Explosives

Explosives

This module presents information pertaining to the

classification and properties of explosive products
used in surface coal mines and quarries.
 Chemistry of Explosives
Explosives are chemical mixtures or compounds that, when subjected to heat, impact, or shock,
are capable of undergoing a rapid decomposition that releases heat and gases, which, in turn,
expand to form high pressures.

Detonation occurs when the rate of chemical decomposition is greater than the speed of sound;
deflagration occurs when the reaction rate is slower than the speed of sound. “High explosives”
detonate, whereas “low explosives” deflagrate or burn.
A high-explosives detonation
provides both shock, which
fractures (or breaks) the rock, and
force (in the form of gas
products), which heaves and
displaces the fractured rock.

All explosives are mixtures that

include carbon, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and oxygen, along with
other additives that affect or provide
special properties (for example,
density, viscosity, and water
resistance).
 Chemistry of Explosives
Detonation forms two types of gas products:

• Harmless gases, which include:

• H2O (as water vapor),
• CO2 (carbon dioxide),
• N2 (nitrogen),
• NH4 (ammonia), and
• CH4 (methane), and

• Gases that are potentially toxic, which include:

• CO (carbon monoxide),
• NO (nitric oxide),
• N2O (nitrous oxide), and
• NO2 (nitrogen dioxide).

Oxygen Balance
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) form dark
When the explosive mixture in a blasthole contains the correct brown fumes after a coal-mine cast blast.
amount of oxygen, and the explosives’ physical properties as
designed have not been altered by anything1 that would degrade their quality, no toxic fumes are produced, and the
energy released by the reaction is a maximum. This condition is referred to as oxygen-balanced. With an oxygen-
balanced mixture, there is sufficient oxygen to oxidize all of the ingredients necessary to produce H2O, CO2, and N2.

Oxygen imbalance can occur for a variety of reasons. (See the “Blasthole Loading” module.)
____________________
1
Many factors can cause an explosive to degrade. For example, water in a borehole can corrupt an
explosive like ammonium-nitrate fuel oil, which isn’t water-resistant (ammonium nitrate is hydroscopic and will dissolve
in water). In a deep borehole, pressure in the bottom can alter an explosive’s density by causing micro-balloons to be
crushed. Shock waves from detonating boreholes can dead-press (squeeze out tiny air bubbles from or collapse glass
micro-balloons in) explosives in the holes that have not yet detonated.
 Classification of Explosives
There are many ways to classify explosives.

One is to think of mixtures as part fuel or sensitizer and part oxidizer (or something that
provides oxygen to the fuel). Examples of fuels and sensitizers, as well as oxygen source,
are:

Fuels (or sensitizers) + Oxidizers (oxygen source) = Ñ EXPLOSIVES Ò

fuel oil (FO) ammonium nitrate (AN)

carbon calcium nitrate
aluminum sodium nitrate
trinitrotoluene (TNT)
cyclonite (RDX)
smokeless powder
aerating agents
micro-balloons
 Classification of Explosives
The Bureau of Alcohol Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) defines explosives as:

Low explosive (LE) = an explosive material that can be caused to deflagrate (burn) when
unconfined;

High explosive (HE) = an explosive material

that can be caused to detonate with a No. 8
blasting cap when unconfined; and

Blasting agent (BA) = a mixture consisting of a

fuel and oxidizer, intended for blasting but
black
otherwise not an explosive (cannot be detonated
powder
with a No. 8 blasting cap). fuse
40-45 mm
The makeup of a standard-test No. 8 cap, of the sort 1.2-gram
used as a detonator in the blasting industry, is shown secondary
to the right. explosive

0.3-gram
HE’s that can be detonated directly with a No. 8 cap primary
are called cap-sensitive. explosive

BA’s that cannot be detonated directly with a No. 8 cap

are called cap-insensitive or non-cap-sensitive.
7 mm
 Classification of Explosives
The following three categories comprise generic types of explosives (specific types of explosives
are addressed later on in the module):

LE’s HE’s BA’s

dynamites gelatin semi- binary ANFO

black dynamite gelatins
straight blends
powder
dynamite straight
gelatin water gels,
ammonia slurries
dynamite ammonia
gelatin emulsions

