ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM

Lecture notes for Phys 121

Dr. Vitaly A. Shneidman

Department of Physics, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102
(Dated: January 21, 2024)

Abstract
These notes are intended as an addition to the lectures given in class. They are NOT designed
to replace the actual lectures. Some of the notes will contain less information then in the actual
lecture, and some will have extra info. Not all formulas which will be needed for exams are
contained in these notes. Also, these notes will NOT contain any up to date organizational or
administrative information (changes in schedule, assignments, etc.) but only physics. If you notice
any typos - let me know at vitaly@njit.edu. I will keep all notes in a single file - each time you can
print out only the added part. A few other things:
Graphics: Some of the graphics is deliberately unfinished, so that we have what to do in class.
Preview topics: can be skipped upon the 1st reading, but will be useful in the future.
Advanced topics: these will not be represented on the exams. Read them only if you are really
interested in the material.

1
Contents

I. Introduction 2
A. Vectors 2
1. Single vector 3
2. Two vectors: addition 3
3. Two vectors: scalar (dot) product 5
4. Two vectors: vector product 6
B. Advanced: Fields 9
1. Representation of a field; field lines 10
2. Properties of field lines and related definitions 10

II. Electric Charge 12

A. Notations and units 12
B. Superposition of charges 12
C. Quantization of charge 12
D. Charge conservation 12
E. The Coulomb’s Law 14
F. Superposition of forces 15
G. Reaction of a charge to electrostatic and other forces 17

III. Electric field 25

A. Field due to a point charge 25
1. Definition and units 25
2. Vector Fields and Field Lines 26
B. Field due to several charges 27
1. Definition and force on a charge in a field 27
2. Superposition of fields 28
C. Electrostatic Field Lines (EFL) 32
1. Field lines due to a dipole 32
D. Continuos charge distribution 33

IV. Gauss Theorem 36

0
 A. Quantification of the number of lines 36
B. Deformations of the Gaussian surface 36
C. Definition of the flux 39
D. Gauss theorem 40
E. Advanced: Gauss Theorem (GT) and Coulomb’s law 40
F. Applications of the GT 41
1. Charged spherical shell 42
2. Advanced: Uniformly charged sphere 43
3. Uniformly charged infinite line 44
4. Uniformly charged non-conducting plane 46
G. A metal conductor 49
1. Field near the surface of a conductor 50

V. Electrostatic potential (EP) 53

A. Definitions, units, etc. 53
B. Work and energy in electrostatic field 55
1. Conservative forces 55
C. Interaction of two charges 56
D. Potential due to a point charge 56
E. Relation to electric field 60
1. Potential from field 60
2. Field from potential 61
F. Conductors 63

VI. Properties of a conductor in electrostatics 64

VII. Capacitance 67
A. Definitions, units, etc. 67
1. Definition 67
B. An isolated sphere 68
C. A spherical capacitor 69
D. Parallel-plate capacitor 70
E. Capacitor with a dielectric 71

1
 F. Capacitor and a battery 73
G. Energy 73
H. Connections of several capacitors 74
1. Parallel 74
2. Series 74
I. Physics of the dielectrics 77

VIII. Current 78
A. Definitions and units 78
B. Resistance of a wire 79
C. Relation to field 79
D. Power 80
1. Single resistor 80
2. Simple connections 80
E. Series and parallel connections 80
F. Ampmeter and voltmeter 82
1. Branching of current in parallel connections 83
G. Microscopic picture of conductivity 84
H. Dielectric 84
I. Liquids (electrolytes) 84

IX. Circuits 85
A. The reduction method 85
B. The real battery 86
C. The potential method 87
D. Multiloop circuits and the Kirchoff’s equations 89
E. RC circuits 91

2
 Dr. Vitaly A. Shneidman, Phys 121, 1st Lecture

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Vectors

A vector is characterized by the following three properties:

• has a magnitude

• has direction (Equivalently, has several components in a selected system of coordi-

nates).

• obeys certain addition rules (”rule of parallelogram”). (Equivalently, components of

a vector are transformed according to certain rules if the system of coordinates is
rotated).

This is in contrast to a scalar, which has only magnitude and which is not changed when a
system of coordinates is rotated.
How do we know which physical quantity is a vector, which is a scalar and which is
neither? From experiment (of course). Examples of scalars are mass, kinetic energy and
(the forthcoming) charge. Examples of vectors are the displacement, velocity and force.

Tail-to-Head addition rule.

