO
Adaptive features of nervous tissues of cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated

The nervous tissues have the following axons, and very few myelinated axons. In
adaptive features: contrast, the white matter is comprised of
a) They have nerve cells (neurones) that myelinated axons. The main function of
receive information from sensory parts the central nervous system is to integrate
and send or transmit it to the CNS for information from various sources. The
interpretation and then to the effector collection, both from internal and external
for a response. An effector is any part environment is done by receptors. They
of the body that produces response.
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usually form the sensory system along form a communication network. Neurones
with neurones which transmit the collected are the basic structural and functional
information from different parts. The units of the nervous system. They are
collected information is processed and responsible for transmission of impulses
integrated in the central nervous system, from one part of the body to another.
and finally the information is transmitted
to effectors (muscles and glands) which The main portion of the neurone is the
produce appropriate responses. cell body, which contains a nucleus. The
cytoplasm of the cell bodies contains
Functions of the nervous system granules called Nissl’s bodies. Extending
The nervous system has the following from the cell body are one or more short
functions: extensions called dendrites. These receive
a) It receives stimuli from the signals from the sensory receptors and
environment using receptor cells or transmit electrical signals or impulses to
sensory input. the cell body. The neurone also contains
b) It converts the stimuli into electrical long extension called axon. In some cells,
impulses by the process called axons are covered by a fatty layer of
transduction. material known as myelin sheath. Within
c) It transmits nerve impulses. The the cell body there are fine neurofibrils
impulse is transmitted from the that extend from the dendrites to the axon.
sensory receptor to the CNS and then An axon is a long, stem-like part of the
to the effector, which is capable of cell that sends action potential signals to
producing an appropriate response.
TY the next cell. Outside the myelin sheath
PE Y
is a cellular layer called neurilemma,

d) It stores information so that behaviour
O NL
containings sheath of Schwan cells which

R
can be modified according to the past

are essential for rapid propagation of
PR O
stimuli.
nerve impulse as well as nourishment and
T SE
Neurones insulation of the axon. The myelin sheath

EN U
Nerve cells or neurones are conducting together with neurilemma constitute the
M E
cells of the nervous system found between medullary sheath (Figure 4.2), inside the
R LIN
the receptors and effectors. These spread axon there is a space containing charged
throughout the body of an organism and ions called axoplasm.
VE N
O O
Dendrites
Schwan
G R
FO
cell nucleus
Nucleus Cell body
Axon terminal
Myelin sheath
Node of
Ranvier
Nissil’s
bodies Axon
Figure 4.2 Structure of a typical neurone
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Neurones are supported, protected, and Sensory neurones (Afferent neurones)

nourished by non-neuronal cells of the Sensory and intermediate neurones are
nervous system, which are known as also known as afferent neurones. These
glial cells. Together with extracellular are neurones with long dendrites and short
tissue, glial cells make up the neuroglia. axon. The cell body and dendrites of the
Some neuroglias are phagocytic cells sensory neurones mostly lie outside the
that remove bacteria and debris from the brain and spinal cord. Sensory neurones
neurones while others provides metabolic transmit nerve impulses from sensory
and structural support. receptors to the CNS (Figure 4.3) for the
interpretation.
Types of neurones
Based on their function and structure there
are three types of neurones; which are
sensory neurones, intermediate neurones
(interneurones), and motor neurones.
Synaptic end Skin receptor

Cell body
Node of
Ranvier
Myelin
sheath
TY
PE Y
O NL
Directio
R
n of nerv
e impuls
e
PR O
Axon
T SE
Dendron
EN U
Figure 4.3 Structure of a sensory neurone

M E
Interneurones (Intermediate neurones)

R LIN
These are also known as connector

VE N
neurones or relay neurones (Figure 4.4).

O O
Dendrites
They are much smaller nerve cells with Cell body
G R
many interconnections. Interneurones

FO
have short dendrites and short or long Axon

axons. They lie entirely within the CNS
(brain and spinal cord). They transmit Synaptic ending
nerve impulses within the CNS; that is,
they relay information between sensory
and motor neurones. The sensory neurones
and intermediate neurones both carry Figure 4.4 Structure of an intermediate neurone
impulses towards the CNS.
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Motor neurones (Efferent neurones) effector organs such as muscles or glands,

Motor neurone have short dendrites and which eventually respond to the stimulus
long axons; their dendrites and cell bodies (Figure 4.5). Axon always transmits
are located in the CNS; and the axon is impulses away from the cell body while
outside the CNS. Motor neurones transmit dendron carries impulses towards the cell
nerve impulses from the CNS to the body.
Nucleus
Cell body
Axo
Dendrite n
Myelin sheath
Dire
ctio
n of
nerv
e im
puls
TY e
PE Y
Node of Ranvier
O NL
R
Figure 4.5 Structure of a motor neurone

PR O
T SE
Classification of neurones based on the are sensory neurones that have two
EN U
number of dendrites processes coming from the cell body; one

M E
Neurones can also be classified on the

R LIN
dendron and one axon. Bipolar sensory

basis of the number of their dendrites neurones are found in the retina of the eye,
VE N
arising from the soma (cell body). In ganglia of the vestibulocochlear nerve
O O
this classification, there are three main and the olfactory epithelium. Multipolar
G R
types of neurones. These include unipolar, neurones have three or more processes
FO
bipolar and multipolar neurones. Unipolar coming from the cell body. They possess
neurones have a single short dendrite one axon and two or more dendrites.
terminating onto bush-like tufts or Multipolar neurones form the major part
dendrites. These are found in the granular of the CNS. They include interneurones
layer of the cerebellum. Bipolar neurones and motor neurones. (Figure 4.6).
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(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 4.6 Structural classification of neurones (a) unipolar (b) bipolar (c) pseudo unipolar and (d)
multipolar
electrical charge is maintained by active

Exercise 4.1 transport of sodium ions out of axoplasm.
A cell in this state is said to have a resting
1. Describe the structure of the
potential and it is polarised. At this state,
nervous tissue.
the potential difference existing across the
2. Explain the adaptive features of cell surface membrane inside the cell with
the nervous tissue. TY respect to the outside part is negative,
PE Y
3. With the help of diagrams, describe which is about -70 mV. At this time, the
O NL
R
the types of neurones. axon does not conduct any impulse. The
PR O
cytoplasm inside the axon has a high

concentration of K+ and low concentration
T SE
Nerve impulses of Na+. This is contrary to the outside

EN U
A nerve impulse is an electrical signal that part which has a low concentration of
M E
travels along the axon. It is generated when K+ and high concentration of Na+. The
R LIN
the nerve cell is activated. Movement of resting potential is maintained by active

VE N
ions in and out of the neurone causes a transport and passive diffusion of ions.
O O
sudden change in the voltage across the It is active transport of ions against the
G R
wall of the axon. This triggers a wave of electrochemical gradient of sodium/

FO
electrical activity that passes from the cell potassium (Na+/K+) pump. These are
body along the length of the axon to the carrier substances located in the cell
synapse. surface membrane. They are driven by
energy supplied by ATP (Figure 4.7). The
Resting potential rate of diffusion is characterised by the
This occurs when the neurone is at rest. permeability of the axon membrane to the
In an inactive neurone, the axoplasm is ion. The K+ has membrane permeability
negatively charged with respect to the of about 20 times greater than that of Na+.
outside of the cell. The difference in
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Outside
(K+)=20 nM Na+ / K+ pump K channel
+
(Na+)=450 nM
+ + + + + + + + +
Membrane
potential
-60mV
- - - - - - - - -
ATP Inside
(K+)=400 nM
ADP
(Na+)=50 nM
Figure 4.7 A membrane at resting potential (Polarised membrane)
Action potential inside the axon, which consequently

An action potential is a rapid, temporary becomes more depolarized. Since sodium
change in membrane potential. It may gates are sensitive to depolarization,
qualify as the most important type of the greater the depolarization, the more
electrical signal in cells. In a neurone, TY sodium gates are open, allowing more
PE Y
action potential is generated by special sodium ions to enter into the cell, hence
O NL
R
types of voltage-gated ion channels greater depolarization and this is called a

embedded in cell’s plasma membrane. A
PR O
positive feedback loop. Positive feedback

neurone displaying the nerve impulse is loop causes acceleration in the entry of
T SE
said to have an action potential and the sodium to the potential difference peaks
EN U
cell is depolarised. Stimulation of axon by at about +40 mV. This peak corresponds
M E
electrical impulse may result into a change to the maximum concentration of sodium
R LIN
in potential difference of about +40 mV inside the axon. The total depolarization
across the axon membrane, from more associated with the action potential has
VE N
O O
negative inside to more positive inside. therefore been from -70 mV to +40 mV.
G R
The action potential has the following

FO
Action potential is generated by a sudden three distinct phases:

opening of sodium channels. This occurs
in response to stimulus which brings a) Depolarisation
about a slight depolarisation or loss of This is the decrease in voltage across
charge of the axon membrane. Opening the membrane. It occurs when there is a
of Na+ gates increases permeability stimulus that leads to the opening of the
of the axon membrane to sodium ions sodium channel to increase inflow of
which enter the axon by diffusion. This sodium ions. The process makes the inside
increases the number of positive ions of the cell less negative.
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b) Rapid repolarisation All the three phases of the action potential

This is the process that changes the occur within few milliseconds (ms) for the
membrane potential back to negative action potential to begin in a giant axon,
inside and positive outside. A fraction the membrane potential must shift from
of a second after the sodium gates open, its resting potential of -70 mV to about
depolarisation of the axon membrane +40 mV. If the membrane depolarises
causes the potassium gates to open too, less than that, an action potential does not
and potassium diffuses out of the cell. occur. However, if this threshold potential
Since potassium is positively charged, the is reached, sodium ion channels in the
inside of the cell becomes less positive and axon membrane open. Ions, thus rush into
starts the process of repolarisation, then, it the axon following their electrochemical
returns to its original resting potential. gradients. The inside of the membrane
becomes less negative and then positive
c) Hyperpolarisation with respect to the outside. When the
membrane potential reaches about +40 mV,
This occurs after the impulse has been
a rapid change occurs and the repolarisation
transmitted; the action potential falls down
phase begins (Figure 4.8). The change
and the sodium gates close immediately.
is caused by the closure of sodium ion
But potassium gates delay to close, causing
channels and the opening of potassium ion
more K+ ions to exit the axon and this makes
channels.
the membrane slightly more negative than
the resting potential. Hyperpolarisation of TY
the axon overshoots into more negative
PE Y
O NL
potential than the original potential.

R
PR O
Action Refractory
potential period
T SE
50
EN U
Membrane Potential (mV)
Depolarization Repolarization
M E
0
R LIN
VE N
Threshold potential
O O
-50 Resting potential

G R
FO
Resting potential
Hyperpolarization
-100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (milliseconds)
Action potential in a neurone
Figure 4.8 Graph showing the propagation of nerve impulse across a membrane

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In summary, an action potential occurs due to opening or closing of specific channels

in the plasma membrane in response to changes in voltage. An action potential always
has the same three-phase form; even though the size of the resting potential, threshold
potential, and peak depolarization may vary among the species or even among different
types of neurones in one species.
Conduction of nerve impulse along the axon

The mechanism for impulse transmission along the axon involves the following steps:
a) Polarization of the neurone’s membrane

Sodium is in high concentration on the outside, whereas potassium is in high concentration
on the inside. Cell membranes surround neurones, like any other cell in the body which
has a membrane. When a neurone is not stimulated, just sitting with no impulse to
carry or transmit, its membrane is said to be polarised. Being polarized means that the
electrical charge on the outside of the membrane is positive while the electrical charge
on the inside of the membrane is negative (Figure 4.9).
Outside of axon Plasma membrane of axon
Inside of axon
Figure 4.9 Polarised axon membrane

TY
PE Y
b) The resting potential gives the neurone a break

O NL
R
When the neurone is polarised, it is said to be at its resting potential. It remains in this
PR O
state until when the stimulus comes along (that is, when it is stimulated). When action
potential is initiated, a region of the membrane depolarises. As the result the adjacent
T SE
region becomes depolarised as well (Figure 4.10).

EN U
M E
Passive depolarization spreads

R LIN
VE N
O O
Na+
G R
FO
Figure 4.10 Propagation of nerve impulse across a membrane (depolarization)
c) Action potential
Sodium ions move inside the membrane when a stimulus reaches a resting neurone. The
gated ion channels on the resting neurone’s membrane open suddenly to allow the Na+
that was on the outside of the membrane to rush into the cell. While this happens, the
neurone changes from being polarised to being depolarised. After more positive ions
enter inside the membrane, the inside becomes positive and polarisation is removed and
the threshold is reached (Figure 4.11).
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Na+
Figure 4.11 Propagation of nerve impulse across a membrane (action potential)
d) Repolarisation
Localised electrical circuits are established, causing further influx of sodium ions and
so progression of the impulse. Behind the impulse, potassium ions begin to leave the
axon along the concentration gradient, hence repolarisation beginning to occur due to
the outward flow of K+ ions. The depolarisation speeds forward, triggering an action
potential (Figure 4.12).
Figure 4.12 Propagation of nerve impulse across a membrane (localization)
During repolarisation, potassium ions move outside, while sodium ions stay inside the
membrane. After repolarisation, the inside of the cell becomes flooded with Na+; the gated
ion channels on the inside of the membrane open to allow K+ to move to the outside of
TY
PE Y
the membrane. With K+ moving to the outside, the membrane’s repolarisation restores
O NL
R
electrical balance, although it is the opposite of the initial polarised membrane that had
PR O
Na+ gates close. Otherwise, the membrane could not repolarize (Figure 4.13). Then Na+
T SE
ions are actively forced out of the axoplasm in the process called sodium pump. However,
since K+ ions are also involved in this process, the process is best called cation pump.
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
Figure 4.13 Propagation of nerve impulse across a membrane (repolarization)
Characteristics of nerve impulses

Nerve impulses have the following characteristic features:
a) Transmission speed
Impulses are always transmitted at a very high speed. Depending on the nature of a nerve
cell, the speed of transmission varies from 0.5 to 100 metres per millisecond. The speed of
impulse transmission is determined by body temperature, axon diameter, and presence of
myelin sheaths.
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i) Body temperature iii) Presence of myelin sheaths

The speed of impulse transmission depends Axons with myelin sheaths conduct
on the body temperature of the organism, impulses at higher speed than those
such that, the speed of impulse transmission without sheaths. The myelin sheath
in homoeothermic organsms is greater than allows impulses to leap from one node
in poikilothermic organisms. of ranvier to another, thereby increasing
transmission speed (Figure 4.14). This is
ii) Axon diameter the saltatory conduction.
The greater the axon diameter the higher
the transmission speed. This is because
increased axon diameter minimizes the
resistance of the axoplasm.
Nerve impulse propagation
K+Na+ K+Na+
Axon Myelin sheath cells Nodes of ranvier
Figure 4.14 Leap of impulse from one node of Ranvier to another in a myelinated axon
TY
PE Y
O NL
b) Unidirectionality is unable to propagate an action potential

R
Impulses always flow in only one direction, regardless of the strength of the stimulus.
PR O
that is, from cell body to terminal dendrites The relative refractory period lasts for 5
T SE
in the neurone, or from pre-synaptic to post ms. During this period, the impulse can
EN U
– synaptic neurone across a synapse. be propagated if its strength exceeds a

M E
threshold value. The significance of the

R LIN
c) Refractory period refractory period is to ensure unidirectional

During this period, a part of an axon is unable flow of impulse and to separate one action
VE N
to conduct a new impulse immediately after potential to the next.

O O
propagation of an action potential. The

G R
FO
resting potential is restored by outward d) All-or-nothing law

movement of K+ ions and prevention of According to this law, for the action
inward movement of Na+ ions. potential to be propagated, the stimulus
applied should exceed a threshold value.
Furthermore, the refractory period is The threshold value is the minimum
divided into two phases namely; absolute energy level, and when reached, the action
refractory period and relative refractory potential will be generated. However,
period. Absolute refractory period lasts the size of the action potential will not
for 1 ms. In this period, a part of an axon decrease as it is transmitted along the
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neurone, but it will always remain the presynaptic membrane is modified for the
same. In other words, the action potential attachment of synaptic vesicles and the
is both generated and kept the same or release of transmitter substance into the
not generated if the threshold value is not synaptic cleft. The postsynaptic membrane
exceeded. contains large protein molecules, which
act as receptor sites for the transmitter
e) Propagation (Conduction) substances and numerous channels and
A nerve impulse is conducted as a wave pores for the movement of ions into the
of depolarisation that moves along the postsynaptic neurone (Figure 4.15).
surface of the nerve cell. This means
that progressive depolarisation of the The neurotransmitter substance is either
axon membrane leads into impulse produced by the cell body of the neurone
transmission. or synaptic knob. These substances
are synthesised by enzymes stored in
Structure of a chemical synapse the cell body. The neurotransmitters
The point where the axon of one neurone allow the transmission of signals
joins the dendrite or cell body of another from one neurone to the next across
neurone is known as a synapse. The synapses. There are many types of
membrane of the first neurone connecting neurotransmitters, and these include
to the synapse is called a presynaptic acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin,
membrane while the other membrane of dopamine, and glutamate. The two
the next neurone is called a postsynaptic common neurotransmitters in vertebrates
TY
PE Y
membrane. These membranes between are acetylcholine (Ach; an ammonium

O NL
R
the two neurones are separated by a gap of compound) and norepinephrine (also
PR O
about 20 nm called the synaptic cleft. At called noradrenaline). Neurones using

T SE
the end of the presynaptic neurone, there acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter

is a bulge called synaptic knob. are described as cholinergic neurones,
EN U
while those using norepinephrine

M E
The cytoplasm of the synaptic knob (noradrenaline) are called adrenergic

R LIN
contains numerous mitochondria and neurones. Norepinephrine is released in

VE N
small synaptic vesicles. Transmission the sympathetic nervous system by some

O O
across a synapse is carried out by chemical nerves, while acetylcholine is released by

G R
substances called neurotransmitters; all nerves except some nerves in the brain.
FO
which are stored in synaptic vesicles. The

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End of axon
Mitochondrion
Synaptic knob
Synaptic vesicle containing
neurotransmitter substances
Pre - synaptic membrane
Synaptic cleft Protein receptor
Post synaptic membrane
Dendrite Ion channel
Figure 4.15 Structure of the chemical synapse
Synaptic transmission of nerve These channels are capable of passing

impulses an electrical current, causing voltage
The nerve impulse passes down the changes in the pre synaptic cell to induce
dendrite, through the cell body, and voltage changes in the post synaptic cell.
down the axon. At the end of the axon, This synapse can be effective when the
TY
PE Y
the impulse encounters a fluid-filled neurones are very close together (2 nm).
O NL
R
space separating the end of the axon The main advantage of electrical synapse
PR O
from the dendrite of the next neurone or is that it facilitates the rapid transfer
T SE
from a muscle cell. This space is called of signals from one cell to the next. In
EN U
the synapse. The synapse located at the chemical synapses, impulse transmission
M E
junction of a neurone and muscle fibre is facilitated by chemical substances

R LIN
is called a neuromuscular junction. Such called neurotransmitters.

synapses can be classified based on their
VE N
O O
means of transmission of impulses across Mechanism for synaptic transmission

G R
their gaps. In this typology, two types are a) An action potential arrives at the end
FO
revealed, namely electrical and chemical of the axon and induces changes in the
synapses. An electrical synapse is the cell membrane (Figure 4.16).
one in which the physiological continuity
between pre and post synaptic neurones
is provided by a special channel called a
gap junction between the two neurones.
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Axon of presynaptic
neurone
Synaptic knob
Mitochondrion
Synaptic vesicle
Membrane of
postsynaptic neurone Synaptic cleft
Postsynaptic
membrane Postsynaptic
Area of membrane
receptor sites
Figure 4.16 Conduction of nerve impulses at the presynaptic knob and action potential
b) Depolarisation at the synaptic knob after arrival of nerve impulses create the action
potential which opens voltage-gated calcium channels located near the synapse in
TY
the presynaptic membrane, thus increasing the permeability of the membrane to
PE Y
O NL
calcium (Ca2+) ions. The electrochemical gradient for Ca2+ results in the inflow of
R
calcium ions through the open channels (Figure 4.17).

PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
Permeability of presynaptic
Ca2+ Ca2+ Ca2+ membrane to Ca2+ increases
Figure 4.17 Permeability of presynaptic membrane to the calcium ions

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c) In response to the increase of calcium concentration inside the axon, synaptic vesicles
fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitters into the gap between
the cells which is called the synaptic cleft. The delivery of neurotransmitters into the cleft
is an example of exocytosis (Figure 4.18).
Synaptic vesicles
fuse with presynaptic
membrane and rapture
Neurotransmitters
Figure 4.18 Presynaptic membrane fused with synaptic vesicles

TY
PE Y
d) The vesicles then return to the cytoplasm and are refilled with transmitter substance.
O NL
R
The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft, a process which takes 0.5ms
PR O
per synapse. Upon reaching the postsynaptic membrane, it binds with receptor
molecules which recognise the molecular structure of the acetylcholine molecule
T SE
(Figure 4.19).
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
Diffusion of transmitter molecules

O O
across cleft
G R
FO
Transmitter molecules attached to

receptor sites
Channels open up and allow

ions to enter from synaptic cleft
(permeability of postsynaptic
membrane increases)
Figure 4.19 Transmitter molecules attached to receptor sites on postsynaptic knob
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e) The arrival of acetylcholine at the excitatory postsynaptic potential in

postsynaptic membrane changes the post synaptic neurone. Once the
the shape of the receptor site. This neurotransmitter has depolarised the
initiates ion channels to open up. post synaptic neurone, it is hydrolysed
The excitatory synapse which opens to form acetyl and choline by the
ion channels on the postsynaptic enzyme “acetylcholinesterase” which
membrane allowing sodium ions to is found in the postsynaptic membrane.
enter and potassium ions to leave. This This prevents the successive impulse
creates a new potential known as the merging at the synapse (Figure 4.20).
Hydrolytic enzymes such as

acetylcholinesterase break down
transmitter molecules
Local depolarisation
and propagation of an action potential
Figure 4.20 Local depolarisation and propagation of an action potential in postsynaptic membrane
TY
PE Y
The resulting acetyl and choline diffuses threshold value and so generate an action
O NL
R
across the synaptic cleft into the synaptic potential in the postsynaptic neurone, this
PR O
knob of the presynaptic neurone where is called temporal summation. All events
T SE
they get stored in their vesicles for further described are for excitatory synapse,
use. The process is facilitated by energy some known inhibitory synapses respond
EN U
produced by numerous mitochondria to neurotransmitter by opening potassium

M E
in the knob. The overall depolarising ion channels and leaving the sodium ion
R LIN
effect of several Excitatory Postsynaptic channels closed. Potassium, therefore,

moves out causing the membrane to be
VE N
Potential (EPSPs) is called summation.

O O
When two or more EPSPs simultaneously polarised; consequently, it prevents the

arising at different regions either on the threshold value to be exceeded. Thus no
G R
FO
same or different neurones, producing action potential will be created.

sufficient depolarisation which can starts
an action potential in the postsynaptic Functions of synapses
neurone, the phenomenon is known as a) They transmit information between
spatial summation. neurones. The synapses pass
impulses in one direction only.
The excitatory postsynaptic potential Such impulses are transmitted at the
builds up as more neurotransmitter
presynaptic membrane and received
substance arrives until sufficient
by the postsynaptic membrane, which
depolarisation occurs to exceed the
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ensures one direction of flow along a released by synapse steadily falls off
given pathway. in a response to a constant stimulation
b) They amplify impulses by until the supply of the transmitted
acetylcholine which is released at a substance is exhausted.
neuromuscular junction which excite f) They allow convergence, spatial
the post synaptic membrane and summation and integration of the
amplifies any weak impulse arriving. stimuli. In convergence of the stimuli,
Repeated low level stimuli can be the postsynaptic nerves receive
amplified as each impulse is arriving impulses from a large number of
at the synapse, causing the release of excitatory and inhibitory presynaptic
more neurotransmitter, resulting in neurones. In a spatial summation
one larger impulse in the postsynaptic postsynaptic neurone is able to sum-
neurone. Therefore, this allows the up the stimuli from all presynaptic
body to respond to the stimuli more neurones, where the synapse act as a
effectively. centre for the integration of stimuli
c) They act as junctions that transmit from different sources; hence produces
electric nerve impulses between the coordinated response.
neurones, or between neurone and
effector cells. A synaptic connection Exercise 4.2
between a neurone and muscle cell is
known as neuromuscular junction. TY 1. Explain the following concepts:
d) They filter out low level stimuli; as
PE Y
a) Action potential
O NL
more neurotransmitter diffuses across

R
b) Resting potential
the synaptic cleft, the excitatory
PR O
postsynaptic potential increases. For c) Polarization

T SE
the impulses to be generated in the d) Depolarisation of nerve cells

EN U
postsynaptic neurone, it must reach

the action potential of about +40 2. Describe the formation and
M E
R LIN
mV. This implies that weak impulses conduction of nerve impulses along
in the presynaptic neurone do not the axon.
VE N
O O
cause enough neurotransmitter to be 3. Outline the characteristics of nerve

N
released for an action potential in the cells.

G R
FO
postsynaptic neurone to be generated. 4. Using clear illustrations, describe

As a result, synapses are able to filter the synaptic transmission of nerve
out low level stimuli that the body impulses.
does not need to respond, that is a way
of conserving energy. 5. State the role of synapses in the
nervous system.
e) They allow adaptation to intense
stimulation and fatigue. The amount
of transmitted substance which is
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4.2 Sensory receptor Single sensory neurone receptor

The receptor is a cell or a nerve ending or These receptors are simple and mostly
a group of nerve endings specialised for primitive. They consist of a single sensory
reception of stimuli and change specific neurone which is capable of detecting the
stimuli into nerve impulse. The ability stimulus and giving rise to a nerve impulse
of receptors to convert stimuli or events passing to the central nervous system.
which occur in the environment into a Examples include: skin mechanoreceptors
in the pacinian corpuscles.
nerve impulse is known as transduction.
The structures which transform stimulus
Complex receptors
energy into electrical responses which
These sense cells consist of modified
is the nerve impulses in axons are called epithelial cells. They can detect stimuli.
transducers. Receptors are therefore Sensory cells, sensory neurones, and
biological transducers that convert other associated or accessory structures
energy from both external and internal are examples of complex receptors. The
environments into electrical impulses. cones, rods, lens and iris (in the eye) are
They may be grouped together to form examples of sense cells.
a sense organ, such as the eye or ear, or
they may be scattered, as in those of the b) Classification of sensory receptors
skin and viscera. The coordinated activity based on type of stimuli
of an organism relies upon a continuous Based on the type of stimulus they
detect in the environment, there are
TY
input of information from internal
PE Y
several types of sensory receptors, which

O NL
and external environments. When the

R
include: mechanoreceptor, photoreceptor,

information received leads to a change in
PR O
thermoreceptor, nociceptor, chemoreceptor,

activity or behaviour of the animals, it is
T SE
osmoreceptor and electroreceptors.

called stimulus. The specialised region of
EN U
the body which has the ability of detecting Mechanoreceptors

M E
the stimulus is known as sensory receptor. They detect mechanical stimuli which
R LIN
are caused by mechanical forces such as

VE N
Types of sensory receptors sound or vibration, touch, pressure, and

O O
Receptors can be classified into different gravity. Touch receptors are found all over
G R
groups based on their structure, type, and the body. Other touch receptors include
FO
the location of stimuli they detect. Merkel’s discs and Meissner’s corpuscles
which detect light and pacinian corpuscles
a) Classification of sensory receptors which sense deep pressure and vibration.
based on structure Mechanoreceptors are responsible for
Based on their structure there are two detecting changes that are perceived
types of receptors, and these are: single such as sound or touch. They are also
sensory neurone receptors and complex responsible for maintaining equilibrium
receptors (sense organs). balance and proper tone in muscles and
joints (Figure 4.21).
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Meissner’s corpuscle
Merkel’s disc
Pacinian corpuscle
Free nerve ending
Figure 4.21 Structure of the touch receptors
Photoreceptors TY
These are receptors which detect electromagnetic stimuli such as light. There are two
PE Y
O NL
types of photoreceptors namely; rods and cones. These are found in the retina of an eye
R
for detecting dim and bright light respectively (Figure 4.22).

PR O
T SE
EN U
Ganglion cell
Sclera
M E
Conjunctiva Amacrine cell

R LIN
Choroid Bipolar cell

Iris
Fovea Rods
VE N
Lens Vitreous humour

O O
Pupil Blind spot Cones

Cornea Optic nerve
G R
Suspensory Retina
FO
ligament Horizontal cell

Ciliary Extrinsic
muscle
body
Figure 4.22 Structure of the photoreceptors
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Thermoreceptors Examples of thermoreceptors are bulbs of

Thermoreceptors are specialised nerve cells Krauze which sense coldness and organ
or receptors that can detect differences of Ruffin which detects heat. These cells
in temperature. They can detect hotness are connected to heat gain and heat loss
(heat) and coldness (cold). They are thus centres of the hypothalamus.
of two types, heat and cold receptors.
They are found throughout the skin to Nociceptors (pain receptors)
allow sensory reception throughout These are receptors that can detect pain
the body. The location and number of and they are found in the skin, muscles,
thermoreceptors determine the sensitivity bones, blood vessels, and some organs
of the skin to temperature changes. (4.23).
Heat Light Pain Cold

receptor receptor receptor Hair
touch
Epidermis
TY
PE Y
Dermis
O NL
R
PR O
T SE
Nerve
Connective Hair Strong
EN U
tissue movement pressure

M E
R LIN
Figure 4.23 Sensory receptors of the skin

VE N
O O
Chemoreceptors impulses from these receptors travel to the

G R
These are receptors which detect chemical olfactory bulb (Figure 4.24). When odour
FO
stimuli such as smell, taste, and humidity. molecules enter the nose, they stimulate
They have the ability to respond to a diverse the olfactory cilia (tiny hairs) attached to
range of chemical substances in food, receptor cells, causing nerve impulses to
nasal passage, and blood. For example, pass to the olfactory bulb and then to the
olfactory receptors in the roof of the nasal brain.
cavity can be stimulated by odours. Nerve

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Olfactory bulb
Born
Olfactory nerve
fibre
Olfactory
cell
Olfactory hair
(receptors)
Mucus layer
Figure 4.24 Structure of the olfactory lobe
Taste buds are located on the upper surface of the tongue. Each bud contains about
25 sensory receptor cells with tiny taste hairs exposed to drink and food dissolved in
saliva (Figure 4.25). Such buds sense the five basic tastes: bitter, sour, salty, sweet, and
umami (a savoury, meaty taste). A combination of odours and the basic tastes produce
subtler tastes.
Basal cells Taste
TY
PE Y
cells
Taste pore
O NL
R
PR O
Vallate
papillae
Foliate
T SE
papillae
EN U
M E
R LIN
Gustatory
afferent
VE N
axons
Synapse
O O
Microvilli
N
(c)
G R
Papilla
FO
Fungiform
papillae Tongue
(a) (b) Taste buds
Figure 4.25 Structure of the taste receptors
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Osmoreceptor Proprioceptors
They detect the changes in osmotic These are internal sensory receptors that
pressure. The osmoreceptors are primarily monitor the degree of stretch of muscles
found in the hypothalamus and kidney of and tendons around the body. This
most homoeothermic organisms. They information gives an individual a sense
contribute to regulate fluid balance in of balance and awareness of the position
the body (osmoregulation) and modulate
of various parts of the body in relation to
osmolarity in the kidney.
each other (Figure 4.26).
Electroreceptors
Electroreceptors detect natural electrical
stimuli. They are almost found in aquatic
or amphibious animals because salt water
is a better conductor of electricity than air.
The ampullae of Lorenzini are an example Motor
neurons
of electroreceptors in sharks. Some Sensory neurons
terrestrial organisms such as arachnids,
cockroaches and bees are known to have
electroreceptors. Muscle
Muscle spindle
c) Classification of sensory receptors
based on the location of the stimuli they Tendon
detect TY
Based on the location of stimulus they
PE Y
O NL
detect in the environment, three types of

R
receptors; interoceptors, exteroceptors

PR O
Figure 4.26 Structure of the proprioceptors

proprioceptors.
T SE
Interoceptors Mammalian eye

EN U
These receptors detect stimulus which The eye is a sense organ which receives
M E
originates from the inside of the body;

R LIN
light of various wavelengths, reflected

especially from internal organs and the
from objects at varying distances in the
gut. For example, stomach pain stimulus is
VE N
detected by pain receptor (nociceptor) and visual field and converts it into electrical
O O
blood pressure change stimulus is detected impulses (Figure 4.27). Optic nerves
G R
by pressure receptor (baroreceptor). transmit these impulses to the brain

FO
where an image of remarkable precision

Exteroceptors is perceived. The principal functions of
These are receptors which detect external the eye include: controlling the amount of
stimuli such as light, temperature, light entering it, focusing images from the
olfactory and tactile. For example, the skin external world by means of a lens system,
thermoreceptors detect the temperature and processing the captured image into a
changes of the external environment. pattern that can be seen.
Ear, eye and nose also detect stimuli that
originate from external environment.
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Conjunctiva Sclera
Choroid
Iris
Lens Vitreous humour Fovea
Pupil Blind spot
Cornea Optic nerve
Retina
Suspensory
ligament
Ciliary Extrinsic
muscle
body
Figure 4.27 Vertical section of the human eye

Eye accommodation muscles of the iris diaphragm contract, the
This is the reflex mechanism by which radial muscles relax, the pupil becomes
light rays from an object are brought smaller, and less light enters the eye. This
to focus on the retina. It involves two process prevents damaging the retina and
processes namely; reflex adjustment of the increases the depth of focus. In dim light,
pupil’s size and refraction of light rays. the circular muscles of the iris diaphragm
relax, the radial muscles contract, the
Reflex adjustment of the pupil’s size
pupil become large, and more light enters
TY
This involves the control of the amount of
PE Y
the eye. This decreases the depth of focus

O NL
light entering the eye, either bright light

R
of the eye (Figure 4.28).

or dim light. In bright light, the circular
PR O
T SE
Dim light Circular muscle Bright light Radial muscle

relax relax
EN U
M E
Circular muscle
R LIN
contract
Radial muscle
Pupil
VE N
Pupil dilates contract

Pupil constricts
O O
(a) (b)
G R
FO
Figure 4.28 Reflex adjustment of the pupil’s size in (a) dim and (b) bright light
Refraction of light rays rays from a distant object (more than 6m

Refraction of light rays involves bending away), are nearly parallel to one another
of light rays as they move through different towards the eye while those from a closer
media in the eye. At all distance range, object tend to spread out (diverging)
as they make angle from the object. In
light rays enter to the eye and refracted
all these two cases, light rays must be
to come into exact focus on retina. Light refracted or bent to focus on the retina.
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Refraction is greater for light from near ciliary muscle contracts, the tension on
objects than for distant objects. The the suspensory ligaments is reduced, and
refraction is achieved at the air-cornea the lens fattens due to its elastic nature
surface and at the lens when the light which increases the degree of refraction of
passes from one medium to another with a light. When the ciliary muscles relax, the
different refractive index. The function of suspensory ligaments are stretched, pulling
the lens is to produce the final refraction the lens outwards, making it thinner, and
that brings light to a sharp focus on the decreasing the degree of light refraction.
retina. The lens is elastic and changes the Changing the shape of lens in different
shape by the contraction and relaxation manners causes the lens to focus light rays
of the ciliary muscle which encircles it. from near and distant objects on the retina.
This assists the lens in adjusting the light This process is called accommodation.
from both distant and near objects, which Light rays refraction in an eye at different
cannot be done by cornea. When the distances is shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Refraction of light rays in human eye at different distances
Light from a distant object Light from a nearby object

1. Parallel light rays reach the eye. 1. Diverging light rays reach the eye.
2. Cornea refracts (bends) light ray. 2. Cornea refracts (bends) light ray.
3. Circular ciliary muscle relaxes. 3. Circular ciliary muscle contracted.
4. Suspensory ligament stretched. 4. Suspensory ligament slacks.
5. The lens is pulled out. 5. The lens becomes more convex.
TY
PE Y
6. Light focused on the retina. 6. Light focused on the retina.

