Chapter 4.

Network Access

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to answer the following
questions:

What are options for connecting devices to a data network?

What are the purpose and functions of the physical layer in data
networks?

What are the basic characteristics of physical layer standards?

What are the basic characteristics of copper cabling?

How are UTP cables built for use in Ethernet networks?

What are the basic characteristics of fiber-optic cabling?

What are advantages of using fiber-optic cabling over using other media
in data networks?

What are the basic characteristics of using wireless media in data

networks?

What are the purpose and functions of the data link layer in preparing
communications for transmission on specific data network media?

What are the fields and structure of Layer 2 frames?

What are the standards that identify the protocols and standards of the
data link layer?

How do the functions of physical topologies compare with the functions

of logical topologies?
 What are the basic characteristics of Media Access Control on WAN
topologies?

What are the basic characteristics of Media Access Control on LAN

topologies?

What are the characteristics and functions of the data link layer frame?

Key Terms

This chapter uses the following key terms. You can find the definitions in
the Glossary.

physical media page 163

wireless access point (WAP) page 165

network interface card (NIC) page 165

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) page 168

Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) page 168

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) page 168

Manchester encoding page 170

nonreturn to zero (NRZ) page 170

bandwidth page 171

throughput page 172

goodput page 172

electromagnetic interference (EMI) page 174

radio frequency interference (RFI) page 174

crosstalk page 174

unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable page 176

shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable page 176

coaxial cable/coax page 177

fiber-optic cable page 178

Logical Link Control (LLC) page 199

Media Access Control (MAC) page 199

Requests for Comments (RFC) page 204

physical topology page 207

logical topology page 207

Introduction (4.0.1.1)

In networks, all data has to be prepared for transmission and placed onto
the media by the sending node as well as taken off the media by the re-
ceiving node. These are the functions of the TCP/IP data link layer.

To support our communication, the OSI model divides the functions of a

data network into layers. Each layer works with the layers above and be-
low to transmit data. Two layers within the OSI model are so closely tied
that according to the TCP/IP model, they are in essence one layer. Those
two layers are the data link layer and the physical layer.

On the sending device, it is the role of the data link layer to prepare data
for transmission and control how that data accesses the physical media.
However, the physical layer controls how the data is transmitted onto
the physical media by encoding the binary digits that represent data into
signals.

On the receiving end, the physical layer receives signals across the con-
necting media. After decoding the signal back into data, the physical layer
passes the data to the data link layer for acceptance and processing.
This chapter begins with the general functions of the physical layer and
the standards and protocols that manage the transmission of data across
local media. It also introduces the functions of the data link layer and the
protocols associated with it.
 CLASS ACTIVITY 4.0.1.2: MANAGING THE MEDIUM

You and your colleague are attending a networking conference. There are
many lectures and presentations held during this event, and because they
overlap, each of you can only choose a limited set of sessions to attend.

Therefore, you decide to split, each of you attending a separate set of pre-
sentations, and after the event ends, you share the slides and the knowl-
edge that each of you gained during the event.

Try to answer the following questions:

How would you personally organize a conference where multiple ses-

sions are held at the same time? Would you put all of them into a single
conference room or would you use multiple rooms? What would be the
reason?

Assume that the conference room is properly fitted with audiovisual

equipment to display large-size video and amplify voice. If a person
wanted to attend a specific session, does the seating arrangement make a
difference, or is it sufficient to visit the proper conference room?

Would it be considered positive or harmful if the speech from one con-

ference room somehow leaked into another?

If questions or inquiries arise during a presentation, should attendees

simply shout out their questions, or should there be some form of process
for handling questions, such as documenting them and handing them
over to a facilitator? What would happen without this process?

If an interesting topic elicits a larger discussion where many attendees

have questions or comments, can this result in the session running out of
its time without going through the entire intended content? Why is that
so?

Imagine that the session is a panel, that is, a more free discussion of at-
tendees with panelists and optionally with themselves. If a person wants
to address another person within the same room, can he/she do it di-
rectly? What would be necessary to do if a panelist wanted to invite an-
other person to join who is not presently in the room?

What was accomplished by the isolation of multiple sessions into sepa-

rate conference rooms if, after the event, people can meet and share the
information?

Physical Layer Protocols (4.1)

An important element of data networks is the ability to move data across

media. Depending on the media, rules are required to govern the use of
media to transport data. In this section, these physical layer protocols will
be explored.

Getting It Connected (4.1.1)

Data in a network will be transported across one of various types of phys-

ical media. The rules regarding the physical connections and the repre-
sentation of data on the media are defined by protocols. This section will
introduce the basic elements of making network connectivity.

Connecting to the Network (4.1.1.1)

Whether connecting to a local printer in the home or to a website in an-

other country, before any network communications can occur, a physical
connection to a local network must be established first. A physical con-
nection can be a wired connection using a cable or a wireless connection
using radio waves.

The type of physical connection used is totally dependent upon the setup
of the network. For example, in many corporate offices, employees have
desktop or laptop computers that are physically connected, through a ca-
ble, to a shared switch. This type of setup is a wired network, in which
data is transmitted across a physical cable.

In addition to wired connections, some businesses might also offer wire-

less connections for laptops, tablets, and smartphones. With wireless de-
vices, data is transmitted using radio waves. The use of wireless connec-
tivity is becoming more common as individuals, and businesses alike, dis-
cover the advantages of offering wireless services. To offer wireless capa-
bility, a network must incorporate a wireless access point (WAP) to
which to connect devices.

Switch devices and wireless access points are often two separate dedi-
cated devices within a network implementation. However, there are also
devices that offer both wired and wireless connectivity. In many homes,
for example, individuals are implementing home integrated service
routers (ISR). ISRs offer a switching component with multiple ports, al-
lowing multiple devices to be connected to the local-area network (LAN)
using cables. Additionally, many ISRs also include a WAP, which allows
wireless devices to connect as well.

Network Interface Cards (4.1.1.2)

Network interface cards (NIC) connect a device to the network.

Ethernet NICs are used for a wired connection, whereas WLAN (wireless
local-area network) NICs are used for wireless. An end-user device can in-
clude one or both types of NICs. A network printer, for example, might
only have an Ethernet NIC, and therefore must connect to the network us-
ing an Ethernet cable. Other devices, such as tablets and smartphones,
might only contain a WLAN NIC and must use a wireless connection.

Not all physical connections are equal, in terms of the performance level,
when connecting to a network.

For example, a wireless device will experience degradation in perfor-

mance based on its distance to a wireless access point. The further the de-
vice is from the access point, the weaker the wireless signal it receives.
This can mean less bandwidth or no wireless connection at all. A wireless
range extender can be used to regenerate the wireless signal to other
parts of the house that are too far from the wireless access point.
Alternatively, a wired connection will not degrade in performance; how-
ever, is extremely limited in movement and generally requires static
positioning.

All wireless devices must share access to the airwaves connecting to the
wireless access point. This means that slower network performance
might occur as more wireless devices access the network simultaneously.
A wired device does not need to share its access to the network with other
devices. Each wired device has a separate communications channel over
its own Ethernet cable. This is important when considering some applica-
tions, like online gaming, streaming video, and videoconferencing, which
require more dedicated bandwidth than other applications.

Over the next couple of topics, you will learn more about the physical
layer connections that occur and how those connections affect the trans-
portation of data.

Purpose of the Physical Layer (4.1.2)

All data being transferred over a network must be represented on a

medium by the sending node and interpreted on a medium by the receiv-
ing node. The physical layer is responsible for these functions. In this sec-
tion, the physical layer will be explored.

The Physical Layer (4.1.2.1)

Layer 1 - The Physical Layer

The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make
up a data link layer frame across the network media. This layer accepts a
complete frame from the data link layer and encodes it as a series of sig-
nals that are transmitted onto the local media. The encoded bits that com-
prise a frame are received by either an end device or an intermediate
device.

Figure 4-1 demonstrates the full encapsulation process and the transmit-
ting of encoded binary bits across the OSI Layer 1 medium to the destina-
tion. The processes that data undergoes from a source node to a destina-
tion node are

The user data is segmented by the transport layer, placed into packets
by the network layer, and further encapsulated as frames by the data link
layer.

The physical layer encodes the frames and creates the electrical, optical,
or radio wave signals that represent the bits in each frame.
 These signals are then sent on the media one at a time.

Figure 4-1 Physical Layer Encoding

Physical Layer Media (4.1.2.2)

There are three basic forms of network media. The physical layer pro-
duces the representation and groupings of bits for each type of media as

Copper cable: The signals are patterns of electrical pulses.

Fiber-optic cable: The signals are patterns of light.

Wireless: The signals are patterns of radio transmissions.

Table 4-1 displays signaling examples for copper, fiber-optic, and

wireless.

Table 4-1 Signal Types for Each of the Media at the Physical Layer

To enable physical layer interoperability, all aspects of these functions are

governed by standards organizations.
Physical Layer Standards (4.1.2.3)

The protocols and operations of the upper OSI layers are performed in
software designed by software engineers and computer scientists. For ex-
ample, the services and protocols in the TCP/IP suite are defined by the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in RFCs.

The physical layer consists of electronic circuitry, media, and connectors

developed by engineers. Therefore, it is appropriate that the standards
governing this hardware are defined by the relevant electrical and com-
munications engineering organizations.

There are many different international and national organizations, regu-

latory government organizations, and private companies involved in es-
tablishing and maintaining physical layer standards. For example, the
physical layer hardware, media, encoding, and signaling standards are
defined and governed by the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

Telecommunications Industry Association/Electronic Industries

Association (TIA/EIA)

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

National telecommunications regulatory authorities including the

Federal Communication Commission (FCC) in the United States and the
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ESTI)

In addition to these, there are often regional cabling standards groups

such as CSA (Canadian Standards Association), CENELEC (European
Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization), and JSA/JSI (Japanese
Standards Association), developing local specifications.

Table 4-2 lists some of the major contributors and some of their relevant
physical layer standards.
Table 4-2 Organizations and Corresponding Physical Layer Standards

LAB 4.1.2.4: IDENTIFYING NETWORK DEVICES AND CABLING

In this lab, you will complete the following objectives:

Part 1: Identify Network Devices

Part 2: Identify Network Media

Fundamental Principles of Layer 1 (4.1.3)

At the foundation of network communications is the physical layer, Layer

1. This section examines components that make up the physical layer.

Physical Layer Fundamental Principles (4.1.3.1)

The physical layer standards address three functional areas: physical

components, encoding, and signaling.
Physical Components

The physical components are the electronic hardware devices, media,

and other connectors that transmit and carry the signals to represent the
bits. Hardware components such as network adapters (NICs), interfaces
and connectors, cable materials, and cable designs are all specified in
standards associated with the physical layer. The various ports and inter-
faces on a Cisco 1941 router are also examples of physical components
with specific connectors and pinouts resulting from standards.