It is worth noting that water gels, slurries, and emulsion products can be formulated to produce
either (1) cap-sensitive HE’s—by adding sufficient amounts of HE sensitizers—or (2) BA’s—by
omitting such sensitizers. Note as well that BA blends are usually mixtures, in varying
percentages, of ammonium-nitrate fuel oil (ANFO) and emulsion.
 Explosive Properties
Density Gassing agents
added to
Density is normally expressed in terms of explosives (V1, to
specific gravity or mass divided by volume, the left) can
as follows: selectively
decrease the
grams/cubic centimeter = g/cm3 = g/cc. density of
emulsion-blend
(Note that the convention here is typically products (V2,
to use the metric [g/cc] rather than the below) in the
imperial [g/cm3] measurement system. blasthole. (Note,
This is because the density of water in as well, that the
metric units is 1.0 g/cc; by using the volume of V2 is
metric unit, a comparison can be made also increased as
between the explosive and water.) compared with
that of V1.)
Explosives with bulk densities less than 1.0
V1
g/cc may not readily sink in water, whereas
explosives with densities greater than 1.0
g/cc should sink in water, including standing
blasthole water.
V2
Two types of density are important:
• package and
• free-running product.
 The Two Types of Density
Package Density

The density of an explosive as packaged in a cartridge or

tube at the mixing plant (1) is set by formulation and does
not change (unless the package is broken during loading)
and (2) must be greater than the density of that same
explosive in the blasthole. If air gaps are introduced around
the explosive when loading its cartridge or tube into a
blasthole, its charges may decouple.

Bulk Density

The bulk density of a free-running explosive poured

from a bag or bulk-loading truck is improved with
good coupling along the side of the blasthole. The
density is somewhat modified by the particle sizes
and fall height of the mix.
 Explosive Properties
Loading Density

An explosive’s loading density (LD) is defined

as the weight of explosive per unit length of
borehole at a specified hole diameter.
Expressed in pounds per foot, LD is computed
as:

LD (lbs/ft) = 0.3405 ρ D2

where D is the borehole drilled diameter in

inches and ρ is the explosive density in g/cm3. L
W
The LD value may also be computed by
dividing the total explosives charge weight
loaded into a hole (W) by the length of the
loaded hole (L), thus:

LD = W/L.

Knowing the LD of an explosive is typically of

greatest use in the field.
 Explosive Properties
Water Resistance

The ability of an explosive product to withstand exposure to

water without either losing power or becoming desensitized is
termed that explosive’s water resistance. Water resistance is
generally expressed as the number of hours a product may
remain submerged under water and still reliably detonate.
Manufacturers rate resistance to water as good to poor. Many
commercial explosives are mixed with the prospect of their
potential exposure to water in mind.

The detonation energy of ANFO mixtures that have been

exposed to water in blastholes is far less than that of such
mixtures placed in dry holes.

On the other hand, blasting agents manufactured with

water as part of their ingredients may have excellent
water-resistance properties. The same is true for
explosives packaged to protect the ingredients from water
intrusion.

Water-resistance ratings are available from

manufacturers of explosives and should be used as a
guideline when selecting explosives for rock blasting.
 Explosive Properties
Fume Class

Fume class is a measure of the amount of toxic gases, primarily CO and NOx, produced by the
detonation of an explosive. Most commercial blasting products are oxygen-balanced to minimize the
fumes and optimize the energy they release. Fumes are an important consideration in confined
spaces—for example, tunnels and shafts—and should be considered under surface-blasting scenarios
where fumes could travel offsite and impact nearby residential areas.

Any factor that may change the chemistry of an explosive during detonation (such as the balance of
fuel to oxidizer) has the chance to upset the oxygen balance designed for the mixture. Such factors
can include:

• Insufficient charge diameter,

• Inadequate priming,
• Improper delay timing,
• Water deterioration, and
• Plastic borehole liners or paper wrappers.

MSHA, the Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME), and the former U.S. Bureau of Mines have
developed fume-classification or rating tests, in laboratory settings, for explosives used in underground
metal and coal mines. Many of these tests do not necessarily scale to surface-blasting situations. In
surface mines, blasting may produce a variety of fumes that include NOx (which is orange in color) and
CO (which is colorless).

If gases are of concern at any surface-blasting operation, samples may be taken and tested by trained
specialists.
 Explosive Properties
Flammability

As a Measure of an Explosive’s Fire or Blast Hazard When Subjected to Flame

The ease with which an explosive or BA can be ignited and/or detonated when subjected to heat either confined or
unconfined is termed that explosive’s flammability. For purposes of classification, the Department of Transportation,
explosives manufacturers, and the military have developed many ignition, burn-rate, and detonation tests.