O NL
R
PR O
Cilliary muscles
Cilliary contract Loose
T SE
muscles Tight
relaxes ligaments ligaments
Diverging rays
EN U
Parallel rays from a distant object from nearby object Image

Image
M E
R LIN
Object at infinity Thin

Nearby Thick
eye eye
object
VE N
lens
lens
O O
The structure of the retina neurones with synapse, connecting the

G R
FO
The retina is comprised of three layers photoreceptor layer and the inner layer.
of cells. The outermost layer is the Horizontal and amacrine cells are found in
photoreceptor layer containing rods the middle layer. The innermost layer is an
and cones, partially embedded in the internal surface layer containing ganglion
pigmented epithelial cells of the choroid cells with dendrites in contact with
layer. The rods and cones convert light bipolar neurones and axons of the optic
energy into the electrical energy of the nerve (Figure 4.29). It is important to note
nerve impulse. The middle layer is an that cats and some nocturnal carnivorous
intermediate part which contains bipolar mammals possess a reflective layer called

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tapetum which is found behind the retina. the vision of cats and nocturnals in dim
This protein layer reflects light back into light. The bright light shown by cats’ eyes
the eye and gives an opportunity for rod at night is the result of the reflection from
cells to absorb it. This character improves the tapetum.
Choroid epithelium
Layer of pigment
Rod
Vesicles
Cone Outer
segment
Infolding of cell
surface membrane
Constriction
Photoreceptor layer
Pair of cilia
Mitochondria
Inner
segment
Nucleus
End bulb TY
(equivalent of
PE Y
synaptic knob)
O NL
Synaptic
R
region
PR O
Horizontal cell
T SE
Bipolar neurone
EN U
Intermediate layer
M E
Amacrine cell
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
Ganglion cell
Internal
surface layer
Axon of optic
nerve
LIGHT RAYS
Figure 4.29 Structure of the retina
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Structural differences between rods from macular degeneration. Individuals

and cones who have lost cone function are blind,
Rods and cones are generally similar whereas those who have lost rod function
in structure, but they differ in size and only experience difficulty seeing at low
shape, as well as in the arrangement of the levels of illumination (night blindness).
membranous discs in their outer segments.
Differences in the transduction
At the lowest levels of light, only rods are
mechanisms of the two receptor types
activated. Such rod mediated perception
also contribute to the ability of rods and
is called scotopic vision; the difficult of
cones to respond to different ranges of
making visual discriminations under very
light intensity. For example, rods produce
low light conditions where only the rod
a reliable response to a single photon of
system is active. The problem is primarily
light, whereas more than 100 photons
the poor resolution of the rod system and,
are required to produce a comparable
to a lesser degree, the lack of perception
response in a cone. Another difference is
of colour in dim light since such cones are
that, the response of an individual cone
not involved to a significant degree.
does not saturate at high levels of steady
Although cones begin to contribute to illumination, as does the rod response.
visual perception at about the level of Although both rods and cones adapt to
starlight, spatial discrimination is still operate over a range of luminance values,
very poor. As illumination increases, the adaptation mechanisms of the cones
cones become increasingly dominant in TY are more effective. This difference in
determining what is seen. In addition, they adaptation is evident in the time course
PE Y
O NL
are the major determinant of perception of the response of rods and cones to light
R
under relatively bright conditions, such flashes. The response of a cone, even
PR O
as normal indoor lighting or sunlight. The to a bright light flash that produces the
T SE
contribution of rods to vision drops out maximum change in photoreceptor current

EN U
nearly entirely in the so called photopic pick up is about 200 ms; which is more
M E
vision because their response to light than four times faster than rod recovery.
R LIN
saturates, that is, the membrane potential

of individual rods no longer varies as The arrangement of the circuits that
VE N
a function of illumination because all

O O
transmit rods and cones information to

N
of the membrane channels are closed. retinal ganglion cells also contributes to
G R
FO
Mesopic vision occurs in levels of light the different characteristics of scotopic

at which both rods and cones contribute and photopic vision. In most parts of the
to vision at twilight. Thus, from these retina, rods and cones signals converge
considerations, it should be clear that on the same ganglion cells; that is,
most of what we think of as “seeing” is individual ganglion cells respond to both
mediated by the cone system. Thus, the rod and cone inputs, depending on the
loss of cone function is devastating, as level of illumination. The early stages
it occurs in elderly individuals suffering of the pathways that link rods and cones

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to ganglion cells, however, are largely Mechanism of photoreception

independent. For example, the pathway Rods contain light sensitive pigment
from rods to ganglion cells involves a rhodopsin, which is attached to the
distinct class of bipolar cells called rod outer surface of vesicles. Rhodopsin is a
bipolar that, unlike cone bipolar cells, molecule formed by the combination of a
does not contact retinal ganglion cells. protein called scotopsin with a small light-
Instead, rod bipolar cells synapse with the absorbing molecule called retinene which
dendritic processes of a specific class of is a carotenoid molecule derived from
amacrine cells that makes gap junctions vitamin A. When the rhodopsin molecule
and chemical synapses with the terminals is exposed to bright light, it breaks down
of cone bipolars. These processes, in turn, into retinene and scotopsin. This process
make synaptic contacts on the dendrites of is called bleaching.
ganglion cells in the inner surface layer.
Bleaching
Rhodopsin Retinene + Scotopsin
Moreover, the rod and cone systems
differ dramatically in their degree of Rhodopsin is reformed immediately when
convergence; a factor which contributes light stimulation decreases. Trans retinene
greatly to their distinct properties. Each rod is first converted into cis retinene and then
bipolar cell is contracted by a number of recombined with scotopsin. This process
rods, and many rod bipolar cells contract a is called dark adaptation. Similary, the
given amacrine cell. In contrast, the cone cone system has a very high spatial
system is much less convergent. Thus, resolution but it is relatively insensitive to
TY
PE Y
each retinal ganglion cell that dominates light. It is therefore specialised for acuity
O NL
R
central vision (called midget ganglion at the expense of sensitivity. This property
PR O
cells) receives input from only one cone of the cone system allows us to see colour.
T SE
bipolar cell, which in turn is contacted by

a single cone. Convergence makes the rod Physiology of seeing
EN U
system a better detector of light, because The eye works on the same principle as
M E
small signals from many rods are pooled that of the camera. Light rays from the
R LIN
to generate a large response in the bipolar object pass from the external part of the
VE N
cell. At the same time, convergence eye to the retina through the conjunctiva,
O O
reduces the spatial resolution of the rod cornea, aqueous humour and pupil
G R
system; since the source of a signal in a (Figure 4.30). The pupil is an opening
FO
rod bipolar cell or retinal ganglion cell (an aperture) which is controlled by the
could have come from anywhere within a iris (like camera shutters) depending
relatively large area of the retinal surface. on the amount of light. The stronger the
The one-to-one relationship of cones to amount of light, the smaller the size of the
bipolar and ganglion cells is, of course, aperture. The lens is positioned between
required to maximize acuity. the outer and inner chambers of the eye,
and its major function is to focus images
on the retina by changing its thickness
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depending on the amount of light from be seen. Thus, the role of the retina is
distant or nearby objects. On the retina, to translate light into nerve signals and
there are cone and rod photoreceptors, allow us to see under various conditions
which are connected to the brain via a ranging from starlight to sunlight. It also
bundle of fibres called optic nerve. The distinguishes the wavelengths for us to
information received is processed in the discriminate colors.
brain, and consequently, the object can
Light
Iris
Retina
Inverted image
of object
Object
Lens Optic nerves

Figure 4.30: Structure of a mammalian eye showing physiology of seeing
The mammalian ear window (fenestra ovalis) and the round

The mammalian ear consists of three window (fenestra rotunda). There are
parts, namely the outer, middle and inner three connected bones called ear ossicles,
TY
PE Y
ear. The outer ear comprises of an external which are held in position by muscles.
O NL
R
flap of skin covered by elastic cartilage These are malleus (hammer), incus (anvil),
PR O
called pinna. The pinna collects sound and stapes (stirrup). The middle ear is air
T SE
waves and directs them into the ear canal filled part that depends on the equalization
(external auditory meatus). Across the end of pressure outside and inside the ear to
EN U
of ear canal is a tympanic membrane or prevent damaging the ear drum. There is
M E
R LIN
ear drum which separates the outer ear a eustachian tube (auditory tube) which
from the middle ear. The opening of the connects the middle ear to the pharynx.
VE N
auditory canal is lined with fine hairs and Via this tube, air enters and leaves the
O O
glands which secrete earwax, which is middle ear during swallowing to equalise
G R
located in the upper wall of the auditory pressure (Figure 4.31).

FO
canal. Ear wax guards the ear against

entrance of foreign materials such as dust Unlike the outer ear and middle ear which
and microorganisms. is filled with air, the inner ear comprises
of a complex system of fluidfilled tubes.
In the middle ear, the tympanic The cochlea, the coiled structure, is an
membrane begins and ends at a bony wall organ for hearing while the semicircular
containing two small openings covered by canal and the vestibule are organs for
membranes. The two openings are oval body balance.

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Pinna
Semicircular canals
Vestibular nerve
Facial nerve
Auditory nerve
Cochlea
Eustachean tube
Stapes Ear
Incus ossicles
Malleus
External auditory meatus (ear canal) Tympanic membrane
Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear
Figure 4.31 Structure of a mammalian ear
The structure of the membranous as the vestibular apparatus. The cochlear

labyrinth of the mammalian inner ear duct is located within the bony scaffolding
There are two labyrinths in the inner the cochlea. It is held in place by the spiral
ear, namely the bony labyrinth and lamina. The saccule and utricle are two
membranous labyrinth; one is inside membranous sacs located in the vestibule.
the other. The membraneous labyrinth
is comprised of the cochlea, vestibule The utricle is larger than saccule, and it
TY
PE Y
and three semicircular canals. All these receives the three semicircular ducts.
O NL
R
structures contain a fluid called perilymph. The saccule is globular in shape and
PR O
Membranous labyrinth lies within the receives the cochlear duct. Endolymph
T SE
bony labyrinth. drains from the saccule and utricle into

the endolymphatic duct. The duct extends
EN U
The membranous labyrinth is a continuous through the vestibular aqueduct to the

M E
R LIN
system of ducts filled with endolymph. It posterior aspect of the petrous part of the
is comprised of the cochlear duct, three temporal bone. Here, the duct expands to a
VE N
semicircular ducts, saccule and the utricle. sac where endolymph can be secreted and
O O
The cochlear duct is situated within the absorbed. Semicircular ducts are located
G R
FO
cochlea and is the organ of hearing. The within the semicircular canals, and share
semicircular ducts, saccule, and utricle their orientation (Figure 4.32).
are the organs for balance, are also known
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Semicircular canals
Utricle
Saccule
Cochlea
Endolymphatic duct
Figure 4.32 Components of the membranous labyrinth
Mechanism of hearing The motion of the stapes against the oval

The mammalian ear functions as an organ window sets up waves in the fluids of the
for hearing and balance. The process cochlea, causing the basilar membrane to
of hearing starts when sound waves vibrate. This stimulates the sensory hair
enter the outer ear and travel through cells of the organ of corti, on the basilar
the external auditory canal until they membrane, to send nerve impulses to the
reach the tympanic membrane, causing brain. When they reach the auditory area
the membrane and the attached chain of of the cerebral cortex, they are interpreted
auditory ossicles to vibrate. The malleus TY as a sound. Many sensory hair cells with
then takes the pressure from the inner different thresholds at which they are
PE Y
O NL
surface of the tympanic membrane and stimulated exist. The louder the sound, the
R
passes it by means of the incus to the stapes. greater the number of sensory hair cells
PR O
There are about 20 times multiplication of will be stimulated at any one point of the
T SE
sound pressure as it moves from outside basilar membrane (Figure 4.33).

to inner ear.
EN U
M E
R LIN
Vestibular canal
Perilymph
VE N
Reissner’s membrane
O O
N
G R
Median canal
FO
Endolymph
Tectorial
membrane
Basilar Organ of
membrane Corti
Sensory
hair cell
Perilymph Auditory
neurone
Tympanic canal
Figure 4.33 Transverse section of cochlea showing the organ of corti

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Maintaining body balance in mammals The brain then initiates motor impulses to
The parts of the ear which are concerned various muscles to correct the imbalance
with balance are the semicircular canals (Figure 4.34).
and vestibule. The semi circular canals are
three curved tubes containing endolymph, All information that aid balance and
which communicates with the middle positioning of the body relative to
chamber of the cochlea via the utriculus gravity, as well as changes in the position
and sacculus. Each of the three canals is due to acceleration and deceleration is
set in a plane at right angles to the other. provided by utriculus and sacculus. Such
Any movement in any plane will cause information is provided by granules
movement of canals in the direction of the known as otoliths which are embedded
head. Each of the three canals possesses a in jellylike materials. Various movements
swollen portion, the ampulla, within which of the head cause this otolith to displace
there is a flat gelatinous plate, the cupula. sensory hair cells on the regions of the
The movement of endolymph displaces walls of utriculus and sacculus which
the cupula in the opposite direction to respond to vertical and lateral movements
the head movement. The sensory hair respectively. Then the sensory hair cells
found at the base of the cupula detects send appropriate sensory impulse to the
the displacement and sends impulse to brain.
the brain through the vestibular nerve.
TY
PE Y
Anterior semicircular Crista ampullaris and cupula

O NL
canal
R
Lateral semicircular
PR O
canal
T SE
Posterior semicircular
canal
EN U
Ampullae
M E
R LIN
(a) Cupula is pushed over and

Crista Direction stimulates hair cells
VE N
Cupula ampullaris of rotation

O O
Endolymph
G R
Sensory hair cells

FO
Supporting cells
Sensory nerve fiber
Endolymph
lags behind Stereocilia are bent
due to inertia
(b)
(c)
Vestibular neurone
Figure 4.34 Structure of the semicircular canals showing (a) position of ampula and cupula (b) section
of ampula at stationary and (c) section of ampula during body movement
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Activity 4.1 4.3 Hormonal coordination in

Stand upright and rotate your body mammals
several rounds (about 5 times). Stop and Hormonal coordination in mammals is a
explain with reasons how you feel. function of the endocrine system, which is
composed of a series of glands known as
endocrine glands. They are called endocrine
glands because they are ductless. The
Exercise 4.3
system is called “endocrine” to distinguish
1. Name the main types of sensory it from “exocrine” glands that use ducts to
receptors and explain their functions convey their chemical agents to the target
in the mammalian body. cells or substances e.g. glands producing
2. Explain the process of digestive enzymes. These glands secrete
accommodation in mammalian eye. specific chemical fluids called hormones
3. Describe the structure of retina. directly into the blood stream. Due to this
4. Describe the structure of the reason, the endocrine gland is surrounded
membranous labyrinth of the by numerous blood vessels. A hormone is a
mammalian ear. chemical messenger produced by a ductless
5. Explain the mechanism of hearing in gland, transported by blood and shows its
mammals. effects in a region away from the site of
6. Explain how semicircular canals production. Table 4.2 gives a list of some
function with respect to balance and hormones, endocrine glands and where they
TY
PE Y
posture in mammals. are produced (Figure 4.35), and the activity

O NL
R
that they regulate.

PR O
T SE
Pituitary
Suprarenal
EN U
Parotid Ovaries
(in female)
M E
Prostate
R LIN
Pineal
VE N
O O
N
G R
Parathyroid
FO
Thyroid
Mammary
(in females)
Pancreas
Red bone marrow Liver
Testes
(males)
Figure 4.35 Location of endocrine glands in a cow

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Table 4.2 Hormones, glands where they are produced and the activity they regulate
Endocrine gland Hormone(s) produced Functions
Regulate vital body functions.
Thyroid Thyroxine,
Triiodothyronine Stimulates and maintains metabolism, growth
and development.
Calcitonin Reduction of blood Ca2+ levels.
Parathyroid Hormone
Parathyroid Control calcium within the blood.
(PTH)
Increases blood Na+ levels; increase K+
Aldosterone
secretion.
Adrenal (Cortex)
Cortisol, Regulates blood pressure.
Corticosterone, Increases blood glucose levels;
Cortisone anti-inflammatory effects.
Stimulates fight-or-flight response, increases
Adrenal Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
blood glucose levels and increase metabolic
(Medulla) Norepinephrine
activities.
Insulin Reduces blood glucose levels.
Pancreas
Glucagon Increases blood glucose levels.
Regulates some biological rhythms and protect
Pineal gland Melatonin
CNS from free radicals.
Regulates, promotes, increases or maintains
Testes Androgens TY sperm production and male secondary sexual
characteristics.
PE Y
O NL
Promotes uterine lining growth and female

R
Ovaries Oestrogen
secondary sexual characteristics.
PR O
T SE
Properties of hormones in the blood triggers the pancreas to

Hormones are all produced by specific release insulin to lower the level of
EN U
cells of endocrine system, they are blood glucose. Another factor is the
M E
R LIN
transported through the blood, they presence of another hormone in the

show their effect to the site away from blood. Majority of the hormones released
VE N
its source, hormones are specific for a from the anterior pituitary gland are
O O
particular target, they are soluble organic stimulating hormones, which direct other
G R
molecules and are effective even at low glands to secrete their hormones. For
FO
concentration. instance, the growth hormone releasing

factor causes the release of the thyroxin
Feedback mechanisms for hormonal hormone. Stimulation by neurones from
coordination the autonomic nervous system can also
The release of hormones by glands is cause secretion of hormones. Under the
controlled by several factors, including condition of stress, fear or danger, the
the presence of specific metabolites in body secretes hormones to combat the
the blood. For example, excess glucose situation.
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The timing of hormone release and the inhibits further production by inhibiting
amount of hormone to be released are the production of Thyrotropin Releasing
regulated by a feedback mechanism. Hormone (TRH) by the hypothalamus and
Feedback mechanisms are self regulatory thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) by
mechanisms in which when there is a anterior pituitary gland. Therefore, in this
disturbance or deviation in a system, case, the product of a series of reactions
series of events occur to either remove the controls its own production by turning
off the pathway, when it reaches a certain
disturbance (negative feedback) or make
level.
the system to deviate further (positive
feedback). Usually, it is a negative Negative feedback is also observed in
feedback mechanism which regulates production and regulation of insulin in the
the release of hormones. In rare cases body. A rise of sugar level in the blood is
positive feedback mechanisms may occur. detected by β cells of islets of Langerhans
An example of the negative feedback of the pancreas, which release the insulin
mechanism is the release of the thyroxine hormone. The hormone will then convert
hormone (Figure 4.36). glucose into glycogen which is stored in
Small effect the liver and muscles. This causes the
Hypothalamus level of sugar in the blood to decrease. The
TRH
lower level of glucose then causes the b
Thyroxine cells to reduce production of insulin. This,
Main effect inturn, triggers the release of glucagon
Anterior pituitary
TY from α-cells of islets of Langerhans of
TSH the pancreas. This hormone converts
PE Y
O NL
glycogen into glucose.

R
Thyroid Thyroxine
PR O
Thyroxine The interaction between hormonal and

T SE
nervous systems
Blood/tissue
EN U
Coordination process is achieved when

nervous and endocrine systems act
M E
Increased BMR
R LIN
together. Although the nervous system

Key:
Inhibition and the endocrine system are two different
VE N
Stimulation systems, both release chemical substances

O O
Figure 4. 36 Factors regulating thyroxine as a means of communication between

G R
secretion and homeostatic control of the cells. The principal role of both systems
FO
metabolic rate
is to coordinate and control various
physiological activities in organisms. The
Thyroxine helps in regulating the
major centres for linking the two systems
metabolic rate, growth and development
of an organism. The control of the release are the pituitary gland (control centre for
of thyroxine is determined by the level endocrine glands) and the hypothalamus
of thyroxine with four iodine atoms (the control centre for the nervous system).
(T4) circulating in the blood. If there is The hypothalamus collects information
high concentration of T4 in the blood, it from the brain and blood vessels passing

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through it to the pituitary gland. The hormones that regulate the production
pituitary gland directly or indirectly of a wide variety of other hormones. All
controls the secretions of other endocrine pituitary hormones stimulate the release
glands. of target gland hormones. As their levels
increase, they inhibit the secretion of
The pituitary gland, which is located hypothalamus and pituitary hormones.
at the base of the brain, is directly When their levels in the blood fall below a
connected to the brain region called certain level, hypothalamus and pituitary
hypothalamus. This physical link between inhibition stop and start secreting their
the hypothalamus and pituitary is the basis chemicals again. This is also referred to as
for the connection or link between the a negative feedback mechanism.
central nervous system and the endocrine
system. The pituitary has two distinct The posterior pituitary gland is an
segments, namely the anterior pituitary extension of the brain. It stores and releases
and the posterior pituitary. The anterior antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin
pituitary gland is connected by blood and oxytocin hormone which are produced
vessels called the portal system, which by neurosecretory cell bodies, lying in the
has one capillary bed in the hypothalamus hypothalamus. They pass down the nerve
and another in the anterior pituitary. Also fibres. Nerve impulses are relayed to the
it has nerve terminals that release two cell bodies of these neurosecretory cells
groups of chemical substances known as from other regions of the brain. They
releasing and inhibiting factors into the are transmitted down the axons, where
TY
PE Y
blood capillaries at the hypothalamus hormones are stored in vesicles (Figure

O NL
R
end of portal system. These chemical 4.37). The whole process involves both
PR O
substances pass to the pituitary end and nervous and endocrine systems. This is
T SE
cause the release of six trophic hormones referred to as a neuroendocrine response,

(hormones that stimulate other endocrine resulting into a pattern of behaviour
EN U
hormones to release hormones) which are known as a neuroendocrine reflex.

M E
stored in the anterior pituitary gland.

R LIN
ADH is released in response to a fall in the

VE N
In the year 1930, a biologist documented water content of blood plasma and leads
O O
the consequences of removing the entire to an increase in the permeability to water

G R
pituitary from laboratory rats. As a of distal convoluted tubule in the nephron

FO
result of pituitary removal, the animals of the kidney. On the other hand, oxytocin
stopped growing, failed to maintain causes the contraction of the uterus during
normal body temperature, and suffered birth and ejection of milk from nipples.
atrophy (shrinkage) of their genitals, Oxytocin and contraction of the uterus
thyroid glands, and adrenal cortex. Not is a positive feedback mechanism. The
surprisingly, their life span shortened more the concentrations of oxytocin, the
dramatically. These experiments stronger the contraction of the uterus
suggested that, in addition to secreting becomes.
growth hormones, the pituitary secretes
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Superior
Hypothalamus hypophyseal
artery Neurosecretory cells
Primary capillary plexus of
hypophyseal portal system
Infundibulum Hypophyseal
portal vein
Posterior pituitary
Pituitary gland
Anterior Secondary capillary plexus of
pituitary hypophyseal portal system
Figure 4.37 Relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
and response to external stimuli which

Exercise 4.4 results into growth movements and also
1. Explain the feedback mechanisms movement of organs. There are three types
of growth movements in plants, namely
TY
of hormonal coordination.
PE Y
O NL
tactic movement, nastic movement, and

R
2. Describe the interaction between

tropic movement.
PR O
hormonal and nervous systems in

the mammalian body.
T SE
a) Tactic movement
3. The pituitary gland is said to be a
EN U
Tactic movement; also known as taxis

master gland. Substantiate.
M E
(plural taxes) is the type of movement

R LIN
4. Explain the role of hypothalamus in which involves the entire cell or organism
VE N
coordination. moving from one place to another in

O O
response to external stimuli such as light,

G R
water, and chemicals. Tactic movement

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4.4 Coordination in plants occurs in plant reproductive cells and in

Plants do not have a nervous system; they some organisms such as Euglena, and
rely on chemical coordination. Therefore, Chlamydomonas. Taxes may be grouped
most of their responses are slower as positive taxis and negative taxis.
compared to animals. Unlike animals, A positive taxis is when an organism
plants do not move from one place to or cell moves towards the source of
another; although the movement is shown stimulation, while negative taxis is when
by the characteristics of plants’ sensitivity an organism or cell moves away from

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the source of stimulation. For example, of temperature (thermonasty) or light

Chlamydomonas always moves towards intensity (photonasty). An example of
light of low intensity and away from light nyctinasty is the opening and closing
of high intensity. This type of response of petals of some flowers that occur in
is known as phototactic response or response to alternation in the duration of
phototaxis. In this example, the movement day and night. Another example is sleep
towards light of low intensity is a positive movements of leaves of some leguminous
phototaxis, whereas, that away from light plants in response to the onset of darkness.
of high intensity is a negative phototaxis.
Thermonasty
Types of tactic movements (taxes)
This is a movement of plant parts in
Based on the nature or kind of a stimulus
response to temperature. For example,
involved, different types of tactic
movements (taxes) can be identified. some flowers close when the temperature
Examples of taxes include phototaxis drops, or some leaves fold when the
(response to light) which can be seen temperature is too high.
in Euglena and blue green algae and
chemotaxis (response to chemicals) as seen Chemonasty
in lower plants such as Funaria where by This is the movement of plant parts
male gamete move towards the chemical in response to chemicals stimuli, for
substance released by egg cells. Others example, sundew plants close glandular
include geotaxis (gravity), aerotaxis hairs due to chemical produced by insect
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(oxygen), magneotaxis (magnetic field) when land on it, this prevents escape of
O NL
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and rheotaxis (water current). the insect.

PR O
T SE
b) Nastic movement
Photonasty
Nastic movement is a non-directional
EN U
This is the movement of plant parts in

movement of a part of stationary plant in
M E
response to light. For instance, some

response to an external stimulus. Based on
R LIN
the nature of stimuli, nastic movements flowers or leaves fold following the sun
shine, or the opening and closing of
VE N
can be divided into the following groups:

O O
flowers depending on whether it is day or

G R
Nyctinasty night (Figure 4.38).

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This is a nastic movement which

occurs in response to diurnal changes
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(a) (b)
Figure 4.38 Nastic movement in flower (a) during the day the flower opens and (b) during the night the
flower closes
Seismonasty between different sides of the plant part.

This is the movement of plant parts For example, changes in the water contents
in response to touch. Seismonastic of the tissues at the base of the leaf of the
movement is also known as thigmonasticMimosa plant results in the shrinkage
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movement. An example of seismonastic and folding of its leaflets. Such response
PE Y
O NL
movement is folding of leaves of Mimosa

may be due to different stimuli, such as
R
pudica in response to touch (Figure 4.39).

light, touch, heat, or electric shock. After a
PR O
suitable recovery period, the leaflets open

T SE
Generally, nastic movement can result again. Normally, they remain expanded
EN U
from changes in turgor or growth rate during the day while closed at night.
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
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Figure 4.39 Nastic movement in the leaflets of the Mimosa plant

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c) Tropic movement is kept in a horizontal position, the shoot

This is the movement of part of a plant will bend and start growing in an upright
associated with growth of plant tissue direction while the roots change their
caused by a differential concentration of direction of growth downwards (Figure
plant hormones, usually auxins, under a 4.41).
specific stimulus. The stimuli involved
Negative
include light, gravity, water/humidity, and geotropic
pressure or touch, among others. Some
common examples of tropic movement in
plants include phototropism, geotropism,
and hydrotropism.
Phototropism. Plant growth movement

associated with light. Shoots tend to Positive
geotropic
grow towards light (positive phototropic
movement), and if the light is coming Figure 4.41 Geotropism in plant
from a single direction the plant will bend
towards that source of light (Figure 4.40). Hydrotropism. Hydrotropism takes
The roots show the opposite tendency place in response to moisture. Roots are
(negative phototropism). generally positively hydrotropic (Figure
4.42 a and b).
(a)
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PR O
T SE
Root grows
straight
EN U
M E
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Moist soil
VE N
O O
(b) Water Clay pot

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Figure 4.40 Shoot grow towards light Root grows

towards water
Geotropism. This is caused by the earth’s
gravitational pull. Shoots show negative
Dry soil Moist soil
geotropic movement, that is, they grow
away from the force of gravity, while roots Figure 4.42 Movement of roots towards water
show positive geotropism. If a potted plant (a and b)
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of ions, and through vascular tissues

Exercise 4.5 (xylem and phloem).
1. Distinguish between plant and d) Each plant hormone evokes many
animal coordination. different responses.
e) The effects of different plant hormones
2. Explain the following terms:
overlap and may be stimulatory or
a) Tactic movement inhibitory.
b) Nastic movement f) Each plant hormone performs specific
functions in the plant body.
3. With examples, differentiate
g) The biosynthesis of plant hormones
between seismonasty and
photonasty. within plant tissues is always diffuse,
not localized.
h) The production of plant hormones
occurs very often at sites of active
4.5 Plant hormones (Phytohormones)
growth within meristems, before cells
Plant hormones or plant growth hormones
have been fully differentiated. After the
are chemical substances that regulate
production, they are sometimes moved
plant growth. They are also known as
to other parts of the plant, where they
phytohormones or plant growth regulators.
cause an immediate effect; or they can
Plant hormones are signal molecules
be stored in cells to be released later.
produced within the plants and usually TY
occur in extremely low concentrations.
PE Y
They regulate cellular processes in Types of plant hormones

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targeted cells within the plant. There are five main types or groups of plant
PR O
hormones. These are auxins, gibberellins,

T SE
Characteristics of plant hormones cytokinins, ethene (ethylene), and abscisic

a) Plant hormones are chemicals that are acid (ABA). These hormones can perform
EN U
required in small amounts to promote their functions either independently or

M E
R LIN
and influence growth, development synergistically (working together to effect

and differentiation of plant cells and a certain function). For example, auxins
VE N
tissues. They are active and effective are known as growth promoters, since
O O
even at very low concentrations. they influence plant growth and assist in
G R
b) They are produced in certain parts producing a phototropic response which

FO
of the plant and transported to other results into growth. Sometimes, auxins
parts of the plant where they elicit and gibberellins act together to bring about
specific biochemical, physiological or cell elongation. This is called synergism.
morphological responses. Alternatively, two plant hormones may
work opposing one another, like auxins
c) They are transported within the plants
which induces apical dominance while
by four different types of movements
cytokinins prevent it. This is known as
namely; localised movement,
antagonism.
cytoplasmic streaming, slow diffusion
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Auxins a) Promote fruit setting

Auxins are chemical compounds produced The synthetic auxins such as Indolebutyric
in the root and shoot apices of the plants. acid (IBA) and Naphthalene acetic acid
One of their common forms is Indoleacetic (NAA) are used to promote fruit setting.
Acid (IAA). Auxins have the following role Fruit setting involves a series of changes
in plants: taking place after fertilisation in the ovary,
a) They influence cell enlargement, bud resulting into development of a fruit.
formation, and root initiation. Auxins can be used for setting some fruits
b) They facilitate production of phototropic such as tomatoes and pepper, resulting into
response. production of fruits without fertilisation.
c) Auxins together with cytokinins NAA can also be used to control pre-
control the growth of stems, roots, and harvest fruit drop and fruit thinning in
fruits. various crops such as apples.
d) They affect cell elongation by altering
b) Promote rooting in cuttings
cell wall plasticity.
Auxins (IBA and NAA) are very effective
e) They stimulate cambium of
in stimulating root development from stem
meristematic cells to develop stems,
cuttings. This is commonly applied in crops
leaves and flower buds, while in stems,
that are propagated through stem cutting,
they differentiate secondary xylem.
such as cassava. This form of asexual
f) They inhibit the growth of lateral buds, reproduction ensures that no change can
hence promote apical dominance.
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occur in the genetic make up of the plants.
PE Y
g) They promote lateral and adventitious

O NL
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root development and growth. c) Weed killers

PR O
h) They regulate specific protein Phenoxyacetic acid is used as a selective

T SE
synthesis in seeds as they develop weed killer as it kills broad leaf plant
species, especially dicotyledons; hence it is
EN U
within the flower after pollination.

used in removing dicotyledonous weeds in
M E
i) They stimulate development of fruits

R LIN
without fertilisation (parthenocarpy). cereal (monocotyledonus) crops. Benzoic

acids are also used as a powerful weed
VE N
j) They inhibit abscission in leaves and

killer, thus they are used against deep-
O O
fruits.
rooted weeds.
G R
FO
Application of synthetic auxins in crop d) Prevent sprouting in potatoes

production Phenoxyacetic acid is used to prevent
Auxins can be synthesised for agricultural sprouting in potatoes. It is also used to
use. It is a proven fact that synthetic auxins prevent premature falling of fruits and
are more useful and cheaper than naturally leaves in crop plants.
produced auxins. Synthetic auxins play
the following roles in agriculture:
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Gibberellins e) They increase plants’ resistance to

Gibberellins such as Gibberellic Acid pests and diseases.
(GA) include a wide range of chemicals
that are produced naturally within plants. Cytokinins
Like auxins which can be produced in Cytokinins (CKs) are a group of chemicals
industry, gibberellins are also commercially
that influence cell division and shoot
produced from fungal culture. They formation in plants. In the past, when the
perform the following role in plants: cytokinins were first isolated from yeast
a) They stimulate stem elongation and cells they were called ‘kinins’. They are
pollen tube growth. found mostly in regions of rapid cell
b) Influence cell division. division, particularly in seeds and fruits,
c) They promote flowering, seed where embryos develop. They perform the
following role in plants:
germination and differentiation after
a) They promote cell division in the
germination.
presence of auxins.
d) They are important in seed germination,
b) They induce delayed senescence of
as they effect enzyme production that leaves and fruits.
mobilises food production needed for
c) They are responsible for mediating
growing new cells. This is done by
transportation of auxins throughout
modulating chromosomal transcription the plant and affecting internodal
in the growing seedling. TY length and growth.
PE Y
e) Promote bolting in rosette plants, d) They promote lateral bud growth.

O NL
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hence increasing inter nodal lengths.

e) They counter the apical dominance
PR O
f) Promote cell division and elongation induced by auxins.

T SE
in the presence of auxins.

f) They break seed and bud dormancy at
g) Reverse the inhibition of shoot growth
EN U
appropriate temperatures.
and dormancy induced by Abscisic
M E
R LIN
acid.
Application of synthetic cytokinins in
h) Break seed dormancy.
VE N
crop production
O O
Synthetic cytokinins have the following

G R
Application of synthetic gibberellins in application in crop production:

FO
crop production a) They are used to prolong the shelf life

The synthetic gibberellins have the of fresh crops such as cabbage and
following role in plants: lettuce.
a) They promote fruit setting. b) They break bud and seed dormancy.
b) They enhance malting in brewing c) They keep flowers fresh.
industries.
c) They reverse genetic dwarfism.
d) They break seed dormancy.
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Ethene (Ethylene) Abscisic Acid (ABA)

Unlike other plant hormones, ethene is in ABA is also known as stress hormone;
gaseous state. It is formed from the amino because its production is stimulated by
acid methionine and released from ripening environmental stress or other adverse
fruits, nodes of stems, ageing leaves, and conditions, such as drought and water
flowers. It is produced as a metabolic logging. In contrast to other growth
byproduct of most plant organs. It plays substances such as auxins, gibberellins,
the following role in plants: and cytokinins, which are plant growth
a) It stimulates ripening of fruits. promoters, ABA is a growth inhibitor;
hence it acts antagonistically to the
b) It is involved in axillary bud inhibition.
This occurs when auxins are growth promoters. It is produced by
transported from the apical meristem any tissue containing chloroplasts. It is
of the stem downward, stimulating concentrated in leaves, fruits, and seeds.
the production of ethylene, which The term abscisic acid originates from the
suppresses axillary bud development. belief that it was a direct cause of leaf fall
c) It suppresses stem and root elongation, (abscission), although this is now known to
especially during physiological stress be not true. Abscisic acid has the following
as in drought. role in plants:
a) It promotes dormancy and inhibits
d) It breaks bud dormancy.
growth.
b) It causes abscission (fall of leaves and
fruits). When fruit ripens, the level
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Application of synthetic ethylene in
PE Y
crop production of auxins which inhibits abscission

O NL
R
Synthetic ethylene has the following falls, while that of abscisic acid which
PR O
application in agriculture: promotes abscission increases.

T SE
a) It promotes fruit ripening within a c) It promotes closing of stomata under

EN U
relatively short period of time. water stress conditions.

M E
b) It is applied to citrus fruits to attain

R LIN
attracting colours before being Application of synthetic abscisic acid

presented for sale. in crop production
VE N
O O
Abscisic acid can be sprayed on tree crops

N
c) It induces flowering in pineapples.

d) It stimulates the latex flow in rubber to regulate fruit fall at the end of the season.
G R
FO
trees. This helps to ensure that fruits fall at the

time; hence avoiding the need for repeating
picking of fruits over a long time span.
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6. Outline the differences between

Revision questions rods and cones.
7. Describe types of tactic movements.
1. State the functions of cell body and
myelin sheath. 8. Explain the concept of nastic
movement.
2. Describe the characteristics of a
nerve impulse. 9. Outline the role of phytohormones
in plants.
3. Explain how an impulse is
transmitted across the synapse. 10. Explain the application of natural
and synthetic phytohormones in
crop production and weed control.
the mammalian ear.
11. Explain the role of synthetic
5. What are the major differences
phytohormones for the
between the nervous system and
development of industrialised
hormonal system?
Tanzania.
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PE Y
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PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO

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Chapter
Five
Nutrition
Introduction
Living organisms require energy in order to accomplish various metabolic activities.
The main source of energy for organisms in all ecosystems is the sun. Organisms
obtain their food in different ways. Autotrophs use light energy and simple inorganic
substances such as water and carbon dioxide from their environment to synthesize
their own food. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, obtain already made complex organic
molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats, break them down, assimilate and
use them to maintain their life functions. In this chapter, you will learn about food
manufacturing in plants and digestion in mammals.
TY
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PR O
5.1 Concept of nutrition to synthesize food. This is the process

T SE
There are different modes of nutrition known as photosynthesis. A second group

EN U
by which living organisms obtain food of autotrophs use a process known as

in order to obtain energy and nutrients chemosynthesis. Sulphur bacteria, for
M E
R LIN
that are required for different metabolic example, use inorganic sulphur as the
activities and survival. Nutrition entails source of energy for synthesizing their
VE N
a process by which living organisms take food, and Methanobacter sp. (bacteria
O O
in food and use it for metabolic activities living in deep oxygen-depleted oceans)
G R
such as growth, and body repair. Based on use methane as a source of energy. Other
FO
their modes of nutrition, living organisms organisms that cannot make their own
are categorised into two main groups food but depend on other organisms for
namely; autotrophs and heterotrophs. All food and energy are called heterotrophs.
organisms that can make their own food These include animals, fungi and some
from simple inorganic substances such bacteria.
as water and carbon dioxide are called
autotrophs. Autotrophs such as plants, 5.2 Autotrophic nutrition
green algae, and some bacteria, have In this type of nutrition, organisms acquire
the green pigment (chlorophyll) used energy from sunlight and utilize it to
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synthesize their food using carbon dioxide Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans) found in

(CO2) obtained from the atmosphere. The hot springs containing hydrogen sulphide
organisms that are capable of utilizing obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic
sunlight or chemical energy to make sulphur. Organisms which obtain their
their own food from simple inorganic energy from chemicals through oxidation
materials are referred to as autotrophs, reaction are called chemoautotrophs. The
which literally mean self-feeders. energy obtained by both photoautotrophs
Autotrophs such as plants, cyanobacteria, and chemoautotrophs is used to build
algae, purple sulphur bacteria, purple food in form of complex molecules such
non-sulphur bacteria, and green sulphur as sugar, starch, protein, and lipids from
bacteria use sunlight energy and chemial carbondioxide.
energy to manufacture their food. These
are collectively called photoautotrophs, Food manufacturing in plants
which is a combination of three Greek (Photosynthesis)
words: photos, auto, and trophos Photosynthesis refers to a process whereby
meaning ‘light,’ ‘self,’ and ‘nourishment organisms containing chlorophyll and
or feeders’ respectively. Therefore the carotenoid pigments manufacture their
term photoautotroph literally refers to an own food in the form of carbohydrates
organism capable of manufacturing its own from simple inorganic substances
food using light energy. Photoautotrophs (carbon dioxide and water) using sunlight
such as plants, cyanobacteria and energy. Examples of photosynthetic
algae contain green pigments such as organisms are plants and some bacteria
TY
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chlorophyll 'a', 'b' and 'carotenoid'. These (bacteriochlorophyll).

O NL
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pigments are important in absorbing light

PR O
energy which is vital in the synthesis However, photosynthesis in plants

T SE
of food in plants by the process known differs from that of bacteria in terms of
as photosynthesis. Bacteria contain the products released. Unlike bacteria,
EN U
bacteriochlorophyll which performs the plants release oxygen as a by product.