Encoding

Encoding or line encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits

into a predefined “code.” Codes are groupings of bits used to provide a
predictable pattern that can be recognized by both the sender and the re-
ceiver. In the case of networking, encoding is a pattern of voltage or cur-
rent used to represent bits: the 0s and 1s.

In addition to creating codes for data, encoding methods at the physical

layer can also provide codes for control purposes such as identifying the
beginning and end of a frame.

Common network encoding methods include

Manchester encoding: A 0 is represented by a high-to-low voltage tran-

sition, and a 1 is represented as a low-to-high voltage transition. This type
of encoding is used in older versions of Ethernet, RFID, and Near Field
Communication.

Nonreturn to zero (NRZ): This is a common means of encoding data

that has two states termed “zero” and “one” and no neutral or rest posi-
tion. A 0 might be represented by one voltage level on the media, and a 1
might be represented by a different voltage on the media.

NOTE

Faster data rates require more complex encoding, such as

4B/5B; however, the explanation of these methods is beyond
the scope of this course.
Signaling

The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical, or wireless signals
that represent the “1” and “0” on the media. The method of representing
the bits is called the signaling method. The physical layer standards must
define what type of signal represents a 1 and what type of signal repre-
sents a 0. This can be as simple as a change in the level of an electrical sig-
nal or optical pulse. For example, a long pulse might represent a 1,
whereas a short pulse represents a 0.

This is similar to how Morse code is used for communication. Morse code
is another signaling method that uses a series of on-off tones, lights, or
clicks to send text over telephone wires or between ships at sea.

Signals can be transmitted in one of two ways:

Asynchronous: Data signals are transmitted without an associated

clock signal. The time spacing between data characters or blocks can be
of arbitrary duration, meaning that the spacing is not standardized.
Therefore, frames require start and stop indicator flags.

Synchronous: Data signals are sent along with a clock signal that occurs
at evenly spaced time durations referred to as the bit time.

There are many ways to transmit signals. A common method to send data
is using modulation techniques. Modulation is the process by which the
characteristic of one wave (the signal) modifies another wave (the car-
rier). The following modulation techniques have been widely used in
transmitting data on a medium:

Frequency modulation (FM): A method of transmission in which the

carrier frequency varies in accordance with the signal.

Amplitude modulation (AM): A transmission technique in which the

amplitude of the carrier varies in accordance with the signal.

Pulse-coded modulation (PCM): A technique in which an analog sig-

nal, such as a voice, is converted into a digital signal by sampling the
signal’s amplitude and expressing the different amplitudes as a binary
number. The sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency
in the signal.

The nature of the actual signals representing the bits on the media will
depend on the signaling method in use. Some methods might use one at-
tribute of signaling to represent a single 0 and use another attribute of
signaling to represent a single 1.

Bandwidth (4.1.3.2)

Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different speeds.

Data transfer is usually discussed in terms of bandwidth and throughput.

Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data. Digital bandwidth

measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to another in a
given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically measured in kilobits per
second (kbps) or megabits per second (Mbps).

The practical bandwidth of a network is determined by a combination of

factors:

The properties of the physical media

The technologies chosen for signaling and detecting network signals

Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics

all play a role in determining available bandwidth.

Table 4-3 shows the commonly used units of measure for bandwidth.

Table 4-3 Bandwidth Units of Measure

Throughput (4.1.3.3)

Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a
given period of time.

Because of a number of factors, throughput usually does not match the

specified bandwidth in physical layer implementations. Many factors in-
fluence throughput including

The amount of traffic

The type of traffic

The latency created by the number of network devices encountered be-

tween source and destination

Latency refers to the amount of time, including delays, for data to travel
from one given point to another.

In an internetwork or network with multiple segments, throughput can-

not be faster than the slowest link of the path from source to destination.
Even if all or most of the segments have high bandwidth, it will only take
one segment in the path with low throughput to create a bottleneck to the
throughput of the entire network.

There are many online speed tests that can reveal the throughput of an
Internet connection.

NOTE

There is a third way to measure the transfer of usable data

that is known as goodput. Goodput is the measure of usable
data transferred over a given period of time. Goodput is
throughput minus traffic overhead for establishing sessions,
acknowledgements, and encapsulation.
Types of Physical Media (4.1.3.4)

The physical layer produces the representation and groupings of bits as

voltages, radio frequencies, or light pulses. Various standards organiza-
tions have contributed to the definition of the physical, electrical, and me-
chanical properties of the media available for different data communica-
tions. These specifications guarantee that cables and connectors will func-
tion as anticipated with different data link layer implementations.

As an example, standards for copper media are defined for the

Type of copper cabling used

Bandwidth of the communication

Type of connectors used

Pinout and color codes of connections to the media

Maximum distance of the media

ACTIVITY 4.1.3.5: PHYSICAL LAYER TERMINOLOGY

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

Network Media (4.2)

Network Media

Much of the aspects of the physical layer are dependent on the type of
media used. The characteristics of media types will be explored in this
section.
Copper Cabling (4.2.1)

One of the oldest and most used media for communications is copper ca-
bling. The characteristics and use of copper media in data networks will
be examined in this section.

Characteristics of Copper Media (4.2.1.1)

Networks use copper media because it is relatively inexpensive, easy to

install, and has low resistance to electrical current. However, copper me-
dia is limited by distance and signal interference.

Data is transmitted on copper cables as electrical pulses. A detector in the

network interface of a destination device must receive a signal that can
be successfully decoded to match the signal sent. However, the longer the
signal travels, the more it deteriorates in a phenomenon referred to as
signal attenuation. For this reason, all copper media must follow strict
distance limitations as specified by the guiding standards.

The timing and voltage values of the electrical pulses are also susceptible
to interference from two sources:

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency interference

(RFI): EMI and RFI signals can distort and corrupt the data signals being
carried by copper media. Potential sources of EMI and RFI include radio
waves and electromagnetic devices such as fluorescent lights or electric
motors.

Crosstalk: Crosstalk is a disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic

fields of a signal on one wire to the signal in an adjacent wire. In tele-
phone circuits, crosstalk can result in hearing part of another voice con-
versation from an adjacent circuit. Specifically, when electrical current
flows through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around
the wire that can be picked up by an adjacent wire.

Figure 4-2 shows how data transmission can be affected by interference.

The original pure data signal represents a specific bit pattern. Nearby
electrical noise creates an interface signal on the same wire. The noise
combines with the original signal and results in a corrupted or changed
signal being received by the destination computer.
Figure 4-2 How Data Transmission Is Affected by Interference

To counter the negative effects of EMI and RFI, some types of copper ca-
bles are wrapped in metallic shielding and require proper grounding
connections.

To counter the negative effects of crosstalk, some types of copper cables

have opposing circuit wire pairs twisted together, which effectively can-
cels the crosstalk.

The susceptibility of copper cables to electronic noise can also be limited

by

Selecting the cable type or category most suited to a given networking

environment

Designing a cable infrastructure to avoid known and potential sources

of interference in the building structure

Using cabling techniques that include the proper handling and termina-
tion of the cables

Copper Media (4.2.1.2)

There are three main types of copper media used in networking:

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)

Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

 Coaxial

These cables are used to interconnect nodes on a LAN and infrastructure

devices such as switches, routers, and wireless access points. Each type of
connection and the accompanying devices have cabling requirements
stipulated by physical layer standards.

Different physical layer standards specify the use of different connectors.

These standards specify the mechanical dimensions of the connectors
and the acceptable electrical properties of each type. Networking media
use modular jacks and plugs to provide easy connection and disconnec-
tion. Also, a single type of physical connector might be used for multiple
types of connections. For example, the RJ-45 connector is widely used in
LANs with one type of media and in some WANs with another media
type.

Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable (4.2.1.3)

Twisted Pair

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling is the most common networking

media. UTP cabling, terminated with RJ-45 connectors, is used for inter-
connecting network hosts with intermediate networking devices, such as
switches and routers.

In LANs, UTP cable consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have
been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath that
protects them from minor physical damage. The twisting of wires helps
protect against signal interference from other wires.

As seen in the Figure 4-3, the color codes identify the individual pairs and
wires in the pairs and aid in cable termination. Most UTP cables used in
networking commonly have four wire pairs. The color coding for this ca-
bling is orange-white/orange, blue-white/blue, green-white/green, and
brown-white/brown.
Figure 4-3 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable (4.2.1.4)

Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cabling provides better noise protection

than UTP cabling. However, compared to UTP cable, STP cable is signifi-
cantly more expensive and difficult to install. Like UTP cable, STP uses an
RJ-45 connector.

STP cable combines the techniques of shielding to counter EMI and RFI
and wire twisting to counter crosstalk. To gain the full benefit of the
shielding, STP cables are terminated with special shielded STP data con-
nectors. If the cable is improperly grounded, the shield can act like an an-
tenna and pick up unwanted signals.

Different types of STP cables with different characteristics are available.

However, there are two common variations of STP:

STP cable shields the entire bundle of wires with foil, eliminating virtu-
ally all interference (more common).

STP cable shields the entire bundle of wires as well as the individual
wire pairs, with foil eliminating all interference.

The STP cable shown Figure 4-4 uses four pairs of wires, each wrapped in
a foil shield, which are then wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil.
Figure 4-4 Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

For many years, STP was the cabling structure specified for use in Token
Ring network installations. With the decline of Token Ring, the demand
for shielded twisted-pair cabling also waned. However, the new 10-GB
standard for Ethernet has a provision for the use of STP cabling that is
providing a renewed interest in shielded twisted-pair cabling.

Coaxial Cable (4.2.1.5)

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, or coax for short, gets its name from the fact that there
are two conductors that share the same axis. As shown in the Figure 4-5,
coaxial cable consists of

A copper conductor used to transmit the electronic signals.

The copper conductor is surrounded by a layer of flexible plastic

insulation.

The insulating material is surrounded in a woven copper braid, or

metallic foil, that acts as the second wire in the circuit and as a shield for
the inner conductor. This second layer, or shield, also reduces the amount
of outside electromagnetic interference.

The entire cable is covered with a cable jacket to protect it from minor
physical damage.
Figure 4-5 Coaxial Cable

NOTE

There are different types of connectors used with coax cable.

Coaxial cable was traditionally used in cable television capable of trans-

mitting in one direction. It was also used extensively in early Ethernet
installations.

Although UTP cable has essentially replaced coaxial cable in modern

Ethernet installations, the coaxial cable design has been adapted for use
in

Wireless installations: Coaxial cables attach antennas to wireless de-

vices. The coaxial cable carries radio frequency (RF) energy between the
antennas and the radio equipment.