2
 1. Single vector

Consider a vector ~a with components ax and ay (let’s talk 2D for a while). There is an
associated scalar, namely the magnitude (or length) given by the Pythagorean theorem
q
a ≡ |~a| = a2x + a2y (1)

Note that for a different system of coordinates with axes x′ , y ′ the components ax′ and ay′
can be very different, but the length in eq. (1) , obviously, will not change, which just means
that it is a scalar.
Another operation allowed on a single vector is multiplication by a scalar. Note that the
physical dimension (”units”) of the resulting vector can be different from the original, as in
F~ = m~a.

2. Two vectors: addition

2.5

~
C
1.5

1
~
B

0.5
~
A

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1

~ = A+
FIG. 1: Adding two vectors: C ~ B.
~ Note the use of rule of parallelogram (equivalently, tail-to-
~ = (−2, 1), B
head addition rule). Alternatively, vectors can be added by components: A ~ = (1, 2)
~ = (−2 + 1, 1 + 2) = (−1, 3).
and C

3
 For two vectors, ~a and ~b one can define their sum ~c = ~a + ~b with components

cx = ax + bx , cy = ay + by (2)

The magnitude of ~c then follows from eq. (1). Note that physical dimensions of ~a and ~b
must be identical.
Preview. Addition of vectors plays a key role in E&M in that it enters the so-called ”super-
position principle”.

4
 3. Two vectors: scalar (dot) product

If ~a and ~b make an angle φ with each other, their scalar (dot) product is defined as

~a · ~b = ab cos (φ)

or in components
~a · ~b = ax bx + ay by (3)

Example. See Fig. 1.

~ = (−2, 1), B
A ~ = (1, 2) ⇒ A
~ ·B
~ = (−2)1 + 1 · 2 = 0

(thus angle is 90o ).

~ and C
Example Find angle between 2 vectors B ~ in Fig. 1.

~a · ~b
General: cos θ = (4)
ab

In Fig. 1:
√ √ √
~ = (1, 2), C
~ = (−1, 3) ⇒ B =
p
B 12 + 22 = 5, C = (−1)2 + 32 = 10

(−1) · 1 + 3 · 2 1
cos θ = √ √ = √ , θ = 45o
5 10 2

A different system of coordinates can be used to evaluate ~a · ~b, with different individual
components but with the same result. For two orthogonal vectors ~a · ~b = 0 in any
system of coordinates. The main application of the scalar product is the concept of
work ∆W = F~ · ∆~r, with ∆~r being the displacement. Force which is perpendicular to
displacement does not work!
Preview. We will learn that magnetic force on a moving particle is always perpendicular
to velocity. Thus, this force makes no work, and the kinetic energy of such a particle is
conserved.

Example: Prove the Pythagorean theorem c2 = a2 + b2 .

5
 4. Two vectors: vector product

At this point we must proceed to the 3D space. Important here is the correct system of
coordinates, as in Fig. 2. You can rotate the system of coordinates any way you like, but
you cannot reflect it in a mirror (which would switch right and left hands). If ~a and ~b make
y x

z
z

x y

FIG. 2: The correct, ”right-hand” systems of coordinates. Checkpoint - curl fingers of the RIGHT
hand from x (red) to y (green), then the thumb should point into the z direction (blue). (Note that
axes labeling of the figures is outside of the boxes, not necessarily near the corresponding axes;
also, for the figure on the right the origin of coordinates is at the far end of the box, if it is hard
to see in your printout).

an angle φ ≤ 180o with each other, their vector (cross) product ~c = ~a × ~b has a magnitude

c = ab sin(φ)

The direction is defined as perpendicular to both ~a and ~b using the following rule: curl the
fingers of the right hand from ~a to ~b in the shortest direction (i.e., the angle must be smaller
than 180o). Then the thumb points in the ~c direction. Check with Fig. 3.
Changing the order changes the sign, ~b × ~a = −~a × ~b. In particular, ~a × ~a = ~0. More
generally, the cross product is zero for any two parallel vectors.
Ring Diagram:

6
FIG. 3: Example of a cross product ~c (blue) = ~a (red) × ~b (green). (If you have no colors, ~c is
vertical in the example, ~a is along the front edge to lower right, ~b is diagonal).


i

  
i x j =k
  
j xk = i
  
kx i = j
  
 i xk =- j , etc. 
k j

Suppose now a system of coordinates is introduced with unit vectors î, ĵ and k̂ pointing
in the x, y and z directions, respectively. First of all, if î, ĵ, k̂ are written ”in a ring”, the
cross product of any two of them equals in clockwise direction the third one, i.e.