Some commercial explosives with high fuel content may readily ignite and burn. In confined spaces, burning may
lead to detonation. ANFO and water-based explosives such as water gels and emulsions are more difficult to ignite
in the open. A blaster who has any explosives-flammability concerns MUST discuss them with the
explosives’ manufacturer(s).

As a Measure of an Explosive’s Capacity to Create Fire

from an Open Flame Carried by Its Detonation

Years ago, permissible explosives were developed for use in

underground coal and other gassy mines. Permissibles were
formulated with salt to lower their flame temperatures and
prevent gas explosions. Today, in surface coal mines,
detonating cord and other devices that carry an open flame are
still used to fragment thick coal. As a consequence, because
coal is a fuel source, detonation flames may lead to localized
combustion within detonated coal seams. However, because
such resultant fires are typically small, this situation presents
merely as a nuisance in that time must be taken to extinguish
the fires if they occur. Detonating cord
used to fragment coal.
 Explosive Properties
Temperature

Extremely low temperatures can affect the performance of water-based explosives, the
ingredients of which can solidify and aggregate, thereby reducing the particle surface area
available for reaction. A lower performance results. At higher temperatures, the crystal
structure of AN can be affected, and a reduction of particle size can occur with crystal changes
(breakdown). Often, this change in crystal structure is progressive within a mix and over time.
Temperature fluctuations under this scenario can result in high density states at which the
explosive may no longer detonate.

Other temperature effects may include the burning (or deflagration) of mixtures that have been
subjected to the intense heating of pyrite oxidation, which is often associated with sulfur-
bearing metals and coal mines.

Shelf Life

The chemical stability and performance of explosives change with age. The extent of
instabilities and the rate of aging will depend upon the formulation and storage conditions of
the explosive; accordingly, modern explosive materials contain inhibitors and/or stabilizers
that lengthen their shelf lives. For example, certain military-type explosives are extremely
stable over a wide range of conditions for long periods amounting to virtually unlimited shelf
life. It is always best practice to store explosive materials so that common brands, sizes,
grades, and "Date-Plant-Shift" codes remain together and stocks can be rotated so that the
oldest materials are used first.
 Explosive Properties
Sensitivity

The term sensitivity, as it pertains to explosives, has two

meanings that may seem, on first consideration, to
contradict each other. The contradiction is resolved,
however, as follows:

The first meaning of the sensitivity as it relates to

explosives refers to various safety aspects and describes
the ease with which an explosive may be detonated or its
sensitivity to accidental detonation from shock, impact,
friction, electrostatic discharge, and heat. Numerous
laboratory and field tests (such as the pendulum test, which
uses the device to the right) have been developed over the
years to test shock, heat, and friction sensitivity.

The second meaning has to do with sensitiveness or an explosive’s ability to propagate. In this
sense, the amount of energy (usually from heat and shock) required to reliably produce a detonation
determines an explosive’s sensitivity. Sensitivity under this definition can be measured in a number
of ways. Two tests that are most applicable to commercial explosives are:

• Cap sensitivity, which measures the ability of an explosive to be detonated with a

standard No. 8 cap; and
• Gap sensitivity, which measures the ability of a detonation to propagate across a space—
termed a “separation gap”—between two charges that have been placed adjacent to each
other.
 Explosive Properties
Strength

The measure of an explosive’s energy, on both a weight and a volume basis and calculated or measured
using field tests, is termed that explosive’s strength. Strength is related to density and detonating velocity, as
well as the heat and gas volume the explosive liberates upon detonation; this value can be calculated, or it
can be measured using a variety of tests (for example, the ballistic-mortar, underwater-bubble, the cratering,
and the strain-pulse tests). These tests can identify relative measures of blasting performance for trial
explosive mixes. However, they do not provide accurate measures of the total energy available in any given
borehole to do the work intended (i.e., to fragment and displace rock).

The total energy released from the detonation of explosives includes both useful energy (the energy that
actually fragments and displaces rock) and wasted energy (heat, light, ground vibrations, and airblast). The
efficiency of an explosive to do useful work varies from application to application and is dependent on
formulation, borehole diameter, environmental loading conditions, and confinement.