Cable Internet installations: Cable service providers are currently

converting their one-way systems to two-way systems to provide Internet
connectivity to their customers. To provide these services, portions of the
coaxial cable and supporting amplification elements are replaced with
fiber-optic cable. However, the final connection to the customer’s loca-
tion and the wiring inside the customer’s premises are still coax cable.
This combined use of fiber and coax is referred to as hybrid fiber coax
(HFC).

Copper Media Safety (4.2.1.6)

All three types of copper media are susceptible to fire and electrical
hazards.
Fire hazards exist because cable insulation and sheaths can be flammable
or produce toxic fumes when heated or burned. Building authorities or
organizations can stipulate related safety standards for cabling and hard-
ware installations.

Electrical hazards are a potential problem because the copper wires

could conduct electricity in undesirable ways. This could subject person-
nel and equipment to a range of electrical hazards. For example, a defec-
tive network device could conduct currents to the chassis of other net-
work devices. Additionally, network cabling could present undesirable
voltage levels when used to connect devices that have power sources with
different ground potentials. Such situations are possible when copper ca-
bling is used to connect networks in different buildings or on different
floors of buildings that use different power facilities. Finally, copper ca-
bling can conduct voltages caused by lightning strikes to network devices.

The result of undesirable voltages and currents can include damage to

network devices and connected computers, or injury to personnel. It is
important that copper cabling be installed appropriately, and according
to the relevant specifications and building codes, to avoid potentially dan-
gerous and damaging situations.

Some of the proper cabling practices to avoid potential fire and electrical
hazards are

Maintain separation of data and electrical power.

Properly connect cables.

Inspect installations for damage.

Properly ground equipment.

ACTIVITY 4.2.1.7: COPPER MEDIA CHARACTERISTICS

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

UTP Cabling (4.2.2)

Copper media has some inherent issues. Twisting the internal pairs of the
copper media, as used in UTP, is a low-cost solution to improve some of
the cabling performance. This section will further explore UTP cabling.

Properties of UTP Cabling (4.2.2.1)

When used as a networking medium, unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) ca-

bling consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted to-
gether and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath. Network UTP cable
has four pairs of either 22- or 24-gauge copper wire. A UTP cable has an
external diameter of approximately 0.43 cm (0.17 inches), and its small
size can be advantageous during installation.

UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and RFI.
Instead, cable designers have discovered that they can limit the negative
effect of crosstalk by:

Cancellation: Designers now pair wires in a circuit. When two wires in

an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are
the exact opposite of each other. Therefore, the two magnetic fields can-
cel each other out and cancel out any outside EMI and RFI signals.

Varying the number of twists per wire pair: To further enhance the
cancellation effect of paired circuit wires, designers vary the number of
twists of each wire pair in a cable. For example, the orange/orange-white
pairs are twisted less than the blue/white-blue pairs. Each colored pair is
twisted a different number of times. UTP cable must follow precise speci-
fications governing how many twists or braids are permitted per meter
(3.28 feet) of cable.

UTP cable relies solely on the cancellation effect produced by the twisted
wire pairs to limit signal degradation and effectively provide self-shield-
ing for wire pairs within the network media.
UTP Cabling Standards (4.2.2.2)

UTP cabling conforms to the standards established jointly by the TIA/EIA.

Specifically, TIA/EIA-568A stipulates the commercial cabling standards for
LAN installations and is the standard most commonly used in LAN ca-
bling environments. Some of the elements defined are

Cable types

Cable lengths

Connectors

Cable termination

Methods of testing cable

The electrical characteristics of copper cabling are defined by the

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). IEEE rates UTP ca-
bling according to its performance. Cables are placed into categories ac-
cording to their ability to carry higher-bandwidth rates. For example,
Category 5 (Cat5) cable is used commonly in 100BASE-TX Fast Ethernet in-
stallations. Other categories include Enhanced Category 5 (Cat5e) cable,
Category 6 (Cat6), and Category 6a.

Cables in higher categories are designed and constructed to support

higher data rates. As new multigigabit-speed Ethernet technologies, such
as 10 Gigabit, are being developed and adopted, Cat5e is now the mini-
mally acceptable cable type, with Cat6 being the recommended type for
new building installations.

NOTE

Some manufacturers are making cables exceeding the

TIA/EIA Category 6a specifications and refer to these unoffi-
cially as Category 7.

Figure 4-6 highlights the various categories of UTP cabling. Some charac-
teristics follow.
Figure 4-6 Categories of UTP

The following are characteristics of Category 3 cable:

Used for voice communication.

Most often used for phone lines.

The following are characteristics of Category 5 and 5e cable:

Used for data transmission.

Cat 5 supports 100 Mbps and can support 1000 Mbps (Gigabit), but it is
not recommended.

Cat 5e supports 1000 Mbps (Gigabit).

Defined in 568 standard.

The following are characteristics of Category 6 cable:

Used for data transmission.

 A separator is added between each pair of wires, allowing it to function
at higher speeds.

Supports 1000 Mbps (Gigabit) to 10 Gbps, although 10 Gbps is not

recommended.

Defined in 568 standard.

The following are characteristics of Category 7 cable (ScTP):

Used for data transmission.

Individual pairs are wrapped in a shield, and then the entire four pairs
wrapped in another shield.

UTP Connectors (4.2.2.3)

UTP cable is usually terminated with an ISO 8877–specified RJ-45 connec-

tor. This connector is used for a range of physical layer specifications, one
of which is Ethernet. The TIA/EIA 568 standard describes the wire color
codes to pin assignments (pinouts) for Ethernet cables.

VIDEO 4.2.2.3:

View the video in the online course for a demonstration of a UTP cable
terminated with an RJ-45 connector.

As shown in Figure 4-7, the RJ-45 connector is the male component,

crimped at the end of the cable. The socket is the female component in a
network device, wall, cubicle partition outlet, or patch panel.
Figure 4-7 Categories of UTP

Each time copper cabling is terminated, there is the possibility of signal

loss and the introduction of noise to the communication circuit. When
terminated improperly, each cable is a potential source of physical layer
performance degradation. It is essential that all copper media termina-
tions be of high quality to ensure optimum performance with current and
future network technologies.

Figure 4-8 displays an example of a badly terminated UTP cable and a

well-terminated UTP cable.

Figure 4-8 RJ-45 Terminations

Types of UTP Cable (4.2.2.4)

Different situations might require UTP cables to be wired according to

different wiring conventions. This means that the individual wires in the
cable have to be connected in different orders to different sets of pins in
the RJ-45 connectors.

The following are the main cable types that are obtained by using specific
wiring conventions:

Ethernet straight-through: The most common type of networking ca-

ble. It is commonly used to interconnect a host to a switch and a switch to
a router.

Ethernet crossover: An uncommon cable used to interconnect similar

devices, for example, to connect a switch to a switch, a host to a host, or a
router to a router.

Rollover: A Cisco-proprietary cable used to connect to a router or

switch console port.

Table 4-4 shows the UTP cable type, related standards, and typical appli-
cation of these cables.

Table 4-4 UTP Cable Types

Using a crossover or straight-through cable incorrectly between devices

might not damage the devices, but connectivity and communication be-
tween the devices will not take place. This is a common error in the lab,
and checking that the device connections are correct should be the first
troubleshooting action if connectivity is not achieved.
Figure 4-9 identifies the individual wire pairs for the TIA-568A and TIA-
568B standards.

Figure 4-9 568A and 568B Pinouts on an RJ-45 Connector

Testing UTP Cables (4.2.2.5)

After installation, a UTP cable tester should be used to test for the follow-
ing parameters:

Wire map

Cable length

Signal loss because of attenuation

Crosstalk

It is recommended to thoroughly check that all UTP installation require-

ments are met.

ACTIVITY 4.2.2.6: CABLE PINOUTS

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

 LAB 4.2.2.7: BUILDING AN ETHERNET CROSSOVER CABLE

In this lab, you will complete the following objectives:

Part 1: Analyze Ethernet Cabling Standards and Pinouts

Part 2: Build an Ethernet Crossover Cable

Part 3: Test an Ethernet Crossover Cable

Fiber-Optic Cabling (4.2.3)

Fiber Optics

Networking media selection is being driven by the growing needs for net-
work bandwidth. The distance and performance of fiber-optic cable make
it a good media choice to support these network needs. This section will
examine the characteristics of fiber-optic cabling use in data networks.

Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling (4.2.3.1)

Optical fiber cable has become very popular for interconnecting infra-
structure network devices. It permits the transmission of data over longer
distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than any other network-
ing media.

Optical fiber is a flexible but extremely thin transparent strand of very

pure glass (silica) not much bigger than a human hair. Bits are encoded
on the fiber as light impulses. The fiber-optic cable acts as a waveguide,
or “light pipe,” to transmit light between the two ends with minimal loss
of signal.

As an analogy, consider a flexible pipe with the inside coated as a mirror

that is a thousand meters in length and a small flashlight is used to send
Morse code signals at the speed of light. Essentially that is how a fiber-op-
tic cable operates, except that it is smaller in diameter and uses sophisti-
cated light emitting and receiving technologies.
Unlike copper wires, fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less atten-
uation and is immune to EMI and RFI.

Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:

Enterprise networks: Fiber is used for backbone cabling applications

and interconnecting infrastructure devices.

FTTH and access networks: Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is used to pro-

vide always-on broadband services to homes and small businesses. FTTH
supports relatively affordable high-speed Internet access, as well as
telecommuting, telemedicine, and video on demand.

Long-haul networks: Service providers use long-haul terrestrial optical

fiber networks to connect countries and cities. Networks typically range
from a few dozen to a few thousand kilometers and use up to 10 Gbps-
based systems.

Submarine networks: Special fiber cables are used to provide reliable

high-speed, high-capacity solutions capable of or surviving in harsh un-
dersea environments up to transoceanic distances.

Our focus is the use of fiber within the enterprise.

Fiber Media Cable Design (4.2.3.2)

Although an optical fiber is very thin, it is comprised of two kinds of glass

and a protective outer shield. Specifically, these are the

Core: Consists of pure glass and is the part of the fiber where light is
carried.

Cladding: The glass that surrounds the core and acts as a mirror. The
light pulses propagate down the core while the cladding reflects the light
pulses. This keeps the light pulses contained in the fiber core in a phe-
nomenon known as total internal reflection.

Jacket: Typically a PVC jacket that protects the core and cladding. It can
also include strengthening materials and a buffer (coating) whose pur-
pose is to protect the glass from scratches and moisture.
Figure 4-10 shows the parts of a typical fiber-optic cable.

Figure 4-10 Cutout of a Fiber-Optic Cable

Although susceptible to sharp bends, the properties of the core and

cladding have been altered at the molecular level to make it very strong.
Optical fiber is proof tested through a rigorous manufacturing process for
strength at a minimum of 100,000 pounds per square inch. Optical fiber is
durable enough to withstand handling during installation and deploy-
ment in harsh environmental conditions in networks all around the
world.