î × ĵ = k̂ , ĵ × k̂ = î , k̂ × î = ĵ

etc.
Example. Fig. 1:
~ = −2î + ĵ , B
A ~ = î + 2ĵ

7
 ~ ×B
A ~ = (−2î + ĵ) × (î + 2ĵ) = (−2) · 2î × ĵ + ĵ × î =

= −4k̂ − k̂ = −5k̂

~×B
(Note: in Fig. 1 k̂ goes out of the page; the cross product A ~ goes into the page, as
indicated by ”-”.)
More generally, the cross product is expressed as a 3-by-3 determinant

î ĵ k̂
ay az ax az ax ay
~a × ~b = ax ay az = î − ĵ + k̂ (5)
by bz bx bz bx by
bx by bz
The two-by-two determinants can be easily expanded. In practice, there will be many zeroes,
so calculations are not too hard.
Preview. Vector product is most relevant to magnetism; it determines, e.g. the magnetic
force on a particle in a field, F~ = q~v × B
~ with q being the charge, ~v the velocity, and B
~ the

intensity of magnetic field at the location of the particle.

Example. See Fig. 1.
~ ×B
A ~ = k̂((−2)2 − 1 · 1) = −5k̂

8
 B. Advanced: Fields

So far we were dealing with scalars or vectors attributed to a single particle (or a single point, if
you prefer). Consider now a much more general situation when a scalar or a vector is attributed to
every point in space. This brings us to a concept of a field, scalar or vector, respectively. Field can
also depend on time. A good example of a scalar field is the temperature (or pressure) map which
you see in the weather forecast. Similarly, the velocities of the air flow (usually superimposed on
the same map) give a vector field.
2

1
H

-1
L

-2
-2 -1 0 1 2
2 2

1
H 1
H

0 0

-1
L -1
L

-2 -2
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2

Examples of scalar and vector fields: weather maps. Top - pressure field (scalar); lines connect
points with identical pressure. Lower: wind velocity fields; left - regular flow from high to lower
pressure, right - turbulent flow (note regions with non-zero circulation, ”tornadoes”). The left
~ of an electric dipole. The
maps are similar to those for potential V and electrostatic field E
type of the map on the right is encountered in time dependent fields, such as those which lead to
electromagnetic radiation.

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 1. Representation of a field; field lines

How to represent a field in a picture? For a scalar field the best way is to draw lines of
a constant level, e.g. lines with constant temperature every 10o C (another good example is a
topographic map which indicates levels of constant height. Try to sketch maps of a hill top, of a
crest and of a ”saddle”).
For a vector field graphical representation can be harder. The easiest approach would be to select
a large number of points in space and to draw vectors from each of them (see, e.g., the example
of gravitational field later in these notes). You might not always enjoy the picture, however, since
it will look too ”discrete”, while one feels that field should be continuous. A much better way is
to draw the ”field lines” - see Fig. 4. They give information about both magnitude and direction
of the vector field. Many non-trivial mathematical theorems about the field are easily justified
in terms of such pictures. Field lines also provide an enormous boost for physical intuition since
rather abstract vector constructions are replaced by simple, easy to understand pictures.

FIG. 4: Example of vector field lines. At each point the direction of vector field is tangent to the
line. The magnitude of the vector field at a given point is proportional to the density of lines.

2. Properties of field lines and related definitions

The condition that the magnitude of the vector field at a given point is proportional to the
density of lines, generally speaking, would require that some lines should be added or removed at
various places in the picture. Remarkably, however, for the fields we are going to consider this
happens only at some special points, and otherwise field lines run continuously. Points from which
lines start are often called ”sources”, and points where they vanish are ”sinks”.

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 ~ sources and sinks for field lines are positive and negative charges,
Preview. For electrostatic field E
respectively. Only there the lines can start or interrupt. (See the gravitational example below,
which is similar to a negative charge; a positive charge will have lines going out). There are
no magnetic charges in Nature, and thus magnetic field lines never start or end, but either loop
(around currents) or come and go to infinity.
Example. Gravitational field at any point ~r outside of a planet is defined as the ratio of a force
F~ on a probe to the mass of that probe, m. Show that this equals the gravitational acceleration
~g (~r). Sketch the vector field lines for the field ~g - see Fig. 5.

FIG. 5: Gravitational field around a planet. Left - representation by vectors, right - representation
by field lines. Since the density of lines determines the magnitude of field, the latter decays inversely
proportional to square of the distance from the center. The structure of this field is very similar
to the electrostatic field outside a negatively charged sphere.

Gravitational field is detected by a probe, but we need a quantitative feature which is indepen-
dent of the actual probe m:

Mm F~g M
F~g = −G 3 ~r , = −G 3 ~r = ~g
r m r

Here ~r is from the center of the planet to the observation point (do not need the probe anymore).
Similarly, can construct a scalar function, the gravitational potential.

