A Level Computing Module
A Level Computing Module
A Level Computing Module
A LEVEL
COMPUTING
STUDY MODULE
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
Architecture refers to the structure of the processor and how computer components are related to each
other.
The processor
• Can be referred to generally as Central Processing Unit (CPU) which is responsible for fetching,
decoding and executing of all computer instructions.
• It is commonly called the brain of the computer
• Computers cannot work without the processor
Co-Processor
This is an additional processor used for a specific task and improves processing speed by executing jobs
concurrently, e. g. maths co-processor
Maths Core-Processor: an additional processor which works alongside the main processor, capable of
processing large representations using large size registers, particularly used for floating point calculations
Processor Performance
The traditional processor’s performance is affected by these four main components:
(a) Clock Speed
- The processor contains a timing device known as the clock. It determines the timing of all operations.
- This sends out signals at a given interval, and all processes within the computer will start with one of
these pulses.
- A process may take any amount of time to complete, but it will only start on a pulse.
- It therefore makes sense that a processor with a faster clock speed will perform faster, since more
pulses will be sent out in the same time frame.
- A faster clock increases the speed of the processor and/or memory but not the peripherals
- The clock speed is generally quoted in factors of Hertz, with modern processors typically Gigahertz.
- A wider address bus will increase the number of memory addresses a computer may use.
- For example an 8 bit bus will only allow a value between 0 and 255 to be transmitted at a time.
(d) Architecture
- The architecture of a processor will affect its performance,
- A better designed processor will perform better than a different processor.
The main components of the processor are:
- ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
- Control Unit (CU)
- Registers
- System Clock
2. Control unit
It manages the execution of instructions by running the clock.
It coordinates and controls all operations of computer system.
It also called the supervisor of the computer. It performs the following:
- Fetches the next instruction to be executed
- Decodes instructions
- Manages execution of instructions
- Executes decoded instructions
- Uses control signals to manage rest of processor.
- It carries out the Fetch-Execute Cycle as illustrated below:
(c) Registers:
- This is a high-speed storage area in the CPU used to temporarily hold small units of program
instructions and data immediately before, during and after execution by the CPU.
- It is a small amount of storage available on the CPU whose contents can be accessed more quickly
than storage available elsewhere
- Registers are special memory cells that operate at very high speed. They provide the fastest way for
a CPU to access data.
- The CPU contains a number of registers and each has a predefined functions
- Most modern computer architectures operate by moving data from main memory into registers,
operate on them, then move the result back into main memory
- Register size determines how much information it can store
- The size of register is in bytes: i.e., can be one, two, four or eight byte register
- The processor contains a number of special purpose registers (which have dedicated uses) and
general purpose registers (which may be used for arithmetic function and are a sort of “working
area”)
- The main types registers (special purpose registers) found in the Von Neumann Machine are as
given below:
program counter
memory address register
memory data register/memory buffer register
current instruction register
index register
- this register is automatically incremented so that it always holds the memory address of the
next instruction
- Keeps check of whereabouts the next program is in the memory.
- After one instruction has been carried out, the PC will be able to tell the processor
whereabouts the next instruction is.
- The PC is also called the Sequence Control Register (SCR) as it controls the sequence in which
instructions are executed.
- During program execution, the PC:
stores the address of the next instruction to be executed
Its content is incremented after the address is read
Its content is altered to specific address if instruction is a jump instruction
Memory Data Register (MDR) also called Memory buffer register (MBR)
• This is used to store data which has been read from or is ready to write to memory. All transfers
from memory to CPU go through this buffer
• It acts like a buffer and holds anything that is copied from the memory ready for the processor to
use it
• It contains data written into memory or receives data read from memory
Index register
It is a register used for modifying operand addresses during program execution,
Flags Register: Used to record the effect of the last ALU operation
Fetch
The PC stores the address of the next instruction which needs to be carried out
As instructions are held sequentially in the memory, the value in the PC is incremented so that it
always points to the next instruction.
When the next instruction is needed, its address is copied from the PC and placed in the MAR
The data which is stored at the address in the MAR is then copied to the MDR
Once it is ready to be executed, the executable part if the instruction is copied into the CIR
Decode
The instruction in the CIR can now be split into two parts, the address and the operation
The address part can be placed in the MDR and the data fetched and put in the MAR.