M E
same function as chlorophyll. Generally, In addition, photosynthesis in plants

R LIN
the light absorbed by the chlorophyll in involves pigments such as chlorophyll,

VE N
green plants is converted into chemical and carotenoids while bacterial

O O
energy during photosynthesis. photosynthesis uses bacteriochlorophylls

G R
in most cases. Bacteria therefore lack

FO
Besides light, inorganic chemicals are definite chloroplasts as opposed to plants

the alternative sources of energy for the which contain definite chloroplasts.
synthesis of food. Energy from such
chemicals is normally acquired by these In green plants, photosynthesis can be
organisms through oxidation reactions. For summarised by the following equation.
example, Iron bacteria called Ferrobacillus
sunlight
obtain their energy by oxidising ferrous 6CO2 + 6H 2O C6 H12O6 + 6O 2
chlorophyll
to ferric ion, sulphur bacteria called
Thiobacillus thiooxidans (also known as
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Nutrition
Thus, the raw materials for photosynthesis sugar. However, the end product is a triose
are carbon dioxide and water. Plants sugar called 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
obtain carbon dioxide from the (3-PGAL). The equation shows that the
atmosphere, which diffuses into the source of oxygen is carbon dioxide. This
leaf through stomata. Water is normally is not correct because experiments using
absorbed from the soil into the plant the two oxygen isotopes, O18 and O16,
body by the roots and transported via show that the oxygen given off during
xylem tissue to the leaves which are the photosynthesis comes from water, and not
photosynthetic organs of plants. The light from carbon dioxide. Thus, more water
energy is trapped by chloroplasts which enters the reaction so that some of it is
contain chlorophyll, the photosynthetic evolved as a byproduct as revealed in a more
pigments of the leaves or stems in some accurate equation below. In this equation,
plant species. One of the functions of CH2O is an empirical formula for the
light energy is photolysis of water, which carbohydrate formed by photosynthesis.
refers to splitting of a water molecule in sunlight
presence of light to produce hydrogen, 2H 2O + CO 2 CH 2O + O 2 + H 2O
chlorophyll
oxygen, and electrons. These products
of photolysis of water are required in the The site for photosynthesis
first stages of photosynthesis. The oxygen Photosynthesis takes place in the green
released during photosynthesis comes parts of the plant leaves’ mesophyll
from water molecules. Two molecules of and bundle sheath cells which have
water produce one molecule of oxygen. chloroplasts. A chloroplast is a double
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Light is also important in producing membranous organelle found in the

O NL
R
biochemical energy in plants. This energy cytoplasm. Its matrix is called stroma
PR O
is required in fixing carbondioxide which contains DNA, free ribosomes,

membrane ribosomes, starch grains, lipid
T SE
into phosphoglycerate which is rapidly

converted into sugars and other forms droplets and photosynthetic enzymes. The
EN U
of organic molecules, such as starch and stroma also contains stacks of flattened
M E
protein for storage and cellular uses. sacs or membranes called thylakoids
R LIN
which contain photosynthetic pigments

Ultimately, carbohydrates and other called chlorophyll and other accessory
VE N
O O
forms of organic molecules synthesized pigments. Thylakoids are stacked together

G R
by autotrophs are the major sources of to form column-like structures called

FO
energy for all heterotrophs. Therefore, grana (singular granum).

they are regarded as energy harvesters in
all ecosystems. Structurally, chlorophyll is a long
hydrocarbon chain with a hydrophobic
The traditional equation of photosynthesis (water hating) tail a complex ring of
highlighted above does not illustrate the hydrophilic (water loving) head in the
real situation of photosynthesis because, interior. Based on the structure, different
among other reasons, it gives the end types of chlorophylls can be discerned.
product of photosynthesis as a hexose (Figure 5.1)
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CH2CH3 CH3
H 3C O
N N CO2CH3
Mg
N N H
H
H2C=CH
CH2CH2CO2CH2CH=C(CH2CH2CH2CH2CH)3CH3
CH3 H CH3 CH CH
3 3
Figure 5.1 The Chemical structure of chlorophyll
There are several types of chlorophyll Mechanism of photosynthesis

pigments, including chlorophyll 'a', 'b', The initial stage of photosynthesis can be
'c', and 'd'. Some organisms contain more viewed in two major phases or reactions
than one type of chlorophyll pigment. and these are light reaction (light
However, chlorophyll a and b are more dependent reaction) which takes place in
abundant in most plants while the majority the thylakoid (grana) of the chloroplasts,
of protoctists and cyanobacteria contain and dark reaction (light independent
reaction) which occurs in the stroma of
chlorophyll c and d. Chlorophyll absorbs
the chloroplasts (for the structure of the
red, blue and violet light but reflects green
chloroplast, refer to Chapter One, Figure
light. This makes all plants to appear
1.12). The light reaction is vital for the
green in color. Principally, the function of subsequent stage of photosynthesis (dark
chlorophyll is to convert light energy into
TY
reaction), because it is during this stage
PE Y
chemical energy. Other photosynthetic

O NL
when energy, electrons, and hydrogen are

R
pigments are beta carotenes and produced.

PR O
phycobilins (found in organisms such

T SE
as red algae and cyanobacteria), the red Light reaction (Light dependent
EN U
phycobilin is called phycoerythrobilin reaction)

M E
and the blue phycobilin is known as Light reaction stage of photosynthesis

R LIN
phycocyanin. They act as light energy occurs in the thylakoids of the chloroplasts.
transfer to the chlorophyll to be utilized in Normally, chloroplasts are aligned in
VE N
such a way that their thylakoids are held

O O
the photosynthesis process. Photosynthetic

at right angle to the light source in order
G R
bacteria contain photosynthetic pigments

FO
to maximize light absorption. Within

called bacteriochlorophyll which are not
the thylakoids, chlorophyll pigments are
contained in the chloroplast. This is because
arranged in groups called photosystems,
bacteria are single celled organisms,
which are specialised form of chlorophyll
and the entire cell is an equivalent of
that commonly exists in two forms
a chloroplast. Bacteriochlorophyll are
namely; Photosystem I and Photosystem
distributed in the membranes of the
II. Chlorophyll photosystems are named in
cytoplasm.
chronological order of their discovery, not
in a way they are involved in light reaction.

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Nutrition
Thus, photosystem I was discovered the electrons can move back to their original
before photosysytem II. Photosystem I has position in photosystem I, in the process
a specialised form of chlorophyll called called cyclic photophosphorylation.
pigment 700 abbreviated as (P700) while
Photosystem II has specialised form of Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
chlorophyll pigment, 680 abbreviated as The mechanism of non-cyclic
(P680). The numbers 700 and 680 stand for photophosphorylation involves both
peak of wavelength of light which excite photosystems I and II in a non-cyclic
electrons in these pigments. This implies movement of electrons to produce ATP.
that the respective absorption peak for When the chlorophyll in Photosystem II
P700 and P680 is at the wavelength of 700 absorbs light, releases an excited pair of
nm and 680 nm. Structurally, photosystem electrons which are transferred to a series
is a complex of chlorophyll, accessory of electron acceptor and carrier systems
pigments, proteins, and other molecules. including cytochromes. As the electrons
They are important in the absorption and pass through different carrier systems, they
transfer of light energy through a series of release energy, but these electrons are not
reduction oxidation (redox) reactions. returned to their original position in the
photosystem II rather they are handed over
Light reaction uses both photosystems I to the photosystem I. The energy released in
and II, which are embedded in the thylakoid a series of electron flow system is used by
membrane. Essentially, light reaction an enzyme called ATP synthase located in
starts in photosystem II. Light energy the thylakoid membrane to synthesize ATP
TY
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(or photons) is absorbed by photosystem by binding inorganic phosphate to ADP.

O NL
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II. The absorbed energy is transferred to This process is called phosphorylation,

PR O
the chlorophyll centre causing electrons which literally means phosphate addition.
T SE
in the chlorophyll centre to be energised. However, the energy used in phosphorylation

The energised electrons are excited within emanates from the sunlight. Hence, this
EN U
the chlorophyll molecule; consequently, ATP synthesis is precisely described as

M E
they move from ground to a higher photophosphorylation. It should be noted

R LIN
energy state. This process is known as that as the two excited electrons leave
VE N
photo activation. The excited electrons the photosystem II in the first stage after
O O
are progressively passed on from one being activated by the light of wavelength
G R
chlorophyll molecule to the subsequent 680 nm, they are replaced immediately
FO
one via a series of electron carriers to by electrons released from the splitting
a nearby electron acceptor molecule of water molecules within the thylakoid.
found in the electron transfer chain. The Water molecule splits into hydrogen ion
movement of electrons can be in one or proton (H+), oxygen and two electrons
direction because they do not move back (H2O →2H+ + ½O2 + 2e-). This process is
to their original position in photosystem called photolysis, because it only occurs in
II but progress to photosystem I, the the presence of light. Thus, oxygen does
process which is described as non- cyclic not come from carbondioxide, but from the
photophosphorylation. On the other hand, split of water molecules.
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The chlorophyll of photosystem I is also NADP is therefore important in

activated and absorb light energy of the maintaining the flow of electrons in the
wavelength 700 nm. The absorbed energy thylakoid membrane as it is the final
excites the electrons, causing them to electron acceptor.Therefore, the normal
move from Photosystem I and transfer flow of electrons can be inhibited, if this
through a series of electron acceptor and electron acceptor is limited.
carrier molecules, including Ferredoxin
and ferredoxin-NADP reductase. As Thus, the synthesis of ATP in this way is
these electrons move through the carrier described as a non-cyclic
systems, they lose their energy but they
photophosphorylation, because the electrons
are not returned to their original position,
from photosystem II move in one direction.
instead they are handed to NADP+, where
together with hydrogen proton (H+) They do not move back to their original
from photolysis of water, reduce NADP+ molecule, instead they move through
to NADPH2, also written as NADPH+ different electron carriers, and they are
or NADPH + H+, as indicated by the taken up by photosystem I to fill the gap
following equation: of the lost electrons used to reduce NADP.
The formed ATP and NADPH are used
+
NADP + 2H + 2e −
NADPH + H +
in the Calvin cycle or dark reaction to
produce carbohydrates while the oxygen
The light energy is now stored in the gas from photolysis of water is released
NADPH molecule which accumulates in into the air as a byproduct.
the stroma to be used in the dark reaction
TY
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(Figure 5.2).
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Primary
PR O
Primary
Electron Electron
T SE
Acceptor Acceptor
EN U
2e- 2e- 2e- 2e-

M E
Pheophytin
R LIN
Light rays 2e- Light rays Ferredoxin

VE N
Plastoquinone 2e-
O O
ADP + Pi 2e- NADP+ + 2H+

G R
FO
Cytochrome
ADP
2e- NADPH
Photosystem II 2e-
Photosystem I
H2O 1
O + 2H +
2 2
by - product
Figure 5.2 Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

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Cyclic photophosphorylation to ADP forming ATP with the aid of

Cyclic photophosphorylation involves ATP synthase. In this cycle, only ATP is
production of ATP which uses photosystem produced, but NADPH and oxygen are
I but not photosystem II. This begins not produced.
with photo activation of photosystem I
through which the electrons are excited The amount of ATP required in Calvin
and pass on to a chain of electron carriers. cycle is much higher than that produced in
These electrons travel back along a chain the non-cyclic photophosphorylation. This
of carriers to their original position in makes the cyclic photophosphorylation
photosystem I (Figure 5.3). As electrons important to balance the ATP deficit
travel back, they release energy which without increasing NADPH.
is utilised to bind inorganic phosphate
Primary
Electron
Acceptor
2e-
2e-
Light rays Electron carrier ADP+Pi
systems
ATP
2e-
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PR O
Photosystem I
T SE
Figure 5.3 Cyclic photophosphorylation

EN U
Table 5.1 Differences between cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation

M E
R LIN
Cyclic photophosphorylation Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

VE N
Excited electrons always return to the original Excited electrons do not return to the
O O
position or molecule. original position or molecule.

G R
It involves only one photosystem (P700). It involves two photo systems (P700
FO
and P680).
Photolysis of water does not occur. Photolysis of water occurs.
Reduced compounds are not formed; the only Reduced compounds especially NADPH
product is ATP. are formed together with ATP.
The final destination of electrons is photo The final destination of electrons is
system I. NADP.
The first source of electrons is photosystem I. The first source of electrons is water.
Oxygen is not produced. Oxygen is produced.
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Activity 5.1 Experiment to prove upper sides of the leaf to prevent the
the importance of light during entry of light.
photosynthesis c) Place the plant in sunlight for 3-4
hours.
Materials d) Detach the selected covered leaf and
A healthy potted plant, petri dish or remove the black paper covering it.
white tile, a beaker containing water, e) Place the detached leaf in the beaker
forceps, hot water bath, a piece of wire containing water. Boil it for about 10
gauze, tripod stand, burner, match box, minutes.
alcohol (90% ethanol), strip of black f) Take out the leaf and boil it in boiling
paper (carbon paper), Iodine solution, 90% ethanol in the hot water bath for
and clips (Figure 5.4). 10 minutes.
g) Take out the leaf and wash it under
Procedure running water to remove traces of
a) Take a potted plant and keep it in a ethanol and softening the tissues.
dark place for 2-3 days so that the h) Spread the leaf on a petri dish or
leaves get destarched. white tile and put a few drops of
b) Cover part of one of its leaves with a Iodine solution on it. Observe the
strip of black paper. Make sure that changes in colour.
you cover both the lower and the
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Black paper
PR O
Green leaf
T SE
Leaf boiling
in water Alcohol
EN U
Beaker
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
Bunsen burner Decolorised Petri dish

Decolorised
leaf in water
leaf
Iodine solution
Figure 5.4 Experiment to show the importance of light during photosynthesis

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Questions imply that the reactions cannot take place

1. Why was it important to destarch the in the presence of light. It simply means
leaf before starting the experiment? that light energy is not a vital factor in
this phase of photosynthesis. The vital
2. What was the reason for covering factor here is atmospheric carbondioxide,
the leaf with a black paper? and the products of light reaction are ATP
3. What was the reason of boiling the and NADPH. Dark reaction is therefore
leaf in alcohol? a synthetic stage of photosynthesis.
However, such reactions, as cited earlier
4. Which colour was observed after are energetically dependent on light
adding Iodine solution on a boiled reactions. The dark reactions involve
leaf? a chain of enzyme controlled reactions
5. What does the observed colour described by Melvin Calvin, Andrew
indicate? Benson and James Bassham in 1946-
1953. These reactions involve a full
cycle of reactions also called the Calvin
Exercise 5.1 cycle or Calvin-Benson cycle; named
after Calvin and Benson. The Calvin
1. Explain how plants obtain cycle (Figure 5.5) has three major phases
light energy and convert it to which are carbondioxide (CO2) fixation,
biochemical energy. reduction of glycerate phosphate (GP),
also called phosphoglyceric acid (PGA),
2. Briefly explain the importance of and regeneration of ribulose biphosphate
cyclic photophosphorylation in (RuBP).
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photosynthesis.
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Carbon dioxide fixation

3. Differentiate cyclic from non- Carbondioxide (CO2) used in dark
PR O
cyclic photophosphorylation. reaction comes from the atmosphere. It

T SE
diffuses into the plant tissue via stomata

EN U
Dark reaction (Light independent pores located in the leaves or stems in

some plants such as cactus. The absorbed
M E
reactions)
R LIN
Dark reaction does not require light CO2 is attached to a 5-carbon compound
energy, and it takes place in the stroma of called RuBP to form unstable 6-carbon
VE N
the chloroplasts. The overall purpose of compound by carboxylation reaction. The

O O
dark reaction is to convert carbon dioxide 6-carbon molecule quickly splits into two
G R
from the atmosphere into carbohydrates 3-carbon energy rich molecules called
FO
or sugars which are used to power glycerate phosphate which, in principle

primary activities in plants and build their are carboxylic acid, 3-phosphoglyceric
structures. The process of converting acid (3-PGA or PGA).
carbon dioxide into carbohydrates
requires energy produced by ATP and the RuBP is therefore called the carbon
reducing power obtained from NADPH dioxide acceptor due to its ability to
both produced from the light reaction. accept or combine with carbondioxide.
The fact that these chains of reactions The reaction is catalysed by Ribulose
are described as dark reactions does not 1,5-biphosphate carboxylase (Ribulose
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biphosphate carboxylase) enzyme, which Carboxylation is followed by a chain of

is abundant in the stroma of the chloroplast, reactions which involve reduction of PGA
and it is usually abbreviated as RuBP
carboxylase, or RuBisCo, or Rubisco, or Reduction of phosphoglyceric acid
RuBPCase, or RuBPco. The PGA are the (PGA)
first stable product of photosynthesis and The reduction reaction begins when energy
their formation marks the first major step supplied by ATP and the reducing power of
in the fixing of carbon dioxide in green NADPH are used to remove oxygen from
plants and photoautotrophic bacteria into the PGA. This reduction reaction produces
energy rich molecules. a 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (3-PGAL
RuBP + CO2 + H2O RuBP Carboxylase
2PGA or PGAL) also called glyceraldehyde
(3C) phosphate (GP), which is a triose sugar
(5C)
(3-Carbon sugar) containing phosphate
group.
ATP ADP + Pi
PGA PGAL
Phosphoglyceric acid Phosphoglyceraldehyde
(3 carbon acid) (3 carbon sugar)
NADP + + H2O
NADPH+H+
The difference between the PGA and the phase of the Calvin cycle to regenerate
PGAL is that, the former is a 3-carbon TY RuBP consumed in the first reaction of
acid (-COOH) while the latter is 3-carbon carbon dioxide fixation.
PE Y
O NL
aldehyde (-CHO), therefore, PGAL is the

R
Regeneration of RuBP
first carbohydrate in photosynthesis which
PR O
RuBP is an important molecule utilised

is a sugar with more chemical energy than in the synthesis of sugars, therefore, it is
T SE
PGA. It should be noted that the ATP and necessary for plants to produce enough of
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NADPH utilised in this phase of Calvin it for synthesis of more sugars and other
M E
cycle are obtained from the light dependent vital molecules. RuBP is regenerated
R LIN
reactions. The ADP and NADP+ return to from PGAL, which combines with
the thylakoids to be converted back to ATP Ribulose phosphate (RuP) molecules
VE N
and NADPH, respectively, by the light as summarized in the equation below.

O O
reactions. One of the PGAL molecules is This process involves a complex series
G R
of rearrangement of carbon atoms

FO
set aside to be used as a building block

of glucose and other molecules such as between sugar phosphates to generate
sucrose, starch, cellulose, amino acids, 5-carbon sugar from 3 carbon-sugar. The
formed 5-carbon sugar (RuP) is then
fatty acids and glycerol. These products
phosphorylated by the remaining ATP
are used for various biological roles
from light reaction to generate ribulose
including respiration, building plant cell bisphosphate (RuBP). The produced
wall, building the body, and component of RuBP can combine with the additional
cell membranes. The majority of PGAL
carbon dioxide molecules and continue to
molecules will be forwarded to the third
the Calvin cycle reaction.
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ATP ADP
Rearrangement of carbon atoms

PGAL RuP RuBP
Phosphoglyceraldehyde Ribulose phosphate Ribulose bishosphate
(3C) (5C) (5C)
Note that in order to form a glucose consumed to synthesize twelve molecules

molecule, the cycle has to run six times of PGAL, where by only two molecules
because each turn of the cycle adds only of PGAL are used to make carbohydrate
one carbon from the incoming carbon (glucose) while ten molecules are used
dioxide to form two molecules of PGAL, to regenerate 6 molecules of RuBP in the
that is, six molecules of carbon are regeneration phase (Figure 5.5).
6 molecules
CO2
Stage 1
Carbon fixation
6 molecules 12 molecules of
RuBP 3-PGA
6ADP 12ATP
6ATP Calvin Cycle
12ADP + 12Pi
6 molecules RuP
TY Stage 2
Stage 3 Reduction
PE Y
Regeneration of RuBP
12NADPH+12H+
O NL
10 molecules 3-PGAL
R
12NADP+
PR O
12 molecules
2 molecules 3-PGAL 3-PGAL
T SE
Sugars example
EN U
Glucose (C2H12O6)
M E
and other products

R LIN
Figure 5.5 The Calvin cycle

VE N
O O
Exercises 5.2 C3 and C4 plants

N
Different plants use different pathways

G R
1. Explain how light and dark reactions

FO
of photosynthesis are interdependent. to fix carbon during the process of

2. Describe the steps involved in the photosynthesis. Fixing carbon is the way
conversion of phosphoglyceric acid plants remove carbon from atmospheric
into sugar. carbon dioxide and turn it into organic
3. What is the fate of PGAL formed in molecules like carbohydrates. Basing on
photosynthesis? the first product of photosynthesis just
4. Naming Calvin cycle as a dark after carboxylation, plants are grouped
reaction is sometimes misleading. into C3 and C4 plants.
Substantiate.
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C3 plants also known as RuBP oxygenase. There is

In some plants, the first product of no energy-rich compound produced, since
photosynthesis immediately after 2-phosphoglycolate produced cannot
carboxylation is a 3-phosphogylceric enter the Calvin cycle; rather it enters in
acid (3-PGA). These plants fix carbon the conversion pathways and use NADPH
dioxide, following the Calvin cycle as
and ATP to generate PGA, hence decrease
explained in the preceding section. Plants
in yield. Decreased concentration of
which yield a 3-PGA, as the first product
after carboxylation, are described as C3 carbon dioxide occurs during dry or hot
plants. Fixation of carbon dioxide occurs conditions because the stomata pores
in the chloroplasts of the bundle sheath through which carbon dioxide diffuses
cells. C3 plants account for approximately into the plant normally close to minimise
85% of all plants including Bryophytes, water loss through transpiration under
ferns, most grasses, and trees. They also such conditions. The global increase in
include crops such as cotton, tobacco, temperatures and drought conditions in
spinach, soybean, and cereal grains (rice, some places emanating from climatic
wheat). This implies that most food that changes is likely to impact C3 plants more
we eat comes from C3 plants. C3 plants than C4 plants, which are more efficient
perform well in temperate conditions, but photosynthetically. Photorespiration involves
they suffer photorespiration which is also a complex network of enzyme reactions
called oxidative photosynthetic carbon which exchange the cellular metabolites
cycle or C2 photosynthesis in hot and dry between three organelles, namely
conditions. chloroplasts, leaf peroxisomes and
TY
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mitochondria (Figure 5.6). The formed

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Photorespiration 2-phosphoglycolate is dephosphorylated

PR O
This is a condition which occurs when by removing of phosphate group (Pi)

T SE
carbon dioxide concentration in the to form glycolate which leaves the

chloroplast drops below 50 ppm while the chloroplast to the peroxisome. In the
EN U
level of oxygen is relatively higher. Under peroxisomes, Glycolate is oxygenated

M E
this condition, oxygen and carbon dioxide to give glyoxylate and in this process
R LIN
compete for the same active site on RuBP hydrogen peroxide gas is evolved. The
VE N
carboxylase enzyme. This in turn triggers formed glyoxylate is converted into

O O
the enzyme to utilize oxygen to oxidise glycine, then this product enters the
G R
RuBP to form one molecule of 3-PGA mitochondrion in which it is converted

FO
(three carbon) and 2-phosphoglycolate into serine through the series of reactions.
(two carbon compound) instead of The produced serine is transported to
acting on carbon dioxide to produce two the peroxisome and it is converted into
molecules of PGA (three carbon). hydroxypyruvate then to Glycerate
(Glyceric acid). The glycerate formed is
O2 + RuBP RuBP carboxylase Phosphoglycolate + PGA transported to the chloroplasts, and with
5C 2C 3C
the help of ATP it is converted into 3-PGA
Since the reaction is an oxygenation by adding Pi in its carbon number 3.
reaction, the enzyme RuBP carboxylase is
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regeneration of carbon dioxide acceptor,

and re-fixation of carbon dioxide in the
bundle sheaths.
a) Fixation of carbon dioxide in the

mesophyll cell
Carbon dioxide fixation occurs in the
mesophyll cells and involves
carbondioxide acceptor known as
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). The carbon
dioxide is attached to PEP to form a
4-carbon molecule called oxaloacetate.
This carboxylation reaction is catalysed by
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEP
carboxylase) enzyme. In this reaction,
therefore, hydrogen and carbon dioxide
are added to PEP to form oxaloacetate.
The PEP carboxylase has relatively higher
Figure 5.6 Photorespiration pathway carbon dioxide affinity compared to RuBP
carboxylase which is used in carboxylation
C4 plants in C3 plants.
Photosynthesis in most tropical and TY
PEP carboxylase
subtropical plant species, such as maize PEP + CO2 Oxaloacetate
PE Y
O NL
and sugar cane yields a 4-carbon compound

R
called oxaloacetate (oxaloacetic acid) The oxaloacetate formed is further

PR O
after carboxylation, and they are thus converted into another 4-carbon
T SE
referred to as C4 plants. C4 plants have 2 compound called malate

EN U
major biochemical pathways (Figure 5.7). NADPH + H+ NADP+

M E
The first pathway involves transporting

R LIN
carbon dioxide from the mesophyll to Oxaloacetate Malate

(4c) (4c)
the chloroplast of the bundle sheath, a
VE N
pathway which was described in 1966

O O
by Hatch and Slack. This pathway is b) Shunting of malate

G R
therefore called Hatch-Slack pathway in

FO
The shunting commences as malate gets

honor of these two Australian scientists. streamed to chloroplasts of the bundle
The second pathway in C4 plants is the sheath cells through small pores called
normal C3 pathway (Calvin cycle) which plasmodesmata, found in the cell wall.
commences once the carbon dioxide is In the chloroplasts, malate dissociates,
released in the bundle sheath cells. C4 yielding hydrogen, carbon dioxide and
pathway is characterised by four major a 3-carbon acid called pyruvate (pyruvic
events: fixation of carbon dioxide in acid).
the mesophyll cell, shunting of malate,
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CO2 should be noted that shunting of malate is

necessary to ensure movement of carbon
Malate Pyruvate dioxide and hydrogen from the mesophyll
(4C) (3C)
to the bundle sheath cells. The hydrogen
NADPH + H+ NADP+ liberated reduces NADP into NADPH
which will be used in carbon dioxide re-
This ultimately leads to high accumulation fixation. The stages (a) and (b) accomplish
of carbon dioxide in the bundle sheaths. It the Hatch-Slack pathway.
Jhvjhkjkjkj
Epidermal cells (Non

photosynthetic)
Chloroplasts of
mesophyll cells
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Chloroplasts of Bundles
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shealth cells
PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
Figure 5.7 The Hatch-Slack pathway

R LIN
c) Regeneration of carbon dioxide d) Re-fixation of carbon dioxide in

VE N
acceptor bundle sheaths

O O
Pyruvate generated in the shunting of The released carbon dioxide from the
G R
malate as explained in (b) is converted dissociation of malate (refer to the

FO
back into PEP by the addition of organic shunting of malate above) enters the C3
phosphate supplied by ATP. pathway (Calvin cycle). At this stage, the
Pyruvate Phosphoenol
carbon dioxide is accepted by RuBP to
(3C) pyruvate (PEP) produce 3-PGA, a reaction is catalysed by
ATP ADP (3C) RuBP carboxylase enzyme. The NADPH
will reduce 3-PGA to sugar (3-PGAL) in
the same way as C3 plants.
Generally, the C4 pathway consumes more
energy (ATP), and it is more efficient in
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yielding carbon dioxide compared to the factor in photosynthesis, C4 plants can

C3 pathway. However, ATP consumption photosynthesize, even if the stomata are
is not a problem, considering that much closed due to the presence of high levels
of it is produced during light reactions. of carbon dioxide in the bundle sheath
The fact that the C4 pathway produces cells, just about 20 to 120 times higher
high yields under high concentration of than normal.
carbon dioxide makes photosynthesis in
C4 plants more efficient in carboxylation Differences between C3 and C4 plants
compared to C3 plants which under certain The major differences between these
conditions such as hot, dry conditions two types of plants are evident in the
undergo photorespiration. The PEP
photosynthesis process. Generally, the
carboxylase in the mesophyll of C4 plants
basic metabolism of the C3 and C4 plants
has a high affinity to carbon dioxide, and
it does not get competitively inhibited is similar, but the latter is more complex.
by oxygen to cause photorespiration. The C4 plants are therefore evolutionarily
Although carbon dioxide is a limiting more advanced than C3 plants (Table 5.2).
Table 5.2 Differences between C3 and C4 plants

C3 plants C4 plants
The first product in carbon dioxide fixation is The first product in carbon dioxide
a 3-carbon compound called phosphoglyceric fixation is a 4-carbon compound called
acid. oxaloacetic acid.
Photosynthesis is limited by low levels Photosynthesis is not limited by low levels
TY
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of atmospheric carbon dioxide, hence of atmospheric carbon dioxide, hence

O NL
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photorespiration may occur in a limited photorespiration does not occur.

supply of carbon dioxide.
PR O
T SE
Carboxylation reaction is accomplished by Carboxylation reaction is accomplished by

the enzyme RuBP carboxylase to fix carbon the enzymes RuBP carboxylase and PEP
EN U
dioxide. carboxylase to fix carbon dioxide.

M E
The carbondioxide acceptor is a 5-carbon The carbondioxide acceptors are the

R LIN
compound called RuBP. 3-carbon compound (PEP) and the 5-carbon

compound (RuBP).
VE N
Carbondioxide fixation occurs in bundle Carbondioxide fixation occurs in both,

O O
sheath cells only. mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells.

G R
FO
They are less efficient in fixing carbon diox- They are more efficient in fixing carbon
ide. dioxide.
They have only one type of chloroplast in They have two types of cells, each with its
their leaf bundle sheath cell. own type of chloroplast. (Kranz aatomy).
They do not tolerate hot and dry They tolerate both hot and dry conditions.
conditions. They are adapted to cool and
wet environment.
Example of C3 plants: soybeans spinach, Example of C4 plants: millet, sorghum and
rice and grasses. sugar cane.
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Exercise 5.3 Inhibitors

An inhibitor is a substance or factor which
1. Describe how C4 plants are adapted may slow down the rate of reaction.
to synthesize sugars in the tropical For example, many herbicides such as
and subtropical climates. Dichlorophenyl Dimethyl Urea (DCMU)
2. Using your knowledge of C3 and interfere with the electron flow in the
C4 plants, explain which plants are chloroplast; thus, inhibit the light reaction,
more vulnerable to climate changes. and hence no photophosphorylation. In
addition, a relatively higher concentration
3. Differentiate C3 plants from C4 of oxygen (above 21%) in the atmosphere
plants. tends to inhibit the rate of photosynthesis,
because it lowers the amount of
Factors affecting the rate of carbondioxide available to the plant.
photosynthesis
For photosynthesis to take place efficiently, Leaf structure and position
certain conditions must be met, and raw Leaf is a photosynthetic organ of a plant. It
materials must be present. The process contains chloroplasts, which are organelles
of photosynthesis is influenced by both for food synthesis. Leaves have special
internal and external factors. adaptation to enhance carbon dioxide and
light absorption for photosynthesis. For
a) Internal factors example, they have a broad surface area
The internal factors which are also called exposed to light illumination and thin
TY
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plant factors are chlorophyll concentration, leaves with large surface area absorb more
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enzymes, inhibitors, and leaf structure and light than small and thick leaves. Carbon
PR O
position. dioxide penetrates more quickly in thin

T SE
leaves than in thick leaves. Additionally,

Chlorophyll concentration leaves with thin and transparent epidermis
EN U
Chlorophyll is a green photosynthetic allow more light to reach the chloroplasts.

M E
pigment located in the chloroplast, Furthermore, leaves, particularly of most

R LIN
especially in the grana. Chlorophyll is tropical plant tree species, are positioned
responsible for trapping light energy
VE N
at a certain angle which is normally more

O O
during light reaction. When chlorophyll or less vertical. This reduces excessive
G R
concentration in the leaves is very low, light interception and temperature on the
FO
the rate of light reaction will be reduced, leaf. Reducing this natural angle of leaf
because only a little amount of light will may be detrimental to the chloroplast
be trapped for the reaction, resulting in because it increases light interception and
reduction in the rate of photosynthesis. excessive temperature. Thus, maintaining
Low concentrations of chlorophyll in plant high leaf angle orientation in tropical
leaves can be caused by several factors, trees is necessary in reducing excessive
such as mineral deficiency, ageing, lack of
light interception and leaf temperature to
light and diseases such as fungal diseases
protect chlorophyll from photo damage
or infections.
due to excessive light. This in turn
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enhances photosynthetic activity and d) Take out the leaf and place it in
helps to sustain high plant productivity. boiling ethanol in a water bath for
about 10 minutes.
Enzymes e) Remove the leaf from ethanol and
Photosynthesis is an enzyme controlled wash it with running water.
process. For example, the enzyme PEP f) Place the leaf on a white tile and add
carboxylase is crucial in the fixation of a few drops of Iodine solution.
carbon dioxide in the mesophyll cells.
g) Record any observable changes.
Similarly, RuBP carboxylase is an
important enzyme necessary for carbon h) Draw a diagram of the leaf showing
dioxide fixation in bundle sheath cells the colour pattern after being stained
during dark reaction. Another enzyme with iodine solution.
is ATP synthase found in the thylakoid i) Compare the colour pattern of the
membrane. This enzyme is vital for ATP patches with that of the original leaf
synthesis during photophosphorylation in b).
process. These enzymes perform their role
actively under optimal condition below
Safety precaution
which they become inactive or above
Avoid direct flame near ethanol because
which they are denatured. If the enzymes
it is highly inflammable.
are inactive, the rate of photosynthesis
proceeds very slowly. In contrast, when
the enzymes are very active, the rate of Questions
TY
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photosynthesis becomes very high. 1. Why was the variegated leaf used in
O NL
R
the above experiment?

PR O
Activity 5.2 Investigating the role of 2. Explain your observations.

T SE
chlorophyll in photosynthesis
3. What was the reason for boiling the
EN U
Materials leaf in ethanol?

M E
Variegated plant, Iodine solution, bea-

R LIN
4. From the observations made in the

ker, ethanol, water, and white tile.
experiment, what is the role of chlo-
VE N
O O
Procedure
N
rophyll in the leaf?

G R
a) Take a potted plant with variegated

FO
leaves which has been exposed to

sunlight for three to four hours.
b) External factors
b) Take one leaf and draw its diagram The external factors which are also
indicating the pattern of the colour termed as environmental factors include;
of the patches. atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration,
c) Place the leaf in the beaker containing water availability, wind, temperature,
hot water and boil it for about 10 mineral and nutrients supply as well as
minutes. light.
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Atmospheric carbon dioxide Water availability

concentration Water is one of the essential raw materials
The average concentration of carbon for photosynthesis. It also plays other roles
dioxiode in the atmosphere is about in the plant body such as translocation of
0.03%. As the concentration of carbon minerals and gases as well as products of
dioxide increases from the average photosynthesis. Shortage of water leads to
value, it also increases the rate of wilting of plant leaves which in turn causes
photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is closing of the stomata. This results into a
required in light independent reactions, reduced diffusion rate of carbon dioxide
but the concentration above 0.1% can into the chloroplast, and hence a decreased
damage plant leaves. On the other hand, rate of photosynthesis. Additionally, water
low levels of carbon dioxide tend to limit shortage causes cells to become flaccid;
the rate of photosynthesis. It should be thus they cannot function well and this
noted that, C3 plants are affected by low affects the translocation of synthesised
concentration of carbon dioxide in the products.
atmosphere, while C4 plants are efficient
in utilising carbon dioxide even when the Light
concentration in the atmosphere is low. The effect of light on the rate of
photosynthesis can be described on the
Temperature basis of its quality (light wavelength) and
Within the optimum range of temperature, quantity (light intensity).
the rate of photosynthesis tends to double
TY
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for every 10 oC rise of temperature. For Light quality (wavelength of colours).