Mm
Vg ≡ Ug /m = −G /m = −GM/r
r

Note
1 2
|Vg | = vesc , and |Vg | ≪ c2
2

11
 Dr. Vitaly A. Shneidman, Phys 121, 2nd Lecture

II. ELECTRIC CHARGE

A. Notations and units

Notations: q, Q or (special) e for the charge of an electron.

Units: C (coulombs). Very large! (Historically, C was introduced as A · s, with A being
the ampere, for current. Today it is more common to treat C as another fundamental unit,
which together with kg (kilogram), m (meter) and s (second) determines the SI system of
units. The ampere A is then derived as C/s).
Charge of an electron
e ≃ −1.6 · 10−19 C

In fact, this charge is quite appreciable and can be directly measured in the lab.

B. Superposition of charges

If several charges, positive or negative q1 , q2 , ... etc., are placed on a small particle, at
large distances that particle will act as a single charge with

Qtot = q1 + q2 + . . . (6)

C. Quantization of charge

The smallest charge is the charge of an electron, i.e. for any observable charge Q one
should have
Q/e = 0 , ±1 , ±2 , . . .

D. Charge conservation

In a closed system
Qtot = const (7)

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This is a fundamental Law of Nature, which is valid even if the number of elementary
particles is not conserved (as in nuclear reactions)!
Examples. Decay of a neutron into a proton and an electron (+ some kind of neutrino which
has no charge and is of little interest here):

n0 → p+ + e− + ν 0

Example Annihilation of the electron e− and a positron e+ :

e− + e+ = 2γ 0

13
 E. The Coulomb’s Law

If two charges q1 , q2 are separated by a distance r, the force between them is

q1 q2
F =k , k ≃ 9 · 109 N · m2 /C2 (8)
r2
with positive sign referring to repulsion and negative to attraction. The force acts along
the line connecting the two charges - see Fig. 6.
(some books write the product of absolute values of charges, to emphasize that F is the magnitude
of force, which is always positive. However, the form given by eq. (8) is correct, and has more
information as long as you know what it means).

FIG. 6: The Coulomb interaction between charges. Figures are drawn to scale, with radii of
charges being proportional to their magnitudes, and forces being proportional to predictions of the
Coulomb Law. Positive and negative charges are indicated by red and blue, respectively. Note
the following: (a) same charges repel each other, while opposite charges are attracted. (b) Forces
acting on each of the two interacting charge are the same in magnitude, even if charges are different
(otherwise the 3rd Law of Newton would be violated). (c) Forces become extremely large if the
two charges are very close to each other, even if both charges are small

If one really wants to be pedantic (e.g., when dealing with a computer which has a poor

sense of humor), the Coulomb’s law can be formulated in a vector form: If ~r12 is the vector

which points from charge 1 to charge 2 (with r = |~r12 |, as before), then the vector of force

F~21 which acts on charge 2 (and is due to interaction with charge 1) is given by

q1 q2
F~21 = k 3 ~r12 (9)
r

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 Example: check the above equation for a pair of charges from Fig. 6) [in fact, those
pictures were generated by a computer using eq. (9)].
The vector version of Coulombs Law is more convenient in large formal calculations with
many charges.

F. Superposition of forces

Consider a charge, let’s call it q0 which interacts with many other charges in the system,

q1 , q2 , ..., etc. Then the total force which acts on q0 is the vector superposition of individual

forces, i.e.
n
qi q0
F~0, net = F~01 + F~02 + . . . =
X
k 3 ~ri0 (10)
i=1
ri0
This is illustrated in Fig. 7 where the charge of interest, q0 is the one in lower right.

FIG. 7: The principle of superposition. The total force (black arrow in the picture) acting on a
given charge equals the vector sum of all three individual forces which act on this charge due to
its pairwise interaction with every other charge present in the system.

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 Example: Q = 2 µC, a = 1 mm. Find the force on the charge at the origin.
y, mm

1.0 q2=-Q

0.5

q0=-Q F01 q1=Q

x, mm
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

F0,Net
F02
-0.5

q √
2 2
F0 = F01 + F02 = 2 · F01

Q2 9 −6 2 −3 2 4
√
2 × 3.6 · 104 = . . .