Execute
The contents of both the memory address register and the memory data register are sent together
to the central processor. The central processor contains all the parts that do the calculations, the
main part being the CU (control unit) and the ALU (arithmetic logic unit), there are more parts to
the central processor which have specific purposes as well.
The ALU will keep referring back to where the data and instructions are stored, while it is
executing them, the MDR acts like a buffer, storing the data until it is needed
The CU will then follow the instructions, which will tell it where to fetch the data from, it will read
the data and send the necessary signals to other parts of the computer.
Load the address that is in the program counter (PC) into the memory address register (MAR).
Increment the PC by 1.
Load the instruction that is in the memory address given by the MAR into the MDR
Load the instruction that is now in the MDR into the current instruction register (CIR).
Decode the instruction that is in the CIR.
If the instruction is a jump instruction then
Load the address part of the instruction into the PC
Reset by going to step 1.
Execute the instruction.
Reset by going to step 1.
The first step simply places the address of the next instruction into the memory Address Register so that
the control unit can fetch the instruction from the correct part of the memory. The program counter is
then incremented by 1 so that it contains the address of the next instruction, assuming that the
instructions are in consecutive locations.
The memory data register is used whenever anything is to go from the central processing unit to main
memory, or vice versa. Thus the next instruction is copied from memory into the MDR and is then copied
into the current instruction register.
Now that the instruction has been fetched the control unit can decode it and decide what has to be done.
This is the execute part of the cycle. If it is an arithmetic instruction, this can be executed and the cycle
restarted as the PC contains the address of the next instruction in order. However, if the instruction
involves jumping to an instruction that is not the next one in order, the PC has to be loaded with the
address of the instruction that is to be executed next. This address is in the address part of the current
instruction, hence the address part is loaded into the PC before the cycle is reset and starts all over again.
Memory Unit
Is the computer memory that temporarily stores the operating system, application programs and data
currently use.
It used to store the following:
Program instructions in current use;
Data in current use;
Parts of Operating System that are currently in use.
Some architectures have a Memory Unit (Main memory) which has two types: RAM and ROM.
Buses
A bus is a pathway through which data and signals are transferred from one device to another.
They are a set of parallel wires connecting two or more components of the computer.
Buses can be internal or external.
Buses can be generally referred to as system bus and this connect the CPU, memory and I/O
devices.
Each bus is a shared transmission medium, so that only one device can transmit along a bus at any
one time.
Multiple devices can be connected to the same bus
Diagram
Data and control signals travel in both directions between the processor, memory and I/O
controllers.
Address, on the other hand, travel only one way along the address bus: the processor sends the
address of an instruction, or of data to be stored or retrieved, to memory to an I/O controller.
- Data bus:
Used for carrying data from memory to the processor and between I/O ports.
Comprises of either 8, 16, 32 or 64 separate parallel lines
Provide a bi-directional path for data and instruction’s between computer components. This
means that the CPU can read data from memory and input ports and also send data to memory
and output ports.
The width of the bus determines the overall system performance. For example, if the data bus
is 8 bits wide, and each instruction is 16 bits long, then the processor must access the main
memory twice during each instruction cycle
- Address bus:
Used for transferring memory addresses from the processor when it is accessing main
memory
They are used to access memory during the read or write process
The width of the address bus determines the maximum possible memory capacity of the
computer.
This a uni-directional bus (one way). The address is send from CPU to memory and I/O ports
only.
- Control bus:
The purpose of the control bus is to transmit command, timing and specific status information
between system components. Timing signals indicate the validity of data and address
information. Command signals specify operations to be performed. Specific status signals
indicate the state of a data transfer request, or the status of request by a components to gain
control of the system bus
This is a bi-directional bus used for carrying control signals (Signals can be transferred in both
directions).
They carry signals to enable outputs of addressed port and memory devices
Control signals regulate activities on the bus.
Control buses transmit command, timing and status information between computer
components.
Typical control signals are:
Memory Read
Memory Write
I/O Read
I/O Write
Interrupt Request
Interrupt Grant
Reset
Ready hold
etc
Timing signals: indicate validity of data and information.
Command signals: Specify operations to be performed
Status signals: Indicate state of data transfer request or status of a request.