Types of Fiber Media (4.2.3.3)

Light pulses representing the transmitted data as bits on the media are
generated by either

Lasers

Light-emitting diodes (LED)

Electronic semiconductor devices called photodiodes detect the light

pulses and convert them to voltages that can then be reconstructed into
data frames.

NOTE

The laser light transmitted over fiber-optic cabling can dam-

age the human eye. Care must be taken to avoid looking into
the end of an active optical fiber.

Fiber-optic cables can be broadly classified into two types:

 Single-mode fiber (SMF): Consists of a very small core and uses expen-
sive laser technology to send a single ray of light. Popular in long-distance
situations spanning hundreds of kilometers such as required in long-haul
telephony and cable TV applications.

Multimode fiber (MMF): Consists of a larger core and uses LED emit-
ters to send light pulses. Specifically, light from an LED enters the multi-
mode fiber at different angles. Popular in LANs because they can be pow-
ered by low-cost LEDs. It provides bandwidth up to 10 Gbps over link
lengths of up to 550 meters.

NOTE

With reflection of the light bouncing inside the multimode

fiber, there are many different paths, or modes, that the light
can take from one end to the other of the fiber; therefore, the
name multimode. In contrast, single-mode is so named be-
cause the fiber has a single light beam down the center.

Table 4-5 describes the differences between single-mode and multimode

fiber-optic cable.

Table 4-5 Single-Mode and Multimode Fiber-Optic Cable

One of the highlighted differences between multimode and single-mode

fiber is the amount of dispersion. Dispersion refers to the spreading out
of a light pulse over time. The use of lasers as the light source in single-
mode fiber allows a focused beam of light, hence less dispersion. The
more dispersion there is, the greater the loss in signal strength and the
less the effective distance of the signal over the fiber.

Figure 4-11 shows the overview of single-mode and multimode fiber

construction.
Figure 4-11 Dispersion in Single-Mode and Multimode Fiber

Network Fiber Connectors (4.2.3.4)

An optical fiber connector terminates the end of an optical fiber. A vari-

ety of optical fiber connectors are available. The main differences among
the types of connectors are dimensions and methods of mechanical cou-
pling. Generally, organizations standardize on one kind of connector, de-
pending on the equipment that they commonly use, or they standardize
per type of fiber (one for MMF, one for SMF). Taking into account all the
generations of connectors, about 70 connector types are in use today.

As shown Figure 4-12, the three most popular network fiber-optic con-
nectors include
 Straight-tip (ST): An older bayonet style connector widely used with
multimode fiber, as well as single-mode.

Subscriber connector (SC): Sometimes referred to as square connector

or standard connector. It is a widely adopted LAN and WAN connector
that uses a push-pull mechanism to ensure positive insertion. This con-
nector type is used with multimode and single-mode fiber.

Lucent connector (LC): Sometimes called a little or local connector, it is

quickly growing in popularity because of its smaller size. It is used with
single-mode fiber and also supports multimode fiber.

Figure 4-12 Fiber-Optic Connectors

NOTE

Other fiber connectors, such as the Ferrule Connector (FC)

and Sub Miniature A (SMA), are not popular in LAN and
WAN deployments. Obsolete connectors include biconic (ob-
solete) and D4 connectors. These connectors are beyond the
scope of this chapter.

Because light typically only travels in one direction over optical fiber, two
fibers are usually required to support full-duplex operation. Therefore,
fiber-optic patch cables bundle together two optical fiber cables and ter-
minate them with a pair of standard single fiber connectors. Some fiber
connectors accept both the transmitting and receiving fibers in a single
connector known as a duplex connector, also shown in Figure 4-12.

NOTE

While not in common use, two-way communication up to

10km can be provided over a single strand of single-mode
fiber. This bi-directional transmission is achieved by trans-
mitting at a different wave length into the fiber from each
end.

Fiber patch cords are required for interconnecting infrastructure devices.

Some of the common patch cords are

SC-SC multimode patch cord

LC-LC single-mode patch cord

ST-LC multimode patch cord

SC-ST single-mode patch cord

Fiber cables should be protected with a small plastic cap when not in use.

The color of the fiber jacket is often used to distinguish between single-
mode and multimode patch cords. This is because of the TIA-598 stan-
dard, which recommends the use of a yellow jacket for single-mode fiber
cables and orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber cables.

Testing Fiber Cables (4.2.3.5)

Terminating and splicing fiber-optic cabling require special training and

equipment. Incorrect termination of fiber-optic media will result in di-
minished signaling distances or complete transmission failure.

Three common types of fiber-optic termination and splicing errors are

Misalignment: The fiber-optic media are not precisely aligned to one

another when joined.
 End gap: The media do not completely touch at the splice or connection.

End finish: The media ends are not well polished or dirt is present at
the termination.

A quick and easy field test can be performed by shining a bright flashlight
into one end of the fiber while observing the other end of the fiber. If
light is visible, the fiber is capable of passing light. Although this does not
ensure the performance of the fiber, it is a quick and inexpensive way to
find a broken fiber.

It is recommended that an optical tester be used to test fiber-optic cables.

An Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) can be used to test each
fiber-optic cable segment. This device injects a test pulse of light into the
cable and measures backscatter and reflection of light detected as a func-
tion of time. The OTDR will calculate the approximate distance at which
these faults are detected along the length of the cable.

Fiber Versus Copper (4.2.3.6)

There are many advantages to using fiber-optic cable compared to copper

cables.

Given that the fibers used in fiber-optic media are not electrical conduc-
tors, the media is immune to electromagnetic interference. It will also not
conduct unwanted electrical currents because of grounding issues.
Because optical fibers are thin and have relatively low signal loss, they
can be operated at much greater lengths than copper media, without the
need for signal regeneration. Some optical fiber physical layer specifica-
tions allow lengths that can reach multiple kilometers.

Optical fiber media implementation issues include

More expensive (usually) than copper media over the same distance
(but for a higher capacity)

Different skills and equipment required to terminate and splice the ca-
ble infrastructure

More careful handling than copper media

At present, in most enterprise environments, optical fiber is primarily
used as backbone cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point connections be-
tween data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of buildings
in multibuilding campuses. Because optical fiber does not conduct elec-
tricity and has low signal loss, it is well suited for these uses.

Table 4-6 highlights some of these differences.

Table 4-6 UTP Cable Compared with Fiber-Optic Cable

ACTIVITY 4.2.3.7: FIBER OPTICS TERMINOLOGY

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

Wireless Media (4.2.4)

With more mobile devices being used, wireless networking is also grow-
ing in demand. This section explores wireless media characteristic and
uses.

Properties of Wireless Media (4.2.4.1)

Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary

digits of data communications using radio or microwave frequencies.

As a networking medium, wireless is not restricted to conductors or path-

ways, as are copper and fiber media. Wireless media provides the great-
est mobility options of all media. As well, the number of wireless-enabled
devices is continuously increasing. For these reasons, wireless has be-
come the medium of choice for home networks. As network bandwidth
options increase, wireless is quickly gaining in popularity in enterprise
networks.

However, wireless does have some areas of concern including

Coverage area: Wireless data communication technologies work well

in open environments. However, certain construction materials used in
buildings and structures, and the local terrain, will limit the effective
coverage.

Interference: Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be dis-

rupted by such common devices as household cordless phones, some
types of fluorescent lights, microwave ovens, and other wireless
communications.

Security: Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a

physical strand of media. Therefore, devices and users who are not autho-
rized for access to the network can gain access to the transmission.
Consequently, network security is a major component of wireless net-
work administration.

Although wireless is increasing in popularity for desktop connectivity,

copper and fiber are the most popular physical layer media for network
deployments.

Types of Wireless Media (4.2.4.2)

The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data

communications cover both the data link and physical layers.

Three common data communications standards that apply to wireless

media are

IEEE 802.11 standard: Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology, commonly re-

ferred to as Wi-Fi, uses a contention or nondeterministic system with a
carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) media access
process.
 IEEE 802.15 standard: Wireless personal-area network (WPAN) stan-
dard, commonly known as “Bluetooth,” uses a device pairing process to
communicate over distances from 1 to 100 meters.

IEEE 802.16 standard: Commonly known as Worldwide

Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), uses a point-to-multi-
point topology to provide wireless broadband access.

Figure 4-13 highlights some of the differences among wireless media.

Figure 4-13 Wireless Media Types

NOTE

Other wireless technologies, such as cellular and satellite

communications, can also provide data network connectiv-
ity. However, these wireless technologies are beyond the
scope of this chapter.

In each of the examples shown, physical layer specifications are applied

to areas that include
 Data-to-radio signal encoding

Frequency and power of transmission

Signal reception and decoding requirements

Antenna design and construction

NOTE

Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Wi-Fi is used with

certified products that belong to WLAN devices that are
based on the IEEE 802.11 standards.

Wireless LAN (4.2.4.3)

A common wireless data implementation is enabling devices to connect

wirelessly through a LAN. In general, a wireless LAN requires the follow-
ing network devices:

Wireless access point (AP): Concentrates the wireless signals from

users and connects, usually through a copper cable, to the existing cop-
per-based network infrastructure, such as Ethernet. Home and small-
business wireless routers integrate the functions of a router, switch, and
access point into one device.

Wireless NIC adapters: Provide wireless communication capability to

each network host.

As the technology has developed, a number of WLAN Ethernet-based

standards have emerged. Care needs to be taken in purchasing wireless
devices to ensure compatibility and interoperability.

The benefits of wireless data communications technologies are evident,

especially the savings on costly premises wiring and the convenience of
host mobility. However, network administrators need to develop and ap-
ply stringent security policies and processes to protect wireless LANs
from unauthorized access and damage.
802.11 Wi-Fi Standards (4.2.4.4)

Various 802.11 standards have evolved over the years. Standards include

IEEE 802.11a: Operates in the 5-GHz frequency band and offers speeds
of up to 54 Mbps. Because this standard operates at higher frequencies, it
has a smaller coverage area and is less effective at penetrating building
structures. Devices operating under this standard are not interoperable
with the 802.11b and 802.11g standards that are described as follows.

IEEE 802.11b: Operates in the 2.4-GHz frequency band and offers

speeds of up to 11 Mbps. Devices implementing this standard have a
longer range and are better able to penetrate building structures than de-
vices based on 802.11a.

IEEE 802.11g: Operates in the 2.4-GHz frequency band and offers speeds
of up to 54 Mbps. Devices implementing this standard therefore operate
at the same radio frequency and range as 802.11b but with the bandwidth
of 802.11a.

IEEE 802.11n: Operates in the 2.4- or 5-GHz frequency bands. The typi-
cal expected data rates are 100 Mbps to 600 Mbps, with a distance range
of up to 70 meters. It is backward compatible with 802.11a/b/g devices.