F01 = k ≈ 9 · 10 2 · 10 /(10 ) = 3.6 · 10 N , F0 =
a2

Continuous qi : sum over ”all other charges” qi is replaced by a corresponding integral

(volume, surface or linear integral depending on the actual charge distribution).
X Z Z Z
→ dV , or dA , or dl

qi → ρdV , or σdA , or λdl

Here ρ, σ and λ are the volume charge density, surface charge density and linear charge
density, respectively, with units

[ρ] = C/m3 , [σ] = C/m2 , [λ] = C/m

16
 G. Reaction of a charge to electrostatic and other forces

Recall that the 2nd Law of Newton

F~ = m~a , or F~ = d~p/dt (11)

is valid for any force, whatever its origin. So, if m is the charge q0 and F~0, net is the total
electrostatic force acting on that charge, as in eq. (10), then the 2nd Law allows one to find
the acceleration ~a, as for any other particle. If other, non-electrostatic forces also act on the
charge, they should be just added to give the total force, and the 2nd Law will allow to find
acceleration.
Advanced: although we are talking about electrostatics, particles are permitted to move, albeit
not too fast. If they do move fast, with speeds comparable to the speed of light, the 2nd Law
in the above version need correction, and Coulomb’s also needs to be modified to account
for retardation. (Equivalently, magnetic fields due to particle motion must be included). In
addition, rapidly accelerating charges will emit electromagnetic waves, which are not part of
the story (yet).

17
 Example: Estimate the speed of an electron in a hydrogen atom with radius about 0.53 ·
10−10 m.

FIG. 8:

Solution: the centripetal acceleration a = v 2 /r is due to coulomb interaction between the

electron and the proton. Thus,
2
e2 9 (1.6 · 10
−19
) −8
F =k ≃ 9 · 10 2 ≈ 8.2 10 N
r2 (0.53 · 10 )
−10

From 2nd Law find the acceleration of the electron:

ae = F/me ≈ 8.2 10−8/(9.1 · 10−31 ) = . . .

with me being the mass of electron.

To find speed v use F = me ac
v2 e2
m =k 2
r r
(the heavy proton practically does not move). Or,
s
p 9 · 109 (1.6 · 10−19 )2
v = ke /(me · r) =
2 ...
9.1 · 10−31 × 0.53 · 10−10
(Check that it does not exceed speed of light!).
Acceleration of the proton:
me
ap = F/mp = a
mp
with mp ∼ 1.67 · 10−27 kg. Note: F - same (3rd Law !).

18
 What other forces can act on a charge? The answer depends whether we consider an
elementary charge or just a charged ”macroscopic” particle (which can be tiny on a human
scale, like a fine dust particle).
If the charge is elementary, there is only one other long range force which can act on it.
This is the force of gravity, Fg = m~g with ~g being the gravitational acceleration. (Nuclear
”forces” which can act on protons are of very short range, about 10−14 m, not of human
scale at all. They are also not ”forces” in the strict meaning of word, since they do not lead
to anything like the 2nd Law).
The gravitational interaction between 2 elementary charges is negligibly small (estimate!),
but if a charge interacts with a huge body, like a planet, the electrostatic and gravitational
forces can be comparable, as in the Millican experiment.
Discussion. Relation between the Coulomb’s Law and the Newton’s Law of gravitation

m1 m2
FG = −G
r2

with G ≃ 6.7 · 10−11 N m2 /kg 2 .

Compare to Coulomb’s law:
r −2 - same!
m1,2 - analogous to q1,2
BUT:
”-” in the formula AND m1,2 > 0
Compare forces between two electrons:

m2e e2
FG = −G , F e = k
r2 r2
FG Gm2e
∼
Fe ke2

FG 10−10−60
∼ ∼ 10−42
Fe 10 10−38

For a non-elementary charge one can introduce other forces, similarly to what is commonly
done in regular mechanics. For example, for two suspended light charged pit balls one can
discuss the tension force T~ as the third force which equilibrates the gravitational F~g and the

19
electric Fe forces (i.e., F~e + F~g + T~ = 0 if the system is in equilibrium - see example below. In
principle, tension is not a fundamental force but is also of electromagnetic origin, but this is
only in principle. In reality, one cannot predict the value of T from considering interactions
of elementary charges in the thread, and T must be deduced from measurements.
Advanced: There is a fundamental difficulty in E&M, What is the size of an electron? If it is
finite, there are enormous forces trying to break it apart (see Coulomb’s Law). Which forces prevent
it from breaking? (we do not know, and at the moment it seems impossible to introduce such forces
consistently, so that they satisfy relativity, conservation of energy and momentum, etc.). The other
option is that electron is an infinitesimal point, but then one encounters INFINITY(!) when the
center of the electron is approached. The latter is very hard to deal with, both mathematically and
conceptionally, but seems to remain the only option which is currently available.