INTERRUPTS
Interrupt: it is a signal generated by a device or software, which may cause a break in the execution of the
current routine
An interrupt is a signal send to the processor by a peripheral or software for attention to be turned to that
peripheral/software, thereby causing a break in the execution of a program, e.g. printer out of paper.
Control is transferred to another routine and the original routine will be resumed after the interrupt
Interrupt Service Routine (Handler): a small subprogram that is calld when an interrupt occurs and it
handles the interrupt.
Interrupt priorities
Interrupts have different priorities
This is important if two interrupts are received simultaneously the processor for it to decide which one is
more important to execute first.
There are four levels of priority, which are (highest priority order):
- Hardware Failure: can be caused by power failure or memory parity error.
- Program Interrupts: Arithmetic overflow, division by zero, etc
- Timer Interrupts: generated by the internal clock
- I/O Interrupts:
Interrupt Handling
At the end of each Fetch-Execute cycle, the contents of the interrupt registers are checked.
Should there be an interrupt; the following steps will typically be taken:
a) The current fetch-decode-execute cycle is completed
b) The operating system halts current task
c) The contents of the PC and other registers will be stored safely in a stack.
d) The highest priority interrupt is identified. Interrupts with a lower priority are disabled.
e) The source of the interrupt is identified.
f) The start address of the interrupt handler is loaded into the PC.
g) The interrupt handler is executed.
h) Interrupts are enabled again, and the cycle will restart with any further interrupts.
i) The PC and other registers are “popped” from the stack and restored.
j) The user’s program resumes with the next step in its cycle.
- When dealing with an interrupt, the computer has to know which interrupt handler to call for which
interrupt.
- One method of doing this is known as the vectored interrupt mechanism.
- In this approach a complete list of interrupts and the memory address of their handler is stored in a
table called the interrupt vector table.
- The interrupt supplies an offset number, which identifies the interrupt uniquely.
- This offset is added to a base term, and the resultant number is the memory address of a pointer to the
memory location of the handler routine.
- This is explained in the example below:
- If the interrupt 002 is received, the base number 5000 is added to it, which allows the processor to
know that the handler can be found by opening the data stored at address 5002.
- The address 5002 simply stores a pointer to another memory location, 6280, where the actual handler
routine begins.
- The advantage of this approach is that each interrupt only needs to give the processor an offset
number, such as 002, and the processor can determine from that the correct memory location to use.
This is more efficient than the interrupt sending the full memory address itself. This approach also
allows the interrupt routines to be stored anywhere in the memory, with the pointer table updated to
reflect if a handler routine is moved.
Types of interrupts
Input / output interrupt e.g. disk full, printer out of paper, etc. they are generated by the I/O devices
Interrupts generated by running process: process may need more storage or to communicate with the
operator
Timer interrupts: generated by the processor clock, e.g. control being transferred to another user in a
time sharing system
Program check interrupts: caused by errors like division by zero
Machine check interrupts: Caused by malfunctioning hardware.
Clock (happens normally in time sharing systems where the clock transfers control from one computer to
another.)
Sources of interrupts
- power failure/system failure
- peripheral e.g. printer (buffer empty)/hardware
- clock interrupt
- user interrupt e.g. new user log on request
- software
Vectored Interrupts
A specific number assigned to each interrupt is called an interrupt vector. Each interrupt is numbered.
Each interrupt vector is the one used to call the interrupt handler
Address of interrupt service routines are stored in an array (known as interrupt dispatch table) and the
interrupt vector is used as a subscript to this array.
Buffer
- Buffer: This is a temporary memory store for data awaiting processing or output, compensating
speed at which devices operate, for example printer buffer.
- A buffer is a memory in the interface between two devices which temporarily store data which is
being transmitted from one device to another
- A buffer is a small amount of fast memory outside the processor that allows the processor to get on
with other work instead of being held up by the secondary device.
- The buffer is necessary if the two devices work at the different speed
- Buffering is appropriate where an output device processes data slower than the processor. For
example, the processor sends data to the printer, which prints much slower and the printer does
not need to wait for the printer to finish printing in order for it to carry out the next task.
- It therefore saves the data in a buffer where it will be retrieved by the printer.
- Buffering usually match devices that work at different speeds, e.g. processor and disk.
- Sometimes a device is already busy in executing some instructions.
