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Chemistry Unit 01 - Atomic Structure

Exam Aid - Right path to “A” in Chemistry

Discoveries and inventions

● Golf ball model - John Dalton
● Electron name - Johnston G Stoney
● Cathode tube - Sir William Crooks
● Electron - JJ Thomson
● Plum pudding model - JJ Thomson
● e/m ratio of cathode rays - JJ Thomson
● Oil Drop experiment - Robert Milikan
● Charge of an electron - Robert Milikan
● Proton - Eugene Goldstein*
● Radioactivity Henri Becquerel
● Alpha beta gamma rays - Ernest Rutherford
● Positive rays canal rays - Eugene Goldstein
● Gold foil experiment - Ernest Rutherford
● Nucleus of the atom - Ernest Rutherford, Johannes Hans Wilhelm Geiger, Ernest Marsden
● Neutron - James Chadwic
● Bohr model/Rutherford-Bohr model/Planetary model - Niels Bohr*
● Mass spectrometer - JJ Thomson, Francis William Aston
● Number of positive charges in an atom increases by single electron units (Atomic number concept)
Henry Gwyn Jeffrey Moseley
● Energy is quantized - Max Planck
● Photon - Albert Einstein
● De Broglie wavelength - Louis de Broglie
● Paulie's exclusion theory - Wolfgang Paulie
● Periodic table - Dimitri Ivonawich Mendeleev, Lothar Meyer
*According to the resource book

e p n Units

9.10x10-31 1.63x10-27 1.6749x10-27 kg

Mass 0.000546 1.007276 1.008665 u/Da/amu

1/1837 1 1 Relative

Charge -1.602x10-19 +1.602x10-19 0 Coulomb

-1 +1 0 Relative

e/m 1.76x108 9.82x104 0 C/g

*It is not necessary to memorise masses of atomic particles in u. But it is important to calculate the masses
of subatomic particles in unified atomic mass units.
 Alpha Beta Gamma

Similar to He nucleus(24He2+) Electron Electromagnetic

radiation

Relative Mass 4 1/1837 0

Relative Charge +2 -1 0

Ionisation ability 1 2 3

Penetration ability 3 2 1

Speed 3 2 1

De Broglie Equation Energy of a Photon

λ = de Broglie wavelength E = Energy of a photon

h (Planck constant) = 6.626x10-34 J s ν = Photon frequency
m = mass of the particle c = speed of light = 3x108 m/s
λ = wavelength
v = velocity of the particle
p = momentum of the particle

Dalton's atomic theory

1. Elements are made of extremely small indivisible particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and size but the atoms of one element are
different from the atoms of all other elements.
3. Atoms of one element cannot be changed into atoms of a different element by chemical reactions;
atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
4. Compounds are formed by union of two more atoms of different elements in a simple numeric ratio.
Dalton's atomic model - Golf ball model(solid sphere)

Properties of cathode rays

● Travel in straight lines-cast Shadow with sharp edges when an opaque object is placed in its path.
● Cathode rays have a mass and process kinetic energy - can rotate a light paddle wheel
● Deflected towards the positive plate in an electric field, in magnetic field deflection of cathode rays is
similar to the deflection of a negative particle in a magnetic field.
● Nature of cathode rays does not depend on the nature of gas in the discharge tube.
● e/m ratio is constant
Properties of Anode Rays
● Travel in straight lines - cast a shadow when an opaque object is placed in their way.
● Process mass and kinetic energy - can you can move a light paddle wheel in their path
● Deflect towards the negative plate in an electric field. Deflects in the same direction as a positive
particle deflects in a magnetic field.
● Nature of positive rays depends on the gas inside the discharge tube. Therefore your e/m ratio
changes according to the gas inside.
JJ Thomson's atomic model - Plum pudding model. (Atom is like a plum pudding. Electrons are denoted by
plums and negatively charged, rest of the atom is positively charged.)

Rutherford's gold foil experiment

Observations
● Majority of the alpha particles penetrated through the foil without any deviation.
● Few alpha particles deflected with large angles
● Very few alpha particles reflected back.
Conclusions
● Most of the atom must be empty space
● Atom's positive charges are concentrated in the nucleus, a dense central core within the atom.
Rutherford's atomic model contains a nucleus and deduced electrons reside in the empty space around the
nucleus.

Niels Bohr's atomic model: Planetary model (atoms revolve around the nucleus in orbits known as energy
levels)
Nucleons - Particles found in the nucleus (protons and neutrons)
Nuclide - nucleus of an atom
*Nucleons reside in the nuclide.