20
 Example: In a Lab demo two light balls with m = 1 milli-gram each are suspended on
two massless threads with L = 1 m. When charged with equal negative charges Q the balls
separated by r = 2 cm . Find Q and the number of extra electrons on each ball.
y

θθ

L L

T

Fe
x

m
g

T~ + m~g + F~e = 0

Let sin θ = r/2L ≈ tan θ:

T sin θ − Fe = 0

T cos θ − mg = 0

Thus,
Q2
Fe = mg tan θ = k
r2
1/2
mgr 3


1/2
Q≈− ∼ 0.5 · 8 · 10−6+1−6−10
2kL
Advanced. Insufficiency of classical mechanics to get the size of an atom
Have [k] = N · m2 /C 2 , [e] = C, [m] = kg. Let us try to construct length:

[m] = [kg · m3 /s2 C 2 ]α [C]β [kg]γ

No solution! What to do? Need a new fundamental constant (Bohr). It is ~ ∼ 10−34 J · s (Plank’s
constant).
Extra credit (optional): estimate the size of an atom by adding ~ to previous dimensions.

21
 Example. A dust particle with m1 = 4 µg and q1 = 7µC is 3 cm away from another
particle with m2 = 8µg and q2 = 5µC. Find acceleration for each.

q1 q2 9 7 ∗ 10
−6
∗ 5 ∗ 10−6
F =k = 9 ∗ 10 = 350 N
r2 (3 ∗ 10−2 )2

F 350 m F
a1 = = = 8.75 ∗ 1010 2 , a2 = = 0.5a1
m1 4 ∗ 10 −9 s m2
In all examples below Q = 5.0 µC, q = 2.0 µC, distances (if given) are in mm; red is
positive , blue is negative. You need to find the resultant force on the black (positive)
charge q. y, mm
1.5

1.0

0.5

-Q q Q
x, mm
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

In the above r1 (from red) = r2 (from blue) = 1.0 mm. Forces on q add up:

Qq Qq Qq 9 5.0 ∗ 10
−6
∗ 2.0 ∗ 10−6
F =k + k = 2k ≃ 2 ∗ 9 ∗ 10 = 1.8 ∗ 105 N
r12 r22 r12 (1.0 ∗ 10−3 )2

y, mm
1.0

0.5

Q -2Q q x, mm
-2 -1 1 2

-0.5

-1.0

In the above r1 (from red) = 3.0 mm, r2 (from blue) ≃ 1.2 mm. Forces subtract and resul-
tant is towards left:
   
2Qq Qq 2 1 9 −6 −6 2 1
F = k 2 −k 2 = kQq 2
− 2 ≃ 9∗10 ∗5.0∗10 ∗2.0∗10 − =
r2 r1 r2 r1 (1.2 ∗ 10 )
−3 2 (3.0 ∗ 10−3 )2

= 1.15 ∗ 105 N

22
 Let L = 3.0 cm. Find x so that F = 0 (figure no to scale!).
q Q -2Q
x L

In the above r1 (from red) = x and r2 (from blue) = L + x. Forces subtract:

Qq 2Qq 1 2 L+x
k =k , or 2 = and x = √
x2 (L + x) 2 x (L + x) 2
2
√ √ L 3.0 cm
2 x = L+x, x( 2−1) = L and x = √ ≃√ = 7.2 cm (to the left of the smaller charge)
2−1 2−1

Directions only

L L

-Q 2

Q

1.5

1.0
q

0.5

2Q -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -Qx

2Qq Qq Qq
F =k 2
− k 2
= k 2
≃ 4.5 ∗ 104 N
r1 r1 r1

23
 Example. Integration. A charge Q = 2 nC is uniformly distributed along a plastic half
ring with R = 3 cm. Find the force which acts on a charge q = 0.5 nC at the center.
dQ

dθ

Solution. From symmetry only Fx 6= 0.

 
Rdθ 1
dFx = kq ∗ Q ∗ ∗ cos θ
πR R2
π/2
1 1 2
Z
π/2
Fx = dθ ∗ kqQ cos θ = kqQ ∗ sin θ| = kqQ
−π/2 πR2 πR2 −π/2
πR2