IEEE 802.11ac: Can simultaneously operate in the 2.4- and 5-GHz fre-
quency bands, providing data rates up to 450 Mbps and 1.3 Gbps (1300
Mbps). It is backward compatible with 802.11a/b/g/n devices.

IEEE 802.11ad: Also known as “WiGig.” It uses a tri-band Wi-Fi solution

using 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz and offers theoretical speeds of up to 7
Gbps.

Table 4-7 highlights some of these differences.

Table 4-7 802.11 Wireless LAN Standards

PACKET TRACER ACTIVITY 4.2.4.5: CONNECTING A WIRED AND WIRELESS LAN

When working in Packet Tracer (a lab environment or a corporate set-

ting), you should know how to select the appropriate cable and how to
properly connect devices. This activity will examine device configura-
tions in Packet Tracer, selecting the proper cable based on the configura-
tion, and connecting the devices. This activity will also explore the physi-
cal view of the network in Packet Tracer.

LAB 4.2.4.6: VIEWING WIRED AND WIRELESS NIC INFORMATION

In this lab, you will complete the following objectives:

Part 1: Identify and Work with PC NICs

Part 2: Identify and Use the System Tray Network Icons

Data Link Layer Protocols (4.3)

This section introduces the role of the data link layer in sending and re-
ceiving data over the physical layer.
Purpose of the Data Link Layer (4.3.1)

Just above physical layer is the data link layer. This layer provides struc-
ture to the 1s and 0s that are sent over the media. By adding grouping to
the seemingly arbitrary bits being placed on and extracted from the net-
work media, the data link layer provides meaningful data between the
upper layers of the sending and receiving nodes. This section will inspect
the important functions of the data link layer.

The Data Link Layer (4.3.1.1)

Layer 2 - The Data Link Layer

The TCP/IP network access layer is the equivalent of the following OSI
layers:

Data link (Layer 2)

Physical (Layer 1)

Network Interface Layer

The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames between
nodes over a physical network media. It allows the upper layers to access
the media and controls how data is placed and received on the media.

NOTE

The Layer 2 notation for network devices connected to a

common medium is called a node.

Specifically, the data link layer performs these two basic services:

It accepts Layer 3 packets and packages them into data units called
frames.

It controls Media Access Control and performs error detection.

The data link layer effectively separates the media transitions that occur
as the packet is forwarded from the communication processes of the
higher layers. The data link layer receives packets from and directs pack-
ets to an upper-layer protocol, in this case IPv4 or IPv6. This upper-layer
protocol does not need to be aware of which media the communication
will use.

NOTE

In this chapter, media and medium do not refer to digital con-

tent and multimedia such as audio, animation, television,
and video. Media refers to the material that actually carries
the data signals, such as copper cable and optical fiber.

Data Link Sublayers (4.3.1.2)

The data link layer is divided into two sublayers:

Logical Link Control (LLC): This upper sublayer defines the software
processes that provide services to the network layer protocols. It places
information in the frame that identifies which network layer protocol is
being used for the frame. This information allows multiple Layer 3 proto-
cols, such as IPv4 and IPv6, to utilize the same network interface and
media.

Media Access Control (MAC): This lower sublayer defines the media
access processes performed by the hardware. It provides data link layer
addressing and delimiting of data according to the physical signaling re-
quirements of the medium and the type of data link layer protocol in use.

Separating the data link layer into sublayers allows one type of frame de-
fined by the upper layer to access different types of media defined by the
lower layer. Such is the case in many LAN technologies, including
Ethernet.

Figure 4-14 illustrates how the data link layer is separated into the LLC
and MAC sublayers. The LLC sublayer communicates with the network
layer, while the MAC sublayer allows various network access technolo-
gies. For example, the MAC sublayer communicates with Ethernet LAN
technology to send and receive frames over copper or fiber-optic cable.
The MAC sublayer also communicates with wireless technologies such as
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth to send and receive frames wirelessly.

Figure 4-14 Data Link Sublayers

Media Access Control (4.3.1.3)

Layer 2 protocols specify the encapsulation of a packet into a frame and

the techniques for getting the encapsulated packet on and off each
medium. The technique used for getting the frame on and off media is
called the Media Access Control method.

As packets travel from source host to destination host, they typically tra-
verse different physical networks. These physical networks can consist of
different types of physical media such as copper wires, optical fibers, and
wireless consisting of electromagnetic signals, radio and microwave fre-
quencies, and satellite links.

The packets do not have a way to directly access these different media. It
is the role of the OSI data link layer to prepare network layer packets for
transmission and to control access to the physical media. The media ac-
cess control methods described by the data link layer protocols define the
processes by which network devices can access the network media and
transmit frames in diverse network environments.

Without the data link layer, network layer protocols such as IP would
have to make provisions for connecting to every type of media that could
exist along a delivery path. Moreover, IP would have to adapt every time
a new network technology or medium was developed. This process would
hamper protocol and network media innovation and development. This is
a key reason for using a layered approach to networking.

Figure 4-15 provides an example of a PC connecting to a laptop across

several network segments. Although the two hosts are communicating us-
ing IP at the network layer, at each link between the devices, a different
medium is used. Each transition at a router might require a different data
link layer protocol for transport on a new medium. Numerous data link
layer protocols are being used to transport the IP packets over various
types of LAN and WAN segments.

Figure 4-15 Data Link Layer Communication

On the first segment, between the PC and the router, an Ethernet link ex-
ists. So, as an IP packet travels from the PC to the laptop, it will be encap-
sulated into an Ethernet frame (802.3) leaving the PC. At the first router,
the Ethernet frame is deencapsulated, processed, and then encapsulated
into a new data link frame to cross the satellite link using a WAN protocol
(HDLC, PPP, and so on). For the final segment, the laptop is connected
through a wireless link. The packet will use one of the wireless data link
frame protocols (802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, and so on) from the router to
the laptop.
Providing Access to Media (4.3.1.4)

Different Media Access Control methods might be required during the

course of a single communication. Each network environment that pack-
ets encounter as they travel from a local host to a remote host can have
different characteristics. For example, an Ethernet LAN consists of many
hosts contending to access the network medium on an ad hoc basis. Serial
links consist of a direct connection between only two devices over which
data flows sequentially as bits in an orderly way.

Router interfaces encapsulate the packet into the appropriate frame, and
a suitable Media Access Control method is used to access each link. In any
given exchange of network layer packets, there can be numerous data
link layer and media transitions. At each hop along the path, a router

Accepts a frame from a medium

Deencapsulates the frame

Reencapsulates the packet into a new frame

Forwards the new frame appropriate to the medium of that segment of

the physical network

The router in Figure 4-16 has an Ethernet interface to connect to the LAN
and a serial interface to connect to the WAN. As the router processes
frames, it will use data link layer services to receive the frame from one
medium, deencapsulate it to the Layer 3 PDU, reencapsulate the PDU into
a new frame, and place the frame on the medium of the next link of the
network.
Figure 4-16 Transfer of Frames

Layer 2 Frame Structure (4.3.2)

As previously mentioned, the data link layer provides grouping to the

seemingly random bits being placed on and extracted from the network
media. This grouping is accomplished by providing encapsulation using a
header and a trailer to create logical units of data. This section will pro-
vide an overview of the data link layer encapsulation process.

Formatting Data for Transmission (4.3.2.1)

The data link layer prepares a packet for transport across the local media
by encapsulating it with a header and a trailer to create a frame. The de-
scription of a frame is a key element of each data link layer protocol.

Data link layer protocols require control information to enable the proto-
cols to function. Control information typically answers the following
questions:

Which nodes are in communication with each other?

When does communication between individual nodes begin and when

does it end?

Which errors occurred while the nodes communicated?

Which nodes will communicate next?

Unlike the other PDUs that have been discussed in this course, the data
link layer frame includes

Header: Contains control information, such as addressing, and is lo-

cated at the beginning of the PDU.

Data: Contains the IP header, transport layer header, and application

data.

Trailer: Contains control information for error detection added to the

end of the PDU.

Creating a Frame (4.3.2.2)

When data travels on the media, it is converted into a stream of bits, or 1s

and 0s. If a node is receiving long streams of bits, how does it determine
where a frame starts and stops or which bits represent the address?

Framing breaks the stream into decipherable groupings, with control in-
formation inserted in the header and trailer as values in different fields.
This format gives the physical signals a structure that can be received by
nodes and decoded into packets at the destination.

As shown in Figure 4-17, generic frame field types include

Frame start and stop indicator flags: Used by the MAC sublayer to
identify the beginning and end limits of the frame.

Addressing: Used by the MAC sublayer to identify the source and desti-
nation nodes.

Type: Used by the LLC sublayer to identify the Layer 3 protocol.

Control: Identifies special flow control services.

Data: Contains the frame payload (that is, packet header, segment
header, and the data).

Error detection: Included after the data to form the trailer, these frame
fields are used for error detection.
Figure 4-17 Fields of a Generic Layer 2 Frame

NOTE

Not all protocols include all of these fields. The standards for
a specific data-link protocol define the actual frame format.
Examples of frame formats will be discussed at the end of
this chapter.

ACTIVITY 4.3.2.3: GENERIC FRAME FIELDS

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

Layer 2 Standards (4.3.3)

The encapsulation process uses very specific formats defined by data link
layer protocols. This section will examine some of these protocols.

Data Link Layer Standards (4.3.3.1)

Unlike the protocols of the upper layers of the TCP/IP suite, data link layer
protocols are generally not defined by Requests for Comments (RFC).
Although the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) maintains the func-
tional protocols and services for the TCP/IP protocol suite in the upper
layers, the IETF does not define the functions and operation of that
model’s network access layer.

Specifically the data link layer services and specifications are defined by
multiple standards based on a variety of technologies and media to which
the protocols are applied. Some of these standards integrate both Layer 2
and Layer 1 services.
The functional protocols and services at the data link layer are described
by

Engineering organizations, which set public and open standards and

protocols

Communications companies, which set and use proprietary protocols to

take advantage of new advances in technology or market opportunities

Engineering organizations that define open standards and protocols that

apply to the data link layer include

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Table 4-8 highlights various standard organizations and some of their

more important data link layer protocols.

Table 4-8 Network Organizations and Standards

 ACTIVITY 4.3.3.2: DATA LINK LAYER STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS

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Media Access Control (4.4)

The data entering and exiting nodes is connected; the network media re-
quires coordination. This section will provide an overview of the data
link sublayer, which provides this function: Media Access Control.

Topologies (4.4.1)

Nodes on a network can be interconnected in numerous ways. How these

nodes are connected or how they communicate is described by the topol-
ogy of the network. This section will provide an overview of network
topologies and how data access to the media is regulated helps define the
topology.