O NL
R
example, the optimum temperature for Photosynthesis usually occurs when green
PR O
plants that survive in temperate climates plants absorb light within a limit of visible
T SE
is 25 oC. The temperature above 35 oC light spectrum. The most effective range
usually causes denaturation of enzymes is within a red-orange band (600- 700 nm)
EN U
catalyzing photosynthesis in both, dark and a blue-violet band (400-500 nm). The
M E
and light reactions, leading to slowing central band is also effective, but less than
R LIN
down, or stopping of photosynthesis. others because the chlorophyll molecules

VE N
In low temperature such as below 10 oC, show very little absorption of light in
O O
enzymes catalysing photosynthesis this region. Maximum light absorption

G R
become inactive, hence lower its rate. corresponds to the maximum rate of
FO
photosynthesis.
Nutrients supply
Minerals such as magnesium and Light intensity. The rate of photosynthesis
nitrogen are components of chlorophyll. varies proportionally to light intensity.
Deficiency of these minerals reduces the However, at a certain point called light
rate of photosynthesis because the plant saturation point, the rate of photosynthesis
lacks enough chlorophyll molecules for reaches its maximum and therefore
trapping enough light energy. attains constancy. Any further increase
in light intensity brings no effect on the
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rate of photosynthesis, if other factors Wind velocity

are limiting. However, unless the plant Wind moving at high speed reduces the
is adapted to high light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis because strong wind
chlorophyll might undergo bleaching. usually facilitates transpiration and hence
Leaf adaptation to very high light intensity affects the availability of water. Therefore,
includes presence of thick cuticle and speedy wind reduces the amount of
hairs. Light intensity varies with location water available as the raw material for
and seasons of the year. In the tropical and
photosynthesis, and consequently reduces
subtropical areas, light intensity is higher
the rate of photosynthesis.
than in the temperate areas. Light intensity
also decreases during rainy seasons due to
cloud cover. Exercise 5.4
During photosynthesis, the plant consumes 1. Describe photosystem I and
carbon dioxide via respiration as it photosystem II in green plants and
eliminates oxygen, which is important for show how they are involved in
respiration. A point is reached when light producing NADPH and ATP during
intensity causes the rate of photosynthesis light reaction of photosynthesis.
to balance with that of respiration. This
means that the rate of carbon dioxide 2. Explain how plants such as sugarcane
production from respiration is equals and sorghum are adapted to
to that of carbon dioxide consumption overcome photorespiration.
in photosynthesis. This is called a
3. Explain how light quality and
TY
PE Y
compensation point of a plant, at which

intensity affect the rate of
O NL
net gain of atmospheric air is zero (Figure

R
5.8). photosynthesis.
PR O
T SE
5.3 Heterotrophic nutrition

EN U
Higher CO2
Light saturation concentration
Heterotrophic nutrition is the mode of
M E
R LIN
nutrition in which an organism feeds by

Low CO2 taking in organic substances made by other
VE N
concentration
organisms. Organisms that obtain organic
O O
N
is
es
food substances from other organisms

nth
G R
sy
Carbondioxide
oto
are termed as heterotrophs. Examples:

FO
ph
taken up
of
animals, fungi, some protoctists and most

te
Ra
0
Net gas exchange zero monerans.
Light intensity
Carbondioxide
Food materials synthesized by autotrophs

given out
Compasation point CO2 released

during respiration equals that taken
up during photosynthesis are in the form of complex molecules,
which contain chemical energy locked
Figure 5.8 The light intensity and compensation in their bonds. Heterotrophs ingest large
point molecules and they require a digestive
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system to break down large food from dead or decaying bodies of other
molecules into simpler forms which can organisms, mainly plants and animals.
be absorbed for utilization in their bodies. Digestion is accomplished by producing
Furthermore, they require energy to carry extracellular digestive enzymes which
out life processes like cellular metabolism. reduce the tissues of the dead or decaying
Some bacteria form a special group of organisms into solution form which can
heterotrophs called photoheterotrophs. be readily taken up. Most bacteria and
These bacteria can utilize organic raw fungi, such as Mucor, Rhizopus, and yeast
materials to synthesize their food in are saprotrophs.
the presence of light energy. Animals,
including human beings utilize six b) Symbiotic nutrition (Symbiosis)
different types of nutrients for proper The term symbiosis literally means ‘living
body functioning. These nutrients can together.’ Symbiosis is therefore a natural
be categorized into two major groups: association between two or more different
organic and inorganic nutrients. Organic species. There are three common types
nutrients include carbohydrate which of symbiotic relationships which are
supply energy for body functions, fats or mutualism, commensalism and parasitism.
lipids which constitute the major part of
cell membrane and stored form of body Mutualism. This refers to the association
energy, proteins for growth and repair between two living organisms of different
of body tissues, and vitamins for body species in which both benefit. Therefore,
defence. Inorganic nutrients include water the association or relationship is beneficial
TY
PE Y
which is a vital fluid required for chemical to both partners. The cellulose digesting
O NL
R
reactions to take place and transport of bacteria living in the ruminant herbivores
PR O
materials and minerals which are essential is an example of organisms which show
T SE
for proper body functioning. a mutualistic relationship. These bacteria

can only survive in anaerobic conditions
EN U
Types of heterotrophic nutrition found in a ruminant’s alimentary canal,

M E
Heterotrophs obtain their food by and they feed on cellulose contained

R LIN
various ways. There are three forms in the host’s diet. On the other hand,
VE N
of heterotrophic nutrition, namely ruminants cannot digest cellulose directly

O O
saprophytic, symbiotic, and holozoic but, as the cellulose digesting bacteria

G R
nutrition. feed on the cellulose, they convert it into

FO
simple compounds which can be digested,

a) Saprotrophic nutrition absorbed and assimilated by the ruminants.
This type of nutrition is also referred to as Mutualistic form of symbiotic nutrition is
saprophytic nutrition. The term saprotroph also evident between leguminous plants
comes from two Greek words; sapros and nitrogen fixing bacteria, where by
and trophos where sapros means ‘rotten’ the bacteria accommodated within the
and trophos means ‘feeder.’ This type root nodules of these plants fix nitrogen
of nutrition involves organisms feeding from the air by converting it into nitrogen
on soluble organic compounds obtained useful compounds such as nitrates. These
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nutrients are required by plants for their the internal organs or tissues of the host
growth and development, while on body. These types of parasites are called
the other hand, the bacteria benefit by endoparasites. On the other hand, some
getting shelter and synthesised nutrients parasites such as ticks and bed bugs attach
from the plants. Algae and fungi form a themselves on the surface of the body
mutualistic association called lichen. In of their living host and suck fluids from
this relationship algae synthesise food them; and these are called ectoparasites.
and supply some to the fungi while Both endoparasites and ectoparasites are
the fungi cover the algae and protect it highly adapted to their mode of nutrition.
from desiccation. Also, fungi and roots For example, most parasites have hooks
of vascular plants form a mutualistic and haustoria for attachment and sucking
association called mycorrhizae. The role of nutrients from the host.
fungi in this relationship is to increase the
surface area for the plant roots absorption c) Holozoic nutrition
of nutrients. The plant supplies some of Holozoic nutrition is a form of
the manufactured food to the fungi which heterotrophic nutrition exhibited mainly
normally cannot photosynthesise its food. by free living animals which have a
specialized digestive tract, also called
Commensalism. Commensalism is a close alimentary canal. The nutrition of this
association between two living organisms form involves several steps such as
of different species in which one organism taking in solid or liquid food, followed
benefits and the other organism neither by mechanical and chemical digestion in
TY
PE Y
benefits nor is harmed. For example, cattle the alimentary canal. The digested food
O NL
R
egrets follow herds of cattle or buffalo and materials are reduced into simple forms,
PR O
feed on insects disturbed by the animals. which can be absorbed and assimilated by
T SE
The cattle and buffalo are not harmed by body cells. Holozoic organisms include
the feeding activities of the cattle egret. animals such as herbivores which feed on
EN U
Therefore, in this association one member plants, carnivores which feed on living
M E
(the cattle egret) benefits while the other animals; omnivores which feed on both
R LIN
(cattle or buffalo) neither benefits nor is plants and flesh, and decomposers feeding
VE N
harmed. on remains of dead animals and plants,

O O
or on dung and faeces. The undigested

G R
Parasitism. Parasitism is a close food is eliminated from the body while

FO
association between two organisms of the digested soluble food molecules get
different species, whereby one organism absorbed and later assimilated to generate
called a parasite benefits by obtaining its energy and some are incorporated into the
nutrients and shelter from another living body cells.
organism called a host. Normally, the
parasite may ultimately cause harm to Holozoic nutrition in mammals
the host but, in some cases, it can exist The food taken in by mammals in most
without killing the host. Some parasites cases is in solid form; therefore, it must be
such as tape worms and liver fluke live in converted into simpler form, for it to be
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absorbed and assimilated in their bodies. enzymes on smaller pieces to yield

The holozoic nutrition involves ingestion, simpler molecules with suitable size
digestion, absorption, assimilation, and for absorption by the epithelia cells.
egestion. Chemical digestion is a complex process
that involves a diversity of digestive
a) Ingestion enzymes secreted by the alimentary canal,
This process involves taking in solid or which convert various food substances
liquid food into the gut or alimentary canal into simpler and absorbable form. For
example, polysaccharides are broken
or gastrointestinal tract of an organism.
down into monosaccharides; proteins are
It is aided by structures such as teeth,
broken down into amino acids; and fats or
tentacles and claws through which food
lipids are broken down into fatty acids and
substance is taken into the mouth through
glycerol.
eating or drinking.
c) Absorption
b) Digestion
This is the uptake of the digested soluble
Digestion is the process of breaking
products and other substances across the
down large biochemical compounds
linings of the gut into the blood stream and
contained in food into smaller and soluble
lymphatic system. The soluble substances
molecules that can easily be absorbed
include vitamins and minerals. The small
into the body. It involves mechanical and
intestine is the site where digested foods
chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion
are absorbed through diffusion or active
involves the physical break down of the
TY
transport. The inner wall of the small
PE Y
food into smaller pieces; and this begins

O NL
intestine; also called the mucosa is lined

R
in the mouth where the food is chewed

with microscopic finger-like projections
PR O
and rolled by the tongue, while lubricated

called villi. The epithelial cells of the
T SE
by the saliva before it is swallowed. The

small intestine have microvilli. Both villi
tongue, teeth and saliva are thus important
EN U
and microvilli have a role of increasing

in preparing the food from large particles
M E
surface area for nutrients absorption.

into bolus which can easily be swallowed
R LIN
The villi are equipped with a network of

for subsequent digestion stages. The
blood capillaries and lymphatic vessels.
VE N
mastication of food from larger particles

Normally, the absorbed nutrients enter the
O O
to small ones is necessary for reducing

blood vessels and are supplied to different
G R
the food into fine particles which makes it

FO
body organs.
easy to be swallowed as well as harnessing
nutrients from the food during digestion.
d) Assimilation
Additionally, mechanical digestion
This is the process of incorporating and
involves mechanical contraction of the
using the absorbed food molecules into
gut, which pounds up and mixes the semi-
the body. The digested materials, which
solid foods.
are absorbed into the blood, are carried
by the blood stream to the body cells and
Similarly, digestion process is done
tissues for use in life processes such as
chemically by the action of digestive
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respiration, growth, repairing body tissues The process of digestion

and maintaining good health. In addition, Digestion in mammals such as human
excess of such food materials may be beings occurs throughout the alimentary
stored for future use in the liver, muscles canal. The alimentary canal in humans
and adipose tissues. comprises of mouth, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine
e) Egestion (colon), caecum, rectum and anus
Egestion is the process of eliminating (Figure 5.9). The alimentary canal is also
undigested food materials from the gut associated with the accessory organs such
through the anus. This is the final stage as the liver, salivary glands, and pancreas,
in holozoic nutrition in mammals during which assist in digestion. The wall of the
which the undigested food materials or alimentary canal has almost the same
faeces are removed from the alimentary basic structure throughout its length. The
canal. wall is lined by the simple epithelium or
glandular epithelium tissue and all parts of
the gut contain circular and longitudinal
muscles.
TY
PE Y
Mouth Parotid gland

O NL
R
Tongue Submandibular gland

Sublingual gland Pharynx
PR O
T SE
EN U
Eusophagus
M E
R LIN
Liver
VE N
O O
Gallbladder Stomach
Spleen
G R
Duodenum Pancreas
FO
Transverse colon
Ascending colon
Jejunum
Ileum Descending colon

Cecum
Appendix Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Anus Anal canal
Figure 5.9 The human alimentary canal
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Epithelial tissue Cilia (microvilli)

Epithelial tissue is a living tissue of Mucus in goblet cell
various parts of the body. It consists of a
Nucleus
single cell layer which usually occurs on Absorptive cell
the surface and covers the organs, cavities, Basement membrane
and tubes. For instance, it lines the Connective tissue
heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels,

and the intestine within the organism.
Figure 5.10 Simple columnar epithelium
There are two major types of epithelial
tissue; one is the simple epithelial tissue Glandular epithelium
which has a single layer of tissue and is This epithelium tissue contains secretory
further subdivided into five sub types cells that are closely packed (Figure 5.11).
namely; squamous, cuboidal, columnar Secretory cells secrete materials such as
pseudostratified, ciliated, and glandular mucus into the cavity or a space lined by it.
epithelial tissues. The second group of For example, in the stomach and the small
epithelial tissue comprises of epithelia intestine the mucus protects and lubricates
the lumen of the intestine and stomach. In
tissues which have more than one cell
some parts, glandular epithelium is folded
thick. This group includes transitional and
in various ways to form glands such as
stratified epithelial tissues. gastric glands whose major function is
to secrete enzymes and fluids. Glandular
Columnar epithelium epithelium can be individual cells, such
This tissue consists of thin columns of as goblet cells or aggregates of glandular
TY
PE Y
elongated cells arranged at right angle cells, such as multicellular glands like
O NL
R
to the basement membrane. The cells exocrine and endocrine glands. Examples
PR O
possess nuclei at their bases, and they are of glandular epithelial tissues found in the
T SE
mostly associated with regions such as the digestive system include simple tubular
walls of the intestines and stomach, where glands such as crypts of Lieberkuhn found
EN U
secretion and absorption are the major in the intestines, simple branched tubular
M E
glands such as gastric glands found in

R LIN
functions. Columnar epithelium tissues

are adapted to withstand wear and tear. the stomach walls (gastric mucosa), and
VE N
Epithelial tissue cells are interspaced by compound saccular and compound tubular
O O
the goblet cells that are responsible for glands of the salivary glands.
G R
Secreted materials
secreting mucus which helps to protect
FO
the stomach from digestive enzymes and

acidic content of the gastric glands. Some
epithelial tissues are ciliated while others
Duct of gland
have microvilli that increase the surface
area for absorption. Part of the surface
that is occupied by the microvilli is called Secreted cells of gland
brush boarder (Figure 5.10).
Figure 5.11 Glandular epithelium

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Cuboidal epithelium buccal cavity rolls the food into a ball-like

This tissue is made up of cells which are structure called bolus and forces it against
cube-like in shape with a central nucleus. the soft palate during swallowing, thereby
They usually form a lining of the salivary closing the nasal cavity. The opening in
glands where they perform secretory the larynx (voice box) called glottis, is
functions (Figure 5.12). In some cases also closed by a flap like structure called
the cell surface of this tissue is ciliated or epiglottis. Then, the bolus enters the
flagellated. oesophagus.
Cells
The oesophagus
In the oesophagus the bolus is moved by
Nucleus a series of wave-like movement caused
by involuntary contraction and relaxation
Basement of its circular and longitudinal smooth
membrane muscles. This process is described as
peristalsis. The contraction of circular
Figure 5.12 Cuboidal epithelium
muscles (inner muscles) causes the
Digestion in the mouth oesophagus to become narrow and long.
Mechanical and chemical digestion of food The contraction of longitudinal muscles
starts in the mouth. Mechanical digestion (outer muscles) causes the oesophagus
is achieved by teeth through mastication to become wide and short. These
(chewing). During mastication, the food contractions and relaxations of circular
TY
PE Y
is mixed with saliva, a watery mixture of and longitudinal muscles push the bolus
O NL
R
mucus and amylase secreted by the salivary down the alimentary canal. Additionally,
PR O
glands in response to thought, smell, taste the peristalsis waves of contractions assist
T SE
or sight of food. Saliva is a neutral or very in mechanical digestion (Figure 5.13).

weak alkali with the pH ranging between
EN U
6.5 and 7.5. Saliva has the following Oesophagial sphincter

M E
contracted
functions with regard to digestion: it
R LIN
lubricates food so that it can move through Relaxed muscles

the oesophagus easily; it catalyses the
VE N
Contracted muscles
O O
hydrolysis of starch into maltose using

Relaxed muscles
the enzyme called salivary α-amylase; It
G R
Sphincter relaxed
maintains pH of the mouth between 6.5
FO
and 7.5. This level is optimum for the

action of salivary amylase to function Stomach
which is accomplished by its constituent
mineral salts (example NaHCO3).
Chemically, the digestion of food in the Figure 5.13 Wave of peristalsis in the oesophagus
mouth involves converting starch into
maltose by salivary α-amylase. The
tongue which is located at the back of the
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The stomach positioned between the small intestine and

The stomach is a highly elastic muscular the stomach. The stomach wall consists
organ. It has two valve-like rings of of a layer of mucous membrane called
smooth muscles called sphincters that can gastric mucosa, it is highly folded and
open and close. One sphincter is called is equipped with small pits (gastric pits)
cardiac sphincter. It is located between the leading to gastric glands (Figure 5.14), in
oesophagus and the stomach. The second which gastric juice is secreted.
sphincter is called pyloric sphincter. It is
Gastric pits
Surface Pepsinogen
Pepsin
epithelium HCl
Gastric gland
Mucous
cell neck
Parietal cells
Gastric glands
Gastric gland
TY Chief cells
PE Y
O NL
Figure 5.14 Structure of the gastric mucosa

R
PR O
Gastric juice has the following Pepsinogen. It is produced by the chief

T SE
components: cells of the stomach wall. It is a precursor

EN U
Water. This is a solvent involved in or inactive form of pepsin. Pepsinogen

hydrolysis by which food substances are is activated by hydrochloric acid in the
M E
R LIN
broken down. stomach to form pepsin; an enzyme

responsible for the breaking down of
VE N
Hydrochloric acid (HCl). This is an acid polypeptides into peptides.

O O
produced by parietal cells of the gastric

G R
mucosa. Hydrochloric acid activates Prorennin: This is a precursor of rennin,

FO
prorennin and pepsinogen into rennin and the enzyme that catalyses the conversion
pepsin respectively, also kills any bacteria of soluble milk protein into an insoluble
that might have entered the stomach milk protein. In other words, rennin is
through food. an important enzyme in coagulation or
curdling of milk in the stomach. The
Mucus. This protects the stomach from its coagulated milk is semi solid and it can
own digestive enzymes and lubricates the be retained in the stomach for a relatively
wall for easy passage of food to the small long time for proper digestion. This is very
intestine. important in lactating young mammals.

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In the stomach, mechanical digestion also the living body which makes it slightly
occurs due to continuous contractions of shorter, unlike in a dead person where it
the stomach wall which enhance breaking becomes somewhat longer (about twice as
down of food mechanically. The combined much longer as its normal size in a living
action of mechanical and chemical person). This is because death makes the
digestion produces a creamy paste, an small intestine to lose its muscle tone
acid chyme. The formation of this chyme and stretches as it become loose. Unlike
stimulates the receptors on the stomach the large intestine, the small intestine has
wall, which in turn stimulates the pyloric numerous folds and projections called
sphincter muscles to relax and allow food villi on its lining which are important in
to pass into the duodenum. Digestion of increasing the surface area for digestion
food in the stomach may take about 4 to and absorption of food to take place.
6 hours. The surface area of the small intestine
of a human is about 200 m2 which is
The intestines surprisingly closer to 100 times the surface
The intestines are contained within the area of our body skin. Schematically, the
abdominal part of the body and they small intestine is normally surrounded by
constitute the longest and the massive part the large intestine in three sides.
of the alimentary canal. The word intestine
comes from a Latin word meaning “gut or The small intestine is not straight but rather
internal”. The intestines are of two types a coiled tube which literally has three
namely; the small intestine which forms a major distinct regions namely duodenum,
TY
PE Y
vital part in the digestion and absorption jejunum, and ileum. The sectioning of
O NL
R
of foods. The second type is the large the small intestine is based on its internal
PR O
intestine which among other functions structure and function in digestion and
T SE
is mainly important in re-absorption of absorption of foods.

water from the food residues before they
EN U
are egested. Duodenum. This is the initial part of the

M E
small intestine immediately bordering

R LIN
The small intestine with the pyloric sphincter of the stomach

VE N
This part of the intestine has smaller on the fore or proximal side and with the
O O
diameter compared to that of the large jejunum on the distal end. This part of the
G R
intestine and for this reason it is called a intestine is curved and it assumes a C-
FO
small intestine. The diameter of the small shape. The mid region of duodenum is an
intestine of human being is approximately important part in which secretions from
2.5 cm while the large intestine has a the pancreas and gall bladder together
diameter of about 7.6 cm, which is about with intestinal wall secretions meet. The
three times wider than the small intestine. acidic chyme that enters the duodenum
The small intestine is the longest of all is subjected to chemical digestion by the
parts of the alimentary canal. It has the secretions coming from the pancreas,
length of about 9 metres in a living person. intestinal wall, and the liver.
The small intestine muscles are tight in
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The liver produces a secretion called absorbed materials are in form of mineral
bile which is released into duodenum via electrolytes, proteins, carbohydrates, and
the bile duct from the gall bladder. The fats. These materials are utilized by the
bile contains bile salts such as sodium body.
taurocholate and glycocholate which are
responsible for emulsification of fats. Ileum. This is the final section of the
Sodium bicarbonate has no digestive role, small intestine in most of high vertebrates,
but rather it neutralises the acidic chyme including mammals, reptiles and birds. It
from the stomach. The bile and pancreatic is the longest region of the small intestine
juice which flow into the duodenum are stretching from the distal portion of
regulated by hepatopancreatic sphincter. the jejunum through proximal portion
The pancreas is linked to the duodenum of caecum of the large intestine at the
by a pancreatic duct. This exocrine gland ileocecal sphincter which is also known as
produces various secretions which are a valve. In human being, it range between 2
collectively termed as pancreatic juice and 4 metres long and pH ranging between
which contains the following components 7 and 8 (neutral to slightly alkaline). In
and their function in brackets: amylase comparison to the other two parts of the
(converts starch into maltose),small intestine ileum, is characteristically
trypsinogen (inactive form of trypsin thicker; more vascularised and has more
which is converted into active form mucosal folds. Parasympathetic and
called trypsin by enterokinase). Others sympathetic nerve fibres provide extrinsic
are trypsin (converts protein into smaller innervations to the small intestine. The
TY
PE Y
peptides), lipase (converts fats into fattywall of ileum secretes intestinal juices
O NL
R
acids and glycerols), peptidase (converts (saccus entericus) which contain mucus,
sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)
PR O
peptides into amino acids), nucleases

and digestive enzymes. Mucus and
T SE
(convert nucleic acids into nucleotides),

sodium hydrogen carbonate are secreted
chymotrypsin (converts protein into small
EN U
by Brunner’s glands, which are found in

polypeptides), and sodium hydrogen the interstitial wall. The role of mucus
M E
carbonate (neutralizes the acid from the

R LIN
is to lubricate the interstitial wall and

stomach). prevent corrosion, whereas sodium
VE N
hydrogen carbonate helps to neutralise

O O
Jejunum. This is the second region acidic chyme.

G R
of the intestine and middle portion of

FO
small intestine measuring approximately The digestive enzymes produced by

between 2 and 3 meters long. This the epithelial cells of interstitial wall
region stretches from the duodenum and include carbohydrase and proteases.
connects it with the ileum. However Carbohydrase enzymes such as amylase
there is no clear demarcation between converts remained starch into maltose,
jejunum and the ileum. It is responsible lactase converts lactose to galactose and
for nutrients absorption from the digested glucose, and sucrase converts sucrose into
food to the blood stream with the aid of fructose and glucose. Protease (erepsin)
finger like structures known as villi. The enzymes convert peptide into amino
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acids. Additionally the ileum performs lymphatic capillaries. Moreover, there

absorptive role as it absorbs vitamin B12, are lacteal vessels in the villi which
bile salts and any other nutrients which are important for the transportation of
are not absorbed in the jejunum. fat soluble substances (fatty acids and
glycerol) into lymph vessels.
The ileum as a site for absorption
Ileum is a site for digestion and absorption The mucosa between the folds contains
of digested food in the alimentary canal. deep tissues lined by cells that lead to a
The absorption is done through diffusion or tubular intestinal gland called crypt of
active transport aided by various adaptive Lieberkühn. This gland secretes slightly
features including presence of circular alkaline juice which is triggered by
folds, villi, and microvilli. These features irritation on the mucosa caused by acidic
increase the surface area for absorption of chyme.
nutrients. Villi are finger-like projections
on the intestinal wall which are equipped Microvilli are cylindrical extensions of
with smaller folds called microvilli on the epithelial mucosa cells. They are
their surface. The surface occupied by much smaller than the villi, measuring
microvilli is called a brush boarder. Folds about 1µm. Due to their small size, a
are deep ridge like structures found on the mass of microvilli appears as fine bristle
mucosa and submucosa wall. These folds brush called brush borders. The surface
are important in disrupting the straight of microvilli contains enzymes which
movement of food into meander-like accomplish digestion of proteins and
TY
PE Y
movement which ultimately delays food carbohydrates. The brush borders increase
O NL
R
movement in the ileum, thus availing the surface area of the membrane plasma
PR O
more time for digestion and absorption to to increase absorption. Microvilli increase
T SE
take place. the surface area for absorption (Figure

5.15). The surface of the villus is lined with
EN U
The villi are numerous hair-like the epithelial cells having large number of
M E
projections found on the surface of the mitochondria to provide energy for active
R LIN
folds. The function of the villi is to transport of nutrients, such as amino acids
VE N
increase the surface area of the intestinal and glucose which are taken against their
O O
epithelium for an effective absorption. concentration gradient.

G R
Normally in 1 mm2 there can be as many

FO
as 40 villi. Mucosal epithelium composed These nutrient-rich blood from the

of absorptive cells which covers the small intestine are carried to the liver
villi. The villi are equipped with a large via the hepatic portal vein. Presence of
number of blood vessels that carry sugars, longitudinal and circular muscles in the
minerals, vitamins, and amino acids to the villus enhances contraction and relaxation
liver for processing. Each villus is supplied which brings villus into contact with the
with venules, arterioles, capillaries and food.
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Figure 5.15 Transverse section of a small intestine
The large intestine relatively more in number than they are in

This is the last part of the alimentary canal the small intestine. The mucus in the large
that extends from a blind pouch called intestine is important in lubricating the
caecum through anus. It surrounds the food residues moving out as faeces while
small intestine in three sides. This type also protecting the intestine from effects
of the intestine is involved in the final TY of acids and gases produced by enteric
stage of water absorption, synthesis of bacteria. The large intestine therefore,
PE Y
certain vitamins, formation and expulsion

O NL
had four major regions, namely: caecum,

R
of faeces to outside the body. The region colon, rectum and anus.
PR O
between the ileum and caecum has a

T SE
sphincter known as ileocaecal sphincter Caecum. This is a sac-like structure

EN U
and it is responsible for the movement of of about 6 cm suspended interior to

undigested food materials from the ileum the ileocecal valve. Undigested food
M E
R LIN
to the large intestine. materials from the ileum are first received
by this region of the large intestine where
VE N
The large intestine differs in many ways absorption of water and salts is continued.
O O
from the small intestine as explained In this region a winding tube called
G R
earlier. Besides its diameter, which appendix is attached and its function is
FO
is relatively larger than that of small not clearly known hence it is considered
intestine; it has a few enzymes secreting as a vestigial organ. However, appendix is
cells in its walls. The villi which are reported to have immunological function
numerous in the small intestine are missing because it contains a group of white blood
in the large intestine. The wall of the large cells. Recent studies have also shown
intestine is thus simple in structure and appendix to have bacteria reservoir which
has simple columnar epithelium. The are important in repopulating the enteric
intestinal mucus secreting glands are bacteria in the early stages of individuals

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Nutrition
suffering diarrheal illness. As the faeces the rectum. The walls of the rectum have
pass along the large intestine, some water curved contours and lateral bends which
is absorbed into the blood stream. create internal transverse folds called
rectal valves. The function of these valves
Colon. This region of the intestine borders is to separate faeces from gas in order to
with caecum and it is made up of four sub prevent simultaneous passage of faeces
regions namely the ascending, transverse, and gas.
descending and sigmoid regions. Food
residues from caecum enter the ascending Anus. This region is also called anal canal
region of the colon first which is on the and constitutes the final part of the large
right side of abdomen and travel up intestine. The length of the anal canal is
through the first bend of the colon to the between 3.8 to 5 cm and it opens to the
transverse region of the colon. The residue exterior of the body at the anus. It has
continues through the second bend to the two types of muscles; the internal anal
descending colon which is on the left side sphincter and external anal sphincter. The
of the posterior abdominal wall and enters former first type of muscle is made up
the sigmoid colon. of smooth muscles, and its contractions
are involuntary, while the later is made
up of skeletal muscles and they are
Generally, colon is very important in the
under voluntary control. Under normal
water balance of the body. Every day,
conditions, these two types of muscles
about seven litres of water from drinks
make the sphincter remain closed except
TY
PE Y
and watery secretions produced internally, when defaecating.

O NL
R
enter the gut. If most of these were not

PR O
reabsorbed, it could lead to dehydration of Nervous and hormonal control of the

T SE
the body. Thus, re-absorption of water in gastric juice secretion

the large intestine is necessary to prevent Digestion is vital for the functions of all
EN U
water loss. systems of a human body. It is under the

M E
nervous and hormonal control systems.

R LIN
Rectum. After food residues have passed Until 19th century, biologists regarded
VE N
through the sigmoid colon, the remaining the digestive system as being entirely
O O
intestinal content is stored as faeces in under nervous control. However, in 1902

G R
the rectum which measures about 20 a British physiologist Sir William M.

FO
cm long. Rectum is located interior to Baylyss discovered secretin hormone

the pelvis and it produces some mucus as vital in the control of gastrointestinal
materialwhich are added to the faeces in functions. Three types of hormones
order to lubricate it for easy passage to the involved in digestion are secretin, gastrin
outside by the process called defecation. and cholecystokinin. Secretion and
The desire for defecation is caused by the release of these hormones is stimulated by
presence of a large quantity of faeces in presence of certain food molecules in the
stomach and small intestine.
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Digestion process is controlled by This in turn causes the secretions of

two types of nervous system namely; histamine and increases hydrochloric acid
the somatic nervous system and the and gastrin secretion in the stomach. In
autonomic nervous system. The somatic comparison to other phases, the cephalic
nervous system enables the body to adapt phase contributes about 20% of the gastric
to stimuli such as touch and smell from secretions while eating.
the external environment and is the system
that controls the gastrointestinal tract. This Gastric phase. This is the second phase
somatic nervous system is further divided and it is so called because it triggers
gastric activity. It occurs once the food is
into sympathetic and parasympathetic
chewed and has arrived in the stomach.
nervous systems. Stimulation of
The partially digested food substances
sympathetic system brings about shunting such as proteins in the stomach stimulate
of blood from gastrointestinal tract. This the endocrine cells in the stomach walls to
reduces digestive activity and causes dry secrete gastrin from gastric glands which
mouth and cessation of salivation. increase the secretion of the gastric juice.
The parasympathetic nervous system, on Normally, the ingested food stimulates

the contrary, is responsible for the secretion gastric activity by stretching the stomach
of saliva, production of digestive enzymes, and raising pH of its contents. Stretching
activation of digestion process and activates the short and long reflexes that
increased peristalsis. The parasympathetic lead into the production of acetylcholine
system dilates blood vessels to increase
TY secreted by the parasympathetic nerve
PE Y
blood flow to the gastrointestinal tract fibres. The acetylcholine and histamine
O NL
from the gastric glands together with

R
after the consumption of food, due to

gastrin stimulate parietal cells to secrete
PR O
great or high metabolic demand placed

hydrochloric acid. The chief cells
T SE
on the body by the gut. The control of secrete pepsinogen in response to gastrin
gastric juice secretion occurs in three
EN U
secretion. Digestion of protein into

phases, namely, nervous, gastric, and peptides and amino acids, stimulate gastrin
M E
intestinal phases. The mechanisms of the

R LIN
cells directly to secrete more gastrin

nervous and hormonal control of digestion to accelerate further protein digestion.
VE N
phasewise is as detailed here under. Normally, peptides buffer the stomach

O O
acidity; therefore, as they leave the

G R
The nervous or cephalic phase. This is stomach acidity increases and as pH gets
FO
the initial stage which is initiated by sight, below 2, a negative feedback is triggered
thought, taste, or smell of food, which to inhibit the parietal and gastrin cells.
later triggers a reflex in which nerve This process winds up the gastric phase
impulses relayed from the brain cause as the need for pepsin and HCl declines.
gastric glands to release their secretions. Furthermore, when fat-containing food
Generally, the nervous signals that trigger enters the stomach, the hormone called
this phase emanate from cerebral cortex enterogastrone or gastric inhibitory
appetite centres and are transmitted to peptide is released from the wall of the
the stomach through the vagus nerve. stomach. This hormone decreases the flow
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Nutrition
of gastric juice and reduces movement

of the muscles of the stomach (churning Exercise 5.5
motions) or gastric peristalsis.
1. Describe the structure of epithelial
Intestinal phase. This phase occurs tissue of the digestive system.
when chyme arrives in the first region 2. Explain how glandular tissues of the
of the small intestine called duodenum alimentary canal are adapted to the
and triggers gastric activity and nervous
functions they perform.
reflexes. Food material in the duodenum
stimulates both the alkaline and enzyme- 3. a) Describe the functions of the
rich components of pancreatic juice. The mammalian stomach.
alkaline component of pancreatic juice is
b) Explain why surgical removal
secreted in response to the presence of acid
of the stomach in human is not
in the duodenum. The acidified chyme in
necessarily fatal.
the duodenum triggers the secretion of
secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) or 4. Describe the role of the liver in
pancreozymin (PZ) from the duodenal digestion.
walls. Secretin causes the production of
bile and mineral salts from gall bladder and
pancreas respectively. CCK stimulates the
secretion of enzymes from pancreas and
contraction of gall bladder to release bile.
TY
Moreover, secretin and CCK suppress
PE Y
O NL
gastric secretion and motility in which a

R
decline in gastrin secretion and contraction

PR O
of pyloric sphincter will limit admission

T SE
of more chyme into the duodenum. This

gives the duodenum ample time to work
EN U
on the chyme it has received before

M E
R LIN
receiving more. The enteroendocrine cells

also secrete gastric-inhibitory peptide,
VE N
also called gastrointestinal inhibitory

O O
peptide (GIP) which inhibits the secretion

G R
of gastric acid in the stomach. Also GIP

FO
stimulates insulin secretion in preparation

for processing nutrients that are about to
be absorbed by the small intestine. Trypsin
in the duodenum inhibits the release of
enzymes via the inhibition of CCK.This
is a feedback control mechanism which
limits the quantity of enzymes in the
small intestine and may have a protective
function.
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Revision questions 6. Using vivid examples, explain types

of heterotrophic nutrition.
1. Distinguish between autotrophic and
heterotrophic modes of nutrition. 7. Explain the role of the pancreas in
digestion.
2. Photosynthesis is not possible 8. Explain the process of digestion in
without photolysis of water. Explain. human alimentary canal.
3. Explain the role of RuBP and 9. Bile does not contain enzyme, yet it
NADPH in photosynthesis. is important for digestion. Explain.
4. Differentiate between cyclic and 10. Give an account on the nervous and
non-cyclic photophosphorylation. hormonal control of the gastric juice
5. Describe the mechanism of Hatch- secretion.
Slack in C4 plants. 11. Explain the factors that affect the
rate of photosynthesis.
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
PR O
T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO

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Chapter
Six
Gaseous exchange and
respiration
Introduction
All living organisms exchange gases between their respiratory surfaces and the
surrounding environment. Respiration is an energy yielding process that liberates
energy, which is used by living organisms to perform various body activities. It is a
vital process to all living organisms as it provides energy for all metabolic processes.
In this chapter, you will learn about the mechanisms of gaseous exchange in mammals
and plants and the process of respiration.
TY
PE Y
6.1 Gaseous exchange in mammals cavity together with the heart. The cavity
O NL
R
Gaseous exchange entails a process of has a protective bony cage called the rib
PR O
exchanging respiratory gases between the cage. The rib cage has ribs and intercostal
cell of an organism and its environment. muscles that allow its movements during
T SE
Oxygen is required for aerobic exhalation and inhalation of air. It is

EN U
respiration. All organisms that undergo surrounded by a double pleural membrane

M E
aerobic respiration obtain oxygen from between which pleural fluid is found.
R LIN
their environment and carbon dioxide, a The fluid aids as a lubricant, preventing
waste product of respiration is returned abrasion of the lungs during breathing.
VE N
O O
to the environment. The area for gaseous It is also associated with the muscular
G R
exchange within the organism’s body is sheath known as the diaphragm. The
FO
called respiratory surface. The process diaphragm separates the thorax from the
of gaseous exchange takes place by abdomen. During inhalation the volume
diffusion. In mammals and other animals, of the thoracic cavity increases, thus
the principal organ for gaseous exchange lowering pressure. This is caused by the
is the lung(s). downward movement of the diaphragm
and the outward movement of the ribs.
The internal structure of the During exhalation, the volume of the
mammalian lung thoracic cavity decreases, thus raising the
A pair of lungs is situated in the thoracic pressure. This is caused by the upward
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movement of the diaphragm and inward It also moistens the air that passes down
movement of the ribs. to the alveoli. The trachea branches at
its lower end into two bronchi. Like the
The lungs consist of the trachea, bronchi,
trachea, each bronchus has cartilage and
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs
ciliated epithelium with goblet cells which
and alveoli (Figure 6.1). The alveoli are
play a role of trapping dust and bacteria.
the main functional units of the lungs.
Each bronchus subdivides into many
Trachea is the windpipe that connects the
smaller tubes known as bronchioles. They
larynx and the bronchi. It receives air from
have cartilage, cilia, and the goblet cells
the nostrils through the nasal cavity. In the
that work similarly as in the trachea and
latter, the air is warmed and cleared from
bronchi; they trap foreign substances. The
dust and germs that may have entered the
bronchioles branch into very fine tubes,
cavity with it. The nasal cavity possesses
alveolar ducts, ending into alveolar sacs
hairs which help to trap dusts and other
and each alveolar sac opens into a group of
tiny particles. The trachea has cartilages
alveoli. The alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs,
in its walls that keep it firm and intact. It
and alveoli do not possess cartilage, cilia
is associated with ciliated epithelium and
and goblet cells. The alveolus possesses
goblet cells. The cilia beating moves the
features that allow it to function in a
trapped dusts and bacteria back to the cavity
special way compared to other structural
where they get swallowed. The goblet
parts of the lungs.
cells are essential for mucus production
that traps dusts and bacteria altogether. TY
PE Y
Larynx
O NL
R
Clavicle (collar bone)

PR O
Trachea (wind pipe)

T SE
Ring of cartilage
External intercostal
EN U
Right lung muscles

M E
R LIN
Bronchus
Bronchioles
VE N
Internal intercostal
O O
Alveoli muscles
G R
FO
Sternum
Intercostal muscle
Left lung
Right rib
Left rib
Pleural membrane Pleural cavity

Diaphragm
Figure 6.1 Structure of the mammalian lungs

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Gaseous exchange and respiration
Alveolus for efficient gaseous exchange. In the

The alveolus is a tiny air-filled sac of process of gaseous exchange, oxygen gas
the mammalian lung. Gaseous exchange from the alveoli diffuse quickly across the
takes place in the alveolus and actually, alveolar wall through the air-blood barrier
it is a functional unit of the lungs. The into the blood capillaries and carried to
estimated total amount of the alveoli in the the heart through pulmonary vein. On
average human is about 700 million that the other hand, the carbon dioxide from
has a total surface area of over 80 square the body tissues enters the heart and
metres which facilitate the rate of gaseous carried from the heart to the lungs by the
exchange. The alveoli are thin, moist and pulmonary artery. It diffuses through the
are well supplied with a dense capillary blood capillary to the alveoli and is then
networks, hence they are highly adapted exhaled (Figure 6.2).
Alveoli
Trachea with rings
Bronchioles
of cartilage
Alveoli
Aorta
Right pulmonary Blood capillary
networks
arteries
Superior Carbondioxide
venacava leave blood
Right capillaries and
TY
pulmonary
PE Y
enter to the
O NL
vein
R
alveolus
PR O
Oxygen leave the

T SE
alveolus and enter to

Right lung the blood capillaries
EN U
Pulmonary Pulmonary
Left lung artery
M E
vein
R LIN
Figure 6.2 Structure of the mammalian lungs showing the association between alveoli and blood
VE N
vessels during gaseous exchange

O O
N
G R
Structurally, the alveoli possess the energy required to breathe in and

FO
connective tissues with elastic collagen inflate the lungs. It also kills bacteria
fibres that allow them to expand and trapped in the incoming air through the
recoil during breathing. Alveoli have nostrils. In addition, it increases the rate of
special epithelia cells in their walls that gaseous exchange in mammals. They also
secrete a detergent-like chemical known have macrophages which are protective
as surfactant into the alveolar space. The cells that remove debris and microbes by
surfactant lowers the surface tension of phagocytosis (Figure 6.3).
the fluid inside the alveoli, hence reducing
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Connective tissue cell

Epithelial cell produce surfactant
Macrophage Alveolar air space

Epithelial cell
Alveolar barriers
White blood cell
Blood plasma Blood capillary
Red blood cells
Figure 6.3 Structure of the alveolus
Surface tension of the lungs Activity 6.1 Observation of the

The surface tension provided by surfactant structure of the mammalian lungs
stabilizes the alveoli during inflation
and dilation resulting from inhalation Materials
and exhalation of gases. The surfactant Mouse or rat, dissection kit, dissecting
is a phospholipid and a protein chemical tray, chloroform, and cotton wool.
produced in early development stage
TY
PE Y
of foetus. This chemical helps to lower Procedure

O NL
R
the surface tension and promote lungs’ a) Use your dissection knowledge to
PR O
expansion during inspiration (inhalation) open up the body cavity of a mouse

in the usual way to display the
T SE
and preventing alveolar collapse. It is

lungs.
also believed to protect the lungs from
EN U
b) Use a hand lens to observe the

infections.
M E
thoracic and abdominal cavities as

R LIN
well as the diaphragm.