24
 Dr. Vitaly A. Shneidman, Phys 121, 3rd Lecture

III. ELECTRIC FIELD

A. Field due to a point charge

1. Definition and units

Consider the Coulomb’s law, eq. (9), but now we treat the charges unequally. The 1st
charge is the primary charge, just q, the second charge is a probe , a small charge with a
value q0 . The law can now be written as

q · q0
F~0 = k 3 ~r
r
with F0 being the force which acts on the probe and ~r pointing from the primary charge
towards the location of the probe.
Now consider the following ratio

q
F~0 /q0 = k 3 ~r
r

The most remarkable fact about this expression is that it does not depend on the probe!
Thus, the ratio is a characteristic of the charge q only, but not of q0 . It deserves a name -
~ (~r). The units however, are derived
the electric field at point ~r and a standard notation E
h i
from the known ones: E ~ = N/C (and later we learn that this is the same as V/m, volts
per meter). Explicitly, one has for a field due to a point charge q

~ = k q ~r
E (12)
r3

or, without vectors

q
E=k (13)
r2
with positive sign indicating that field goes away from the charge and negative sign indicating
a field going towards the charge, if it happens to be negative. r is just the distance from
charge q to the observation point, and we do not need the probe at this point anymore(!)

25
 2. Vector Fields and Field Lines

~ (~r) is defined for any point in space around q. Instead of showing the
The vector E
vectors, however, it is much more convenient to depict the field lines (see the Introduction).
Such lines have the property that their tangent coincides with the direction of a vector at
a given point. Since E~ always points away from the positive charge (towards a negative

charge), for a single charge the field lines will be just straight lines, as in Fig. 9. Note that
positive and negative charges serve, respectively, as ”sources” and ”sinks” for the field lines.

FIG. 9: Vector fields (upper row) and electric field lines (lower row) due to single point charges.
Note that the field becomes infinitely strong when a charge is approached.

26
 B. Field due to several charges

1. Definition and force on a charge in a field

~ (~r) as
Similarly to the field of a single charge, in a general case one can introduce field E
a ratio of the force which acts on a small probe placed at ~r to the magnitude of the probe.
(After that, the probe does not matter).
~ is assumed to be known at a given
In practice, this definition is often reversed. Field E
point, and one is asked to find the force on a charge q which is placed there (the charge may
or may not be called ”probe” in this case). From the definition one has

F~ = q E
~ (14)

Note that if the charge is negative (blue), the force is opposite to the field. If the blue
object has mass m and is to be balanced against force of gravity:

qE = mg

Example. In an oil drop experiment a small droplet with mass m = 1.5 µg (micro-gram)
has 100 extra electrons. Find the direction and magnitude of the electric field which would
balance the droplet against gravity. (Ans. E = 7.7 V/m, down. Solution in class).

27
 Example. A massless string with a light charged pith ball at the end is placed in a uniform
horizontal electric field E. Find the angle which the string makes with the vertical. The
mass of the pith ball is m and the charge is q. (Solution in class).

T~ + m~g + F~e = 0

−T sin α + Fe = 0

T cos α − mg = 0

Thus,
mg tan α = Fe = qE

2. Superposition of fields

Since the force obeys the superposition principle, the latter is also valid for the fields. The
~ at a given point is determined by a vector sum of contributions of individual
total field E
charges

~ =E
E ~1 + E
~2 + . . . (15)

~ 1, E
The fields E ~ 2 , etc. are determined by eq. (12) with ~r replaced by a vector pointing from

a corresponding charge to the observation point.

28
 Example Field due to a dipole. We will consider the observation point equally distanced
from both charges, as in fig. 10. The distance between charges is d and the distance from
each charge to the observation point is L. Both charges are identical in magnitude and equal
±q, respectively.
Let the two charges have respective coordinates ~r1 = (−d/2, 0) and ~r2 = (d/2, 0); the
~ 1 be the field
p
observation point is then located at ~r0 = (0, h), with h = L2 − d2 /4. Let E

o -r

r o-r 2
1
L L

r


d r2-r1

FIG. 10: Evaluation of a field due to a dipole. Left - from similar triangles. Right - from vectors.
As a reminder, a tiny probe is shown at the observation point, equally distanced from both charges.
In reality, there is nothing present at that point, just field.

from positive (red) charge and E ~ 2 field from the negative (blue) charge. The black horizontal
~ dip = E
field is their resultant E ~1 + E ~ 2 . From similar triangles

d
Edip /E1 = d/L ⇒ Edip = E1
L

kqd
From E1 = kq/L2 : Edip = (16)
L3
Advanced. Alternatively, we can use vectors and the superposition principle:

~ dip = E
E ~ 2 = kq ~r0 − ~r1 − kq ~r0 − ~r2 = kq {~r0 − ~r1 − ~r0 + ~r2 } = kq {~r2 − ~r1 }
~1 + E
L3 L3 L3 L3

29
which is a vector pointing to the right (from positive to negative, parallel to the dipole) with
the same magnitude.
y

1.0

y
0.5
x
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0

-0.5 x
0.5 1.0 1.5

-1.0
-0.5

-1.5

-1.0

FIG. 11: Picture of the dipole can be rotated.