Controlling Access to the Media (4.4.1.1)

As with any resource, there need to be rules defining how it is used and
shared. The same is true with network media. The rules need to specify
how and when a node can place data onto the media. Regulating the
placement of data frames onto the media is controlled by the Media
Access Control sublayer.

Media Access Control is the equivalent of traffic rules that regulate the
entrance of motor vehicles onto a roadway. The absence of any Media
Access Control would be the equivalent of vehicles ignoring all other traf-
fic and entering the road without regard to the other vehicles. However,
not all roads and entrances are the same. Traffic can enter the road by
merging, by waiting for its turn at a stop sign, or by obeying signal lights.
A driver follows a different set of rules for each type of entrance.

In the same way, there are different ways to regulate placing frames onto
the media. The protocols at the data link layer define the rules for access
to different media. Some Media Access Control methods use highly con-
trolled processes to ensure that frames are safely placed on the media.
These methods are defined by sophisticated protocols, which require
mechanisms that introduce overhead onto the network.

Among the different implementations of the data link layer protocols,

there are different methods of controlling access to the media. These
Media Access Control techniques define if and how the nodes share the
media.

The actual Media Access Control method used depends on

Topology: How the connection between the nodes appears to the data
link layer.

Media sharing: How the nodes share the media. The media sharing can
be point-to-point, such as in WAN connections, or shared, such as in LAN
networks.

Physical and Logical Topologies (4.4.1.2)

The topology of a network is the arrangement or relationship of the net-

work devices and the interconnections between them. LAN and WAN
topologies can be viewed in two ways:

Physical topology: Refers to the physical connections and identifies

how end devices and infrastructure devices such as routers, switches, and
wireless access points are interconnected. Physical topologies are usually
point-to-point or star. See Figure 4-18.
Figure 4-18 Physical Topology

Logical topology: Refers to the way a network transfers frames from

one node to the next. This arrangement consists of virtual connections be-
tween the nodes of a network. These logical signal paths are defined by
data link layer protocols. The logical topology of point-to-point links is rel-
atively simple while shared media offers deterministic and nondetermin-
istic Media Access Control methods. See Figure 4-19.

Figure 4-19 Logical Topology

The data link layer “sees” the logical topology of a network when control-
ling data access to the media. It is the logical topology that influences the
type of network framing and Media Access Control used.
WAN Topologies (4.4.2)

Traditional WANs technologies have some common methods of intercon-

nection and associated Media Access Control. This section will introduce
some of these physical and logical topologies.

Common Physical WAN Topologies (4.4.2.1)

WANs are commonly interconnected using the following physical

topologies:

Point-to-point: This is the simplest topology that consists of a perma-

nent link between two endpoints. For this reason, this is a very popular
WAN topology.

Hub-and-spoke: A WAN version of the star topology in which a central

site interconnects branch sites using point-to-point links.

Hub and Spoke Topology

Mesh: This topology provides high availability, but requires that every
end system be interconnected to every other system. Therefore, the ad-
ministrative and physical costs can be significant. Each link is essentially
a point-to-point link to the other node. Variations of this topology include
a partial mesh, where some but not all the end devices are
interconnected.

Full Mesh Topology

Partial Mesh Topology

The three common physical topologies are illustrated in Figure 4-20.

Figure 4-20 Common Physical Topologies

Physical Point-to-Point Topology (4.4.2.2)

Physical point-to-point topologies directly connect two nodes.

In this arrangement, two nodes do not have to share the media with other
hosts. Additionally, a node does not have to make any determination
about whether an incoming frame is destined for it or another node.
Therefore, the logical data-link protocols can be very simple as all frames
on the media can only travel to or from the two nodes. The frames are
placed on the media by the node at one end and taken off the media by
the node at the other end of the point-to-point circuit.

Data link layer protocols could provide more sophisticated Media Access
Control processes for logical point-to-point topologies, but this would only
add unnecessary protocol overhead.

Logical Point-to-Point Topology (4.4.2.3)

The end nodes communicating in a point-to-point network can be physi-

cally connected through a number of intermediate devices. However, the
use of physical devices in the network does not affect the logical topology.
The source and destination node can be indirectly connected to each
other over some geographical distance. In some cases, the logical connec-
tion between nodes forms what is called a virtual circuit. A virtual circuit
is a logical connection created within a network between two network
devices. The two nodes on either end of the virtual circuit exchange the
frames with each other. This occurs even if the frames are directed
through intermediary devices. Virtual circuits are important logical com-
munication constructs used by some Layer 2 technologies.

The media access method used by the data-link protocol is determined by

the logical point-to-point topology, not the physical topology. This means
that the logical point-to-point connection between two nodes might not
necessarily be between two physical nodes at each end of a single physi-
cal link.

Half and Full Duplex (4.4.2.4)

In point-to-point networks, data can flow in one of two ways:

Half-duplex communication: Both devices can both transmit and re-

ceive on the media but cannot do so simultaneously. Ethernet has estab-
lished arbitration rules for resolving conflicts arising from instances
when more than one station attempts to transmit at the same time.

Full-duplex communication: Both devices can transmit and receive on

the media at the same time. The data link layer assumes that the media is
available for transmission for both nodes at any time. Therefore, there is
no media arbitration necessary in the data link layer.

LAN Topologies (4.4.3)

Like WANs, some physical and logical topologies are more predominately
used in LANs. These topologies will be examined in this section.

Physical LAN Topologies (4.4.3.1)

Physical topology defines how the end systems are physically intercon-
nected. In shared media LANs, end devices can be interconnected using
the following physical topologies:
 Star: End devices are connected to a central intermediate device. Early
star topologies interconnected end devices using hubs. However, star
topologies now use switches. The star topology is the most common physi-
cal LAN topology primarily because it is easy to install, very scalable
(easy to add and remove end devices), and easy to troubleshoot.

Star Topology

Extended star or hybrid: This is a combination of the other topologies,

such as star networks interconnected to each other using a bus topology.

Bus: All end systems are chained to each other and terminated in some
form on each end. Infrastructure devices such as switches are not re-
quired to interconnect the end devices. Bus topologies were used in
legacy Ethernet networks because they were inexpensive to use and easy
to set up.

Bus Topology

Ring: End systems are connected to their respective neighbor, forming a

ring. Unlike the bus topology, the ring does not need to be terminated.
Ring topologies were used in legacy Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI) networks. Specifically, FDDI networks employ a second ring for
fault tolerance or performance enhancements.

Ring Topology

Figure 4-21 illustrates some common methods for interconnecting end

devices on LANs.
Figure 4-21 Physical Topologies Commonly Used in LANs

Logical Topology for Shared Media (4.4.3.2)

Logical topology of a network is closely related to the mechanism used to

manage network access. Access methods provide the procedures to man-
age network access so that all stations have access. When several entities
share the same media, some mechanism must be in place to control ac-
cess. Access methods are applied to networks to regulate this media
access.

Some network topologies share a common medium with multiple nodes.

At any one time, there can be a number of devices attempting to send and
receive data using the network media. There are rules that govern how
these devices share the media.

There are two basic Media Access Control methods for shared media:

Contention-based access: All nodes compete for the use of the medium
but have a plan if there are collisions.

Controlled access: Each node has its own time to use the medium.
The data link layer protocol specifies the Media Access Control method
that will provide the appropriate balance between frame control, frame
protection, and network overhead.

Contention-Based Access (4.4.3.3)

When using a nondeterministic contention-based method, a network de-

vice can attempt to access the medium whenever it has data to send. To
prevent complete chaos on the media, these methods use a carrier sense
multiple access (CSMA) process to first detect whether the media is carry-
ing a signal.

If a carrier signal on the media from another node is detected, it means

that another device is transmitting. When the device attempting to trans-
mit sees that the media is busy, it will wait and try again after a short
time period. If no carrier signal is detected, the device transmits its data.
Ethernet and wireless networks use contention-based Media Access
Control.

It is possible that the CSMA process will fail and two devices will transmit
at the same time, creating a data collision. If this occurs, the data sent by
both devices will be corrupted and will need to be resent.

Contention-based Media Access Control methods do not have the over-

head of controlled access methods. A mechanism for tracking whose turn
it is to access the media is not required. However, the contention-based
systems do not scale well under heavy media use. As use and the number
of nodes increase, the probability of successful media access without a
collision decreases. Additionally, the recovery mechanisms required to
correct errors due to these collisions further diminishes the throughput.

CSMA is usually implemented in conjunction with a method for resolving

the media contention. The two commonly used methods are

Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD):

The end device monitors the media for the presence of a data signal. If a
data signal is absent and therefore the media is free, the device transmits
the data. If signals are then detected that show another device was trans-
mitting at the same time, all devices stop sending and try again later.
Traditional forms of Ethernet use this method.
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA):
The end device examines the media for the presence of a data signal. If
the media is free, the device sends a notification across the media of its
intent to use it. After it receives a clearance to transmit, the device then
sends the data. This method is used by 802.11 wireless networking
technologies.

Some characteristics of contention-based access are

Stations can transmit onto the media at any time.

Collisions exist on the media.

Mechanisms resolve media contention.

Multiaccess Topology (4.4.3.4)

A logical multiaccess topology enables a number of nodes to communi-

cate by using the same shared media. Data from only one node can be
placed on the medium at any one time. Every node sees all the frames
that are on the medium, but only the node to which the frame is ad-
dressed processes the contents of the frame.

Having many nodes share access to the medium requires a data-link

Media Access Control method to regulate the transmission of data and
thereby reduce collisions between different signals.

Controlled Access (4.4.3.5)

MAU

When using the controlled access method, network devices take turns, in
sequence, to access the medium. If an end device does not need to access
the medium, the opportunity passes to the next end device. This process
is facilitated by use of a token. An end device acquires the token and
places a frame on the media. No other device can do so until the frame
has arrived and been processed at the destination, releasing the token.
 NOTE

This method is also known as scheduled access or

deterministic.

Although controlled access is well-ordered and provides predictable

throughput, deterministic methods can be inefficient because a device
has to wait for its turn before it can use the medium.

Controlled access examples include

Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), which is based on the IEEE

802.4 token bus protocol.

NOTE

Both of these Media Access Control methods are considered

obsolete.

Some characteristics of controlled access are

Only one station can transmit at a time.

Devices wanting to transmit must wait their turn.

No collisions on the media.

Can use token passing to avoid contention.

Ring Topology (4.4.3.6)

In a logical ring topology, each node in turn receives a frame. If the frame
is not addressed to the node, the node passes the frame to the next node.
This allows a ring to use a controlled Media Access Control technique
called token passing.

Nodes in a logical ring topology remove the frame from the ring, examine
the address, and send it on if it is not addressed for that node. In a ring,
all nodes around the ring (between the source and destination node) ex-
amine the frame.