The proteins and lipids that make up the
VE N
surfactant have both hydrophobic and Questions

O O
hydrophilic region that are important in 1. Draw a well labelled diagram of

G R
lowering the surface tension by adsorbing your dissection.

FO
to the air–water surface interface, with 2. Explain the functions of each part of
hydrophobic head groups in water and the mammalian lungs.
hydrophobic tail facing towards the air.
Safety precautions
1. Laboratory rules and regulations
should be adhered to.
2. Rat or mouse may bite and also
their fur may cause allergy to a
human being.
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Factors governing gaseous exchange at c) Availability of high supply of blood

respiratory surface capillaries
Gaseous exchange occurs on the The mammalian respiratory surfaces
respiratory surface; a boundary between are well supplied with blood by blood
the external environment and the interior capillaries. This enables high uptake of
of the body of an organism. Mammalian oxygen in the alveoli, which increases the
respiratory surface consists of many air rate of gaseous exchange. In the red blood
sacs called alveoli which are found inside cells, there is haemoglobin that helps to
a pair of lungs. An efficient gaseous transport oxygen by combining with it
exchange occurs when the respiratory to form oxyhaemoglobin which helps in
surface has large surface area and can transportation of oxygen to different parts
quickly distribute and collect gases
of the body where it is required.
throughout the body. Moreover, an
efficient gaseous exchange can occur
when the respiratory surface has ability d) Thickness of the membrane
to speed up or slow down the exchange The rate of gaseous exchange is affected
rate to meet the body demand. In general, by the thickness of the membrane across
for an efficient gaseous exchange in which the gases have to diffuse. A thick
mammals, the respiratory surface must membrane reduces the rate at which gases
have the following features: diffuse from areas of high concentration
to those of low concentration. This is due
a) Large surface area of the membrane to long distance of travel as the result
of membrane thickness. Generally, the
TY
There is a direct relationship between
PE Y
the surface area and the rate of gaseous thickness of the membrane is inversely
O NL
R
exchange. Generally, the larger the surface proportional to the rate of diffusion.
PR O
area of the membrane, the higher the rate

T SE
of gaseous exchange. This is because e) Diffusion distance

when the surface area is large, more blood The distance across which air, blood, or
EN U
and air can circulate, hence increasing the plasma fluid has to diffuse also determines
M E
rate of gaseous exchange. the rate of gaseous exchange. In single-

R LIN
celled organisms, gaseous exchange

b) Concentration gradient
VE N
tends to be faster because the gases

O O
Concentration gradient is created when have to diffuse through only one cell
the two sides separated by a membrane
G R
surface membrane while in multi-cellular

FO
have different concentrations of gases.

organisms, gaseous exchange requires a
This difference in concentration is
complex transportation and respiratory
actually what facilitates the process of
system as the gases are transported
gaseous exchange because gases can
through a longer distance.
move from areas of high concentration to
those of low concentration. Therefore, for
f) Moist surface
gaseous exchange to occur there must be
Since respiratory gases are transported
a concentration gradient.
in solution form, they must dissolve in
liquid before they are carried away from
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the respiratory surfaces. Thus, an efficient from gills in fish and tadpoles to lungs in
respiratory surface must be moist for rapid adult amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
exchange and transportation of respiratory
gases. Oxygen transport in vertebrates
In vertebrates oxygen is transported in
g) Permeability two ways: as dissolved oxygen in blood
Since the membrane form the boundary plasma and by means of red blood cells.
between organism and its extracellular The oxygen transported in solution form in
environment, its permeability affects the the blood plasma accounts for only about
rate of gaseous exchange. Therefore, a two percent (2%), and the remaining ninty
respiratory surface must be permeable to eight percent (98%) is transported by the
allow gases to pass through. red blood cells. The red blood cells have
a red pigment called haemoglobin which
Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport is responsible for transport of oxygen and
in vertebrates carbon dioxide in the blood. Structurally,
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are the the haemoglobin molecule consists of
respiratory gases that have to be transported four Iron-containing parts and four protein
from one part of the body to another. chains. Each haemoglobin molecule binds
Oxygen is transported from the respiratory to four oxygen molecules, forming the
surfaces to the respiring body tissues and oxyhaemoglobin molecule. This is carried
carbon dioxide has to be transported from to individual cells in the body tissue where
the respiring body tissues to the respiratory it is released. The binding or combination
TY
PE Y
surfaces. Vertebrates such as mammals, of oxygen and haemoglobin is a reversible

O NL
R
birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish, have process as shown in the equation below:
PR O
a variety of respiratory surfaces, ranging

T SE
EN U
M E
R LIN
According to the above equation, at high the haemoglobin becomes. Usually the
oxygen concentration, oxyhaemoglobin graph is S-shaped or sigmoid.
VE N
O O
is formed, whereas at low oxygen

G R
concentration, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates The curve shows the following:

FO
into haemoglobin and oxygen. This a) At relatively low oxygen concentration,

dissociation releases oxygen from there is uncombined haemoglobin in the
haemoglobin. The balance can be shown blood and little or no oxyhaemoglobin
by an oxygen dissociation curve of exists. This is most likely to occur
oxyhaemoglobin (Figure 6.4). In the in the body tissues, where oxygen
oxygen dissociation curve, the greater concentration is likely be low.
the concentration or partial pressure of
b) At relatively high oxygen concentration,
oxygen, the more saturated with oxygen
haemoglobin combines with oxygen
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in the blood to form oxyhaemoglobin. is likely to occur in the lungs, where

Therefore, most haemoglobin molecules oxygen concentration is high.
are saturated with oxygen. This situation
% saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen 100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15
Partial pressure of oxygen/ KPa
Figure 6.4 The oxygen dissociation curve of haemoglobin
The effect of carbon dioxide in the TY dissociation curves when less carbon
transport of oxygen in blood dioxide is present and when more carbon
PE Y
O NL
Increased concentration of carbon dioxide dioxide is present in the blood.

R
can affect oxygen transport in the blood.

PR O
This is because haemoglobin can combine The Bohr Effect

T SE
with carbon dioxide (although to a lesser The Bohr Effect is an increase in carbon
EN U
extent) to form carbaminohaemoglobin. dioxide partial pressure of the blood or

M E
The presence of carbon dioxide lowers decrease in blood pH resulting into a

R LIN
the affinity of haemoglobin to oxygen lower affinity of haemoglobin to oxygen.

VE N
and causes the release of oxygen from It is manifested by right-ward shifting

O O
haemoglobin. Therefore, an increase in of oxygen dissociation curve, resulting

G R
carbon dioxide in the tissues causes faster from enhanced unloading of oxygen by
FO
release of oxygen from haemoglobin and haemoglobin. The relationship between

this is known as the Bohr Effect which is carbon dioxide partial pressure and blood
the result of shifting of dissociation curves pH is mediated by carbonic anhydrase
to the right in areas with increased partial which catalyses conversion of gaseous
pressure of carbon dioxide (Figure 6.5). carbon dioxide to carbonic acid, that in
The effect of carbon dioxide concentration turn releases a free hydrogen ion, hence
on oxygen transport by haemoglobin can reducing the local pH of blood.
be revealed by comparing the oxygen
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100
% saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen

Without CO2 in the blood
With CO2 in the blood

80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15
Partial pressure of oxygen/ kPa
Figure 6.5 Oxygen dissociation curves of haemoglobin at different partial pressures

of carbon dioxide
Transport of carbon dioxide solution form and a small amount as

Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the tissues carbonic acid.
into the blood for transportation. The body
b) It can be transported in combination
does not allow accumulation of carbon
with proteins: carbon dioxide
dioxide because it forms an acid with
TY
combines reversibly with haemoglobin
PE Y
water that could lead to fatal changes of

O NL
to form a compound known as

R
blood pH. Carbon dioxide is transported

carbaminohaemoglobin. It does not bind
PR O
both, in plasma and in red blood cells by

to iron as oxygen does but to amine group
three different ways.
T SE
(NH2) at the end of each polypeptide chain

a) It can be transported either as physical
EN U
of haemoglobin and plasma proteins.

solution (as dissolved carbon dioxide)
M E
About 10 – 20% of carbon dioxide is

or as carbonic acid (H2CO3). However
R LIN
transported in this way.

it is only about five percent (5%) of
VE N
carbon dioxide that is transported in

O O
N
G R
FO
c) It can be transported as hydrogen carbonic acid (H2CO3). This reaction

bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). Most of is catalysed by the enzyme carbonic
the carbon dioxide (about 85%) in anhydrase which is found in red
the body is transported as hydrogen blood cells. Then, the carbonic acid
carbonate. Carbon dioxide enters red dissociates to form bicarbonate ions
blood cells in the tissue’s capillaries (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions (H+).
where it combines with water to form

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Most of the hydrogen carbonate ions reaction occurs and carbon dioxide is
formed in the red blood cells diffuse released (Figure 6.6).
from the cytoplasm to the plasma and
combine with sodium to form sodium The dissociation of carbonic acid increases
hydrogen carbonate. The negatively the acidity of the blood. Hydrogen ions
charged hydrogen carbonate ions are lost (H+) then react with oxyhaemoglobin
from the blood cells, leaving them with to release bound oxygen and reduce the
a more positive charge. This is balanced acidity of the blood. This buffering action
by diffusion of chloride ions (Cl-) in the allows large quantities of carbonic acid
opposite direction, maintaining the balance to be carried in the blood without major
of negative and positive ions in either changes in blood pH.
side of the plasma and red blood cells.
This is called the chloride shift which
is also known as the Hamburger shift or
Hamburger phenomenon. It is named after This reversible reaction accounts for the
the founder, Hartog Jakob Hamburger. Bohr Effect. Carbon dioxide is a waste
The chloride shift reaction occurs in the product of respiration. Its concentration is
respiring cell. When the red blood cells
TY high in the respiring cells; it is here where
PE Y
reach the lungs the reverse process or the haemoglobin releases oxygen.
O NL
R
PR O
T SE
EN U
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H++ HCO3-

Tissue
CO2
M E
fluid CO2 + HHbNH2 HHbNHCOOH NaHCO3

R LIN
(Haemoglobin) (carbamino-haemoglobin)
Plasma
HHb
VE N
Na+
O O
Tissue +
O2 O2 + Hb Cl-
fluid Erythrocyte
G R
HbO2
FO
(oxyhaemoglobin)
Chloride shift
Mitochondrion Red blood cell
Figure 6.6 Carbon dioxide transport by plasma and red blood cells
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Haemoglobin is strongly attracted to altitudes, but the atmospheric pressure

carbon dioxide molecules. Carbon dioxide falls with increasing altitudes. The
is removed to reduce its concentration in oxygen tension (partial pressure of
the cell and is transported to the lungs oxygen molecules dissolved in blood
where its concentration is low. This process plasma) varies with altitudes (Table 6.1).
is continuous since oxygen concentration Organisms living in a particular altitude
in the lungs, is always higher than that of have to develop adaptive features that
carbon dioxide, while in the respiring cells can enable them to sustain their lives in
carbon dioxide concentration is always their particular environment. Among the
higher than that of oxygen. organisms that live in the environments
that need them to develop some adaptive
Adaptation of organisms to oxygen features aimed at facilitating oxygen
uptake uptake include mountain dwellers, divers,
The percentage of oxygen in the air and mammalian foetus.
does not change significantly at different
Table 6.1 The effects of altitude on the atmospheric pressure and oxygen tension
Altitude(m)above Atmospheric Oxygen

Oxygen tension(kPa)
sea level pressure(kPa) content(%)
0 101.3 20.9 21.2
2500 74.7 20.9 15.7
TY
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5000 54.0 20.9 11.3

O NL
R
7000 38.5 20.9 8.1

PR O
10000 26.4 20.9 5.5

T SE
Adaptations to oxygen uptake for

EN U
a) Their bone marrow produce more red

mountain climbers and dwellers blood cells in order to raise the oxygen-
M E
R LIN
In mountain climbers and high altitude carrying capacity of the blood.

dwelling mammals, the rate of metabolism b) They possess a form of haemoglobin
VE N
is high in order to ensure constant

O O
with higher affinity to oxygen.

generation of enough energy to cope with This allows loading of oxygen by
G R
climbing activities, hence the supply of

FO
haemoglobin even at low oxygen

oxygen should be assured. However, the tension.
partial pressure of oxygen in high altitude
is low which makes the climbers difficult c) They secrete more alkaline urine
to pick up oxygen. For these reasons, that normalises blood pH. The
mountain climbers and mammals living chemoreceptors become sensitive
in high altitudes develop the following to carbon dioxide concentration
adaptive features: and normal ventilation rates are
maintained.

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d) Their tissues are tolerant to high levels b) They have a high blood volume with
of lactic acid due to oxygen deficiency. plenty of haemoglobin and myoglobin.
e) They have larger lungs, hence This allows long oxygen retention time.
increased lung volumes and total lung
c) They have a high tolerance to lactic
capacity, therefore large amount of
acid and carbon dioxide, that is, their
haemoglobin loaded with oxygen.
muscles can work anaerobically while
f) They have deep and slow breathing rate holding their breath.
that improves ventilation efficiency
for oxygen, since blood oxygenation d) They can tolerate tremendous
increases, and it reduces systemic and atmospheric pressure at great depths.
pulmonary blood pressures. Their lungs and ribs are collapsible;
air spaces are minimised; and nitrogen
Adaptations to oxygen uptake for absorption is limited.
divers
e) Diving mammals slow their heart rate,
Divers in the deep water do not depend
stop their breathing, and shunt blood
on lungs as a source of oxygen; instead,
flow from their extremities to the brain,
they rely on enhanced oxygen stored in
heart, and muscles when starting a dive.
their blood and muscles. Collapse of the
lungs forces air away from the alveoli, f) Seals can hold their breath for about
where gaseous exchange between the two hours. They rely on internal oxygen
lungs and blood occurs. This blunting of stores when they are down there.
gaseous exchange is important in the deep
TY
PE Y
diver because it prevents the absorption of g) Myoglobin of the seals and dolphins is
O NL
R
nitrogen into the blood and the subsequent more concentrated than that of humans,
development of high blood nitrogen
PR O
almost ten times, this gives them a

levels. High blood nitrogen pressure can
T SE
chance of storing oxygen for a long time

exert a narcotic effect (so-called nitrogen when under water.
EN U
narcosis) on the diver. It may also lead to

M E
nitrogen bubble formation during ascent,

R LIN
a phenomenon known as decompression Adaptations of the mammalian foetus

sickness or “the bends”. Collapse of the to oxygen uptake
VE N
lungs in deep divers helps to avoid these The foetus lives and develops inside
O O
two problems. Thus, diving mammals, the maternal womb (uterus). It obtains
G R
besides the collapse of their lungs, have nutrients, exchange gases and waste
FO
the following adaptive mechanisms to products with the maternal blood via the
placenta. For the foetus to obtain oxygen
oxygen uptake:
from maternal blood, the oxygen has to
a) They use oxygen more efficiently, that diffuse from maternal blood to foetus
is, they fill their lungs and exchange blood. There are some adaptations to this,
90% of their air in each breath. Thus, which are;
before a dive is taken, they take a deep a) Foetal haemoglobin has higher affinity
breath to accumulate oxygen in their to oxygen; hence it can readily combine
lungs. with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
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(Figure.6.7). This allows the foetus leads to a change in function when

to extract oxygen from the maternal compared to adult hemoglobin. It has
blood supply. In adult hemoglobin, been shown that the structural changes
the protein subunits are identical in foetal hemoglobin caused by the
beta-chain subunits, while in foetal substitution of gamma subunits for
hemoglobin, the two subunits are beta-chains, allows foetal hemoglobin
identical gamma subunits. This change to have a higher affinity to oxygen.
in structure of foetal hemoglobin also
100%
% saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen
Foetal
haemoglobin
Adult
haemoglobin
50%
TY
5 10
PE Y
O NL
Partial pressure of Oxygen (kPa)

R
PR O
Figure 6.7 Oxygen dissociation curve for foetal and adult haemoglobin
T SE
b) There is increased intake of oxygen

EN U
by maternal blood due to increased Exercise 6.1

M E
haemoglobin so as to ensure a large

1. Explain why babies can stay alive in
R LIN
supply of oxygen to the foetus blood.

the wombs of their mothers despite the
VE N
c) The uterine wall is highly vascularised fact that they are not in direct contact
O O
(provided with blood vessels) to with the atmospheric air.

G R
ensure continuous supply of oxygen

2. Describe the ways by which oxygen
FO
to the foetus, as a result, the foetus

loads its haemoglobin with oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in
efficiently. vertebrates.
3. Draw the oxygen-haemoglobin
dissociation curve and comment on its
shape.
4. What is chloride shift? Explain how it
occurs.

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6.2 Gaseous exchange in plants Stomatal opening and closing

Plants obtain oxygen and carbondioxide The opening and closing of stomata
mainly through their leaves. They also depends on changes in the turgor pressure
use lenticels (raised pores found on stems of the guard cells. When water flows
of woody plants) for exchanging minute into the guard cells by osmosis, their
amounts of gases. They require oxygen turgor increases and they expand. Due
for respiration and carbon dioxide for to the relatively inelastic inner wall, the
photosynthesis. These gases diffuse into guard cells bend and draw away from
the intercellular spaces of the leaf through each other, allowing the opening of the
stomatal pores which are normally found pore, hence the air passes into the leaf.
on the underside of the leaf and the gases If the guard cells lose water, the opposite
diffuse into the cells that require them happens and the pore closes. The guard
(Figure 6.8). The lenticel is a porous tissue cells lower their water potential to draw
consisting of cells with large intercellular in water from the surrounding epidermal
spaces in the periderm of secondarily cells by actively accumulating potassium
thickened organs; the bark of woody stems, ions. This process requires energy in the
and roots of dicotyledonous flowering form of ATP. The energy is supplied by
plants. Like the stomata, it functions as the mitochondria that are found in the
a pore that provides a pathway for the guard cells.
direct exchange of gases between internal
tissues and the atmosphere. TY
PE Y
Waxy cuticle
O NL
R
PR O
Upper epidermis
T SE
EN U
Palisade
Air space
M E
mesophyll
R LIN
VE N
O O
Vascular bundle
N
containing xylem and

G R
phloem
FO
Spongy
mesophyll
O2
Guard cell with Lower epidermis
Stoma CO2
chloroplasts
Figure 6.8 Internal structure of a leaf showing the position of stomata for gaseous exchange
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The process of respiration in plants e) Using forceps and a needle, take

occurs throughout the day and night, out the layer of the leaf and place
providing energy to the plants. The light it on a slide.
dependent phase of photosynthesis can f) Add a drop of glycerin over the leaf
only occur during the day time and stops layer to prevent the leaf layer from
at night or during darkness. One product getting dry, then place a slide cover
of respiration is carbon dioxide gas. over it.
This can be used by the plant directly g) Use a blotting paper to remove the
for photosynthesis. However, during the excess stain and glycerin.
day, the rate of photosynthesis can be 10
h) Observe the leaf layer on a slide
or even 20 times faster than respiration
under the microscope.
(depending on light intensity). Therefore,
the stomata must stay open for longer
Questions
periods to allow adequate diffusion of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into 1. Draw and label what you have
the plant cells. observed.
2. What conclusion can you make from
your observation?
Activity 6.2 Observation of stomata
on a plant leaf
Safety precaution
Materials Be careful when working with sharp
A potted Tradescantia plant, water, for- objects such as needle, surgical or razor
TY
PE Y
ceps, needle, surgical or razor blade, blade.

O NL
R
watch glasses, light microscope, slide,

PR O
slide cover, blotting paper, safranin, and

Exercise 6.2
T SE
glycerin.
1. Explain the factors that govern
EN U
Procedure efficient gaseous exchange at the

M E
a) Remove a healthy leaf from the respiratory surfaces.

R LIN
potted plant. 2. Describe the adaptations of mountain

b) Use a surgical or razor blade and
VE N
climbers or dwellers to oxygen

forceps to remove a thin outer layer
O O
uptake.
from the lower surface of the leaf.
G R
3. Explain the mechanisms of gaseous

(Alternatively, you can do this by
FO
exchange in plants.
folding the leaf, and gently pulling 4. Discuss why it is not advisable
the thin layer apart using forceps). to sleep in a room with air-tight
c) Place the leaf layer in a watch glass windows while the burning charcoal
containing water. or potted plants are inside.
5. Explain how partial pressures of CO2
d) Add a few drops of safranin stain
and O2 may influence the process
in a watch glass containing a thin
of gaseous exchange in plants and
layer of the leaf, then leave it for 2-3
animals.
minutes.

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6.3 Respiration they respire. So, the more the hydrogen

Respiration is a process by which food bonds are broken, the larger the amount
substances are oxidised to release of energy released. Lipids’ energy density
energy in the form of ATP, which is is more than twice that of carbohydrates
needed for metabolic activities in the because of their long fatty acid tails with
body. Respiration takes place within the large number of hydrogen atoms.
mitochondria of a cell. Since respiration
takes place in a living cell, it is commonly Table 6.2 Respiratory substrates and their energy
referred to as cellular respiration. There are values
two types of respiration, namely aerobic S/N Respiratory Energy value
respiration and anaerobic respiration. substrate (KJ/g)
Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence
1 Carbohydrates 15.8
of oxygen, while anaerobic respiration
occurs in the absence of oxygen (due 2 Lipids 39.4
to that, it is sometimes referred to as 3 Protein 17.0
fermentation). Aerobic respiration
involves three main stages or processes, a) Carbohydrates
namely glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle, and These are the main respiratory
oxidative phosphorylation. Respiration issubstrates used by most respiring cells.
Carbohydrates include polysaccharides,
an important process as it yields chemical
energy in the form of ATP, which enables disaccharides, and monosaccharides.
organisms to perform life activities Polysaccharides such glycogen, cellulose,
TY
PE Y
such as movement, growth, excretion and starch must be hydrolysed into simple
O NL
R
and reproduction. Respiration process monosaccharides such as glucose; in

PR O
involves oxidation of organic compounds contrast, disaccharides have to undergo

hydrolysis into three monosaccharides,
T SE
known as respiratory substrates. These are

carbohydrates, fats, or proteins. namely glucose, galactose, and
EN U
fructose, depending on the type of the

M E
Respiratory substrates and their disaccharide that has been hydrolysed.

R LIN
energy value Monosaccharides are usually in the form

VE N
Different respiratory substrates release of hexose sugars. After their production,

O O
different amounts of energy (Table they are then utilized in the respiratory
G R
6.2). The difference in energy values pathways to release energy.

FO
of respiratory substrates is due to the

amount of hydrogen atoms present in each b) Lipids (fats and oils)
substrate. The more hydrogen atom in the Lipids can be used as a respiratory
molecule of a respiratory substrate, the substrate when the carbohydrates are
more energy (ATP) is generated during exhausted. When hydrolysed, each
respiration. Mitochondria synthesize molecule releases three fatty acids and one
water using the hydrogen atoms removed glycerol molecule. Fatty acid are energy-
from organic molecules, such as glucose, rich compounds that enter the respiratory
and the oxygen atoms they take in as pathways in order to release energy.
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c) Protein and it does not require the presence

Generally, protein is not used as an energy of oxygen. Physiologically, glycolysis
source unless the body has no other option. produces energy at a high rate, but for a
When all carbohydrate and lipid reserves short duration. In anaerobic condition,
are fully utilised, proteins come into use. pyruvate can be reduced to lactate
Proteins are not used in the first place by lactate dehydrogenase. Anaerobic
because of the variety of vital roles they glycolysis is also an effective means of
play in the body. Proteins are hydrolysed energy production during short intense
into amino acids and then deaminated. exercise. Under aerobic condition
Deamination involves the removal of the pyruvate is converted to Acetyl CoA and
amino group. The remaining acid may continues to the citric acid cycle (Kreb’s
enter the Kreb’s cycle directly or may cycle) in the mitochondria. Pyruvate can
be converted into fatty acids before they also be converted to ethanol and CO2
enter the Kreb’s cycle. The amount of (fermentation) in anaerobic conditions
ATP produced from protein metabolism is and allows cells to make small amounts
slightly less than glucose metabolism for of ATP.
equivalent weights.
Some cells such as yeast are unable
Respiratory reactions to carry out aerobic respiration and
There are two fundamental types of will automatically move into a type of
reactions in cellular respiration, and these anaerobic respiration called alcoholic
are oxidation or decarboxylation. fermentation. This occurs with the help of
TY
PE Y
the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase which

O NL
R
Oxidation. During respiration, oxidation removes a carbon dioxide molecule from

PR O
can take place in three ways; through the pyruvate to yield an acetaldehyde.
T SE
addition of oxygen, removal of hydrogen The acetaldehyde is then reduced by the

(dehydrogenation) removal of electrons. enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, which
EN U
transfers the hydrogen from NADH to the

M E
Decarboxylation. Decarboxylation is acetaldehyde to yield NAD and ethanol.

R LIN
the removal of carbon from a compound

VE N
to form carbon dioxide. For a glucose Glycolysis process

O O
molecule which contains carbon, hydrogen Normally, glycolysis is a determined

G R
and oxygen, it is the hydrogen which is sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed

FO
required for respiration. Thus, carbon has reactions and each step is facilitated by
to be removed by decarboxylation. a different enzyme. The intermediates
provide entry points to glycolysis, although,
Glycolysis usually starts with glucose or glycogen
Cellular respiration occurs in all living to produce glucose-6-phosphate. The
organisms. Glycolysis is the first stage starting points for other monosaccharides
of cellular respiration whereby glucose such as galactose and fructose can be
is oxidised into pyruvate. This process converted into one of these intermediates.
takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell
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All the reaction steps for the glycolysis the phosphate group (Pi) in an organic
take place in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis molecule. In this stage of phosphorylation,
yields an overall of two molecules of two phosphate groups attach to the
ATP which are free energy-containing glucose in order to make it more reactive.
molecules, two molecules of pyruvic acid In the first step of glycolysis, a phosphate
and two “high energy” electron carrying group from ATP is transferred to glucose
molecules of Nicotinamide Adenine producing glucose-6-phosphate, a more
Dinucleotide (NADH). Glucose can also
reactive form of glucose. The enzyme
be synthesized from non-carbohydrate
hexokinase, with broad specificity
precursors by reactions referred to as
catalyzes the phosphorylation of six-
gluconeogenesis. The pentose phosphate
pathway enables cells to convert glucose- carbon sugars by addition of a phosphate
6-phosphate, a derivative of glucose, group to glucose in the cell’s cytoplasm.
to ribose-5-phosphate and other types The enzyme hexokinase splits ATP into
of monosaccharides. The NADH is an ADP and the Pi is added on to the glucose.
important cellular reducing agent, which is Phosphorylation prevents transport of
also produced by this pathway. Generally, glucose out of the cell and increases the
glycolysis involves three main stages, reactivity of the oxygen in the resulting
namely phosphorylation of glucose, lysis phosphate ester. The negative charge of the
and oxidation by dehydrogenation. phosphate prevents passage of the sugar
phosphate through the plasma membrane,
a) Phosphorylation of glucose
TY
trapping glucose inside the cell.
PE Y
Phosphorylation refers to the addition of

O NL
R
PR O
T SE
Glucose (C6H12O6) + ATP ⎯Hexokinase

⎯⎯⎯Mg
→ Glucose 6-phosphate (C6H11O6P) + ADP + H
EN U
M E
H
R LIN
H
HC OH HC O P
VE N
H O H O H
O O
H
N
H Hexokinase
H
OH H + ATP + ADP + H
G R
OH OH Mg OH H
OH OH
FO
H OH H OH
Glucose Glucose -6- phosphate
The first product of phosphorylation of glucose is glucose-6-phosphate, which is

isomerized to fructose-6-phosphate by phosphoglucose isomerase enzyme.
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H
H H
HC 6 O P O
P O CH HC 1 OH
O H
6
H 5
4
H 1 phosphoglucose isomerase
5 2
OH H H H OH OH
OH 3 2 OH
4 3
H OH OH H
Glucose -6-phosphate Fructose -6- phosphate
Fructose-6-phosphate is further purpose for phosphorylation is to prevent

phosphorylated to fructose-1, 6-biphosphate, any later product from diffusing out of the
under the enzyme phosphofructokinase cell because charged molecules cannot
(PFK) and another ATP molecule is easily cross membranes. The entry of
used to transfer a phosphate group to sugars into glycolysis is controlled at this
fructose-6-phosphate to form fructose 1, step, through regulation of the enzyme
6-biphosphate. The new hydroxyl group on phosphofructokinase.
C-1 is phosphorylated by ATP. Another
Fructose-6-phosphate (C6H11O6P) + ATP ⎯phosphofructokinase

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ADP + Fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate (C6H10O6P2).
TY
H H H H
PE Y
P O CH O HC OH O CH O HC1 O P
O NL
R
6
PFK 5
+ ATP
2
+ ADP + H
PR O
H H OH OH Mg H H OH OH
T SE
4 3
OH H OH H
EN U
Fructose -6-phosphate Fructose 1-6-bisphosphate

M E
R LIN
that are isomers of each other. These two

VE N
The phosphofructokinase catalysed reactionsugars are dihydroxyacetone phosphate

O O
is irreversible under cellular conditions,and glyceraldehyde phosphate also

G R
and therefore, is the first committed step in

known as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
FO
glycolysis. or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (3-PGAL).

Only the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
b) Lysis can proceed immediately through
In this stage the phosphorylated 6-carbon glycolysis. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
sugar is broken down with the help must be isomerised to glyceraldehyde-3-
of enzymes into two 3-carbon sugar phosphate by the enzyme phosphotriose
phosphate. The enzyme aldolase splits isomerase to continue with the next steps
fructose 1, 6-biphosphate into two sugars of the glycolytic pathway.

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Fructose 1, 6-biphosphate (C6H10O6P2) + aldolase ↔ Dihydroxyacetone phosphate

(C3H5O3P) + Glyceraldehyde phosphate (C3H5O3P)
o o O
O
6
H
o P o CH2
O
1
CH2 o P o 1 CH2 O P o 4 C
Aldolase
o 5
OH 2
o 2 C O o + H C
5 OH O
OH
4 3
3 CH2 OH
6 CH2 O P o
OH
o
Fructose-1-6-bisphosphate Dihydroxyacetone Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
phosphate
c) Oxidation by dehydrogenation is composed of three carbon-based rings

In this step, an enzyme removes one and a tail of two phosphate groups. The
hydrogen atom and two electrons from each addition of the third phosphate group to
three-carbon molecules. Both hydrogen the tail forms ATP. In this step, two new
atoms are modified to hydrogen ions, ATP molecules are produced; this is the
positively charged particles. The hydrogen substrate-level phosphorylation. When
ion and two electrons from each three- cells require energy, another enzyme
carbon molecule are transferred as a unit breaks off the third phosphate group,
to a large molecule called Nicotinamide releasing energy that powers the cell. The
Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) to form TY removal of the third phosphate from ATP
two molecules of reduced NADH. The converts ATP back to ADP, which is used
PE Y
O NL
hydrogen ions and electrons stored in again in cellular respiration to make more
R
each molecule of NADH are used to make ATP.

PR O
ATP in later stages of cellular respiration

T SE
during oxidative phosphorylation of the When the two 3 carbon compounds

EN U
electron transport chain. are separated from the phosphate

M E
groups, the three-carbon compounds are

R LIN
In the final steps of glycolysis, two converted to two molecules of pyruvate,

VE N
hydrogen atoms are removed from each each composed of three carbons, three
O O
three-carbon compound. These hydrogen oxygen, and three hydrogen atoms.

G R
atoms bond to free-floating oxygen When glycolysis is complete, important

FO
atoms in the cytoplasm to form water. products are produced; two molecules
This step prepares the two three-carbon of NADH, two molecules of pyruvate
compounds for action by the next enzyme (pyruvic acid) and two molecules of ATP.
in the pathway. This enzyme removes the NADH and pyruvate are used in the next
phosphate group from each of the three- steps of cellular respiration and the ATP
carbon compounds. Each phosphate molecules are used for reactions in the cell
group then bonds to a single molecule that require energy.
of adenosine diphosphate (ADP). ADP
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The process can be detailed as follows: molecule. Again two molecules of ATP
Glyceraldehyde -3- phosphate or and two pyruvate are formed; as explained
3-phospho-glyceraldehyde (3-PGAL) is earlier, because the triose phosphate has
converted to 1, 3-biphosphoglycerate or 1, to enter twice in the glycolysis process
3-diphosphoglyceric acid (1,3-diPGA) by that is; when 3-PGAL is used, the
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase dihydroxyacetone phosphate is converted
enzyme where NAD is reduced to to 3-PGAL and enters the cycle. The
NADH2. Then 1,3-diPGA is converted to formation of pyruvate ends the glycolysis
3-phophoglycerate or 3-phosphoglyceric process. (Figure 6.9).
acid (3-PGA) by phosphoglycerate kinase
enzyme, this process involve the loss of
phosphate group (Pi) from 1,3-diPGA to Exercise 6.3
form (3-PGA), and the Pi is transferred to
1. Discuss the role of enzymes in a
a molecule of ADP to form the first ATP
glycolytic pathway.
molecules. Actually, two molecules of
ATP are formed because there were two 2. What would happen if the first enzyme
triose phosphate produced in the lysis of in glycolysis is irreversibly inhibited
Fructose-1,6-biphosphate. But the two by a toxic substance?
ATP formed are used to pay back the
initial ATP used during the first process 3. Starting with glucose, write the overall
of glycolysis (phosphorylation of glucose reaction for aerobic respiration.
stage). 4. What are the main stages of aerobic
TY
PE Y
O NL
respiration? List down the important

R
The formed 3-PGA is converted to materials that are involved in each

PR O
2-phosphoglycerate or 2-phosphoglyceric stage.

T SE
acid (2-PGA) by phosphoglyceromutase

(phosphoglycerate mutase) enzyme. 5. The initial stages of glycolysis
EN U
This enzyme rearranges the phosphate involve the use of ATP. Explain.
M E
R LIN
group from the third carbon of 3-PGA

to the second carbon, hence forming
VE N
2-PGA. The 2-phosphoglycerate is then The fate of pyruvic acid

O O
converted to phosphoenol pyruvate The pyruvate produced during glycolysis

G R
(PEP) under the influence of enolase

FO
has two possible fates, depending on the

enzyme, in this reaction water molecule is
availability of oxygen in the cell. In the
removed from 2-phosphoglycerate. Then
presence of oxygen, the pyruvate will
the phosphoenol pyruvate is converted
enter Kreb’s cycle in which they will be
into pyruvate (pyruvic acid) by pyruvate
kinase enzyme, where by the phosphate completely oxidised into carbon dioxide
group (Pi) from PEP is transferred to and water. Alternatively, in the absence
ADP molecule and combine to form ATP of oxygen (in anaerobic condition) the
pyruvate will undergo fermentation.

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Glucose
ATP
Hexokinase
ADP
Glucose-6-phosphate
Phosphoglucose
isomerase
Fructose -6-phosphate
Phosphofructokinase
Fructose 1.6-biphosphate
Aldolase
Triosephosphate
isomerase
Dihydroxyacetone Glyceraldehyde -3- phosphate
phosphate
NADP+ + Pi
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
dehydrogenase
NADH + H+
1,3-biphosphoglycerate
TY
PE Y
O NL
ADP
R
PR O
Phosphoglyceratekinase
ATP
T SE
3-Phosphoglycerate
EN U
M E
Phosphoglyceromutase
R LIN
VE N
2-Phosphoglycerate
O O
N
G R
Enolase
FO
H 2O
Phosphoenolypyruvate
ATP
Pyruvate
kinase
ADP
Pyruvate
Figure 6.9 The glycolysis process
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The fate of pyruvic acid under aerobic (CoA) resulting into formation of
respiration acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA).
In aerobic respiration, the pyruvate from b) Oxidation by dehydrogenation, in the
glycolysis is completely oxidised to presence of dehydrogenase enzyme
carbon dioxide and water using oxygen. and NAD.
In the first stage, pyruvic acid is broken
down to carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The Kreb’s cycle
This occurs in the matrix of mitochondria Kreb’s cycle is also known as citric acid
and involves the Kreb’s cycle. In the cycle. When oxygen is available the
second stage, hydrogen is oxidised by pyruvate produced during glycolysis
oxygen to water in a series of reactions enters Kreb’s cycle, named after Sir Hans
that constitute the respiratory chain or Adolf Krebs (1900-1981), who worked
electron transport system. This occurs on out the details of the cycle in 1930. Kreb’s
the cristae of the mitochondria. cycle takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondrion.
The transition between glycolysis and
Kreb’s cycle Steps involved in the Kreb’s cycle
The Kreb’s cycle consists of a series of
There is a transitional stage between
enzyme-catalysed reactions. It involves
glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle or tricarboxylic
the following steps:
acid (TCA) cycle. During this stage, each
pyruvic acid molecules enters the matrix The first step is the reaction of acetyl-
of the mitochondrion where it undergoes CoA with oxaloacetate to form citrate,
TY
PE Y
two types of reactions: in which the acetyl CoA (2C) is joined

O NL
R
a) Decarboxylation, by losing a carbon to oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C).