● Atomic number: Number of protons in an atom

● Mass number: Total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
● Isotopes: Atoms with identical atomic numbers but different mass numbers.
● Atomic mass scale: Mass of exactly 1/12 of an chemically unbound 12C isotope.
● Average atomic mass= Σ[(isotope mass)x( fractional isotope abundance)]
● Relative atomic mass: Ratio of the average atomic mass of atoms of an element to the unified atomic
mass unit.
● Electromagnetic radiation: Synchronised oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at
the speed of light through a vacuum.
● Wavelength: distance between two adjacent peaks or troughs.
● Frequency: Number of complete cycles that pass a given point in a second.
● Electromagnetic spectrum: Display of electromagnetic radiations arranged in order of increasing
wavelength.
● Quantization of energy: energy is released or absorbed by atoms only in discrete quantities of some
minimum size.
● Photon: a piece of energy with no mass and movers at the speed of light, acts like a particle and has
momentum.
● Wave particle duality: possession of both wavelike and particle like properties at the same time.
● De Broglie wavelength: wavelength at which certain particles behaves as a wave and a particle
(applicable to all matter)
Hydrogen spectrum

Series Region of spectrum n(n final) Excited Energy Levels

Lyman Ultra Violet 1 2,3,4,...

Balmer Visible 2 3,4,5,...

Paschen Infrared 3 4,5,6,...

Brackett Infrared 4 5,6,7,...

Pfund Infrared 5 6,7,8,...

Violet 410 nm

Blue 434 nm

Blue-Green 486 nm

Red 656 nm
 Quantum numbers: show the address of an electron inside an atom.
1. Principal quantum number (n) - energy level of an electron
2. Azimuthal/angular momentum quantum number (l) - shape of the orbital
n≤(l-1)
I=0 ; s orbital (spherical shape)
l=1 ; p orbital (dumbbell shape)
l=2 ; d orbital
l=3 ; f orbital
Number of orbitals = Number of energy levels (n)
3. Magnetic quantum number (ml) - Orientation of the orbital(number of orbitals in a subshell)
(-l ≤ ml ≤ +l)
Total l = 2n+l
Every suborbital can have a maximum of two electrons

l ml

0-s 0

1-p -1. 0, +1

2-d -2, -1. 0, +1, +2

3-f -3, -2, -1. 0, +1, +2, +3

4. Spin quantum number ( ms) - electron spin [ +½ & -½ ]

● Degenerate orbitals - orbitals with same energy (orbitals in different orientations of same orbital shape in
certain energy level; 3d, 2p etc)
● Electron configuration exceptions (Written in condensed electron configuration)
24Cr - [Ar] 3d⁵ 4s¹
10
29Cu - [Ar] 3d 4s¹
● Elements with completely filled or half field sub energy levels are relatively more stable than other
electronic configurations.
●
Fe2+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6
*Although the number of electrons of Fe2+ is equal to that of chromium atoms, electronic configuration is not
the same.

● Aufbau principle: filling of electrons in an atom begins

with the subshell lowest energy and continuous
upwards.
●
● Hund's rule: For degenerate orbitals the lowest energy
is attained when the number of electrons having the
same spin is maximised.
●
● Pauli's exclusion principle: No two electrons in an atom
can have the same set for quantum numbers.
Group Name

1 Alkali metals

2 Alkaline earth metals

16 Chalcogens

17 Halogens

18 Noble gases/Rare gases/Inert gases

● Shielding effect: repelling effect that inner core electrons have on outer valence electrons and
their resulting decrease in the attraction felt by valence electrons from the nuclear charge (Z)
● Effective nuclear charge(Zeff): Amount of attraction excited on valence electrons by the nucleus.
Zeff = #P - #core e Zeff < Z
● Electronegativity: ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself.
● Electron gain energy(ΔEEG): energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous
atom.

● Electron affinity(EA): change in energy when the anion of an element loses an electron in the
gaseous phase.
ΔEEG = -EA
● Ionization energy: minimum energy required to remove an electron from the ground state of the
isolated gaseous atom or ion
Property Along a period(left to right) Down a group

Shielding Effect Increases Decrease

Atomic Radius Decrease Increase

Atomic Radius of Cations Decrease Increases

Atomic Radius of Anions Increases Increases

Electronegativity Increase Decrease

Electron Gain Energy Less Positive More Positive

Electron Affinity More Positive Less Positive

Ionization Energy Increases Decrease(I1)

.
● Isoelectronic series: Group of ions or atoms containing the same number of electrons.
Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < Ne < F-< O2- < N3- (Radius)
● In N (1s22s22p3) ΔEEG is positive because N-((1s22s22p4) forms a less stable structure (half
filled orbitals are more stable). Same scenario in Be(1s22s2). Be- forms (1s22s22p1)

(-) Energy Released

(+) Energy Absorbed

Electronegativity