There are multiple Media Access Control techniques that could be used
with a logical ring, depending on the level of control required. For exam-
ple, only one frame at a time is usually carried by the media. If there is no
data being transmitted, a signal (known as a token) can be placed on the
media and a node can only place a data frame on the media when it has
the token.

Remember that the data link layer “sees” a logical ring topology. The ac-
tual physical cabling topology could be another topology.

ACTIVITY 4.4.3.7: LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES

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Data-Link Frame (4.4.4)

The data link layer needs to provide intelligible data between the Layer 3
of the sending host and the Layer 3 of the receiving host. To do this, the
Layer 3 PDU is wrapped with a header and trailer to form the Layer 2
frame. This section will examine the common elements of within the
frame structure as well as explore some of the commonly used data link
layer protocols.

The Frame (4.4.4.1)

Although there are many different data link layer protocols that describe
data link layer frames, each frame type has three basic parts:

Header

Data

Trailer
All data link layer protocols encapsulate the Layer 3 PDU within the data
field of the frame. However, the structure of the frame and the fields con-
tained in the header and trailer vary according to the protocol.

The data link layer protocol describes the features required for the trans-
port of packets across different media. These features of the protocol are
integrated into the encapsulation of the frame. When the frame arrives at
its destination and the data-link protocol takes the frame off the media,
the framing information is read and discarded.

There is no one frame structure that meets the needs of all data trans-
portation across all types of media. Depending on the environment, the
amount of control information needed in the frame varies to match the
Media Access Control requirements of the media and logical topology.

A fragile environment requires more control. However, a protected envi-

ronment needs fewer controls.

The Header (4.4.4.2)

The frame header contains the control information specified by the data
link layer protocol for the specific logical topology and media used.

Frame control information is unique to each type of protocol. It is used by

the Layer 2 protocol to provide features demanded by the communication
environment.

The Ethernet frame header fields are as follows:

Start Frame field: Indicates the beginning of the frame. This field tells
other devices on the network segment that a frame is starting to be trans-
mitted on the medium.

Source and Destination Address fields: Indicate the source and desti-
nation nodes on the media.

Type field: Indicates the upper-layer service contained in the frame or

the length of the frame.
Different data link layer protocols might use different fields from those
mentioned. For example, other Layer 2 protocol header frame fields
could include

Priority/Quality of Service field: Indicates a particular type of commu-

nication service for processing.

Logical Connection Control field: Used to establish a logical connec-

tion between nodes.

Physical Link Control field: Used to establish the media link.

Flow Control field: Used to start and stop traffic over the media.

Congestion Control field: Indicates congestion in the media.

Because the purposes and functions of data link layer protocols are re-
lated to the specific topologies and media, each protocol has to be exam-
ined to gain a detailed understanding of its frame structure. As protocols
are discussed in this course, more information about the frame structure
will be explained.

Layer 2 Address (4.4.4.3)

The data link layer provides addressing that is used in transporting a

frame across a shared local media. Device addresses at this layer are re-
ferred to as physical addresses. Data link layer addressing is contained
within the frame header and specifies the frame destination node on the
local network. The frame header can also contain the source address of
the frame.

Unlike Layer 3 logical addresses, which are hierarchical, physical ad-

dresses do not indicate on what network the device is located. Rather, the
physical address is a unique device-specific address. If the device is
moved to another network or subnet, it will still function with the same
Layer 2 physical address.

An address that is device specific and nonhierarchical cannot be used to

locate a device across large networks or the Internet. This would be like
trying to find a single house within the entire world, with nothing more
than a house number and street name. The physical address, however,
can be used to locate a device within a limited area. For this reason, the
data link layer address is only used for local delivery. Addresses at this
layer have no meaning beyond the local network. Compare this to Layer
3, where addresses in the packet header are carried from source host to
destination host regardless of the number of network hops along the
route.

If the data must pass onto another network segment, an intermediate de-
vice, such as a router, is necessary. The router must accept the frame
based on the physical address and deencapsulate the frame to examine
the hierarchical address, or IP address. Using the IP address, the router is
able to determine the network location of the destination device and the
best path to reach it. After it knows where to forward the packet, the
router then creates a new frame for the packet, and the new frame is sent
onto the next segment toward its final destination.

The Trailer (4.4.4.4)

Data link layer protocols add a trailer to the end of each frame. The trailer
is used to determine whether the frame arrived without error. This
process is called error detection and is accomplished by placing a logical
or mathematical summary of the bits that comprise the frame in the
trailer. Error detection is added at the data link layer because the signals
on the media could be subject to interference, distortion, or loss that
would substantially change the bit values that those signals represent.

The FCS is used for error checking. A transmitting node creates a logical
summary of the contents of the frame. This summary is a calculated num-
ber based on the frame’s data. This is known as the cyclic redundancy
check (CRC) value. This value is placed in the Frame Check Sequence
(FCS) field of the frame to represent the contents of the frame’s data.

When the frame arrives at the destination node, the receiving node calcu-
lates its own logical summary, or CRC, of the frame. The receiving node
compares the two CRC values. If the two values are the same, the frame is
considered to have arrived intact. If the CRC value in the FCS differs from
the CRC calculated at the receiving node, the frame is discarded.
 NOTE

In unreliable Layer 2 protocols such as Ethernet, bad frames

are quietly discarded. There is no feedback by Layer 2 ser-
vices to the transmitting node that the frame has been
discarded.

Therefore, the FCS field is used to determine whether errors occurred in

the transmission and reception of the frame. The error-detection mecha-
nism provided by the use of the FCS field discovers most errors caused on
the media.

There is always the small possibility that a frame with a good CRC result
is actually corrupt. Errors in bits can cancel each other out when the CRC
is calculated. Upper-layer protocols would then be required to detect and
correct this data loss.

The Stop Frame field is a delimiter that indicates the end of the frame.
The transmitting node adds this after the FCS to indicate that the entire
frame has been sent. The receiving node examines the bits as received,
looking for the specific Stop Frame pattern. When this pattern is recog-
nized, the receiving node knows that the entire frame has been captured
off the media.
 NOTE

Error detections should not be confused with reliability or

error correction. Reliability is the process of using error de-
tection to determine whether there are errors in the data
and to retransmit the data if necessary. Error correction is
the ability to determine whether a frame contains an error
and the ability to repair the error from the information sent
with the frame communication.

Both error detection and error correction involve the addi-

tional bits. With error checking, these bits are only used to
determine the error. With error correction, the bits are used
to restore the flawed data to the original bits of data as they
were transmitted. Therefore, error correction is more com-
plex and requires more overhead than error detection.

LAN and WAN Frames (4.4.4.5)

In a TCP/IP network, all OSI Layer 2 protocols work with the IP at OSI
Layer 3. However, the actual Layer 2 protocol used depends on the logical
topology of the network and the implementation of the physical layer.
Given the wide range of physical media used across the range of topolo-
gies in networking, there are a correspondingly high number of Layer 2
protocols in use.

Each protocol performs Media Access Control for specified Layer 2 logical
topologies. This means that a number of different network devices can
act as nodes that operate at the data link layer when implementing these
protocols. These devices include the network adapter or network inter-
face cards (NIC) on computers as well as the interfaces on routers and
Layer 2 switches.

The Layer 2 protocol used for a particular network topology is deter-

mined by the technology used to implement that topology. The technology
is, in turn, determined by the size of the network—in terms of the num-
ber of hosts and the geographic scope—and the services to be provided
over the network.
A LAN typically uses a high-bandwidth technology that is capable of sup-
porting large numbers of hosts. A LAN’s relatively small geographic area
(a single building or a multibuilding campus) and its high density of users
make this technology cost effective.

However, using a high-bandwidth technology is usually not cost effective

for WANs that cover large geographic areas (cities or multiple cities, for
example). The cost of the long-distance physical links and the technology
used to carry the signals over those distances typically results in lower
bandwidth capacity.

Difference in bandwidth normally results in the use of different protocols

for LANs and WANs.

Common data link layer protocols include

Ethernet

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

802.11 Wireless

Other protocols covered in the CCNA curriculum are High-Level Data

Link Control (HDLC) and Frame Relay. In Figure 4-22, the data is in tran-
sit from the wireless laptop to the Ethernet host. At each hop, the Layer 2
framing of the receiving media is removed and the framing of the new
media is added before sending on the media. Initially, the data link layer
framing is an 802.11 for wireless. Then along the three WAN segments,
there is a different WAN framing used on each segment: PPP, HDLC, and
Frame Relay. The last segment is an Ethernet LAN segment using Ethernet
framing. Even though multiple Layer 2 encapsulations are used, the
packet with the Layer 3 encapsulation inside remains relatively
unchanged.
Figure 4-22 Examples of Layer 2 Protocols

Ethernet Frame (4.4.4.6)

This section introduces the Ethernet frame structure.

Ethernet

Ethernet is the dominant LAN technology. It is a family of networking

technologies that are defined in the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards.

Ethernet standards define both the Layer 2 protocols and the Layer 1
technologies. Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and sup-
ports data bandwidths of 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps), or 10
Gbps (10,000 Mbps).

The basic frame format and the IEEE sublayers of OSI Layers 1 and 2 re-
main consistent across all forms of Ethernet. However, the methods for
detecting and placing data on the media vary with different
implementations.

Traditionally, Ethernet provides unacknowledged connectionless service

over a shared media using CSMA/CD as the media access methods. Shared
media requires that the Ethernet frame header use a data link layer ad-
dress to identify the source and destination nodes. As with most LAN pro-
tocols, this address is referred to as the MAC address of the node. An
Ethernet MAC address is 48 bits and is generally represented in hexadeci-
mal format.
Figure 4-23 shows the many fields of the Ethernet frame. Some of these
fields are

Preamble: Used to time synchronization; this also contains a delimiter

to mark the end of the timing information.

Destination Address: 48-bit MAC address for the destination node.

Source Address: 48-bit MAC address for the source node.

Type: Value to indicate which upper-layer protocol will receive the data
after the Ethernet process is complete.

Data or Payload: This is the PDU, typically an IPv4 packet, that is to be

transported over the media.

Frame Check Sequence (FCS): A CRC value used to check for damaged
frames.

Figure 4-23 Ethernet Frame Fields

At the data link layer, the frame structure is nearly identical for all speeds
of Ethernet. However, at the physical layer, different versions of Ethernet
place the bits onto the media differently. Ethernet is discussed in more de-
tail in the next chapter.

PPP Frame (4.4.4.7)

This section introduces the PPP WAN protocol.

Point-to-Point Protocol

Another data link layer protocol is the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). PPP
is a protocol used to deliver frames between two nodes. Unlike many data
link layer protocols that are defined by electrical engineering organiza-
tions, the PPP standard is defined by RFCs. PPP was developed as a WAN
protocol and remains the protocol of choice to implement many serial
WANs. PPP can be used on various physical media, including twisted-pair,
fiber-optic lines, and satellite transmission, as well as for virtual
connections.