PR O
atom as carbon dioxide: The products This process requires the input of water,
T SE
of this oxidative decarboxylation and it is catalysed by citrate synthetase

(acetyl) are carried by coenzyme A enzyme.
EN U
M E
R LIN
Citrate synthetase
Acetyl - CoA + Oxaloacetate + H2O Citrate + Coa-SH
VE N
The second step is the formation of isocitrate. In the presence of aconitase enzyme, citrate is
O O
The second stepinto

is isocitrate.
the formation of isocitrate. In by
thedehydration
presenceand
ofrehydration
aconitasetoenzyme,
N
converted This process is accomplished yield

citrate is converted into isocitrate. This process is accomplished by dehydration and
G R
an isomer called isocitrate.

FO
rehydration to yield an isomer called isocitrate.
The third step of reaction is oxidation of Isocitrate. In this reaction the Isocitrate
Student’s is oxidatively
Book Form Five
312 decarboxylated to form α- ketoglutarate. The enzymes involved are isocitrate dehydrogenase
and oxalosuccinate decarboxylase together with NAD, and the products are NADH2 and CO2.
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The third step of reaction is oxidation of Isocitrate. In this reaction the Isocitrate is
The third step of reaction is oxidation of Isocitrate. In this reaction the Isocitrate is oxidatively
oxidatively decarboxylated
decarboxylated to form The
to form α- ketoglutarate. α- enzymes
ketoglutarate.
involved The enzymes
are isocitrate involved are
dehydrogenase
isocitrate dehydrogenase
and oxalosuccinate and oxalosuccinate
decarboxylase together with NAD,decarboxylase
and the productstogether
are NADH with
2 andNAD,
CO2. and
the products are NADH2 and CO2.
The fourth step is the oxidation of α- Ketoglutarate to form Succinyl – CoA. In the
The fourth step is the oxidation of α- Ketoglutarate to form Succinyl – CoA. In the presence of
presence of α- ketoglutarate
α- ketoglutarate dehydrogenasedehydrogenase enzyme,
enzyme, α- ketoglutarate α- ketoglutarate
is oxidatively is tooxidatively
decarboxylated form
decarboxylated to form succinyl CoA (4C). During this reaction NAD is reduced
succinyl CoA (4C). During this reaction NAD +
is reduced to NADH 2 . The +
products are to
NADH2 and CO2.
NADH2. The products are NADH2 and CO2.
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
PR O
The The
fifthfifth
step
step is theconversion
is the conversion of Succinyl
of Succinyl CoA intoThissuccinate.
CoA into succinate. This reaction
reaction is catalysed by is
T SE
The fifth step is the conversion of Succinyl CoA into succinate. This reaction is catalysed by
catalysed
an by an enzyme succinyl CoA synthetase. It involves the removal or loss of
enzyme succinyl CoA synthetase. It involves the removal or loss of CoA
an enzyme succinyl CoA synthetase. It involves the removal or loss of CoA from succinyl –
from succinyl –
EN U
CoA. The CoA is replaced by phosphate group which is then removed and attached to
CoA from
CoA. The CoA succinyl – CoA.
is replaced The CoA
by phosphate is which
group replaced by removed
is then phosphate group which
and attached to is then
guanosine diphosphate (GDP), thereby forming guanosine triphosphate (GTP). GTP is an
M E
removed
energyand attached
guanosine diphosphate
yielding to and
(GDP),
molecule guanosine
is used to diphosphate
thereby (GDP),
forming guanosine triphosphate
generate ATP when thereby
(GTP). GTP
it donates forming
is an guanosine
a phosphate group to
R LIN
energy yielding molecule and is used to generate ATP when it donates a phosphate group to
triphosphate
ADP. (GTP). GTP is an energy yielding molecule and is used to generate ATP
ADP.
when it donates a phosphate group to ADP.
VE N
O O
N
G R
FO
There are two forms of the enzyme, called isoenzymes, for this step, depending upon the
There
There arearetwotwo forms
forms ofenzyme,
of the the enzyme, called found.
called isoenzymes, for this One form is upon
step, depending found thein tissues that
type of animal tissue in which they are found. One form is found in tissues that use large
isoenzymes,
type
amounts offor
of animal tissuethis
ATP,
in step,
which
such depending
they
as heart
are found.upon
muscle.use
One
and skeletal
form
The large
is
second amounts
found in tissues of ATP,
that use
form of the enzyme
large such as heart
is found
amounts of ATP, such as heart and skeletal muscle. The second form of the enzyme is found
the type of animal
in tissues that havetissue
a highin which
number ofthey are
anabolic and
pathways, skeletal muscle.
such as liver. The
This form
in tissues that have a high number of anabolic pathways, such as liver. This form produces
second
produces form of
guanosine triphosphate (GTP). GTP is energetically equivalent to ATP; however, its use is
guanosine triphosphate (GTP). GTP is energetically equivalent to ATP; however, its use is
more restricted. In particular, protein synthesis primarily uses GTP.
more restricted. In particular, protein synthesis primarily uses GTP. 313
The sixth step is the oxidation of succinate to form fumarate. The conversion of succinate into
The sixth step is the oxidation of succinate to form fumarate. The conversion of succinate into
fumarate involves removal of hydrogen and is catalysed by succinate dehydrogenase. In this
fumarate involves removal of hydrogen and is catalysed by succinate dehydrogenase. In this
reaction FAD 313
is reduced to FADH2.
reaction
BIOLOGY FORM FAD is reduced to FADH2.
5 KIWANDANI.indd 10/10/2019 14:07
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the enzyme is found in tissues that have a high number of anabolic pathways, such
as liver. This form produces guanosine triphosphate (GTP). GTP is energetically
equivalent to ATP; however, its use is more restricted. In particular, protein synthesis
primarily uses GTP.
The sixth step is the oxidation of succinate to form fumarate. The conversion of
succinate into fumarate involves removal of hydrogen and is catalysed by succinate
dehydrogenase. In this reaction FAD is reduced to FADH2.
Succinate
dehydrogenase
The seventh step is the hydration of fumarate to malate. This reversible reaction is catalysed
by fumarase,
The seventh step iswhich is also known
the hydration as fumarate
of fumarate hydratase.
to malate. This reversible reaction is catalysed
The seventh step is the hydration of fumarate to
by fumarase, which is also known as fumarate hydratase. malate. This reversible reaction
is
catalysed by fumarase,
The seventh step is thewhich is also
hydration knowntoasmalate.
of fumarate fumarate hydratase.
This reversible reaction is catalysed
by fumarase, which is also known as fumarate hydratase.
Fumarase
TY
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R
PR O
Eighth step is the oxidation of malate to form oxaloacetate. This reaction is catalysed by malate
Eighth step is the oxidation of inmalate to form oxaloacetate. Thisthereaction is catalysed
T SE
dehydrogenase
Eighth and results
step is the oxidation thetoproduction
of malate of oxaloacetate
form oxaloacetate. which is
This reaction startingbycompound
is catalysed malate of
by malate thedehydrogenase
Kreb’sand
dehydrogenase cycle. and
In this
results
results
process,
in the NAD
production
inisthe production
of reduced into NADH
oxaloacetate
of2. the
which is
oxaloacetate which
starting compound of
is the
EN U
starting
the compound
Kreb’s cycle. of theprocess,
In this Kreb’sNAD cycle. In thisinto
is reduced process,
NADH2NAD . is reduced into NADH2.
M E
Eighth step is the oxidation of malate to form oxaloacetate. This reaction is catalysed by malate
R LIN
dehydrogenase and results in the production of oxaloacetate which is the starting compound of
the Kreb’s cycle. In this process, NAD is Malate
reduced into NADH2.
VE N
dehydrogenase
O O
N
G R
FO
It is important to note that glycolysis yields two pyruvate molecules, each of which enters the
It is important
Kreb’stocycle
It is important
note
to note
that glycolysis
separately.
that glycolysis
yields
Thus, foryields
a molecule multiplied
of glucose,
two pyruvate
by two.
there
molecules,must beThus,
each oftwo
the
Kreb’s
which
products
cycles,
enters the and,
of
two pyruvate to avoidmolecules,
repetition, each
each of
component whichof the the
cycle Kreb’s
must be cycle
multiplied
Kreb’s cycle separately. Thus, for a molecule of glucose, there must be two Kreb’s cycles, are
by 6NADH
two. Thus, ,
the 2FADH
products
2 and, 2
,
enterstothe of the
avoidKreb’sKreb’s cycle
cycle
repetition, are 6NADH
each separately.
component of2the , 2FADH
Thus, ,
24CO
cycle must 4CO , 2ATP,
,multiplied
be22 2ATP, andand oxaloacetate
oxaloacetate
by two. molecules. The
molecules.
Thus, the products
for aItofmolecule
Kreb’sof
thetransitory glucose,
step,
cycle that6NADH
are there
is from 2 must
pyruvate
, 2FADH be
to2 4CO The
,acetate,2 transitory
, yields
2ATP, 2NADH step, that
and 2CO
and oxaloacetate
2
is important to note that glycolysis yields two pyruvate molecules, each of which enters is from
molecules
molecules.
2 pyruvate
(Figure
The
the
two Kreb’s cycles,
6.10
transitory
Kreb’s cycle (a) and
step, and, toThus,
(b)).
that is
separately. fromavoid
pyruvatea molecule of to
forrepetition,
to acetate, yields acetate,
glucose, 2NADH yields
and
there2must 2CO 22NADH
be twomolecules and
(Figure
Kreb’s cycles,
2
2CO2
and,
eachto6.10
component
avoid and (b)).ofeach
(a)repetition, thecomponent
cycle must of the becycle molecules
must be multiplied (Figure 6.10 (a) and (b)).
by two. Thus, the products
of the Kreb’s cycle are 6NADH2, 2FADH2, 4CO2, 2ATP, and oxaloacetate molecules. The
transitory step, that is from pyruvate to acetate, yields 2NADH2 and 2CO2 molecules (Figure
3146.10 (a) and (b)).

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Pyruvic acid
NAD+
Pyruvate
dehydrogenase
NADH + H+
complex CO2
CoA
Acetyl CoA
(2C)
CoA
Citrate
Oxaloacetate (4C) H O synthetase Citrate (6C)
2
NADH + H+
Agunitase H 2O
Malate Fe2+
NAD + dehydrogenase
Cis-aconitate
Malate (4C) H2O
Aconitase
Fe2+
H2O Fumarase
Isocitrate (6C)
Fumarate (4C) Isocitrate NAD+
Succinate dehydrogenase
FADH2 Mn2- NADH + H+
dehydrogenase
FAD+ Oxalo-succinate (6C)
Succinate (4C) Oxalosuccinate
ATP/GTR Succinly CoA decarboxylase
synthetase CO2
ADP/GDP CoA α-Ketoglutarate (5C)
Succinly CoA (4C)
CoA
TY
NAD+
PE Y
α-Ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase
O NL
NADH + H+
R
CO2 complex
PR O
(a)
T SE
Acetyl CoA
EN U
CoA CoA
M E
R LIN
NADH
Oxaloacetate
Citrate
VE N
NAD +
O O
Malate (4C)
G R
NAD+
FO
NADH + CO2
Alpha ketoglutarate
Fumarate (4C) NAD+
FADH2 (4c) NADH + CO2
Succinate
FAD+
ATP ADP++Pi
(b)
Figure 6.10 Kreb’s cycle (a) detailed diagram and (b) simplified diagram
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Importance of the Kreb’s cycle devoid of oxygen. Many anaerobic

Kreb’s cycle is an economical way of organisms are obligate anaerobes as they
turning food components in the cell into can only respire anaerobically and they
usable energy. Only the acetyl groups are die in the presence of oxygen. Muscles
destroyed in the cycle. The seven enzymes do also respire anaerobically whenever
that carry out the various reactions and the there is deficiency or lack of oxygen at
intermediate compounds on which these a particular tissue point. This creates
enzymes act can be used again and again. the basis for categorising anaerobic
respiration into alcoholic fermentation
and lactic acid fermentation.
Moreover, many of the intermediate
compounds produced in the Kreb’s cycle
Alcoholic fermentation
are of value as starting materials for the
Alcoholic fermentation is also called
synthesis of amino acids, carbohydrates, ethanol fermentation which occurs in
and other cellular products. Pyruvates are cells, such as plant and yeast cells (Figure
broken down to carbon dioxide. Thus, the 6.11). This biological process converts
Kreb’s cycle degrades macromolecules two pyruvates into two acetaldehydes
into simpler molecules. The Kreb’s cycle producing two carbondioxide molecules
releases ATP and NADH and FADH. The as a waste product. The two acetaldehydes
ATP is directly utilised by the cellular are then converted to two ethanol
activities while the NADH and FADH are molecules by using hydrogen ions from
metabolites for oxidative phosphorylation NADH; converting NADH back into
of the electron transport system in which NAD+. Ethanol fermentation has many
TY
PE Y
ATP are produced. uses. These include producing alcoholic

O NL
R
beverages, ethanol fuel, as well as raising

PR O
The fate of pyruvic acid under reagent in baking bread.

T SE
anaerobic condition 2 CO2

In the absence of oxygen; the principle
EN U
product of glycolysis (pyruvate) enters

M E
a fermentation process. The organisms

R LIN
2 Pyruvic Acid 2 NADH 2 NAD+ 2 Ethanol

that do not use oxygen as the final
VE N
proton and electron acceptor are known

O O
Figure 6.11 Alcoholic fermentation pathway

as anaerobes. In anaerobes, other less-
G R
oxidising substances such as sulphate

Lactic acid fermentation
FO
ion (SO42-), nitrate ion (NO3-), sulphur, This is also referred to as lactate
and fumarate are used. These terminal fermentation, which is a biological
electron acceptors have smaller reduction process by which pyruvate is converted
potentials than oxygen. This means into the metabolite lactate. In lactic acid
that less energy is released per oxidised fermentation, the pyruvic acid from
molecule. Generally, anaerobic respiration glycolysis is reduced to lactic acid by
is less efficient in energy production than NADH, which is oxidised to NAD+.
aerobic respiration. It is mainly used by Lactic acid fermentation allows glycolysis
prokaryotes that live in environment to continue by ensuring that NADH is
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returned to its oxidised state (NAD+). This Events of electron transport chain in
anaerobic fermentation reaction occurs in the formation of ATP
some bacteria and animal cells such as in The electron transport chain is the final
muscle cells (Figure 6.12). and most important step of cellular
respiration. The electron transport chain
Lactate dehydrogenase
Pyruvate Lactic acid (electron transport system or cytochrome
NADH NAD+ system) is a process by which the energy
carrier molecules (NADH2 and FADH2)
Figure 6.12 Lactic acid fermentation pathway produced during glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle
and other catabolic processes are oxidized
If oxygen is present in the cell, many to release energy in the form of ATP.
organisms will bypass fermentation and The electron transport chain is a series
undergo aerobic respiration. However, of electron transporters embedded in the
facultative anaerobes will undergo both inner mitochondrial membrane that shuttles
fermentation and aerobic respiration electrons from NADH2 and FADH2. In
in the presence of oxygen. Sometimes, the process, protons are pumped from the
even when oxygen is present and mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane
aerobic metabolism is taking place in space, and oxygen is reduced to form water.
the mitochondria, if pyruvate is building
up faster than it can be metabolised, the The hydrogen atoms carried by reduced
fermentation process will occur. The NAD and FAD are transferred to a chain
enzyme responsible for catalysing the of other carriers at progressively lower
interconversion of pyruvate to lactate is TY energy levels. As the hydrogen passes
known as lactate dehydrogenase. from one carrier to the next, the energy
PE Y
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released is used to combine ADP and

R
inorganic phosphate (Pi) to form ATP. A

PR O
Exercise 6.4 series of carriers is termed the respiratory

T SE
1. What is the Kreb’s cycle pathway? chain. The latter has four electron carriers,
How is it related to glycolysis? namely NAD, FAD, coenzyme Q and
EN U
cytochromes. The hydrogen atoms carried

M E
2. Illustrate the steps involved in the by NAD are shunted into the chain at
R LIN
Kreb’s cycle. carrier one, NAD (a step ahead FAD), and

3. What is the importance of produce a total of 3 ATP molecules as they
VE N
O O
regeneration of oxaloacetate in the pass through the carriers (Figure 6.13).

final step of Kreb’s cycle? Meanwhile, the hydrogen atoms carried
G R
FO
4. Carry out library search to find by FAD are introduced in the chain at
out if the bacteria and yeast form carrier two, FAD. Therefore, a pair of
alcohols in the absence of oxygen hydrogen atoms carried by FAD makes
or they possess a metabolic pathway a total of 2 ATP molecules as it passes
that does not involve oxygen. Write through the carriers. Initially, hydrogen
down your findings. atoms pass along the chain. However, after
the FAD stage, they split into protons (H+)
5. Explain the fate of pyruvic acid and electrons. The former takes another
during respiration. route out of the chain as the electrons
pass through the cytochrome system.
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Accordingly, the pathway can be called to form water, this reaction is catalysed
the electron transport system. Oxygen is by the enzyme cytochrome oxidase. The
the final electron acceptor in the electron formation of ATP through the oxidation
transport system. Finally, protons and of hydrogen atoms is called oxidative
electrons recombine to form hydrogen phosphorylation (Figure 6.13).
atoms which create a link with oxygen
2H+ 4H+ 2H+ 3H+

Space
CoQ Cyt
C Inner
Complex Complex Complex Complex Mitochondrial
I III IV V Membrane
Complex
II
Matrix
NADH NAD+ ½ O2 H 2O
H+ Succinate Fumarate 2H+ 2H+
ADP + Pi ATP + H2O

3H+
Figure 6.13 Electron transport chain
Generally, in the electron transport chain and uses 10 oxygen atoms (5 molecules
each reduced NAD molecule results in of oxygen). Moreover, each reduced FAD
production of 3 ATP and the release of molecule (from Kreb’s cycle) results in
TY
PE Y
hydrogen which combines with oxygen the production of 2 ATP, hence 2 FAD
O NL
R
to form water. Therefore, the 10 reduced molecules produce 4 ATP. Overall, the
PR O
NAD molecules (2 from glycolysis, 2 electron transport chain produces a total

from conversion of pyruvate to Acetyl of 34 ATP molecules from one molecule
T SE
CoA and 6 from Kreb’s cycle) results in the of glucose (Figure 6.14).
EN U
production of 30 ATP, 10 water molecules

M E
R LIN
ATP ATP
VE N
O O
NAD+ FADH + H+ Fe3+ Cu+ ½O2

G R
reduced oxidised reduced

oxidized
FO
Cytochrome
Cytochrome
oxidase
NADH+ H+ FAD+ Fe2+ Cu2+
reduced H2O
oxidised reduced oxidised
ATP
Figure 6.14 ATP produced by NADH and FADH

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ATP yield in aerobic and anaerobic Thus, the energy released by complete
respiration of glucose oxidation of one molecule of glucose is
2880 kJ, the negative ΔG shows that the
a) In aerobic respiration reaction can occur spontaneously.
A total of 38 ATP molecules are produced
for every one molecule of glucose oxidized The amount of energy contained in one
completely (Table 6.3). The balanced mole of ATP is 30.6 kJ. The amount of
equation for aerobic respiration is: energy contained in 38 moles of ATP is
38 x 30.6 = 1162.8 kJ. The efficiency of
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⎯⎯ → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP energy transfer in aerobic respiration is
ΔG = −2880 kJ per mol of C6H12O6 1162.8/2880 x 100% = 40.4 %.
Table 6.3 Amount of ATP produced from glucose respired aerobically

Number Number ATP Total number
Respiratory process of NADH of FADH direct of ATP
(x3ATPs) (x2ATPs) formed Molecules
Glycolysis: glucose to pyruvate 2 - 2 8
Link reaction: pyruvate to Acetyl 2 - - 6

CoA
The Kreb’s (TCA) Cycle 6
TY 2 2 24
Total count 10 2 4 38
PE Y
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R
b) In anaerobic respiration The amount of energy contained in 2 ATP

PR O
During alcoholic fermentation 2 molecules molecules is 2 x 30.6 = 61.2 kJ.

T SE
of ATP are produced for every molecule

EN U
of glucose used (Table 6.4). Conversion The total energy released during the
M E
of glucose to ethanol produces 210 kJ per conversion of glucose to lactate is 150 kJ

R LIN
mole, thus the energy contained in the 2 per mole. Thus, the efficiency of energy
molecules of ATP is 2 x 30.6 = 61.2 kJ. transfer during lactate fermentation is
VE N
61.2/150 x 100% = 40.8%.

O O
The efficiency of energy transfer during

G R
alcoholic fermentation is 61.2/210 x 100%

FO
= 29.1% The total energy released when glucose

molecule is respired aerobically is 38 ATP,
Alternatively, in the lactate fermentation, but the total energy released in anaerobic
2 ATP molecules are produced for every respiration of glucose is only 2ATP.
molecule of glucose used. Therefore, aerobic respiration is more
efficient than anaerobic respiration.
Glucose 2Lactate + 2ATP
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Table 6.4 Amount of ATP produced from glucose respired anaerobically

Respiratory Number of Number ATP direct Total number of
process NADH of FADH formed ATP molecules
Glycolysis: glucose
to pyruvate 2 - 2 2
Respiratory pathway using lipids and should be hydrolysed into amino acids
protein which are deaminated to remove the
Lipids and proteins are respiratory amino groups. The remaining portions
substrates in addition to carbohydrates, enter the respiratory pathway depending
which are used by most cells. The on the number of carbons each has. The
respiratory pathways for both aerobic portions with 3 carbons are converted
and anaerobic process involve the stages into pyruvate; those with 4 carbons form
of respiration such as glycolysis, the oxaloacetate while those with 5 carbons are
Kreb’s cycle, and electron transport chain. converted into α-ketoglutarate. Example
Aerobes use them all, whereas anaerobes aspartate and glutamate enter directly
use only glycolysis. Lipids and proteins into the Kreb’s cycle at oxalaoacetate and
are not directly accommodated in these α-ketoglutarate respectively.
pathways, they are converted in a form to
suit the types of the metabolites required Respiratory quotient (RQ)
by such pathways (Figure 6.15).
TY
Respiratory quotient (RQ) is a measure
PE Y
O NL
of the ratio of carbon dioxide evolved by

R
Lipids are polymers of fatty acids and an organism to that of oxygen consumed
PR O
glycerol. They have to be hydrolysed over a given period of time.

T SE
into glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol

Volume of CO 2 evolved
can be converted into glucose and follow RQ =
EN U
the patterns in glycolysis to the electron Volume of O 2 consumed

M E
R LIN
transport chain. The fatty acids join the

For example, the equation for a complete
Kreb’s cycle as fatty acid fragments, each aerobic oxidation of hexose sugar is
VE N
with 2 carbons that are joined with Acetyl represented below:

O O
CoA. The fatty acid will make several

G R
Kreb’s cycles depending on the number of C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⎯⎯

→ 6CO2 + 6H2O
FO
fragments formed. The products of Kreb’s

cycles will add up in generating a huge
6CO 2
account of ATP from lipids. RQ = =1
6O 2
Proteins are polymers of amino acids. However, it is difficult to have this
Amino acids have amino and carboxylic theoretically calculated value, because a
groups. They also have a varied number of substrate is rarely completely oxidised.
carbon atoms. Being polymers, proteins

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Glucose Glycogen Fats (Triglycerides)

Glycogenesis
Lipogenesis
Glyconenolysis Lipolysis
Glucose -6-phosphate Glycerol + Free Fatty acids
Fatty acid
Gluconeogenesis synthesis Fatty acid
Glycolysis oxidation
Phoshpoenolpyruvate Alamine Glycinic Thrconine
Cysteine Serine Trptophan
Pyruvate Fatty acid fragments
Acetoacetate Leucine
Acetyl CoA
Lysine
Isoleucine Phenylalanine
Oxaloacetate Citrate Tyrosine
Asparagine Tryptophan
Asparate Malate
Isocitrate Arginine Proline
Kreb’s cycle Histidine Thrconine
Fumarate
α-Ketoglutarate Glutamate
Tyrocine Isoleucine Valine

Succinate Succinyl CoA
Phenylalanine Methionine Threonine
TY
PE Y
Figure 6.15 Glucose, lipids and proteins metabolism

O NL
R
PR O
Significance of RQ ii) The carbondioxide produced is

T SE
a) It helps to indicate the type of substrate used by another process in the

oxidised; for example, the RQ value same organism, for instance
EN U
of 1.0 implies complete oxidation of photosynthesis in plants or

M E
R LIN
glucose; RQ of 0.7 means oxidation formation of calcareous shells in

of fats (fatty acids); and, for proteins, some animals.
VE N
the RQ value varies, but it is around

O O
0.9. The RQ values of less than one On the other hand, high RQ values imply
G R
means that oxidation of a mixture of kinds of anaerobic respiration. Therefore,

FO
substrates. the volume of carbondioxide evolved is

greater than that of oxygen consumed
b) It helps to indicate the type of
(Table 6.5).
metabolism taking place. For example,
if RQ values are less than one, the
following are possible; Examples
i) Aerobic oxidation, as the volume a) The equation for respiration of the fat
of carbon dioxide evolved is less tripalmitin is as follows:
than that of oxygen taken in.
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b) What is the RQ when glucose is

2C51H98O6 + 145O2 ⎯⎯
→ 102CO2 + 98H2O respired anaerobically to ethanol and
What is the RQ for tripalmitin? carbondioxide?
Solution: Solution:
Volume of CO 2 evolved Volume of CO 2 evolved

RQ = RQ =
Volume of O 2 consumed Volume of O 2 consumed
102O 2 Since the process is anaerobic, the volume

RQ = = 0.7 of oxygen evolved is zero.
145O 2
So, the RQ value for tripalmitin is 0.7 Thus:
2CO 2
RQ = = ∞ (Infinity)
0O 2
Table 6.5 RQ values for carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

Respiratory substrate Respiratory quotient Type of metabolism
Carbohydrates 1 Aerobic respiration
Lipids 0.7 - 0.72 Aerobic respiration
Proteins 0.8 - 0.9 Aerobic respiration

TY
PE Y
O NL
R
Carbohydrates or lipids or pro- ∞ Anaerobic respiration
teins
PR O
T SE
The basal metabolic rate (BMR) Factors which cause variation of the
EN U
The basal metabolic rate of an organism BMR of an individual

The following factors influence the
M E
is the minimum rate of energy conversion

R LIN
required just to stay alive during rest or variation of basal metabolic rates among
sleep. It is actually the amount of energy individuals:
VE N
needed to maintain body functioning while

O O
Body size
at rest, to keep the heart beating, blood
G R
Small organisms have larger surface area

flowing, food digested and body breathe.
FO
to volume ratio, hence larger BMR than

It also referred to as resting metabolic rate
large organisms.
(RMR). In humans, BMR is measured
after an individual has undergone a Body composition
standardised rest period of between 12 to Fat tissue has a lower metabolic activity
18 hours of physical and mental relaxation than muscle tissue. As lean muscle mass
without taking a meal during that period. increases, the metabolic rate increases.

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Sex
The basal metabolic rate (BMR) of females Exercise 6.5
is lower than that of males. In average the
BMR of females is 5 to 10 percent lower 1. Write short notes on Respiratory
than that of males. The difference is that; Quotient (RQ).
generally, women possess more body fat
and less muscle mass than men of similar 2. What is Basal Metabolic Rate
size. (BMR)?
3. Explain the factors that affect the
Age
The BMR decreases with age (aging). BMR of an organism.
A decrease in lean muscle mass during
adulthood results in a slow, steady decline
in BMR. Revision questions
Climate and body temperature 1. How are the lungs adapted to their
The BMR of people in tropical climates is functions?
generally up to 20 percent higher than their
counterparts in more temperate climates 2. What is the role of the mucus
because it takes energy to keep the body secreted by the epithelium lining
cool. Exercise performed in hot weather of the nasal passage?
also imposes an additional metabolic
3. Describe the internal structure of
load. Body fat content and effectiveness
the mammalian lungs.
TY
of clothing determine the magnitude of
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energy metabolism in cold environments; 4. Explain the mechanism of carbon

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it takes energy to keep the body warm if dioxide transport in the mammalian
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you work or exercise in very cold weather.

blood.
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Hormonal levels 5. Describe the respiratory substrates

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Thyroxine (T4) is the key hormone and their energy value.

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released by the thyroid glands which

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has a significant effect upon metabolic 6. Describe the stages involved in

glycolysis.
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rate. Hypothyroidism is relatively

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common, especially in women near 7. Describe the fate of pyruvic acid

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or after menopause. Everyone with a

under aerobic and anaerobic
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weight problem should have their thyroid

function checked by their doctor and respiration.
treated appropriately if it turns out to be 8. Explain the events in the electron
low. transport chain during the
Healthy status formation of ATP.
Fever, illness, or injury may increase 9. Explain why NADH gives more
resting metabolic rate. Therefore, a sick ATP than FADH in the electron
person has higher rate of metabolism than
transport chain.
a healthy person.
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10. Outline the respiratory pathways

when using lipids and proteins as
substrates.
11. Why does aerobic respiration
produce more energy than
anaerobic respiration?
12. Explain the factors that affect the
rate of respiration in humans.
13. What is the role of oxygen in
respiration?
14. Explain why athletes normally
face the problem of muscle fatigue.
15. Making bread, beer, wine and
cheese are the processes which
involve fermentation. Choose one
of these products and describe the
involvement of fermentation in
the process.
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Chapter
Seven
Regulation
(Homeostasis)
Introduction
The internal environment of multi-cellular organisms is made up of tissue fluids whose

conditions, such as pH, temperature, pressure, glucose concentration and salt contents
are always kept at a relatively constant level regardless of the fluctuations of the external
environments. The ability to maintain a constant internal body environment enables an
organism to survive in a variety of habitats. Keeping a stable internal environment of
an organism requires constant adjustments as conditions change inside and outside the
cells. Since the internal and external environments of a cell are constantly changing,
adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the normal level. This
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regulatory mechanism is called homeostasis. In this chapter, you will learn about the
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concept of body regulation, temperature regulation, excretion and osmoregulation.

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You will also learn about the processes through which water content in the body is
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controlled.
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7.1 The concept of regulation have a control mechanism that keeps their
M E
The importance of regulation (homeostasis) internal environment constant, despite the

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in animals was first pointed out by the French changes in external environment. This
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physiologist Claude Bernard in 1857. In one tendency enables them to exploit a wide
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of his researches, he used dogs to study the variety of habitats. For example, in human
importance of constant internal environment beings, the internal mechanism maintains
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in mammals. He described variations in constant body temperature of about 37 0C

glucose concentration in the blood. His despite the wide range of variation in the
study revealed that the concentration environmental temperatures. This constancy
of glucose in the blood of mammals enables human beings to be active in
remained relatively constant regardless of different environments, while other animals
variations in diet. For example, dogs that such as amphibians and reptiles have non-
were well fed with food rich in meat or constant body temperature and they cannot
sugar had similar glucose concentration be active in a wide range of environmental
in the blood as starving dogs. From these temperatures.
results, he concluded that mammals must
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Homeostatic control mechanism a set point, stimulus, variables, receptors,

The homeostatic control mechanism effectors, inputs, outputs, control centre and
involves a regulator which compares compensatory response. These components
the actual output with a set point. Then, are integrated to bring about homeostatic
it produces some sort of error signal, control (Figure 7.1). A set point is the
which sends information to the corrective desired or optimal physiological state for
mechanism or effector regarding the the output. It is also known as the norm or
difference between the set point and the reference point. This is usually determined
actual output. The error signal is usually in genetically in the physiological process.
the form of nerve impulses or hormones in In the homeostatic control mechanism
the body. The corrective mechanism may variables are factors that are being regulated.
include one or more effectors that set the Such factors include body temperature,
controlled system and restore the output pH, blood pressure, and plasma potassium
to its set point. In some physiological concentration. Anything that produces
processes, such as temperature regulation, change on a variable is called a stimulus.
separate but coordinated mechanisms Therefore, a stimulus can trigger changes in
control deviations in different directions various body parameters such as temperature,
from the set point such as the rise or fall pH, blood pressure, and plasma potassium
in body temperature, and lead to a greater concentration, resulting into deviation from
degree of control. a set point. The detectors or receptors tend
to detect a change in variables.
The corrective mechanism explained
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above is said to be the key component of Different types of sensory receptors exist,
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homeostatic control mechanism. It varies including thermoreceptors which detect

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the output so that it can be brought back change in body temperature. Input
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to the set point. Homeostasis is a dynamic communicates the information from the
process which works by making continual receptor to the control centre. An example of
EN U
adjustments to compensate for fluctuations inputs in the homeostatic control mechanism

M E
of output. Thus, it is more accurate to is afferent nervous system. Effectors in the

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describe the homeostatic system as being homeostatic control mechanism are organs
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in a steady state or in a dynamic equilibrium or glands that carry out the response from
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rather than being constant. In addition, the control centre. Examples of effectors
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homeostatic controls can be either extrinsic include: the sweat glands, blood vessels,
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or intrinsic. Extrinsic control is one which and muscles. The control centre of the
originates from outside of the body organ homeostatic control is the brain, particularly
or tissue while the intrinsic control is the the hypothalamus. The control centre
one which originates from within the body, analyses the information from the receptor
organ or tissue. and determines the appropriate response to
the change or stimulus.
Components of homeostatic mechanism
The homeostatic control mechanism The output sends the response instructions
consists of different components, including, from the control centre to the effector.
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Regulation (Homeostasis)
For example, if the temperature needs to action of the effector which will counteract
be lowered, the hypothalamus will send the stimulus and bring the variable back to
the information to the effector for the its normal range.
response. Compensatory response is the
Input - Stimulus
Detector
Regulator
Effector
Output - Response
Figure 7.1 Components of the homeostatic control mechanism
Feedback mechanism for homeostatic A change in the state of an internal factor

control in the body causes effectors to restore the
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Any change from the set point activates internal environment to its original state.
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the control system to initiate a sequence For instance, an increase in the level of
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of events so as to either restore conditions glucose in the body triggers a sequence

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towards their normal state, or to make the of events that tend to remove excess
system deviate further. Feedback requires
EN U
glucose from the blood by converting it

the action of the system to be related to
M E
a reference point or set-point (optimum into glycogen. In contrast, a decrease in

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level) of the variable being controlled. the level of glucose in the body causes
Two forms of feedback, namely negative the liver to break the stored glycogen to
VE N
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and positive feedback are recognised.

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glucose in order to supply more glucose

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to the cells of the body. This corrective

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Negative feedback measure allows blood glucose level to

A negative feedback occurs in a situation
remain constant. This type of system in
where the disturbance in a system sets
in motion a sequence of events which which change in the level of an internal
tends to restore the system to its original factor causes a corrective mechanism is
state. A negative feedback in homeostatic referred to as a self-adjusting system. The
control mechanism keeps a variable, science of a self-regulating control system
such as the blood glucose level close to a which operates via feedback mechanisms
particular value or set point (Figure 7.2). in organisms is known as cybernetics.
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Low blood sugar High blood sugar
Pancreas
Low level of sugar in the blood High level of sugar in the

promote glucagon release from blood stimulate beta cells of
the pancreatic alpha cells pancreases to secrete insulin
Tissue cells
Glucagon Insulin
Glucagon stimulates glycogen Insulin stimulate

breakdown into glucose in the tissue cells to take
liver cells up glucose from
the blood
Liver
Glycogen Glucose
Lowers blood sugar level

Raises blood sugar level
Figure 7.2 Glucose and insulin negative feedback loop
Positive feedback Further excess

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Positive feedback is the self-regulatory

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Positive feedback
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mechanism which operates when the Excess

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system is deviated from a set point which

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initiates a sequence of events that tends to Set point

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deviate further the system. The positive

M E
feedback mechanism makes the system to Deficiency

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Positive feedback
be unstable; that is why it is not common in
Further deficiency
living organisms. An example of positive
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feedback occurs during labour, when the Figure 7.3 A positive feedback mechanism
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hormone oxytocin stimulates muscular

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contraction of the uterus; which in turn Another example of positive feedback

stimulates the release of more oxytocin. mechanism is the release of volatile
plant hormone (ethylene) by the ripening
Positive feedback mechanism may also
fruits that accelerates the ripening of
occur in the nerves where a small stimulus unripe fruits in its vicinity. The fruit
can bring about a large response to the ripening process involves changing the
effectors (Figure 7.3). fruit texture, softening, and colour. As
more fruits get ripe they produce more
hormones that further continue to ripen
more the surrounding fruits.
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Activity 7.1 Investigating the effect of positive feedback mechanism in ripening fruit
Materials
One bunch of ten unripe green bananas, six containers, and dry banana leaves.
Procedure
a) Label the six containers from A to F.
b) Isolate five bananas from the bunch and put one banana in each of the five
containers labelled B to F.
c) Put the remaining five undetached bananas in the container labelled A.
d) Cover all the containers with dry banana leaves and arrange them in series; starting
with the one with five bananas. The distance from one container to another should
be not less than one meter (Figure 7.4).
e) Note the number of days it will take for all bananas in all containers to get ripe.
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A B C D E F
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Figure 7.4 Experimental set up for ripening of fruits

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Questions
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1. Compare the time taken for the bunch and individual bananas to ripen.
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2. What might be the cause of the differences in ripening time?

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3. Explain the significance of the phenomenon in our everyday life.