Example. (a) Find the field from a dipole if the observation point and the charges form
an equilateral triangle with side a = 3.0 mm with the positive charge q = 1.0 nC on the
right, as in Fig 10. (b) The same, if the observation point is under the dipole with the same
distances from charges.
Solution.(a) Direction from left to right - see Fig. 10. Magnitude: d = L = a and

1
Edip = kqd/L3 = kq/a2 = 9 ∗ 109 ∗ 1.0 ∗ 10−9 = 1.0 ∗ 106 N/C
(3.0 ∗ 10−3 )2

(b) Magnitude - same, direction - same (always parallel to the axis of the dipole, from
positive to negative charges.)

30
 Another example. Same arrangement, but both charges are positive - Fig. 12.

L L

FIG. 12: Example of evaluation of a field due to two identical positive charges.

Now
~ =E
E ~ 2 = kq ~r0 − ~r1 + kq ~r0 − ~r2 = kq {~r0 − ~r1 + ~r0 − ~r2 }
~1 + E
L3 L3 L3
or
~ = kq {2~r0 − ~r2 − ~r1 } = kq (0, 2h) = 2kqh (0, 1)
E
L3 L3 L3
which is a vector pointing up.
In principle, the superposition principle allows one to reconstruct field due to any known
charge distribution. If charges are distributed continuously, one just needs to break the
distributed charge into small individual domains, and threat each of the as a point charge.
This leads to an integral instead of a sum in eq. (15), but otherwise it is the same idea. We
will later see how it works on examples.

31
 C. Electrostatic Field Lines (EFL)

In a general case the structure of field lines is more complex than for a single charge; in
particular they are not straight lines anymore. Nevertheless, some general properties can be
established:

~
• tangent to the EFL determines the direction of the electric field E

• density of EFL determines the magnitude of E

• EFL originate on positive charges

• EFL terminate on negative charges

• EFL can come and go to infinity

• EFL CANNOT start or end in empty space

• EFL CANNOT loop

• as a rule, EFL CANNOT cross

Looping is not allowed since it would contradict conservation of energy. At the point of
crossing of two lines it would be impossible to determine the direction of the field. (A
special case is the point of zero field; such points however, are extremely rare since all three
components of E ~ must go to zero at the same time).

1. Field lines due to a dipole

Generally, plotting field lines for several charges is not easy. Two things help. First,
directly near charges fields are so strong that other charges do not matter. It is a good
start. Second, in many problems there is some special symmetry which helps to understand
the structure of field.
Field due to a dipole - Fig. 13: Note that there are no points with zero field.
Field due to two identical charges - Fig. 14: There is one point where the field is zero.
For nonsymmetric arrangements, plotting of a field is a work for a (good) computer. For
example, in Fig. 15 there are field of two non-equal charges:

32
 -2

-1

2
-2
-1
0
1
2

FIG. 13: Electric field lines due to a dipole.

-2

-1

2
-2
-1
0
1
2

FIG. 14: Electric field lines due to 2 positive charges.

D. Continuos charge distribution

General:
1D : q → λ dx , [λ] = C/m

2D : q → σ dA , [σ] = C/m2

3D : q → ρ dV , [ρ] = C/m3

33
 2 2

1 1

0 0

-1 -1

-2 -2

-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2

FIG. 15: Electric field lines due to two non-equal charges with the positive charge on the left being
3 times larger. The smaller charge is negative (left figure) and positive (right)

Example. Field from a uniformly charged line at a point (red) equally distanced from
the ends

Contribution of the selected (blue) fragment

~ =k λ dx λ dx
~r = (−x, y) , dE ~
r = k 3 (−x, y)
r3
p
x +y
2 2

Then, Z Z
Ex = dEx = 0 (from symmetry), Ey = dEy

If the line is infinite

∞
dx
Z
Ey = kλy p 3
−∞ x2 + y 2
Introducing dimensionless integration variable w = x/y
kλ ∞ dw 2kλ
Z
Ey = √
3 =
y −∞ w2 + 1 y

34
 Example. Field from a uniformly charged line at a point (red) with distance D from the
end, along the rod

Introduce X = L/2 + D-distance of the red point from the center. Contribution of the
selected (blue) fragment
dE = kλdx/(X − x)2
L/2 L/2
1
Z
2
E= dx kλ/(X − x) = kλ
−L/2 X −x −L/2
 
1 1 kλL
= kλ − =
D D+L D(D + L)

35