PPP uses a layered architecture. To accommodate the different types of

media, PPP establishes logical connections, called sessions, between two
nodes. The PPP session hides the underlying physical media from the up-
per layers of PPP. These sessions also provide PPP with a method for en-
capsulating multiple protocols over a point-to-point link. Each protocol
encapsulated over the link establishes its own PPP session.

PPP also allows the two nodes to negotiate options within the PPP session.
This includes authentication, compression, and multilink (the use of mul-
tiple physical connections).

Figure 4-24 shows some of these basic fields in a PPP frame:

Flag: A single byte that indicates the beginning or end of a frame. The
flag field consists of the binary sequence 01111110.

Address: A single byte that contains the standard PPP broadcast ad-
dress. PPP does not assign individual station addresses.

Control: A single byte that contains the binary sequence 00000011,

which calls for transmission of user data in an unsequenced frame.

Protocol: Two bytes that identify the protocol encapsulated in the data
field of the frame. The most up-to-date values of the protocol field are
specified in the most recent Assigned Numbers RFC.

Data: Zero or more bytes that contain the datagram for the protocol
specified in the protocol field.
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS): Normally 16 bits (2 bytes). By prior
agreement, consenting PPP implementations can use a 32-bit (4-byte) FCS
for improved error detection.

Figure 4-24 PPP Frame Fields

802.11 Wireless Frame (4.4.4.8)

An overview of the 802.11 wireless protocol family is presented in this

section.

802.11 Wireless

The IEEE 802.11 standard uses the same 802.2 LLC and 48-bit addressing
scheme as other 802 LANs. However, there are many differences at the
MAC sublayer and physical layer. In a wireless environment, the environ-
ment requires special considerations. There is no definable physical con-
nectivity; therefore, external factors can interfere with data transfer and
it is difficult to control access. To meet these challenges, wireless stan-
dards have additional controls.

The IEEE 802.11 standard is commonly referred to as Wi-Fi. It is a con-

tention-based system using a CSMA/CA media access process. CSMA/CA
specifies a random backoff procedure for all nodes that are waiting to
transmit. The most likely opportunity for medium contention is just after
the medium becomes available. Making the nodes back off for a random
period greatly reduces the likelihood of a collision.

802.11 networks also use data-link acknowledgements to confirm that a

frame is received successfully. If the sending station does not detect the
acknowledgement frame, either because the original data frame or the
acknowledgement was not received intact, the frame is retransmitted.
This explicit acknowledgement overcomes interference and other radio-
related problems.
Other services supported by 802.11 are authentication, association (con-
nectivity to a wireless device), and privacy (encryption).

As shown in Figure 4-25, an 802.11 frame contains these fields:

Protocol Version field: Version of 802.11 frame in use

Type and Subtype fields: Identify one of three functions and subfunc-
tions of the frame: control, data, and management

To DS field: Set to 1 in data frames destined for the distribution system

(devices in the wireless structure)

From DS field: Set to 1 in data frames exiting the distribution system

More Fragments field: Set to 1 for frames that have another fragment

Retry field: Set to 1 if the frame is a retransmission of an earlier frame

Power Management field: Set to 1 to indicate that a node will be in

power-save mode

More Data field: Set to 1 to indicate to a node in power-save mode that

more frames are buffered for that node

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) field: Set to 1 if the frame contains

WEP-encrypted information for security

Order field: Set to 1 in a data type frame that uses Strictly Ordered ser-
vice class (does not need reordering)

Duration/ID field: Depending on the type of frame, represents either

the time, in microseconds, required to transmit the frame or an associa-
tion identity (AID) for the station that transmitted the frame

Destination Address (DA) field: MAC address of the final destination

node in the network

Source Address (SA) field: MAC address of the node that initiated the
frame
 Receiver Address (RA) field: MAC address that identifies the wireless
device that is the immediate recipient of the frame

Fragment Number field: Indicates the number for each fragment of a

frame

Sequence Number field: Indicates the sequence number assigned to

the frame; retransmitted frames are identified by duplicate sequence
numbers

Transmitter Address (TA) field: MAC address that identifies the wire-
less device that transmitted the frame

Frame Body field: Contains the information being transported; for data
frames, typically an IP packet

FCS field: Contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) of the frame

Figure 4-25 802.11 Frame Fields

ACTIVITY 4.4.4.9: FRAME FIELDS

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

Summary (4.5)

CLASS ACTIVITY 4.5.1.1: LINKED IN!

NOTE

This activity is best completed in groups of 2–3 students.

Your small business is moving to a new location! Your building is brand

new, and you have been tasked to come up with a physical model so that
network port installation can begin.

Use the blueprint provided for this activity (your instructor will provide
you with a copy from the Instructor Planning Guide). The area indicated
by Number 1 is the reception area; the area numbered RR is the restroom
area.

All rooms are within Category 6, UTP specifications (100 meters), so you
have no worries about hard-wiring the building to code. Each room in the
diagram must have at least one network connection available for
users/intermediary devices.

With your teammate(s), indicate the following on the drawing:

The location of your network main distribution facility, while keeping

security in mind

The number of intermediary devices that you would use and where you
would place them

The type of cabling that would be used (UTP, STP, wireless, fiber-optic,
and so on) and where would the ports be placed

The types of end devices that would be used (wired, wireless, laptops,
desktops, tablets, and so on)

Do not go “overboard” on your design; just use the content from the chap-
ter to be able to justify your decisions to the class.
The TCP/IP network access layer is the equivalent of the OSI data link
layer (Layer 2) and the physical layer (Layer 1).

The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make
up a data link layer frame across the network media. The physical compo-
nents are the electronic hardware devices, media, and other connectors
that transmit and carry the signals to represent the bits. Hardware com-
ponents such as network adapters (NICs), interfaces and connectors, ca-
ble materials, and cable designs are all specified in standards associated
with the physical layer. The physical layer standards address three func-
tional areas: physical components, frame encoding technique, and signal-
ing method.

Using the proper media is an important part of network communications.

Without the proper physical connection, either wired or wireless, com-
munications between any two devices will not occur.

Wired communication consists of copper media and fiber cable, as

follows

There are three main types of copper media used in networking: un-
shielded twisted-pair (UTP), shielded twisted-pair (STP), and coaxial cable.
UTP cabling is the most common copper networking media.

Optical fiber cable has become very popular for interconnecting infra-
structure network devices. It permits the transmission of data over longer
distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than any other network-
ing media. Unlike copper wires, fiber-optic cable can transmit signals
with less attenuation and is immune to EMI and RFI.

Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary

digits of data communications using radio or microwave frequencies.

The number of wireless-enabled devices continues to increase. For these

reasons, wireless has become the medium of choice for home networks
and is quickly gaining in popularity in enterprise networks.

The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames between
nodes over a physical network media. It allows the upper layers to access
the media and controls how data is placed and received on the media.
Among the different implementations of the data link layer protocols,
there are different methods of controlling access to the media. These
Media Access Control techniques define if and how the nodes share the
media. The actual Media Access Control method used depends on the
topology and media sharing. LAN and WAN topologies can be physical or
logical. It is the logical topology that influences the type of network fram-
ing and Media Access Control used. WANs are commonly interconnected
using the point-to-point, hub-and-spoke, or mesh physical topologies. In
shared media LANs, end devices can be interconnected using the star,
bus, ring, or extended star (hybrid) physical topologies.

All data link layer protocols encapsulate the Layer 3 PDU within the data
field of the frame. However, the structure of the frame and the fields con-
tained in the header and trailer vary according to the protocol.

Practice

The following activities provide practice with the topics introduced in this
chapter. The labs and class activities are available in the companion
Introduction to Networking Lab Manual (ISBN 978-1-58713-312-1). The
Packet Tracer Activities PKA files are found in the online course.

Class Activities

Class Activity 4.0.1.2: Managing the Medium

Class Activity 4.5.1.1: Linked In!

Labs

Lab 4.1.2.4: Identifying Network Devices and Cabling

Lab 4.2.2.7: Building an Ethernet Crossover Cable

Lab 4.2.4.6: Viewing Wired and Wireless NIC Information

Packet Tracer Activities

Packet Tracer Activity 4.2.4.5: Connecting a Wired and Wireless LAN

Check Your Understanding

Complete all the review questions listed here to test your understanding
of the topics and concepts in this chapter. The appendix, “Answers to the
‘Check Your Understanding’ Questions” lists the answers.

1. What are the purpose and functions of the physical layer in data net-
works? (Choose two.)

A. Controls how the data is transmitted onto the physical media

B. Encodes the data into signals

C. Provides logical addressing

D. Packages bits into data units

E. Controls media access

2. Which of these statements regarding UTP network cabling are true?

(Choose two.)

A. Uses light to transmit data

B. Susceptible to EMI and RFI

C. Commonly used between buildings

D. Most difficult type of networking cable to install

E. Most commonly used type of networking cable

3. What is the purpose of cladding in fiber-optic cables?

A. Cable grounding
B. Noise cancellation

C. Prevention of light loss

D. EMI protection

4. Identify the wire colors associated with the pins when building a 568B
network cable.

A. Pin 1 ___________________

B. Pin 2 ___________________

C. Pin 3 ___________________

D. Pin 4 ___________________

E. Pin 5 ___________________

F. Pin 6 ___________________

G. Pin 7 ___________________

H. Pin 8 ___________________

5. What are the advantages of using fiber-optic cable over copper cable?
(Choose three.)

A. Copper is more expensive.

B. Immunity to electromagnetic interference.

C. Careful cable handling.

D. Longer maximum cable length.

E. Efficient electrical current transfer.

F. Greater bandwidth potential.

6. What occurs when another wireless device connects to a wireless ac-
cess point (WAP)?

A. The WAP adds an additional channel to support the new client.

B. The WAP throughput for all the connected clients decreases.

C. The WAP decreases the radio coverage area.

D. The WAP will change frequencies to reduce interference caused by the

new client.

7. If a node receives a frame and the calculated CRC does not match the
CRC in the FCS, what action will the node take?

A. Drop the frame

B. Reconstruct the frame from the CRC

C. Forward the frame as it is to the next host

D. Disable the interface on which the frame arrives

8. What are the contents of the data field in a frame?

A. A CRC

B. The network layer PDU

C. The Layer 2 source address

D. The length of the frame

9. Which of the following is true about the logical topology of a network?

A. Is always multiaccess

B. Provides the physical addressing

C. Is determined by how the nodes in the network are connected

D. Defines how frames are transferred from one node to the next

10. Which of the following is a characteristic of contention-based MAC?

A. Used in point-to-point topologies.

B. Nodes compete for the use of the medium.

C. Leaves MAC to the upper layer.

D. Each node has a specific time to use the medium.