- Example: there are three printing jobs, the printer can print only one job at a time. The OS sends
the next two jobs in buffer, a process which is also known as Spooling
- Buffers are a main component of Memory
- The printer buffer is one of the most common type of buffer.
Use of buffers and interrupts in the transfer of data between primary memory and hard disk.
Buffer is temporary storage area for data
Data transferred from primary memory to buffer (or vice versa)
When buffer full, processor can carry on with other tasks
Buffer is emptied to the hard disk
When buffer empty, interrupt sent to processor requesting more data to be sent to buffer.
Works according to priorities
Cache Memory
- A cache is a small and very high speed memory used to speed up the transfer of data and
instructions, doubling the speed of the computer in some cases.
- It can located inside or close to the CPU Chip
- it is placed between the CPU and the main memory.
- It stores frequently or most recently used instructions and data
- It is faster than RAM
- The data and instructions that are most recently or most frequently used by CPU are stored in
cache memory.
- it is used to increase the speed of processing by making current programs and data available to
the CPU at a rapid rate
- CPU processes data faster than main memory access time, thus processing speed is limited
primarily by the speed of main memory.
- It compensates the speed difference between the main memory access time and processor
logic.
- It is used to increase the speed of processing by making current programs and data available to
the CPU at a rapid rate.
- The cache thus used for storing segments of programs currently being executed in the CPU and
temporary data frequently needed in the present calculations
-
- The amount of cache memory is generally between 1kb and 512kb
Diagram A Diagram B
• The von Neumann architecture allows instructions and data to be mixed and stored in the same
memory module and the contents of this memory are addressable by location only. The execution
occurs in a sequential fashion.
• Von Neumann architectures usually have a single unified cache
• The Von Neumann machine had five basic parts:- (i) Memory (ii) ALU (iii) control unit (iv) Input
equipment & (v) output equipment: as shown below
• In the first clock cycle the processor gets the instruction from memory and decodes it. In the next
clock cycle the required data is taken from memory. For each instruction this cycle repeats and
hence needs two cycles to complete an instruction
• Pipelining the instructions is not possible with this architecture.
• A stored-program digital computer is one that keeps its programmed instructions, as well as its
data, in read-write, random access memory (RAM), that is the Von Neumann computer. This makes
the machines much more flexible.
• By treating those instructions in the same way as data, a stored-program machine can easily
change the program, and can do so under program control.
• Once in the computer’s memory a program will be executed one instruction at a time by
repeatedly going through
• In the vast majority of modern computers, the same memory is used for both data and program
instructions.
Advantages
- Almost all data can be processed by the von Neumann computer
- Cheaper than alternative types of processing
- Its design is very simple
Disadvantages
- Slower than other architectures
- Limited by bus transfer rate
- Does not maximise CPU utilisation
- Poorly written programs can have their data mixed up as both data and instructions share the
same memory
Harvard architecture.
Diagram A Diagram B
Stores instructions and data in separate memory, thus has physically separate storage for data and
instructions
Has separate data and instruction buses, allowing transfers to be performed simultaneously on
both buses.
Data and instructions are treated separately
May employ pipelining. Efficient Pipelining - Operand Fetch and Instruction Fetch can be
overlapped.
Harvard Architecture have a system would have separate caches for each bus.
Using a simple, unified memory system together with a Harvard architecture is highly inefficient. Unless it
is possible to feed data into both busses at the same time, it might be better to use a von Neumann
architecture processor.
Disadvantages
System clock
• It is an electronic component that generates clock pulses to step the control unit through its
operation.
• This sends out a sequence of timing pulses or signals, which are used to step the control unit
through its operations.
• It generates electric signals at a fast speed
• It controls all functions of computer using clock ticks
• These ticks of system clock are known as clock cycle and speed of CPU
• The speed at which the CPU executes instructions is called clock speed or clock rate.
• It generates a continuous sequence of clock pulse to step the control unit through its operations
Serial Processing
Each instruction is executed in turn until the end of the program.
Advantages
- Nearly all programs can run on serial processing and therefore no additional complex code can
be written.
- All data types are suitable for serial processing
- Program can use the previous result in the next operation
- Data set are independent of each other
- Cheaper to handle than parallel
Disadvantages
- Slows data processing especially in the Von Neumann architecture (bottleneck)
- Too much thrashing especially with poorly designed programs
Parallel Processing
- Parallel processing is the ability of a computer system to divide a job into many tasks which are
executed simultaneously, using more than one processor, thus allowing multiple processing.