Based on tests or computer calculations, explosives manufacturers rate explosives energy in either
kilocalories (Kcal) per unit weight or Kcal per unit volume, as follows:

• Absolute Weight Strength = the heat of reaction available in each gram (weight) of explosive,
whereas
• Absolute Bulk Strength = the heat of reaction available in each cubic centimeter (volume) of
explosive.

Data are also available—for heat of reaction for explosives relative to ANFO—as the standard of comparison:

• Relative Weight Strength = the heat of reaction per unit weight of an explosive as compared with
ANFO; or
• Relative Bulk Strength = the heat of reaction per unit volume of an explosive as compared with
ANFO.
 Explosive Properties

Detonation Velocity
emulsions
CS slurries
The detonation velocity of 20,000

Detonation velocity (confined) ft/sec

an explosive is the speed
at which the detonation,
once it achieves a steady
15,000
state, travels through the
explosive.

This value is a function of 10,000

emulsion
formulation, density, CS slurries
borehole diameter, primer semigelatin
size, and confinement. 5,000 dynamites
non-CS slurry
ANFO prills
The figure to the right ANFO HD
shows generalized 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
relationships between
borehole diameter and Borehole diameter (in.)
detonation velocity for
various explosive types. CS = cap-sensitive.
 Explosive Properties

Detonation Pressure

The pressure associated with a detonation moving through an explosive, measured in kilobars (kbar) or
pounds/in2 (psi), is defined as detonation pressure. Detonation pressure is a function of detonation velocity
and density, computed using computer models. Approximating formulas, like the one that follows, are
available:

P = 0.2322 x ῤ x V2 x 10-6,

where V = detonation velocity (ft/sec),

ῤ = specific gravity (g/cm3),
P = detonation pressure (kbars), and
1 kbar = 14,504 psi.

Detonation pressure is chiefly responsible for the intense rock shearing near a borehole; such pressure for
commercial explosives ranges from 25 to over 240 kbar (that is, from 0.36 x 106 to 3.48 x 106 psi).

Borehole Pressure

The pressure exerted on borehole walls by the expanding gases of a detonation, after the chemical reaction
has been completed, is defined as borehole pressure. Borehole pressure is a function of confinement and
the quantity and temperature of the gases of detonation; it is generally considered to play the dominant role
in displacing rock during blasting.

Borehole pressures of the gas products expanding in the borehole roughly equal 45 to 50 percent of the
detonation pressure.
 Review Question

1. Compute the detonation pressure for a product with a detonation velocity

of 16,000 ft/s and a density of 1.2 g/cm3.
 Answer

1. An approximation formula for detonation pressure tells us that:

P = 0.2322 x V2 x ῤ x 10-6

Calculating using the values in our question,

0.2322 x (16,000)2 x (1.2 g/cm3) x 10-6 = 71.33 kbars.

Converting to psi, 71.33 kbar x 14,504 psi/kbar = 1.03 x 106 psi.

 Explosives and BA’s

LE’s HE’s BA’s

black dynamites gelatin semi- binary ANFO

powder dynamite gelatins
straight blends
dynamite straight
gelatin water gels,
ammonia slurries
dynamite ammonia
gelatin emulsions
 Nitroglycerine-Based Explosives
Nitroglycerin-Based HE’s

Nitroglycerin-based (NG-based) HE’s are classified according to grade or

weight strength in terms of the relative percentage of NG and other fuels they
contain. NG-based explosives are very sensitive.

The oldest of the HE’s to be classified as NG-based is dynamite, which was

developed by Alfred Nobel over 130 years ago. Over the years, NG has been
replaced with increasing quantities of AN.

Today, there are three basic types of dynamite: granular, gelatin, and semi-
gelatin. Densities among these types can range from 0.8 to 1.7 g/cm3,
detonation velocity from 6,500 to 25,000 ft/s, and detonation pressure from 9.7
to 190 kbar.