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Exercise 7.1
1. Briefly explain the concept of regulation (Homeostasis).
2. Describe the components of the homeostatic control mechanism.
3. Explain the feedback mechanisms for homeostatic control.
4. Give a physiological example of a negative feedback control system and clearly
describe how it works.
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7.2 Temperature regulation physiological control mechanisms as well

Most organisms can survive in a narrow as behavioural mechanisms.
range of temperature from 10 °C to 30 °C.
In order to survive, most animals have Adaptation of endotherms to cold and
to regulate their body temperature. The hot climatic conditions
tendency of animals to adjust their body In order to survive in a variety of habitual
temperature to suit the living conditions of environment, species of mammals
varying temperatures in the environment have developed various physiological
is termed as temperature regulation adaptive features or mechanisms. This
(thermoregulation). Animals with a diversity of living environment include
varying body temperature according to the the hot arid environment of the desert,
changes in the environmental temperature the colder and glacial environment of
are called poikilotherms (poikilos means the Arctic and Antarctic poles, the salty
‘various’ and thermo means ‘heat’). These environment of the oceans, low oxygen
animals obtain most of their body heat environment of mountain peaks and the
from the sources outside their bodies; dark environments of the deep sea and
hence they are sometimes referred to as oceans. Animals in the cold environment
ectotherms. Examples of poikilothermic such as arctic fox have insulating layers
organisms include reptiles, amphibians with a thick coat of fur or thick layer of
and most fish. With exception of birds and fat that help to reduce the rate of heat
mammals, most animals are ectotherms. transfer thereby retaining body heat and
keeping the animal’s body temperature
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Animals that maintain a stable body at constant level. Another strategy of

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temperature regardless of fluctuations cold weather used by some animals is a

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in the environmental temperature are temporary decrease of metabolic rate and

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called homoiotherms or homoeotherms body temperature. This helps to decrease

or homeotherms. Their heat is generated the temperature difference between the
EN U
internally by metabolic activities; hence, animal body and the environment thereby
M E
they are also known as endotherms; and minimizing heat loss.

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they include mammals and birds. The

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body temperature of endotherms ranges Other adaptations for survival of animals

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between 37 °C and 44 °C. The higher such as bears in the extreme cold climate
G R
the body temperature, the greater the include: hibernation during the cold
FO
metabolic rate in the animal’s body. For period. The body temperature falls to a
example, birds have higher metabolic rate few degrees and an animal falls into a deep
to cater for the energy needed for flight. sleep. This tendency enables the animal to
Their body temperature ranges between conserve energy.
38.5 °C and 44 °C. Homoeotherms can
regulate their body temperature through In the hot and dry environment, endotherms
negative feedback control. They control develop cooling mechanism by means
their body temperature independently of evaporation of water across their
of the environment; they use internal respiratory surfaces or across the skin
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through sweat glands. Animals with fur four major components: the set point,
such as cattle, dogs, and birds have limited detector, comparator or regulator, and
ability to sweat; therefore, they rely on corrective mechanism. First, the set point
panting to increase evaporation of water is the favourable skin temperature or
across the moist surface of their tongue the temperature at which an individual
and mouths. feels comfortable and relaxed. Second,
the detectors are the thermo-receptors
Another adaptation to the hot environment in the skin containing heat and cold
is the possession of long loops of Henle of receptors, which are responsible for
the kidney. This enables animals to produce detecting increase and decrease in the
super-concentrated urine that helps to skin temperatures respectively. Third,
conserve water. This tendency is common the comparator is the cortex of the brain
for the desert dwellers such as kangaroo which is responsible for controlling
rats, and camels. Most small animals with conscious thoughts and feelings. Thus,
high surface area to volume ratio usually if the affected individual feels too cold
face major difficulties in overcoming high or too hot can decide to take appropriate
temperatures. Therefore, they remain in action, either to move to a cooler or
burrows during the day when it is hot and warmer place, remove or add more
come out at night when it is cool. This clothes or take other appropriate voluntary
nocturnal tendency enables small animals actions that may help to bring the skin
like rodents to survive in extremely hot temperature back to favourable state. The
climates. Some mammals that live in error signals are sent to voluntary skeletal
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deserts have special adaptations in their muscles through nerve impulses. Fourth,
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kidneys and sweat glands that allow them corrective mechanisms are initiated
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to survive when only very small amounts through behavioural responses.

T SE
of water are available to them.

In regulating the body’s core temperature,
EN U
Regulation of body temperature in actions are involuntary, controlled by

M E
endotherms internal physiological responses. The

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Endotherms have developed a variety of set point of the homeostatic control

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adaptive mechanisms for maintaining mechanism is the mean body temperature

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a constant or stable body temperature. (36.7 °C or 37 °C) which is genetically

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The adaptation for balancing heat determined. In this system, the sensor and
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gain and heat loss may be anatomical, control centre for body temperature are
behavioural, or physiological. The located in a small part of the brain called
process of controlling body temperature the hypothalamus which is sensitive to
in endotherms falls under two homeostatic temperature fluctuations. It possesses two
systems, namely regulation of skin thermoreceptors, namely the heat loss and
temperature and regulation of the body heat gain centres. The heat loss centre
core temperature, which includes vital is located in the anterior hypothalamus
organs of the body and the brain. The and is activated by increase in blood
regulation of skin temperature involves temperature; where as heat gain centre
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is located in the posterior hypothalamus surface. In cold environments, the blood

and is activated by decrease in blood flow in the body escapes the skin through
temperature. the shunt vessels, resulting into reduction
in heat loss. Just a small amount of blood
On the other hand, if the body core passes into the skin to keep the tissue
temperature rises to above 40 °C, the alive.
homeostatic control mechanism breaks
down and positive feedback takes place. b) Sweating
This causes a person to go into a state called Human beings have the ability to control
hyperthermia. The patient experiences a body temperature through sweating
very weak pulse rate, becomes excessively because their skins are not covered by
irrational, and sluggish. If the situation is fur or feathers. They have sweat glands
not controlled, the patient may go into a over the whole body that enable them
coma and death may occur. to be more efficient at cooling through
sweating. The human being can produce
Maintenance of a constant body about 1000 ml of sweat per hour. Animals
temperature in warm environments with fur have limited sweat glands which
When the environment is overheated, are confined to areas that do not have fur,
the animals use the following adaptive for example pads of the feet in dogs and
mechanisms to overcome the effects of cats. Animals with feathers such as birds
overheating. lack sweat glands. Their skins are covered
by feathers which prevent evaporation
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a) Vasodilation through the skin (evaporation occurs from

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This is an increase in the diameter of the surface of their lungs and air sacs).
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superficial blood vessels near the body

T SE
surface caused by nerve signals, resulting c) Panting and licking

into the relaxation of the vessel’s walls. In animals with few or no sweat glands
EN U
The blood in the capillaries in the skin such as dogs and birds, cooling by
M E
may take three alternative routes; through evaporation takes place through the mouth
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capillaries close to the skin surface, in and the nose. Dogs hang out their tongues;
VE N
the dermis, and beneath the layer of this may result in an increase of breathing
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subcutaneous fat. In warm climates, rate and excessive removal of carbon

G R
superficial arterioles dilate in order to dioxide from the blood thereby reducing
FO
allow blood flow close to the skin surface. heat from the body. Some animals lick
Heat from the blood is rapidly conducted their bodies to deposit saliva onto their
through the epidermis to the skin surface body surfaces, which provide similar
from where it is radiated away from the means of evaporative cooling. Licking
body. Rise in blood pressure within the is common to some animals that do not
capillaries cause them to dilate, that sweat, instead they make use of saliva to
facilitate heat loss due to radiation, cool their bodies. For example; rabbits
convection and conduction resulting into lick their front legs and chests, cats lick
an increase of blood flow near to the skin inside of their front paws and spread the
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saliva across their ears and face, rats lick usually takes place during winter season,
their testicle, and kangaroos lick their fore which sometimes is referred to as winter
arms and wrists. dormancy.
d) Use of body extremities Winter dormancy is associated with

When compared to related species from reduced body metabolic rate, low body
cold climates, animals in warm climates temperatures, slow breathing and low
usually have large extremities such as heartbeat rate. The animal appears to be
ears and large bushy tail. They are well in a deep sleep for several days, weeks
supplied with blood vessels and covered or months depending on the species.
by relatively short hairs, making them This helps to conserve energy, especially
good radiators of heat. during winter when food is scarce. Before
entering hibernation, most animals eat
e) Large surface area to volume ratio a large amount of food and store energy
Animals with a large surface area to in fat deposits to survive the winter.
volume ratio (relatively small animals) Hibernation can also take place during
lose energy (temperature) faster than those the hottest period or summer. This state is
with smaller surface to volume ratio. To called aestivation or summer dormancy.
compensate for this, small animals such Some animal species that aestivate
as mice feed more frequently compared include reptiles. The arousal of an animal
to large animals such as lions. The former from hibernation state usually occurs
animals also tend to utilize an energy - spontaneously. It is driven by some internal
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rich diet such as nuts rich in lipids. mechanisms. External stimuli often fail
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to wake the hibernating or aestivating

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f) Behavioural mechanisms animal, making it subject to predation if it

T SE
Many desert animals regulate their is discovered by its enemies.

body temperature by using different
EN U
behavioural mechanisms. For example, g) Insulation

M E
some animals such as mice and hedgehogs This is provided by a layer of fur or fat that
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avoid heat by sheltering under the rocks protects or blubs the body against changes
VE N
or by burrowing in the soil during drought in the environmental temperature. The

O O
season. Others, like bat avoid hottest thick coat of fur is called insulator while
G R
periods by being nocturnal, a tendency of the thick layer of fat is called blubber.
FO
being active during the night and inactive The insulator or blubber layer helps
during the day. This minimises the rate retain body heat and keeps the animal’s
of body metabolic activities during the body temperature constant. Animals
day and increases at night. Some animals in the warm climates usually have fur
like rodent, ground squirrels and bears with light colours to enhance sun rays’
hibernate during cold temperatures. reflection and thereby minimising heat
Hibernation is the behavioural state where gain and accelerating heat loss from the
by an animal becomes inactive, both body. During this process, the hair erector
during the day and at night. This tendency muscles in the skin are relaxed and the fur
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lies close to the skin surface. This causes metabolic rate; hence, additional heat
the thickness of insulating warm hair to is produced in the body. The increased
be reduced, and therefore, the body heat is metabolic rate of the body requires
readily dispersed. increased food consumption; that is why
animals feed on large amount of food in
Maintenance of a constant body cold climates.
temperature in cold climates
Endotherms living in cold environment Temperature regulation by ectotherms
and those in hot climates experiencing cold Ectotherms regulate their body
weather have the following adaptations temperature mainly by behavioural means,
which enable them to maintain constant depending on external heat sources; since
body temperatures: these organisms do not have temperature
control center like endotherms. The
a) Vasoconstriction exchange is controlled by three factors
When the animal is subjected to cold which are; radiation, conduction and
conditions, the superficial arterioles are flow. Their body temperature rises and
constricted. This reduces the quantity of falls along with the temperature of the
blood reaching the skin surface. Much surrounding environment. Although they
blood passes beneath the insulating layer generate metabolic heat like endotherms,
of subcutaneous fat; therefore, little heat they cannot increase heat production to
is lost to the outside. maintain an internal body temperature.
Most of the adjustment mechanisms are
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b) Shivering by behavioural means such as: huddling,

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In cold conditions, the skeletal muscles hibernation, burrowing, aestivation,

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of the body may undergo rhythmic clustering, migration, and exposing

involuntary contractions which increase
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themselves to the sun in hot environment.

the amount of heat produced in the body.
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a) Huddling
M E
c) Insulation In cold regions, animals are usually active

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It is achieved by an external covering of during the day. Huddling of individuals

VE N
fur or feathers and or an internal layer is also another common way of reducing
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of subcutaneous fat. Their thickness is heat loss. Some animals are able to crowd
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related to the intensity of coldness to that together in a tightly packed group to keep
FO
environment. It is an effective means of them warm and reduce much heat loss
reducing heat loss from the body. when an individual animal is exposed
to cold open air.Therefore, this is also a
d) Increased metabolic rate means of conserving heat.
During cold conditions, the liver increases
its metabolic rate. There is also increased b) Hibernation
activity of the adrenal, thyroid, and Some animals in cold climates undergo
pituitary glands resulting into secretion of a period of long sleep. During this time,
hormones that help to increase the body the metabolic rate is reduced 20-100
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times below normal which consequently Some ectotherms have developed some
reduces food and oxygen utilisation. chemical processes to survive the cold.
These animals, such as chorus frogs,
c) Sun basking and gray tree frogs endure the cold by
Ectothermic animals may use radiant heat undergoing chemical changes to prevent
provided by the environment to warm their tissues from freezing. Other animals
their bodies. Solar radiation is the most such as wood frog can tolerate and regulate
common way, as many ectotherms use a frozen state by changing the chemical
the sun’s rays to warm up their bodies. composition of their blood to a sugary state
Reptiles and some amphibians bask in the that helps them avoid freezing.
sun with their bodies spread out to increase
the surface area for heat absorption. When
it is too hot, they hide in the shade or near Exercise 7.2
water bodies; allowing their bodies to 1. Explain the mechanisms of
cool. temperature regulation in endothermic
organism.
d) Clustering
Some animals exhibit group behavioral 2. Show the role of the hypothalamus in
mechanisms to regulate their body temperature regulation.
temperatures. A good example is how 3. Describe the adaptations of mammal
honey bees cuddle together in large to cold and hot climatic conditions.
groups to retain and generate heat. A
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similar example is how some gregarious

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caterpillars bask in the sun in large groups 7.3 Excretion

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to gather heat. The maintenance of homeostasis in

T SE
animals involves osmoregulation or

e) Burrowing balancing the levels of water and salt in
EN U
Some ectotherms burrow themselves and the body. It also involves the removal of
M E
hide deep in the ground. This helps them metabolic wastes from the body through
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to survive in cold environments. excretion; the process by which metabolic

VE N
waste is eliminated from an organism’s

O O
f) Aestivation body. In vertebrates, this is primarily

G R
Some ectothermic animals like earthworms, carried out by the lungs, kidneys and skin.
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snails, frogs, crocodiles, lizards, and tortoise

maintain their body temperature by Significance of excretion
reducing body metabolic activities and It is important that living organisms must
protecting themselves from very high get rid of excretory wastes from their
temperature. During summer time, some bodies, because the removal of wastes
animals usually tend to rest in shady or prevents unbalanced body’s chemical
cool places. Normally, they take a sleep equilibria. Moreover, it is a means for
during the hot hours of daytime as a means removal of toxic wastes which, if allowed
of avoiding environmental stress.
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to accumulate, inhibit action of many animals whose gills or body surface are in
enzymes involved in metabolic pathways. direct contact with water. These animals
Consequently, this will lead to failure in are called ammonotelic.
many physiological processes. Excretion
also helps to regulate water content of the Urea. Animals like sharks, adult
body fluids. Excretory nitrogenous wastes amphibians, and mammals usually
are removed from the bodies of living excrete urea as their nitrogenous waste.
organisms in a form which is determined Urea is a much less toxic, and less soluble
by the availability of water. The pH of than ammonia. It can be excreted in a
blood is regulated by excretion. For moderately concentrated solution. This
example, organisms tend to excrete ions elimination strategy allows body water
such as hydrogen ions (H+) and hydrogen to be conserved, an important advantage
carbonate ions (HCO3-) which have major for terrestrial animals with limited access
influence on pH. to water. The animals in this group are
termed as ureotelic.
Major excretory products in animals
The major excretory products in animals Uric acid. Uric acid is not toxic and it is
are nitrogenous compounds such as urea, insoluble in water. Poor solubility is an
ammonia, and uric acid from breakdown advantage if water conservation is needed.
of proteins and nucleic acids, carbon Uric acid can be concentrated even more
dioxide from cellular respiration and bile readily than urea can. Uric acid is usually
pigments from breaking down of worn out excreted by insects, reptiles, and birds,
TY
PE Y
red blood cells in the liver. these are collectively termed as uricotelic
O NL
R
animals.
PR O
Nitrogenous waste products

T SE
Breakdown of nitrogen containing Kidney position, structure and

molecules such as amino acids results in functions in human body
EN U
excess nitrogen that must be removed from Kidneys are paired bean-shaped organs
M E
the body. When amino acids are broken found on each side of the back of the lower
R LIN
down by the body to generate energy or portion of the abdominal cavity (Figure
VE N
converted into fats or carbohydrates, the 7.5). The larger left kidney is located a bit
O O
amino (NH2) group must be removed higher than the right kidney. Unlike other
G R
because they are not needed, and they organs found in the abdomen, kidneys are
FO
may be toxic. This excess nitrogen may located behind the lining (peritoneum)
be excreted in the form of ammonia, urea, of the abdominal cavity. Thus, they are
or uric acid. considered retroperitoneal organs. These
bean-shaped organs are protected by the
Ammonia. Ammonia is quite toxic back muscles and the ribs as well as the fat
and highly soluble; hence it can be a (adipose tissue) that surrounds them like
nitrogenous excretory product if sufficient a protective padding. Located above each
water is available to wash it from the body. kidney is an adrenal gland which secretes
It is excreted by most fish and other aquatic adrenaline hormone. For each kidney, the
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renal artery supplies blood which a renal through the urethra. The exit from the
vein returns to the vena cava. The ureter bladder is controlled by a sphincter (a ring
removes urine produced by the kidney, of muscles).
transfering it to the urinary bladder for
temporary storage, before being released
Right adrenal gland

Aorta
Right kidney Left renal artery
Left renal vein
Vena cava
Left ureter
Urinary bladder
Sphinter
Urethra
TY
PE Y
O NL
R
PR O
Figure 7.5 Human urinary system

T SE
The bean-shaped kidneys have an outer contains parts of the nephrons, glomeruli
EN U
convex side and an inner concave side and capsule, while the medulla contains
M E
called the renal hilus. A transverse section tubular part of the nephrons and blood
R LIN
(T.S) of the kidney reveals an outer part vessels, forming the renal pyramids
called cortex and an inner part called which project into the pelvis, leading to
VE N
medulla. A thin connective tissue called the ureter. Kidneys are well supplied by
O O
fibrous capsule surrounds each kidney. blood vessels, forming a network of blood
G R
FO
This capsule maintains the kidneys’ shape capillaries (Figure 7.6).

and protects the inner tissues. The cortex
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Nephron
Renal cortex
Collecting duct
Capsule
Minor calyx
Major calyx
Renal medulla Renal pelvis
Renal pyramid
Renal artery
Renal papilla Renal vein
Venule
Blood capillaries Arteriole
Ureter
TY
PE Y
O NL
Figure 7.6 Transverse section through the mammalian kidney

R
PR O
General functions of the kidneys c) Blood pressure regulation

Kidneys are multifunctional organs, some The kidneys need constant pressure to
T SE
core functions of the kidneys include: filter the blood. When it drops too low, the
EN U
kidneys increase the pressure. One way is

M E
a) Excretion by producing a blood vessel constricting

R LIN
Kidneys filter out toxins, excess salts, protein, angiotensin, which also signals
and nitrogenous wastes created by cell the body to retain sodium and water. Both
VE N
metabolisms. Urea is synthesised in the constriction and retention help restore

O O
liver and transported through the blood to

G R
normal blood pressure.

the kidneys for removal in urine.
FO
b) Water balance d) Red blood cell regulation

As kidneys are key in the chemical When the kidneys do not get enough
breakdown of urine, they react to changes oxygen, they send out a distress call in
in the body’s water level every minute. As the form of erythropoietin; a hormone that
water intake decreases, the kidneys adjust stimulates the bone marrow to produce
accordingly and leave water in the body more red blood cells. This process is
instead of helping to excrete it. called erythropoiesis.

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Table 7.1 Summary of parts of the kidney and their functions
Parts of the kidney Description

Renal hilus An indentation near the centre of the concavity of the kidney where the
renal vein and ureter leave the kidney and the renal artery enters the
kidney.
Renal capsule A tough, fibrous membrane, surrounding the kidney. It consists of
dense, irregular connective tissues which protect and help to maintain
the kidney’s shape. It is also surrounded by fatty tissue which helps to
protect the kidney from damage.
Renal cortex The outer reddish part of the kidney that has a smooth texture; it is
where the Bowman’s capsule, glomeruli, proximal and distal convoluted
tubules and blood vessels are found.
Renal medulla The inner striated red-brown part of the kidney.
Renal pyramids Stripped, and triangular in structure within the medulla, which are made
of straight tubules and corresponding blood vessels.
Renal pelvis The funnel-shaped cavity that receives urine drained from the nephrons
through the collecting ducts and papillary ducts.
Renal artery The blood vessel that delivers oxygen- rich blood to the kidney; it
enters the kidney through the hilus and divides into smaller arteries,
which separate into afferent arterioles that serve each of the nephrons.
TY
PE Y
Renal vein The blood vessel that receives deoxygenated blood from the kidney
O NL
R
and returns it to the systemic circulation.

PR O
Afferent arteriole The blood vessel that delivers oxygen-rich blood to the glomerulus
T SE
under high pressure.

EN U
Efferent arteriole The blood vessel that receives oxygenated blood from the glomerulus.
M E
R LIN
Kidney nephrons The functional units where the kidney’s main functions are performed:
There are about a million nephrons in each kidney.
VE N
Collecting duct This part of the kidney nephron collects urine and drains into papillary
O O
ducts, minor calyx, and major calyx, and finally into the ureter and
G R
urinary bladder.
FO
Ureter The tubular structure which conveys urine from the pelvis of the
kidney to the urinary bladder.
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e) Regulation of pH of the blood needed molecules to the blood. The most

Kidneys excrete hydrogen ions into primitive nephrons (pronephros) are found
urine. At the same time, they conserve in the kidneys of primitive fish, amphibian
bicarbonate ions which are an important larvae, and embryos of more advanced
buffer of hydrogen ions. vertebrates. The nephrons found in the
kidneys of amphibians and most fish,
f) Regulation of the ionic composition and in the late embryonic development
of blood of more advanced vertebrates, are only
Kidneys regulate the quantities of ions slightly more advanced in structure
in the blood. Important examples of (mesonephros). The most advanced
ions whose quantities are regulated by nephrons occur in the adult kidneys, or
the kidneys include sodium, potassium, metanephros of land vertebrates, such as
calcium, chloride and phosphate ions. reptiles, birds, and mammals.
g) Synthesis of vitamin D There are two types of nephrons, namely

Kidneys are involved in the synthesis cortical nephrons, (which are found deep
of calciferol, which is an active form of in the renal cortex) and the juxtamedullary
vitamin D. nephrons, which make up about 15
percent of total nephrons and lie close to
The nephron the medulla. The nephrons consist of a
The nephron is the kidney’s functional unit renal corpuscle, a tubule, and a capillary
that is involved in production of urine in network. These originate from the small
TY
PE Y
the process of removing waste and excess cortical arteries. Each renal corpuscle is
O NL
R
substances from the blood. Generally composed of a glomerulus (a network of

PR O
nephron is responsible for the filtration, capillaries) and a Bowman’s capsule (the
T SE
excretion and re-absorption of most of the cup- shaped chamber that surrounds it).
water and other materials. Each kidney The Bowman’s capsule connects to a long
EN U
has more than a million nephrons in the convoluted renal tubule which is divided
M E
renal cortex, which gives it a granular into three functional parts. These consist
R LIN
appearance on sagittal section (Figure of the proximal convoluted tubule, the

VE N
7.7). Nephrons are used to separate water, loop of Henle (nephritic loop) with its
O O
ions and small molecules from the blood descending and ascending limbs, and the
G R
molecule, and filter out wastes and toxic distal convoluted tubule, which empties
FO
materials, then it selectively returns the into the collecting ducts.

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Distal convoluted
Efferent arteriole tubule
Afferent arteriole
Glomerular
capillary
Bowman’s capsule
Collecting
duct
Branch of renal artery

Proximal
convoluted tubule
Branch of renal vein
Loop of Henle Descending limb

Ascending limb
TY
PE Y
Figure 7.7 Structure of the mammalian nephron

O NL
R
PR O
The collecting ducts fuse together and vessels) from the small ones (which pass
T SE
enter the papillae of the renal medulla. into the renal tubule). Therefore, it is a
site for ultra-filtration; that is pressure
EN U
Urine passes through the renal medulla filtration. This pressure is known as
M E
as a fluid with high sodium content and hydrostatic pressure, and it stems from
R LIN
leaves through the renal papillae, into the blood pressure. Thus, the blood brought
VE N
renal calyces, the renal pelvis, and the into the glomerular capillaries by the
O O
bladder through the ureter. afferent arteriole is pumped by the heart

G R
at high pressure; which rises as the blood

FO
The outer layer of the Bowman’s capsule leaves the wide arteriole and enters the
is composed of squamous epithelial cells. narrow capillaries.
The inner layer is composed of specialised
cells that allow easy passage of molecules, The structures of the glomerulus and
and the glomerulus consists of endothelial Bowman’s capsule is adapted for filtration
cells with fenestrae (pores). The renal in that, endothelial layers of glomerulus
corpuscle acts as an ultra-filtration unit, are very thin and have many pores to
filtering the blood and separating the allow the passage of a glomerular filtrate.
larger particles (which stay in the blood A network of fibres such as collagen
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fibres, with spaces between them, allows b) They have numerous mitochondria
the passage of small solute molecules in to supply energy which is constantly
the filtrate. They restrict the passage of needed for active uptake of substances
blood cells that are larger than the pores. from the filtrate.
Large molecules such as proteins are also c) Their basement membranes are very
restricted from passing through and are close to the endothelial lining of
repelled by the negatively charged fibres. blood capillaries to ensure fast uptake
Moreover, the epithelial layer of the and efficient transportation of the
Bowman’s capsule contains podocytes, reabsorbed substances back into the
the highly modified filtration cells. These body.
have extensions which interact to form d) Channel proteins are present for
filtration slits or pores to allow the passage transportation of substances like
of the glomerular filtrate. amino acids and ions from the cells
The proximal convoluted tubule are mainly of the proximal convoluted tubule, to
concerned with selective reabsorption so the spaces between these cells and the
that valuable substances such as glucose basal channels.
are taken back to the blood but not lost e) At the base of the microvilli, small
in the urine. The cells of the proximal proteins from the renal fluid are
convoluted tubule are adapted for re- removed by the process of pinocytosis.
absorption as follows: The proteins are then enclosed in
a) They have numerous microvilli and
TY pinocytic vesicles and are finally
broken down by hydrolytic enzymes
PE Y
basal channels which increase the

O NL
from the lysosomes (Figure 7.8).

R
surface area for the absorption process.

PR O
Afferent arteriole Efferent arteriole

T SE
Capillary showing pore Capillaries of the glomerulus

EN U
Podocyte
Filtration silts
M E
Squamous epithelial cells of

R LIN
Basement membrane Bowman’s capsule

Glomerular filtrate
VE N
Microvilli
O O
Cells of proximal convoluted tubule

N
Basement membrane
G R
Space between epithelial cells

Tight junction
Endothelium of
FO
blood capillary
Microvilli
BLOOD GLOMERULAR FILTRATE
Infolding of cell surface Epithelial cell of proximal

convoluted tubule
membrane forming base
channels
Reabsorption
Figure 7.8 Structure and function of renal corpuscle and proximal convoluted tubule

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The loop of Henle acts as a counter current compounds combine with carbon dioxide
exchange mechanism creating a low water (CO2) gas from respiration in a solution
potential (high solute content) in the form (ammonium ions and bicarbonate
medulla of the kidney so that water can be ions respectively) resulting into the
reabsorbed by osmosis. The descending formation of carbamoyl phosphate, by the
limb has a thin membrane which is freely help of the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate
permeable to water and impermeable synthetase-I. The reaction occurs in
to salts and urea. The thick ascending the mitochondria of the liver cells, and
limb has numerous mitochondria which requires 2 ATP molecules.
provide energy for active uptake of sodium
chloride and other ions from the renal b) Synthesis of citrulline
fluids back into the interstitial regions of The carbamoyl phosphate formed in
the medulla. the first step enters the ornithine cycle
and combine with ornithine resulting in
The distal convoluted tubule and collecting the synthesis of citrulline, aided by an
ducts are concerned with osmoregulation; enzyme citrulline synthase or ornithine
varying the amount of water reabsorbed transcarbamoylase. In the reaction the
into the blood. The cells of the distal phosphate group is released. Citrulline
convoluted tubule have a similar structure can easily pass through the mitochondrial
to those of the proximal convoluted tubule, membrane, thus it diffuses from the
with microvilli lining the inner surfaces to mitochondrion into cytosol (cytoplasm)
increase the surface area for absorption, of liver cells.
TY
PE Y
and numerous mitochondria to supply

O NL
R
energy for active transport. c) Synthesis of argininosuccinate

PR O
In the cytosol, citrulline combines with

T SE
Formation of urea in mammals the amino group of aspartate under

Urea is the nitrogenous waste product of condensation reaction catalyzed by
EN U
humans and other land living mammals. enzyme argininosuccinate synthetase

M E
The body is unable to store excess to form argininosuccinate. It requires

R LIN
amino acids taken in the diet. Those not ATP which is hydrolysed to adenosine
VE N
immediately needed for protein synthesis monophosphate (AMP) resulting in the

O O
or making sugar must be removed by utilization of two high energy bonds.

G R
the process called deamination, which is Magnesium ions (Mg2+) act as cofactors.
FO
followed by urea formation in the liver This reaction incorporates the second
cells. The process of urea formation nitrogen from aspartate.
occurs in the urea cycle which is also
called ornithine cycle (Figure 7.9) and d) Cleavage of argininosuccinate
involves the following stages: The cleavage of arginisuccinate involves
the enzyme argininosuccinase, an
a) Formation of carbamoyl phosphate intermediate enzyme in the urea synthesis
Before the cycle, ammonia (NH3) from pathway whose function is imperative
metabolism of nitrogen containing to the continuation of the cycle. It acts
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semi-essential amino acid. Though it is

reversibly to cleave argininosuccinate into
a free arginine and fumarate. The argininesynthesised in the body, it is not available
for protein synthesis. Ornithine is
continues with the cycle in the other stage,
whereas fumarate enters the Tricarboxylic regenerated in this step and the urea cycle
Acid (TCA) cycle, which is also known completes by the formation of urea. The
as Kreb’s cycle. The linkage between ornithine produced is transported back to
TCA cycle and urea cycle is known as the the mitochondria to start the cycle again
Kreb’s bi- cycle. while urea is transported to the kidney
through blood vessels to be excreted.
e) Cleavage of arginine Thus the urea cycle brings two amino
Arginine is hydrolysed into ornithine and groups (NH2) and hydrogen carbonate ions
urea under the influence of the enzyme (HCO3-) together to form urea.
arginase; hence, arginine is known as a
Co2+NH3 Citrulline
Aspartate
2ATP
Pi + AMP ATP
H2O
Carbamoyl Pi
phosphate
AMP + Pi
Ornithine TY Argininosuccinate
PE Y
O NL
R
Urea
PR O
T SE
H2O Arginine
EN U
Fumarate
M E
R LIN
Figure 7.9 The Ornithine cycle

VE N
Urinary disorders in human in the blood resulting into kidneys’ failure

O O
The urinary tract consists of the kidneys,to expel it via urine. The end products
G R
ureters, bladder and urethra. Urinary of protein metabolism accumulate in

FO
disorders include any infections or the blood but are normally filtered out
conditions that affect any of these parts when the blood passes through the
of the urinary system or their functions. kidneys. However, urea accumulation
The following are some of the common in the blood is comparatively high in
urinary disorders in human beings: uremia victims. In such patients, urea
can be removed by the process called
a) Uremia
haemodialysis. However, there are still
This condition results from toxic effects
some complications that affect people on
of abnormally high concentrations of urea
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dialysis such as cardiovascular problems the thigh or the testicle or vulva on that
and severe itching from the imbalance of side. The best way to prevent most kidney
minerals in the body. stones is to drink enough fluids every day.
b) Renal failure (RF) or kidney failure d) Urinary tract infections (UTI)

Renal failure is a decrease or cessation In humans, UTI is caused by the invasion
of glomerular filtration in humans (it of microorganisms, usually bacteria,
is a partial or complete loss of kidney into the urethra and bladder. The most
function). Kidney failure can be either common UTI cases that affect the bladder
acute or chronic. In acute renal failure and urethra are:
(ARF), both kidneys abruptly stop
working. The main feature of ARF is Infection of the bladder (cystitis). This
either oligouria (scanty urine production) type of UTI is usually caused by bacteria,
in which the daily urine output is less normally Escherichia coli (E. coli); a
than 250 ml or anuria in which daily urine type of bacteria commonly found in the
output is less than 50 ml. The causes of gastrointestinal tract (GIT). All women
renal failure may be low blood volume are at risk of cystitis because of their
(atherosclerosis), decreased cardiac anatomy, specifically the short distance
output, damaged renal tubules, kidney from the urethra to the anus and the
stones, nephritis, and some excessive use urethral opening to the bladder.
of antibiotics. The effect of renal failure
includes oedema, that is accumulation Infection of the urethra (urethritis). This
TY
PE Y
of excess fluids in various parts of the type of UTI can occur when GIT bacteria
O NL
R
body which results into swelling of legs. spread from the anus to the urethra. Also,
PR O
Also, the potassium level rises, leading to because the female urethra is close to the
T SE
failure to produce enough erythropoietin vagina, sexually transmitted infections

for adequate red blood cells production, such as herpes, gonorrhea, chlamydia and
EN U
hence anaemia. mycoplasma can cause urethritis.

M E
R LIN
c) Kidney stones (renal calculi) The infection of the urinary tract can
VE N
Concentration of mineral and organic result into either minor or major illnesses.
O O
matter that forms in the kidneys results For example, an attack of cystitis-
G R
into small particles called stones. These inflammation of the bladder may cause
FO
may become too large, hence impairing only minor illness. The attack of the renal
the normal renal function. Urine contains system is characterised by frequent and
many salts in solution. If the concentration painful urination. Other complications
of these mineral salts becomes excessive, involve: recurrent infections; especially
the excess salts precipitate as crystals in women who experience twice or more
that may enlarge to become visible solid UTI cases in a six-month period within a
particles called stones. Such stones give year and permanent kidney damage from
rise to severe colic pain starting in the twice acute or chronic kidney infection
back and radiating down to the front of (pyelonephritis) due to an untreated UTI.
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Likewise, pregnant women get a risk of by deficiency of vasopressin hormone

delivering low birth weight or premature which is released by the posterior lobe
infants, whereas men experience urethral of the pituitary gland. The vasopressin or
narrowing (stricture). antidiuretic hormone (ADH) facilitates
reabsorption of water by the distal
The preventive measures include: drinking convoluted tubule and the collecting duct
plenty of liquids especially water so as to of the nephrons. Therefore, lack of this
dilute urine and ensure frequent urination hormone implies that much water remains
hence, allowing bacteria to be flushed from in renal fluid; therefore, it is lost through
the urinary tract. Also, women are advised urine. The symptoms of diabetes insipidus
to wipe from front to back after urinating include excessive dilute urine, intense
and after defecating so as to prevent the thirst, and tiredness. Regular physical
spread of bacteria from anal region to exercises and healthy eating may prevent
the vagina and urethra. Furthermore, a an individual from getting diabetes.
patient should seek medical advice from a Diabetic patients are advised to go to
recognised health centre or hospital. the health centre or hospital for medical
advice and proper treatment.
e) Urinary tract obstruction
This is due to blockage or constriction at
any point in the urinary tract. This impedes Exercise 7.3
the normal flow of urine and causes urine
to be retained in the bladder or kidneys.
TY 1. Analyse the major excretory
PE Y
Obstruction causes urine to become products in vertebrates.

O NL
R
blocked up into the kidneys, the condition

2. Describe the structure of the
PR O
is known as hydronephrosis. Obstructions

mammalian nephron.
T SE
in the urinary tract causes distension of the

walls of the bladder, ureter, urethra, and 3. Explain three common disorders of
EN U
kidneys. This condition may stem from the urinary system in human.
M E
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

R LIN
such as syphilis and gonorrhoea. Its 4. How does the type of nitrogenous
VE N
preventive measures include prevention wastes excreted by an animal relate

O O
against STDs and seeking for medical to water availability in its body?
G R
assistance whenever sensing signs of

FO
STDs. 5. Describe the mechanism of urine

formation.
f) Diabetes insipidus (DI)
The term diabetes insipidus is made up
of two words; diabetes, which means
‘overflow’, and insipidus which means
‘tasteless’. From this basic implication,
diabetes insipidus means excessive
production of very dilute urine. It is caused
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7.4 Osmoregulation a) They have rectal glands which secrete

In most vertebrates, kidneys are the salts to increase their osmotic pressure.
most important organs involved in This mechanism aims at balancing the
osmoregulation. The kidneys perform internal osmotic pressure to that of the
several functions critical to homeostasis. surrounding sea water.
Such functions include maintaining the
balance between water and various types b) They retain nitrogenous waste
of salts. This is important because ions chemicals, such as urea, and
such as Na+, Ca2+, and K+ greatly affect trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) in
the functioning of the body systems such their body cells. These chemicals are
as the skeletal, nervous and muscular kept in high concentrations, and they
systems. The kidneys produce urine; a change the diffusion gradient enabling
liquid that contains a number of different a fish to absorb water instead of
metabolic wastes. The concentration ingesting it. Despite the fact that these
of urine produced by an animal varies are waste products and may be harmful
depending on the environment as well to the animals at high concentrations,
as on the factors, such as water and the marine elasmobranches have
salt intake. The process of maintaining been able to produce and retain urea
constant body’s osmotic condition is because their gills are impermeable to
called osmoregulation. It is concerned it. Their renal tubules in the kidneys
with the regulation of water and solute are capable of reabsorbing urea from
concentration of the body fluids. the renal fluid back to body cells. In
TY
PE Y
addition, their cells are immune to the

O NL
R
Osmoregulation in marine effects of high concentrations of urea.