- Multiple CPUs can be used to carry out different parts of the fetch-execute cycle.
- The computer is able to perform concurrent data processing to achieve faster execution time.
- The system may have two or more ALUs and be able to execute two or more instructions at the
same time.
- It may also have two or more processors operating concurrently
- The objective is to increase throughput
- Mostly applies to Single Instruction Single Data computer (SISD)
- Supercomputers utilizing parallel processing are used to maintain the safety.
- Scientists are using parallel processing to design computer-generated models of vehicles.
- Airlines use parallel processing to process customer information, forecast demand and decide
what fares to charge.
- The medical community uses parallel processing supercomputers.
NB:-
- Instruction Stream:-the sequence of instructions read from memory
- Data stream: operations performed on the data in the processor
Parallel processing occurs in the instruction stream, the data stream or both.
(a) Single Instruction Stream, Single Data Stream (SISD) – Instructions are executed sequentially
and parallel processing can be achieved by multiple functional units or by pipelining.
(b) Single Instruction Stream, Multiple Data Stream (SIMD)- includes multiple processing units
with a single control unit. All processors receive the same instruction but operate on different data
(c) Multiple Instruction Stream, Single Data Stream (MISD) – Involves parallel computing where
may functional units perform different operations by executing different instructions on the same
data set
(d) Multiple Instruction Stream, Multiple Data Stream (MIMD) – processor capable of processing
several programs at the same time
- Each processor can rapidly access its own memory without interference and without the overhead
incurred with trying to maintain cache
2. Pipeline Processing
It is a technique which allows the overlapping of the fetch-decode-execute cycle for different
instructions.
A parallel processing architecture in which several processors are used, each one doing a different
part of the fetch, decode, execute cycle, so the fetch-decode-execute cycle is staggered.
The processor is split up into three parts (fetch, decode, execute), each of which handles one of the
three stages.
Each part is called a line, where each single line is a pipeline.
This can be best illustrated with the diagram below.
As long as the pipelines can be kept full, it is making best use of the CPU. This is an example of single
instruction single data (SISD) processor, again it should be quite clear why, the processor is processing a
single instruction to a single bit of data.
In pipelining, three instructions are dealt with at the same time. This reduces the execution time
considerably.
However, this would only be true for a very linear program.
Once jump instructions are introduced the problem arises that the wrong instructions are in the pipeline
waiting to be executed, so every time the sequence of instructions changes, the pipeline has to be cleared
and the process started again.
A non-pipeline architecture is inefficient because some CPU components (modules) are idle while another
module is active during the instruction cycle. Pipelining does not completely cancel out idle time in a CPU
but making those modules work in parallel improves program execution significantly.
Processors with pipelining are organized inside into stages which can semi-independently work on
separate jobs. Each stage is organized and linked into a 'chain' so each stage's output is fed to another
stage until the job is done. This organization of the processor allows overall processing time to be
significantly reduced
ADDRESSING MODES
Each instruction specifies an operation on certain data.
The different ways in which a computer calculate addresses holding the source and/or destination of the
data being processed in a particular instruction is called addressing mode.
Op-code (operator):
- is the part that represent the operations that the computer can understand and carry out. It is the
mnemonic part of the instruction/that indicates what it is to do/code for the operation. They are
easier to remember. They can be represented by mnemonics which are the pseudo names given to
the different operations that make it easier. E.g. ADD.
Operand:
- it is the address field in an instruction that holds data to be used by the operation given in the
opcode, e.g. in ADD 12, “12” is the operand
- is the data to be manipulated, there’s no point telling the computer what to ADD if there’s no data
to apply it to. It can hold the address of the data, or just the data.
The data is what the operation is being applied to, there are a number of different ways in which this data
can be represented, and this is known as addressing.
Symbolic addressing: the use of characters to represent the address of a store location
The most common addressing modes are: direct, indirect, indexed, relative and immediate addressing.
1. Immediate Addressing
This is where the value to be used is stored in the instruction.
This is when the value in the instruction is not an address at all but the actual data (constant to be
used in the program).
The data to be operated on is held as part of the instruction format.