Weight strength (as a percentage of NG)

Straight1 dynamite 50

Extra2 (or ammonia) dynamite (AN replaces NG) 40-60

Straight gelatin 20-90

Extra (or ammonia) gelatin 40-60
Semi-gelatin, extra only (this is a combination of ammonium
Variable.3
dynamite and ammonium gelatin)
1
“Straight” in this context refers to the absence of ammonia formulation.
2
“Extra” means that AN is added to replace part or all of the NG.
3
The weight strength of semi-gelatins typically varies. Semi-gelatins cost less than gelatins, provide
moderately high detonation pressures, and demonstrate adequate water-resistance for most conditions.
 Explosives and BA’s

LE’s HE’s BA’s

black dynamites gelatin semi-gelatins binary ANFO

powder dynamite
straight blends
dynamite straight
gelatin water gels,
ammonia slurries
dynamite ammonia
gelatin emulsions
Classification of BA’s

BA’s are either dry (free-

running; shown to the left) or
wet (pourable; shown to the
right). Wet BA’s are formulated
with water to achieve a density
greater than 1.0.

Dry BA’s are not formulated with water.

 Dry BA’s: ANFO

ANFO

Dry BA’s comprise blasting-grade prilled AN (as the oxidizer), of grain sizes between
1 to 2 millimeters in diameter and porosity between 8 to 12 percent, onto which is
absorbed diesel oil (FO, as a fuel).

Ammonium Nitrate + Fuel Oil = ANFO

To achieve oxygen balance, the ANFO

mixture should have:

• 94-percent AN and
• 6-percent FO.

Today, ANFO is the most widely used

1–2 mm
explosive in the blasting industry,
because it is relatively inexpensive and
safe to handle.
 Dry BA’s: ANFO

Explosive-grade prills are made in a prill tower in

Prill tower ~ 200 feet tall which a hot, supersaturate AN liquid (4-percent
water)—along with other additives to achieve
spray nozzles porosity—is dropped from spray nozzles at a
height of 100 to 200 feet against an updraft of
warm air.
droplets of
supersaturated Droplets of the AN solution crystallize as they fall;
AN solution the longer the droplets are suspended, the larger
the prill diameters.
crystallized
The crystallized AN particles are then completely
AN
dried and coated with surfactants and clay to
minimize porosity and protect the surface from
updraft of absorbing water in preparation for fuel absorption.
warm air
Porosities range from 8 to 12 percent, whereas
solid-grain densities range from 1.3 to 1.5 g/cm3.
Particle sizes range from 0.83 to 2.3 mm in
diameter. By comparison to explosive-grade
prills, agricultural-grade prills are less porous (3-
to 5-percent porosity) and far more dense.
 Dry BA’s: ANFO

Packaged in 50-pound bags or bulk-loaded from trucks, ANFO has

properties as follows:

• Bulk density = 0.82 - 0.95 g/cm3,

• Detonation velocity = 10,000 - 14,500 ft/sec, and
• Detonation pressure = 20 - 25 kbar.

Advantages of ANFO

The advantages of ANFO are:

• It is cheap;
• It is easy and safe to manufacture; and
• It may be handled in bulk to save costs.

Disadvantages of ANFO

The disadvantages of ANFO are:

• It is not water-resistant;
• Its density is low;
• It is non-ideal reacting; and
• It is not cap-sensitive and must be initiated with a primer.
 Wet BA’s: Water Gels and Slurries
A water-gel or slurry explosive is a gelatinous aqueous solution that consists of an oxidizer, such as AN, and a fuel.
Typically, the fuel will contain additional dispersed solid oxidizers, fuels, and sensitizers such as aluminum or other
explosives. Wet-BA fuel may also contain micro-balloons (hollow bubbles of glass). The difference between a
slurry and water gel is that water gel is made water-resistant by the addition of a cross-linking or chemical-bonding
agent; a slurry, on the other hand, is water-resistant (formulated to be miscible in water) by nature.

Packaged in plastic tubes or bulk loaded from trucks, solid AN oxidizer

wet BA’s exhibit properties as follows:
1 - 2 mm solid fuel*
3
• Bulk density = 1.0 - 1.35 g/cm ,
• Detonation velocity = 13,000 - 19,000
ft/sec, and
• Detonation pressure = 50 - 100 kbar.
gel ring
Advantages of Water Gels

Water gels exceed slurry explosives in that (1) they

are an excellent product for wet holes and (2) the
density of a water gel can be controlled.