PR O
elasmobranches
T SE
Marine elasmobranches are cartilaginous Osmoregulation in mammals

fish such as sharks, rays, and skates. They An important evolutionary adaptation
EN U
live in sea water whose salt concentrations that allowed animals to survive on land
M E
are higher than those of their body fluids. was the development of a kidney that
R LIN
Due to this difference in concentrations, would produce concentrated (hypertonic)

VE N
the fishes tend to lose water from their urine. The need for water conservation
O O
bodies into the sea. To overcome this is particularly well illustrated in desert
G R
problem, the marine elasmobranches have mammals such as the kangaroo rat. A
FO
developed mechanisms of making their major adaptation that allows the kangaroo
body fluids less hypotonic to sea water. rat to conserve water is the ability to form
Because of this, the animals face another very hypertonic urine twenty times more
problem of a natural and continuous concentrated than its blood plasma. The
diffusion of water into their bodies from kidneys of the Kangaroo rat are able to
their surrounding sea water. To overcome accomplish this because the loop of Henle
these problems and to make their body of their nephrons is much longer and more
fluids isotonic to sea water, such fishes efficient than that of most other mammals.
have developed the following adaptations:
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Terrestrial mammals need to drink water fine looped blood vessels called the Vasa
at least occasionally to compensate for the recta. These vessels carry blood from the
water lost from the skin and respiratory glomerulus to the renal vein.
passages and through urination.
Salts like sodium and chloride ions,
Counter current multiplier diffuse passively out of the thin ascending
In the loop of Henle, a counter current limb and pumped actively out of the
exchange mechanism is combined with thick ascending limb into the surrounding
the active secretion of solutes. A system tissue fluids. This pumping of salts out
that uses this combined type of exchange of the limb creates an osmotic gradient
is called counter current multiplier which draws water out of the descending
system. The loop of Henle functions as a limb into the medulla. This is because the
counter current multiplier due to its close ascending limb is impermeable to water;
proximity of ascending and descending therefore, water moves out of the limb
limbs, permeability of the descending only to the descending limb. When water
limb to water, impermeability of the in the descending limb is pumped out, it
descending limb to solute, permeability causes the fluid in the descending limb to
of the ascending limb to solute, passive have a slightly higher salt concentration
transport of solute in thin ascending compared to the ascending limb. The
limb, and active transport mechanism for process continues down the length of the
the thick ascending limb (Figure 7.10). loop so that this concentration effect is
These features enable the loop of Henle to multiplied. The counter current multiplier
TY
PE Y
create a very high concentration gradient means that the fluid in and around the loop
O NL
R
between the tissue fluid and blood in the of Henle becomes saltier as it goes down
PR O
medulla of the kidney and the urine in the loop, and it is saltiest at the bottom
T SE
the collecting ducts. The loop of Henle end of the loop. In contrast, it becomes
is connected at one end to the proximal less salty as it goes up the ascending limb
EN U
convoluted tubule and at the other end Therefore, the final salt concentration
M E
to the distal convoluted tubule. It first depends on the length of the loop, the
R LIN
descends deep into the medulla and then longer the loop; the higher the final salt
VE N
bends and ascends into the cortex again. concentration in the tissues.
O O
Throughout its length, it is surrounded by

G R
FO

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Descending limb Ascending limb C

O
300 300 100 300 R
T
H2O
E
H 2O X
NaCl
H 2O H2O M
NaCl E
400 Decrease D
600 600
H 2O NaCl solute U
H2O
potential L
NaCl
L
H 2O NaCl
A
Interstitial region
Interstitial region NaCl Interstitial region
Cl-
1000 1200
H 2O Na +
1,200 H2O
1,200
Active transport
of NaCl
Passive transport
of NaCl
Movement of water
Figure 7.10 Counter-current multiplier system of the loop of Henle

TY
PE Y
Hormonal control of osmoregulation and pressure rises) and the urine produced
O NL
R
As water moves in the loop of Henle, it is more concentrated.

PR O
leaves the loop of Henle with the water

potential greater than that of blood plasma. The regulation of salt and blood pressure
T SE
This creates a concentration gradient are closely connected. If the sodium ion
EN U
between fluid in the distal convoluted concentration in the blood is low, the
M E
tubule and the surrounding tissue fluid. blood water potential increases and water
R LIN
The concentration gradient is enhanced moves by osmosis into the tissue, slightly
when salts are actively pumped out of the lowering the blood pressure. When blood
VE N
O O
distal convoluted tubule. Reabsorption of pressure is not sufficient (below the set
G R
water in the distal convoluted tubule and point), secretory cells near the glomerulus,
FO
the collecting duct will depend on their juxtaglomerular apparatus secrete, renin.
permeability, which is controlled by the The later is an enzyme that changes
hormone called Antidiuretic hormone angiotensinogen (angiotensinogen is a
(ADH). This hormone is released by the large plasma protein produced by the liver)
posterior lobe of the pituitary gland in into Angiotensin I. Later Angiotensin
response to an increased concentration of I is converted to Angiotensin II. When
salts in the blood. When ADH is present, Angiotensin II reaches the adrenal cortex,
more water is reabsorbed (blood volume it stimulates the secretion of aldosterone.
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This hormone promotes the excretion a) Water and food consumption

of potassium ions and the reabsorption Human beings obtain about 60% of the
of sodium ions at the distal convoluted water they need from the ingested liquids,
tubules. The reabsorption of sodium ions 30% from ingested food, and 10% from
is followed by the reabsorption of water. metabolism. Rodents and camels adapted
Therefore, blood volume and blood to arid conditions obtain approximately
pressure increase. 90% of water from metabolism and 10%
from ingested food.
Adaptations of mammals to arid and
semi-arid conditions b) Excretory adaptations
High temperature and low rainfall The ability to excrete concentrated urine
characterise some areas of this world. It and dry feaces is an important adaptation
becomes hard to believe that animals can to arid conditions. Mammals that are
survive in arid and semi-arid conditions. adapted to the desert have very long
However, these animals survive because loop of Henle compared to animals that
they have adaptations that allow them live in less arid regions and in aquatic
to live in the hot, dry conditions. environments. A longer loop of Henle
These adaptations help to balance allows urine to become very concentrated
thermoregulation with water gain and due to osmotic gradients in the kidneys.
loss. For instance, many mammals that Desert rodents produce concentrated urine
live in the desert obtain much or all of TY about five times as that of humans. Longer
PE Y
their water from the food they consume. loop of Henle increases the efficiency of
O NL
R
The reduced water intake is partially water reabsorption and hence a means for
PR O
balanced through concentrated urine and conserving water.

dry faeces. Evaporative cooling helps to
T SE
regulate temperature. c) Behavioural adaptations

EN U
Behavioural adaptations are used to

M E
To limit the water loss through evaporative reduce the amount of heat gained by
R LIN
cooling, some mammals are nocturnal; animals. Therefore, they reduce the
VE N
have light coloration and other body need for evaporative cooling. One basic
O O
features to help them dissipate heat and behavioural adaptation is the timing of
G R
use micro-environments to reduce heat activity rhythms. Nocturnal animals

FO
gain. This is only a short list of the many are able to regulate their heat load by
amazing adaptations. Characteristically, resting during the day, since night-time
arid regions receive 100-250 mm of rain temperatures can be 15-20 °C lower than
a year and semi-arid regions receive 250- the daytime. Examples of nocturnal
500 mm of rain per year. The following animals include the quoll, bilby, and the
are some of adaptations of mammals to spinifex hopping mouse.
the life in arid or semi-arid conditions:

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Burrows are another type of

microenvironment that is used by smaller Revision questions
mammals. In Arizona burrow temperature
1. Explain the concept of regulation
of a round-tailed ground squirrel was
(homeostasis).
recorded. The air temperature was 40 °C and
the soil surface was 70 °C but the burrow 2. With a specific example of a
temperature did not exceed 29 °C. Many homeostatic mechanism, draw
burrows are at a depth where evaporative a diagrammatic representation
cooling is not needed; it does not get hot showing how a body can balance its
contents through negative feedback
enough in the burrows to require this
mechanism.
technique.
3. How do endotherms keep their
d) Torpor and metabolic rate body temperatures constant?
Many mammals such as rodents and 4. Outline various ways by which
squirrels enter a period of torpor in mammals are adapted to arid and
response to severe heat. This is a period semi- arid conditions.
when metabolism decreases, the heart
5. Briefly describe the ornithine cycle.
beat and respiratory system slows down
based on a circadian rhythm. Torpor 6. Briefly describe how the mammalian
can be considered as a water conserving renal tubule is adapted to its
mechanism because the animal’s body functions.
temperature is lowered and it does not 7. Explain the causes, effects and
TY
PE Y
have to rely heavily on evaporation. If prevention of the following

O NL
R
the period of torpor becomes longer, it is disorders in human:

PR O
called aestivation or summer dormancy.

a) Kidney failure
T SE
Aestivation allows an animal to survive b) Kidney stones

EN U
when there are high temperatures and c) Diabetes insipidus

M E
a scarcity of water and or food. An

R LIN
aestivating animal can live longer with 8. Explain the mechanism of

osmoregulation in marine
VE N
its energy reserves due to lowered

O O
metabolism. Moreover, there is a reduced elasmobranches.

G R
water loss through lowered breath rates. 9. Describe the counter current
FO
Metabolic rates are lower during torpor multiplier system in the mammalian
and aestivation. Mammals adapted to loop of Henle.
desert climates have lower metabolic 10. Describe the mechanism of
rates in general than similar mammals that osmoregulation in mammals.
live in extreme climates. This reduces the
internal heat load as well as the water used 11. Explain the mechanism of hormonal
for evaporation. control of osmoregulation in
mammals.
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Glossary
Acoelomate An animal that does not possess a body cavity
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a complex organic chemical that provides energy
to drive many processes in living cells
Akaryotes/Acaryotes A cell without nucleus like viruses. Red blood cells are
also classified as akaryotes because they lack nucleus
after they have developed
Alternation of generation Type of life cycle found in terrestrial plants and some algae
in which subsequent generations of individuals alternate
between haploid and diploid organisms or refers to the
occurrence in the plant life cycle of both a multicellular
diploid organism and a multicellular haploid organism,
each giving rise to the other.
Ammonotelic organisms Describes an animal that excretes ammonia as the primary
waste material. Examples of ammonotelic organisms
include protozoans, crustaceans, platyhelminths,
cnidarians, fishes, and tadpoles of amphibians.
Anaesthetize Administering a chemical or drug to an animal so as to
TY
PE Y
make an animal unconscious for operation or dissection

O NL
R
purposes
PR O
Antheridia Male sex organ of algae, fungi, bryophytes, and spore-

T SE
bearing vascular plants, such as ferns, which produces

EN U
antherozoids
M E
Archegonia The egg-producing organ occurring in bryophytes (such

R LIN
as mosses and liverworts), ferns, and most gymnosperms.

VE N
The archegonium is a multicellular, often flask-shaped

O O
structure that contains a single egg.

G R
FO
Bacteriochlorophyll Modified chlorophyll that serves as the primary light-

trapping pigment in purple and green sulphur bacteria
Bisexual flower A flower with both male and female reproductive structures
Bronchus Passage of airway in the respiratory system that conducts
air into the lungs
Browsing A type of herbivory in which an animal feeds on leaves,
soft shoots or fruits; generally woody plants such as

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Glossary
shrubs. Such animals are known as browsers. Examples

include; giraffe and goat.
Bundle sheath cells A layer of cells in plant leaves and stems that forms a
sheath surrounding the vascular bundle. In C4 plants it
contains chloroplasts and are the site for Calvin cycles.
Caecilians Group of limbless tropical amphibians that look like large
worms or silk snakes. It becomes difficult to differentiate
between the head and the tail.
Carboxylation Chemical reaction in which a carboxylic acid group is
produced by treating a substrate with carbondioxide
Carotenoid Plant pigment responsible for bright red, yellow and
orange hues in many fruits and vegetables. They
also help chlorophyll from the photo damage during
photosynthesis.
Cladistic /Phylogenetics An approach to biological classfication in which organisms
are categorised in groups based on the most recent
common ancestry shared traits
Coenzyme Q A crucial component of the oxidative phosphorylation
TY
process in mitochondria which converts the energy in
PE Y
O NL
carbohydrates and fatty acids into ATP to drive cellular

R
machinery
PR O
T SE
Cytochromes These are electron carrier agents and essential component

of the electron transport chain. They can undergo
EN U
reduction and oxidation (losing or gaining electron) but

M E
does not react with oxygen.

R LIN
Dendrites Branched protoplasmic extensions of a nerve cell that

VE N
O O
propagate the electrochemical stimulation received from

N
other neural cells to the cell body

G R
FO
Dissection The process of cutting open the body part of anaesthetised

or deceased animal or plant to investigate its anatomical
structure and body systems
Ectotherm An organism whose regulation of body temperature
depends on external sources, such as sunlight or a heated
rock surface
Endemic A native species of animal or plant which are only found
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in a restricted area and not other places or an area in

which a particular disease is regularly found, or a regular
condition or disease found among particular people.
Endotherm Organisms that use internally generated heat to maintain
body temperature. Their body temperature tends to stay
steady regardless of the environmental temperatures. The
endotherms primarily include birds and mammals.
Epiglottis Elastic cartilage covered with a mucosa membrane,
found in the throat that prevent the food from entering
the windpipe (trachea) and the lungs
Facultative parasites Organisms that can live either as parasites when the host
is available or as a free living organism when the host is
not available
Foetus Developing offspring inside the maternal uterus (womb)
in a prenatal stage between embryonic stage and birth
Fossorial Animals that live underground, digging tunnels and
burrows. Some of them are completely subterranean,
while others come up to the surface for some hours of the
day.
TY
PE Y
O NL
Glycogenolysis A process whereby glycogen which is the primary

R
carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of

PR O
animals, is broken down to glucose in order to provide

T SE
immediate energy and maintain blood glucose levels

EN U
during fasting. This process occurs primarily in the

M E
liver and is stimulated by two hormones, glucagon and

R LIN
epinephrine (adrenaline).
VE N
Grazing A type of herbivory in which an animal eats grass or

O O
forbs. Such animals are called grazers, and include cows

G R
and sheep
FO
Guard cells Specialized epidermal cells of the leaves and stems. They
contain chloroplasts used in photosynthesis. They occur
in pairs that form a pore between them called stomata, that
regulate the gaseous exchange by opening and closing of
the stomatal pore.
Haemoglobin (hemoglobin) An iron containing protein molecule of the red blood

cell used to transport oxygen in the blood of almost all
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Glossary
vertebrates as well as the tissues of some invertebrates. It

is abbreviated as Hb or Hgb.
Hepatopancreatic sphincter Muscular valve which regulates the flow of bile and
pancreatic juices
Hibernation Adaptation that helps many animals conserve energy by
remaining inactive, greatly slowing their metabolism
and reducing their body temperature for days, weeks,
or months. Animals hibernate in order to survive long
periods.
Homoeothermic animals Animals that maintain a stable body temperature by
regulating metabolic processes. Examples are birds and
mammals.
Hyperthermia Elevated body temperature due to failed thermoregulation
that occurs when a body produces or absorbs more heat
than it dissipates.
Hypertonic A condition where the external environment has higher
concentration of solutes than the internal environment
Hypotonic A condition where the external environment has lower
concentrations of solutes than that of the internal
TY
PE Y
environment
O NL
R
In situ Item being in its natural, normal, or original place or

PR O
position
T SE
Intercostal muscles Several groups of muscles which make and move the
EN U
chest wall. They run between one rib and another, and
M E
they are involved in the mechanical aspect of breathing.

R LIN
Lean muscle mass Lean mass is the total weight of the body minus all the
VE N
weight due to your fat mass

O O
Lean mass = total weight – fat mass

G R
FO
Mesophyll cells Photosynthetic cells in plant leaves which are loosely

packed and lie between the bundle sheath cells and the
leaf surface
Metameric segmentation A series of alike segments running along the length of the
body
Nissl’s bodies Granular bodies of variable size found in nerve cell
bodies and dendrites
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Phosphorylation The process of adding a phosphate group to a molecule or

an organic compound
Photoheterotrophs Organisms that depend on light for energy and complex

organic matter for carbon to synthesise their organic
requirements
Photolysis A chemical process by which water molecules are broken

down into smaller units through absorption of light during
photosynthesis
Photorespiration A metabolic pathway that occurs in plants in the presence

of light; in which ribulose biphoshate carboxylase
oxygenase (RuBisCo) fix oxygen instead of carbondioxide
to form phosphoglyceric acid and 2-phosphoglycolate; a
product which cannot be used in the Calvin cycle.
Phycobilins Light capturing bilins which are water soluble and

contain chromophore that make them coloured, mainly
orange, red, and blue pigments found in red algae and
cyanobacteria.
Phycoerythrobilin The red phycobilin, found in some organisms such as

TY
PE Y
cyanobacteria and the chloroplast of red algae which act

O NL
R
as the terminal acceptor of energy

PR O
Phytopathogenic Organisms which are pathogenic to plants

T SE
EN U
Pili Hair like filaments (tiny hollow projections) that extend

M E
from the cell membrane into the external environment.

R LIN
Bacteria possessing pili include Neisseria gonorrhoeae

and some strains of Escherichia coli, and Salmonella.
VE N
O O
Plasmalemma Membrane which separates the interior parts of the cell

G R
from the outside environment (the extracellular space)

FO
that protects the cell from its environment, usually

consisting of a lipid bilayer with embedded protein.
Pleural membrane Thin, slippery and moist membrane surrounding the

lungs, it has two layers; the outer layer called parietal
pleura and inner layer visceral pleura with a space
between them called pleural cavity filled with pleural
fluid secreted by the membrane.

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Poikilothermic animals Animals whose body temperature fluctuates with that

of the environment. Examples include amphibians and
reptiles.
Pseudocoelomates Animals with a primitive (false) cavity (pseudocoelum)
Repugnatorial fluid Defensive secretions (odorous fluid) produced by animals,
such as certain insects for defence against predators
Ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) An organic substance (a 5 carbon compound) involved
in Calvin cycle which is part of the light independent
reactions of photosynthesis
Schwan cells Cells in the peripheral nervous system that form the
myelin sheath around a neuron’s axon. Schwan cells is
also called neurilemmocytes.
Svedberg value (s or sv) A measure of a particle’s size based on its sedimentation
rate, i.e. how fast a particle of given size and shape ‘settles’
to the bottom of a solution. The units of a ribosome are
often described by their Svedberg (s) values, which are
based upon their rate of sedimentation in a centrifuge.
Tegument The outer covering of platyhelminths, made up by an
TY
epidermal layer and sometimes provided with cilia,
PE Y
spines and glandular tissue

O NL
R
PR O
Uniramia A group of arthropods characterised by having

appendages (antennae and legs) with only a single ramus
T SE
(branch). They also have a single pair of antennae and an

EN U
exoskeleton that is strengthened by tanning process and

M E
made water proof by a wax layer. The group has three

R LIN
main classes: the Chilopoda (centipedes), Diplopoda

(millipedes) and Hexapoda or Insecta (insects and their
VE N
relatives).
O O
N
G R
Ureotelic organisms Animals that excrete urea as the primary nitrogenous

FO
waste material. Examples include cartilagenous fish,

adult amphibians, and mammals including humans.
Uricotelic organisms Organisms that excrete uric acid, example birds and
reptiles
Vaccine A biological preparartion that provides active acquired
immunity against a particular disease

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Bibliography
Allison, L.A., Freeman, S., & Quillin, K. (2008). Biological science (5th Ed.). New
York: Pearson Education.
Campbell, N.A., Reece, J.B., Taylor, M.R., & Simon, E.J. (2005). Biology concepts
and connections (5th Ed.). New York: Benjamin Cummings 1301 Sansome St.
San Fransisco, CA 94111.
Chand, S., Verma, P.S., & Pandey, B.P. (2010). Biology for class XI (2nd Ed.).
New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd.
Clegg, C.J. & Mackean D.G. (1994). Advanced biology, principles and applications
(1st Ed.). London: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd.
Toole, G. & Toole, S. (1999). New understanding biology for advanced level (4th Ed.).
London: Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd.
Green, N.P.O., Stout, G.W., & Taylor, D.J. (1997). Biological science (3rd Ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mackean, D.G. (2005). IGCSE biology. London: Hodder Murray, an imprint of Hodder
Education.
Marshall, P.T. & Hughes, G.M. (1980). Physiology of mammals and other vertebrates
TY
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(2nd Ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.

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R
Roberts, M.B.V. (1986). Biology, a functional approach (4th Ed). London: Thomas
PR O
Nelson and sons Ltd.

T SE
Rowett. H.G.Q. (1982). Guide to dissection. London: John Murray Publishers Ltd.
EN U
M E
Stern, K.R. (1997). Introductory plant biology. California: WCB/McGraw-Hill.

R LIN
TIE (2013). Diploma in secondary education, biology: Pedagogy module.

VE N
Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Institute of Education.

O O
URT (2010). Biology syllabus for advanced secondary education, Form V-VI. Dar-es
G R
salaam: Tanzania Institute of Education.

FO
URT (2009). In-service training for secondary school teachers. Biology manual. Dar-
es-salaam: Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.
Vines A.E. & Rees, N. (1972). Plant and animal biology (Vol 1).London: Longman
Group Ltd.
Windelspecht, M. (2013). Biology (11th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill companies.

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Index
Index
A 109, 110, 111, 258, 356 classification 58, 77, 82, 95,
Basidiomycota 128, 133, 134 106, 175, 230, 234
abscisic acid 360 biological control 111, 136, coccus 105
absorption 22 170, 189 cochlea 240, 241, 242, 243
absorption 278, 357 biotechnology 99 cochlea 241, 242
acoelomate 360 bowman’s capsule 339, 340, coelom 167, 171, 172, 175, 358
actin 29, 58, 61 341, 342 coelomate 171, 172, 175, 190,
actin 29 bronchus 292 358
aerobic respiration 20, 126, bryophytes 75, 137, 138, 139, coenzyme Q 317
291, 305, 306, 310, 312, 268 commensalism 277
316, 317, 319, 324, 358 cones 146, 147, 148, 149, 230,
Agaricus 360 C 231, 238, 239, 256, 358
algal bloom 126 C3 plants 268, 269, 270, 271, conidia 130, 131, 358
alternation of generation 352 272, 274 Coniferophyta 78, 83, 138,
alveolus 292, 293, 294 C4 plants 267, 268, 269, 271, 145, 146
Annelida 166, 171, 172 272, 274, 290, 353 corolla 159, 162
anthers 154 Calvin cycle 262, 263, 265, counter current multiplier 348,
antidiuretic hormone 247, 346, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 351
349 356, 357 counter current multiplier 348
Archaebacteria 93, 101, 102 calyx 159, 162 crustacea 175, 176
archegonium 138, 140, 142, capsid 94, 95, 96 cuticle 41, 138, 139, 145, 147,
148, 352 carbohydrates 33, 34, 42, 45, 149, 164, 168, 170, 171,
Arthropoda 166, 175, 177, 178
TY
305, 322 178, 181, 188, 275, 303
PE Y
artificial system of 80, 90 cutin 16

O NL
carpel 155
R
Ascaris 169, 170, 171 cell 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 15, 16, 31, cyanobacteria 100, 101, 102,
PR O
ascocarp 130, 131 32, 34, 55, 104, 108, 103, 110, 112
ascomycetes 133
T SE
125, 132, 215, 216, 217, cytokinins 254

Ascomycota 128, 130, 131 221 cytoplasm 5, 8, 10, 17, 31, 32,
EN U
assimilation 278 cell membrane 7, 55, 125, 132 108, 116, 125, 132
ATP 9, 17, 20, 22, 45, 46, 72,
M E
cellulose 31, 34, 40, 41, 46 cytoskeleton 12, 14, 28, 30,
R LIN
73, 74, 76, 218, 219, centrioles 358 358

261, 262, 263, 265, 266, Chilopoda 358
D
VE N
267, 268, 270, 271, 273, chitin 34, 41, 42, 132
O O
275, 303, 305, 306, 307, chlorophyll 260, 272 Daniel-Davson’s model 358
308, 309, 310, 311, 313,
G R
chlorophytes 123, 124 dark reaction 45, 260, 262, 265,

314, 315, 316, 317, 318,
FO
chloroplast 8, 22, 76, 120, 125 267, 273, 358

319, 320, 323, 343, 344, chloroplasts 7, 21, 22, 270 deamination 343
353 Chondrichthyes 190 deamination 306
autolysis 25 Chordata 83, 166, 189, 190 dendrite 217, 224, 225, 358
autophagy 25, 26 chromoplasts 21 diabetes insipidus 346
auxins 253 cilia 4, 6, 31, 233, 280 diabetes insipidus 346, 351
B cladistics 79 dichotomous keys 358
classification iii, v, 47, 77, 80, dicotyledoneae 151, 152
bacillus 105 81, 82, 83, 84, 90, 92, digestion 26, 276, 278, 279,
bacteria 93, 103, 105, 106, 107, 94, 95, 103, 151 281, 283, 287, 288
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diploblastic 166, 358 319, 324, 358 gram-negative bacterium 4,

Diplopoda 175, 177, 179, 357, fibers 358 34, 71
358 fibres 12, 111, 136, 288 gram–positive bacterium 4,
disaccharides 34, 37 fibrinogen 358, 360 34, 71
DNA 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 18, 20, filaments 29, 30, 58, 124, 356, grana 34, 71
21, 22, 31, 46, 55, 59, 358 growth 34, 71, 118
70, 73, 80, 92, 93, 94, Filicinophyta 78, 83, 138, 142, gynoecium 34, 71
95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 358 gynosperms 358
102, 103, 108, 110, 113, flagella 9, 30, 58, 116, 120,
259 121, 358
H
dormancy 128, 254, 255, 333, floral diagram 159, 162, 358 haemoglobin 57, 58, 59, 61,
351 floral formula 161, 358 173, 295, 296, 297, 298,
dryopteris 82, 88, 89, 143, 144, Fluid Mosaic Model 358 299, 300, 301, 302, 358
145 foetus 75, 204, 206, 207, 294, haustorium 121, 127
duodenum 195, 199, 205, 279, 300, 301, 302 heptoses 358
283 food vacuole 23, 113, 114 heterophagy 25
fragmentation 124, 138, 139 heterotrophic nutrition 276,
E fungi 9, 27, 39, 40, 41, 81, 84, 277, 290, 358
ectotherms 330, 334, 335 101, 103, 110, 111, 112, hexoses 35, 45, 358
ectotherms 334 121, 126, 127, 128, 130, hormone 246
effector 214, 215, 217, 229, 133, 135, 136, 137, 147, hydrophilic 13
326, 327 173, 210, 257, 275, 276, hydrophobic 13, 53, 57
egestion 114, 183, 278, 358 277, 352 hyperthermia 332
electron transport system 73, hyphae 34, 121, 122, 127, 128,
G
312, 316, 317, 318 129, 130, 131, 133, 134,
TY
PE Y
endoplasmic reticulum 118 galactose 34, 71 135

O NL
R
endotherms 330, 331, 334, 351, gametophyte 124, 137, 139, hypogynous 155
354 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, hypothalamus 232, 234, 246,
PR O
endotherms 331, 334 146, 148, 150, 154, 155, 247, 248, 326, 327, 331,
T SE
Entamoeba histolytica 111, 163 332, 335

114, 115, 126, 210, 358 genetic material 6, 34, 71 hypothalamus 246, 248
EN U
enzyme inhibitors 68, 358 gibberellins 34, 71, 254

I
M E
enzymes 58, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, glands 34, 71

R LIN
71, 273 glomerulus 339, 340, 341, 342, ICBN 84, 358
epigynous 156 348, 349 ICZN 84, 358
VE N
ethylene 252, 255, 328 glucagon 61, 246, 328, 354

O O
ileum 183, 186, 195, 199, 205,

N
Eubacteria 82, 93, 100, 101, glycogen 17, 19, 39, 40, 127, 279, 284, 285
G R
102, 112, 358 128, 132, 135, 166, 246, ingestion 120, 194, 278, 358
FO
Euglena 113, 120, 121, 210, 305, 306, 327, 328, 354, Insecta 175, 177, 180, 181,
248 358 357, 358
Euglenophyta 113, 120, 358 glycogenolysis 40 insulin 54, 58, 61, 245, 246,
exocytosis 10, 25, 358 glycolipids 34, 48, 71 289, 328
glycolysis 34, 71, 306, 307, Iodine solution 42, 44, 264,
F 319, 320, 321 265, 273, 358
FADH 316, 318, 319, 320, 323 glycosomes 26, 358
Fehling’s reagents 358 golgi apparatus 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, K
fermentation 109, 131, 136, 15, 17, 23, 24, 26, 27, kidney 26, 33, 195, 199, 206,
305, 306, 310, 316, 317, 28, 34, 71, 76, 118, 132 207, 234, 247, 331, 336,

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Index
337, 338, 339, 340, 343, monosaccharides 35, 37, 39, oxyhaemoglobin 295, 296, 297,
344, 345, 347, 348 43, 45, 46, 73, 111, 132, 299, 301
Kihansi spray toad 192, 193, 278, 305, 306, 307 oxytocin 247, 328
194, 211 monosaccharides 34, 35, 45,
Kreb’s cycle 21, 305, 306, 310, 305
P
312, 314, 315, 316, 317, Mucor 128, 137, 276 parasitism 277
318, 320, 321, 344 mycelium 122, 127, 128, 131, pellicle 116, 117, 120, 121
133, 134 pentoses 35, 358
l mycorrhizae 133, 147, 164, pepsinogen 282
lactose 34, 37, 39, 71 277, 358 peripheral nervous system 212,
lenticel 303 myelin sheath 32, 48, 213, 214, 213, 357, 358
light dependent reaction 358 215, 223, 256, 357, 358 peroxisomes 26
light independent reaction 358 myoglobin 61, 301 petals 154
lignin 15 phenetics 79
N
lipids 14, 47, 49, 50, 305, 320, phospholipids 12, 48
322 NADH 71, 306, 307, 309, 311, photolysis 259, 261, 262, 290
loop of henle 340, 343, 347, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, photoreceptors 231, 240, 358
348, 349, 350, 351 320, 323 photosynthesis 258, 259, 269,
lungs 24, 58, 71, 75, 177, 192, nastic 249, 250, 251, 252 271, 273, 274, 290
199, 202, 291, 292, 293, natural system of classification photosystem I 260, 261, 262,
294, 295, 296, 297, 299, 80, 81, 90 263
300, 301, 323, 332, 335, Nematoda 84, 166, 169, 358 phospholipids 12, 48
352, 354, 356, 358 nephron 247, 339, 340, 341, photosystem II 260, 261, 262
lysogenic cycle 98 346 phyletic 79
lysosomes 9, 24, 25, 26, 76 nephron 338 Phytophthora infestans 121,
TY
PE Y
lytic cycle 97, 98 nerve impulse 14, 215, 216, 122, 123
O NL
R
217, 218, 219, 220, 221, pigments 21, 22, 23, 107, 120,
M 222, 224, 225, 230, 256, 123, 136, 139, 258, 259,
PR O
maltose 34, 37, 38 358 260, 261, 336, 356

T SE
Mammalia 83, 190, 203, 358 neurones 213, 215, 216, 217, pili 5, 356
224 Pinus 82, 88, 89, 145, 147,
EN U
mammalian ear 240, 241, 242,

node of Ranvier 223, 358 148, 149
M E
244, 256, 358

nomenclature v, 84, 86 plasma membrane 5, 12, 26,
R LIN
mammalian eye 240, 244, 358

nucleus 8, 10, 31, 32, 115, 116, 104, 221
mechanoreceptors 230, 358
118, 120, 125, 132, 215, plasmid 5
VE N
methanobacter 358 217, 237, 280, 281 Plasmodium 117, 118, 119,
O O
microbodies 26, 27 nutrition iii, vi, 257 126, 189, 210

G R
microfilaments 9, 358 Platyhelminthes 166, 167, 169

O
FO
microglia 358 poikilothermic 190, 223, 330

microtubules 29, 118 oesophagus 183, 186, 195, 205 pollination 148
microvilli 15, 32, 278, 280, oligochaeta 172 prokaryotes 92
285, 342, 343 Oomycota 113, 121, 358 protein 12, 13, 14, 62, 96, 104,
millipede 179, 180, 358 ornithine cycle 343, 351 225, 305, 306
mitochondria 9, 20, 237, 305 ossicles 204, 240, 242 proteins 22, 51, 58, 59, 61, 62,
Monera v, 77, 82, 92, 93, 100, Osteichthyes 190, 191 306, 320, 322
101, 102, 112, 115, 210 ovary 151, 155, 156, 158, 162, Protoctista v, 31, 77, 92, 93,
monocotyledoneae 151, 152 207 112, 113, 115, 123, 126
pseudocoelomate 358
361

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pseudopodia 113, 114, 115 sepals 154 337, 339, 348, 349, 357
pyrenoid 123, 124 sorus 145 tripoblastic 358
pyruvate 270, 306, 311, 315, spermatozoa 32 tropic movement 248, 251, 358
317, 321 Spirogyra 112, 113, 123, 124, Trypanosoma 27, 115, 116,
125, 210 117, 127, 189
R sporangium 122, 129, 130 tympanic membrane 202, 240,
rachis 143 sporophyte 140, 141, 148 242
radial symmetry 157, 160, 161, stamens 159, 162, 163
starch 22, 34, 39, 44, 110
U
166, 358
receptacle 154, 155, 186 stigma 151, 155, 162 Uniramia 177, 178, 357, 358
receptors 14, 214, 215, 216, stimulus 327 unirogenital 358
230, 231, 232, 233, 234, stomata 144, 147, 149, 164, urea 59, 336, 343, 344, 347,
244, 283, 326, 331, 358 255, 259, 265, 268, 271, 357, 358
receptors 230 274, 303, 304, 354 uremia 113, 120, 121, 210, 248,
rectum 183, 186, 194, 195, stroma 22 344
199, 205, 206, 209, 279, style 151, 155, 158 urethritis 113, 120, 121, 210,
287 suberin 15 248
Reptilia 190, 201, 358 Sudan III test 50, 358 uric acid 336, 357
respiration vi, 291, 305 sulphur bacteria 101, 258, 352, urinary tract infections 113,
respiratory 73, 305, 306, 319, 358 120, 121, 210, 248, 345
320, 322, 323 symmetry 95, 155, 157, 158, UTI 110, 111, 345
retina 217, 231, 235, 236, 237, 160, 161, 162, 166, 167,
238, 239, 240, 244, 358 171, 358 V
retrovirus 99, 358 synapse 218, 223, 224, 225, vacuole 8, 32, 113, 120, 121,
Rhizopoda 113, 114 226, 227, 228, 229, 239, 125, 132, 210, 248
TY
PE Y
rhizopus 92, 128, 129, 130, 256, 358 vibrio 101, 105, 106, 111
O NL
R
136, 137, 276 villi 113, 120, 121, 210, 248,

T
rhodopsin 239, 358
PR O
285
rhoptries 118 tactic 113, 120, 121, 210, 248, virions 94
T SE
ribosomes 4, 5, 7, 9, 18, 19, 23, 252 viruses v, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,
24, 31 taxa 113, 120, 121, 210, 248
EN U
99, 113, 120, 121, 210,

RNA 2, 7, 18, 24, 46, 93, 94, taxonomic keys v, 86, 87 248
M E
95, 96, 99 thermoreceptor 230, 358

R LIN
rods 106, 184, 230, 231, 238, thylakoid 22, 260, 261, 262, X
239, 256, 358 273
VE N
xylem 113, 120, 121, 210, 248

rough endoplasmic reticulum 8, thyroxine 246, 323
O O
10, 18, 26 tissue 32, 47, 58, 113, 138, 139, Z

G R
151, 164, 166, 212, 213,

FO
S 214, 216, 218, 232, 246,

Zoomastigina 113, 115, 116,
117, 120, 121, 210, 248
Saccharomyces 130, 131, 132, 251, 255, 259, 265, 279, Zygomycota 113, 120, 121,
133 280, 281, 289, 294, 296, 128, 129, 210, 248
saprophytic nutrition 276, 358 298, 303, 313, 316, 322,
saprotrophic nutrition 358 325, 326, 328, 332, 336,

362

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Tanzania Institute of Education

BIOLOGY FORM 5 KIWANDANI.indd 1 10/10/2019 14:05

© Tanzania Institute of Education, 2019

Tanzania Institute of Education

Tel: +255 22 2773005/+255 22 2771358

Fax: +255 22 2774420

Student’s Book Form Five

BIOLOGY FORM 5 KIWANDANI.indd 2 10/10/2019 14:05

Tanzania Institute of Education

Student’s Book Form Five

BIOLOGY FORM 5 KIWANDANI.indd 3 10/10/2019 14:05

Writers: Dr Charles M. Lyimo, Dr Emmanuel K. Laisser, Dr Ernest S. Kira,

Editors: Dr Hashim Mangosongo, Dr Bruno Nyundo & Dr Heriel Moshi

Designer: Mr Anton Asukile

Coordinator: Ms Mwanahamisi A. Jokolo

Technology for facilitating the writing of this textbook.

Student’s Book Form Five

BIOLOGY FORM 5 KIWANDANI.indd 4 10/10/2019 14:05

Chapter One: Cytology........................................................................................... 1

Chapter Two: Principles of classification........................................................... 77

Chapter Three: Comparative studies of natural groups of organisms.............92

3.1 General overview of classification ..................................................................92

3.2 Viruses ................................................................................................................ 93

3.4 Kingdom Protoctista .........................................................................................112

3.5 Kingdom Fungi ...............................................................................................127

3.7 Kingdom Animalia .......................................................................................... .166

Revision questions ................................................................................................ . 210

Chapter Four: Coordination and irritability....................................................212

Student’s Book Form Five

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Chapter Five: Nutrition ......................................................................................257

Chapter Six: Gaseous exchange and respiration ..............................................291

Chapter Seven: Regulation (Homeostasis) ...................................................... 325

Student’s Book Form Five

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1.1 Concept of cytology small chambers surrounded by walls; he

be composed of a single or many cells. by Hooke gave no indication of the

organisms, the cells are differentiated and function of cells.

organised into groups to form different

structures that perform various functions.

Robert Hooke, who is also known as the Chambers of

BIOLOGY FORM 5 KIWANDANI.indd 1 10/10/2019 14:05

He was later followed by Anton von in the biochemical evolution theory

The importance of studying cytology 1.2 The Cell Theory

in metabolic processes such as

and complex, are made up of one or more

respiration, protein synthesis, excretion,

b) Aids in understanding the detailed

cells. theory. The theory states that “All living

c) Enhance an understanding on the organisms are made up of cells”. In 1855,

structural (anatomical and chemical) Rudolf Virchow, a German physiologist,

composition of cells. was among the first scientists to accept

signiﬁcance of cellular differentiation, He showed that, the origins of cells was

BIOLOGY FORM 5 KIWANDANI.indd 2 10/10/2019 14:05

namely prokaryotic cells and eurykaryotic

been challenged based on the modern

knowledge of virology, blood cells 1.3.1 The prokaryotic cells

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