The data to be used is stored immediately after the op code for the instruction. Thus the operand
field actually contains the data
e.g: LDA #&80 : Means that Load the hexadecimal value of 80 into the accumulator register.
MOVE #8, R1: Moves the value 8 into register R1
Immediate addressing uses the # symbol.
This is very simple, although not often used because the program parameters cannot be changed.
This means that the data being operated on can’t be adjusted and only uses constants.
Can be used to initialize constants.
2. Direct Addressing
The address in the instruction is the address to be used to get to the operand.
The operand gives the address of the data to be used in the program.
It requires one memory reference to read the operand from the given location
The address given in the instruction is the one that contains the data to be used in the operation
without any modification.
It is also called memory addressing
e.g In the instruction ADD 23,
- we first go to memory address 23 which stores the instruction to be executed.
It provides only a limited address space
It is very simple, although does not make best use of memory
It is slow as too much memory is used
- It is MOSTLY used when access areas of memory that are not accessible using the space available
for the address in the instruction code
- using our example, ADD 23
- we go to memory address 23
- there we are given another memory address, e.g 32, where the actual instruction will be stored
- This method is useful because the amount of space in a location is much bigger than the space in
the address part of the instruction.
- It gives flexibility as the original program does not need to be altered if the position of the routines
(sub-programs) change.
- Therefore we can store larger addresses and use more memory.
- It is used where memory larger than can be accessed by address in instruction
- It is also used when one wants to allow full size of register to be used for address
- used if memory locations are 32 bits are used and thus allowing more memory to be accessed
- there is a problem that some areas of memory cannot be addressed because size of memory
address is larger than space available in instruction
- Indirect addressing solves this problem as the Memory address will fit in a memory location
Relative Addressing
- The same as Indexed Addressng except that the PC replces the Index Register.
- E.g Load Ri, X (PC)
- This loads register Ri with the contents of the memory location whose address is the sum of the
contents of the PC and the value X.
- This is direct addressing that does not commence from the start of the address of the memory.
- It begins from a fixed point, and all addresses are relative to that point.
- allows a real address to be calculated from a base address by adding the relative address
- relative address is an offset and can be used for arrays
- can be used for branching instructions
- it adds the PC contents to the base address to get the effective address
- it is appropriate when the code is going to be loaded at a random place in memory to be executed.
- Use to refer to jump instructions
Indexed Addressing
- The address part of the instruction is added to a value held in the index register.
- It is where the actual address is found by adding a displacement to the base address.
Questions
1. The Program Counter (Sequence Control Register) is a special register in the processor of a computer.
a) Describe the function of the program counter. (2)
b) Describe two ways in which the program counter can change during the normal execution of a
program, explaining, in each case, how this change is initiated. (4)
c) Describe the initial state of the program counter before the running of the program. (2)
2. Explain what is meant by the term Von Neumann Architecture. (2)
3. Describe the fetch/decode part of the fetch/decode/execute/reset cycle, explaining the purpose of any
special registers that you have mentioned. (7)
4. a) Describe how pipelining normally speeds up the processing done by a computer. (2)
b) State one type of instruction that would cause the pipeline system to be reset, explaining why such a
reset is necessary. (3)
5). Give 3 differences between the Von Neumann and the Harvard Computer architectures.
DATABASES
A database is a single organised collection of structured and related data, stored with minimum
duplication of data items so as to provide consistent and controlled data within an organisation.
Databases can be accessed using different application software.
Data stored in databases can be accessed by all system users, but with different access rights.
Databases are designed to meet the information needs of an organisation.
Database operations may include addition of new records, deletion of unwanted records,
amendments to existing records, creation of relationships between files and removal or addition of
fields of files.
Databases ensure controlled redundancy since redundancy cannot be wholly eliminated.
Database terms:
Entity: physical objects like person, patient or events on which information or data is being collected. It
can also be an abstract object like a patient record.
Attribute: individual data item within an entity; e.g. date of birth, surname.
Relationship: links between two different entities or relations (tables). E.g A student stays at Hartzell
High School. The entities here becomes student and Hartzell High School, of which the relationship
becomes stays
Data Dictionary:
It is a table holding information about a database
A file (table) with description of the structure of data held in a database
Used by managers when they modify the database.
Not visible to (used by) general users.
It maps logical database to physical storage
Allows existence checks on data to be carried out.