Disadvantages of Water Gels

Water gels are less effective than slurry explosives Liquid phase of oxidizer,
(1) at low ambient temperatures and (2) if the water, fuels (air bubbles)
supersaturated solution of AN crystallizes, causing an
imbalance of oxidizers and fuels in their two phases
(that is, in their solid and liquid forms). *An example of a cap-sensitive solid fuel is TNT; an
example of non-cap-sensitive solid fuel is aluminum.
 Wet BA’s: Emulsions
Emulsions

Emulsions are “water-in-oil” mixes that were developed in the early 1960’s to improve the
performance of water gels. They amount to hot solutions of oxidizer salts (consisting of
ammonium, AN, calcium, CN or sodium, SN, and nitrates) mixed with oil and an emulsifying
agent. The oil phase usually consists of diesel fuel and/or mineral oil that include micro-
balloons as sensitizers.

The oxidizer solution is broken up into small, micron-

sized droplets, which form a discontinuous phase
within the continuous oil phase.
5μ
The small size of the liquid-nitrated salt particles
provides a large surface areas-to-volume ratio that
amounts to more fuel being placed in intimate contact
with the oxidizer. This, in turn, allows for a very fast
detonation rate and a powerful explosive.
=
Packaged in plastic tube or bulk-loaded from trucks,
emulsions exhibit properties as follows: liquid oxidizer (AN)
surrounded by liquid fuels
and sensitizers
• Bulk density = 1.15 - 1.45 g/cm3,
• Detonation velocity = 14,500 - 18,500
ft/sec, and
• Detonation pressure = 100 - 120 kbar.
 Emulsions

Advantages of Emulsions

• Owing to their very small particle

size, emulsion ingredients can achieve
a very uniform mix.

• Emulsions are extremely water-

resistant.

Disadvantages of Emulsions

• Over time (with long shelf life), salt

crystals may grow and/or oil migrate in
an emulsion, allowing the AN liquid-
phase droplets to join and create larger
droplet sizes whose bulk surface areas
are smaller. Under such a scenario,
less oxidizer would be in contact with
the fuel and the sensitivity of the
emulsion would decrease.

• Emulsions are expensive.

 ANFO/Emulsion Blends
Blends (or heavy ANFO’s) are mixtures of emulsions and ANFO
that are typically non-cap-sensitive. As a rule, the ratio of emulsion
(or other water-based explosive or oxidizer matrix) to ANFO in such
blends ranges as follows:

Percentage
Emulsion ANFO -
20 80
Water-
40 60
resistance
50 50
60 40
80 20
+
Packaged in plastic tube or bulk-loaded from trucks, ANFO/emulsion blends exhibit properties as follows:
• Bulk density = 1.15 - 1.30 g/cm3,
• Detonation velocity = 16,700 - 17,500 ft/sec, and
• Detonation pressure = 40 - 55 kbar.

Advantages of Blends
Blends increase the density of ANFO, which increases the energy in the borehole; they also provide
water-resistance to ANFO.

Disadvantages of Blends
Over time, fuels may migrate and salt crystals may grow increasingly insensitive.
 Explosives and BA’s

LE’s HE’s BA’s

black dynamites gelatin semi-gelatins binary

ANFO
powder dynamite
straight
blends
dynamite straight
gelatin
ammonia water gels,
dynamite ammonia slurries
gelatin
emulsions
 Binary Explosives

Binary, or two-component, explosives are formed by mixing or combining two commercially

manufactured prepackaged chemical ingredients that consist of oxidizers and flammable
liquid or solid fuel. Individually, neither component is classified as an explosive; however,
when mixed together, the two components constitute a cap-sensitive HE.
The unmixed ingredients for binary explosives are not subject to transportation
requirements applicable to Class-1 hazardous materials, and they do not need to be stored
in an approved, licensed (or
permitted) explosive-storage
magazine. Binary explosives
are popular with blasters who
only occasionally need to use
explosives and who do not
have available magazine
storage.
A typical binary explosive is
considered to be equivalent in
strength to a 60-percent
dynamite containing no NG.
Binary explosive are normally
packaged in rigid plastic
cartridges and plastic-coated
aluminum foil pouches.
 Boosters and Primers

Boosters and primers are used to initiate non-

cap-sensitive BA’s that are not HE’s.
However, it is critical to remember that these
agents are themselves HE’s: boosters and
primers can be initiated by a No. 8 blasting
cap, as well as with detonating cord and
other initiating devices.

Cast pentolite boosters, shown above,

contain a mixture of pentaerythritol
tetranitrate (PETN) and TNT. The typical
formulation contains 50-percent PETN
and 50-percent TNT, but some
manufacturers’ brands may contain as
high as 60-percent PETN.
Primers shown to the right are blasting-
gelatin HE’s.
 Boosters and Primers
What is the difference
between a booster and a
primer?

A primer is a booster (cast or

packaged HE) in which a
detonator has been inserted.

A booster, on the other hand,

does not contain a detonator;
rather, as its name suggests,
it “boosts” the explosive
energy in a column.
Boosters are generally cap-
sensitive HE’s that are
initiated by adjacent primers
or detonating BA’s.
Primers contain a A booster has no
blasting cap or cord. cap or cord.
Boosters may be used (1) in
blastholes that are wet at the
bottom, (2) when excess toe NOTE THAT THESE DIAGRAMS do not necessarily show
burden exists, or (3) within a correct methods to secure caps or cord; the diagrams are
hard geological strata. for definition purposes only!
 Boosters and Primers

Non-cap-sensitive
explosive

Booster

Blasting cap
Cap-sensitive primer
 The Safe Handling of Boosters
Boosters are HE’s, and, as such, they need to be handled with care:

• ALWAYS read and follow the warnings and instructions of

explosives’ manufacturers and suppliers.
• ALWAYS retire to a safe place and WARN OTHERS before
initiation of explosives.
• ALWAYS rotate stocks. Use the oldest units in your inventory
first. Age affects the integrity of detonators and other explosives
devices.
• ALWAYS transport, store, and use cast boosters and all other
explosives in accordance with all Federal, State, and local laws.

• ALWAYS dispose of or destroy cast boosters and all other

explosives in accordance with approved methods. Consult the
manufacturer or follow the IME statement of policy publications.

• ALWAYS evacuate personnel to a safe location away from possible

detonation or explosion, in the event of a lighting storm during surface
use of these products.

• ALWAYS keep explosive materials away from unauthorized persons.

• ALWAYS look for misfires and handle suspected misfires as you are
directed by applicable local, State, and Federal laws and under the
standards provided by the IME.
 The Safe Handling of Boosters—continued
• ALWAYS ensure that the detonator or detonating cord is properly inserted into the booster and secured in
such a manner to prevent it from falling out as the primer is being loaded into the blasthole.

• ALWAYS use the proper core-

loading detonating cord to
ensure reliable initiation of the • NEVER use a cast primer or
booster selected. Consult the booster if the hole for the
manufacturer for proper detonator or detonating cord is
product selection. too small.

• NEVER enlarge a hole in a cast

primer or booster to accept a
detonator or detonating cord.

• NEVER prepare more primers

than are immediately needed.

• NEVER prepare primers in a

magazine or near large
quantities of explosives.

• NEVER slit, drop, twist, or tamp

a primer.

• NEVER force or attempt to force a detonator into a cast booster.

• NEVER use detonating cord for priming with any booster marked “USE DETONATOR
ONLY.” Misfires could result.
 Review Questions and Discussion
1. Cap-sensitive explosives are classified as:
a. Wet blasting agents
b. High explosives
c. Low explosives
d. Ammonium nitrate

2. Reddish-orange smoke after a blast signifies the presence of:

a. Carbon monoxide
b. Water vapor
c. A good blast
d. Oxides of nitrogen

3. What is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and diesel fuel oil called?

4. Ammonium nitrate is:

a. An oxidizer
b. A sensitizer
c. A fuel
d. Poisonous gas

5. True or false: the detonation energy of ANFO will not be lowered when it is loaded into wet
blastholes.
 Review Questions and Discussion—continued
6. The optimum mixture of ANFO contains what percentage of “AN” and what percentage
of “FO”?

7. If you encounter blastholes that are wet, which product(s) should you use (list all that
apply)?
a. Blast powder
b. 20-percent emulsion/80-percent ANFO blend
c. 100-percent ANFO
d. Emulsion

8. The detonation velocity of ANFO in large-diameter holes is:

a. 5,000 ft/s
b. 500 ft/s
c. 14,500 ft/s
d. 21,000 ft/s

9. The causes of reddish orange smoke include (list all that apply):
a. Wet holes
b. Lack of confinement
c. Insufficient amount of fuel
d. A shock compression of explosives that changes their densities
 Answers

1. b. is correct.

2. d. is correct.

3. ANFO

4. a. is correct.

5. False.

6. 94-percent AN and 6-percent FO.

7. d. is correct.

8. c. is correct.

9. All apply.