Stores details of data used, including the following
Name of data item (fields or variables)
Data type
Length
Validation criteria
Amount of storage required for each item
Who owns the data
Who accesses the data
Programs which uses the data
Flat file: Data stored in a single file (table), allowing simple structuring, e.g. spread sheet database file of
student records. Data is stored in rows representing records while columns represent fields. Thus data is
stored in a two dimensional format.
1. Relational databases:
These are database that organises data in a table format, consisting of related data in another file,
allowing users to link the files.
A table is collection of records stored using rows and column structure.
Each table is called a relation. A relation is a table with columns and rows.
It only applies to logical structure of the database, not the physical structure.
Each column represents an attribute (characteristic or field). Attribute is a named column of a relation.
It corresponds to a characteristic of an entity. They are also called fields.
Each row represents a record, as shown below.
Degree is the number of attributes in a relation.
Cardinality is the number of tuples in a relation
Each cell of relation contains exactly one atomic (single) value.
Each attribute has a distinct name.
Values of an attribute are all from the same domain. Domain is the set of allowable values for one
or more attributes.
Each tuple is distinct; there are no duplicate tuples.
Order of attributes has no significance.
Order of tuples has no significance, theoretically
Disadvantages
Substantial hardware and system software overhead
May promote “islands of information” problems
However, it may be difficult to come up with relationships.
Database Keys:
A simple key contains a single attribute.
A composite key is a key that contains more than one attribute.
A candidate key is an attribute (or set of attributes) that uniquely identifies a row. A candidate key
must possess the following properties:
Unique identification - For every row the value of the key must uniquely identify that
row.
Non redundancy - No attribute in the key can be discarded without destroying the
property of unique identification.
Super key: An attribute or a set of attributes that uniquely identifies a tuple within a relation. A
super key is any set of attributes that uniquely identifies a row. A super key differs from a candidate
key in that it does not require the non-redundancy property.
Primary key: It is a candidate key that is used to identify a unique (one) record from a relation. A
primary key is the candidate key which is selected as the principal unique identifier. Every relation
must contain a primary key. The primary key is usually the key selected to identify a row when the
database is physically implemented. For example, a part number is selected instead of a part
description.
Foreign key: A primary key in one file that is used/found in another file. Foreign key is set of fields
or attributes in one relation that is used to “refer” to a tuple in another relation. Thus it is a filed in
one table but also used as a primary key in another table.
Secondary Key: A field used to identify more than one record at a time, e.g. a surname.
*NB: Attribute: A characteristic of a record, e.g. its surname, date of birth.
Entity: any object or event about which data can be collected, e.g. a patient, student, football
match, etc.
These databases have links that are used to express relationships between different data items.
They are based on the principle of linked lists
Data is maintained by a single input.
There is little duplication of data.
There is no duplication of inputs.
Linkages are more flexible.
Many to many relationships to records are limited
Handles more relationship types
Promotes database integrity
treatment of both persistent data, as found in databases, and transient data, as found in executing
programs.
Benefits
OODBMS are faster than relational DBMS because data isn’t stored in relational rows and columns
but as objects. Objects have a many to many relationship and are accessed by the use of pointers,
which will be faster.
OODBMS is that it can be reprogrammed without affecting the entire system.
Can handle complex data models and therefore is more superior than RDBMS
Disadvantages
Pointer-based techniques will tend to be slower and more difficult to formulate than relational.
Object databases lack a formal mathematical foundation, unlike the relational model, and this in
turn leads to weaknesses in their query support.
Hardware
Can range from a Personal Computer to a network of computers where the database is run.
Software
DBMS software, operating system, network software (if necessary) and also the application programs.
Data
Includes data used by the organization and a description of this data called the schema. The data in
the database is persistent, integrated, structured, and shared.
Procedures
Instructions and rules that should be applied to the design and use of the database and DBMS. Procedures
are the rules that govern the design and the use of database. The procedure may contain information on
how to log on to the DBMS, start and stop the DBMS, procedure on how to identify the failed component,
how to recover the database, change the structure of the table, and improve the performance.
People:
Users or people who operate the database, including those who manage and design the database
Objectives Of DBMS
The main objectives of database management system are data availability, data integrity, data security,
and data independence.
Data Availability
Data availability refers to the fact that the data are made available to wide variety of users in a meaningful
format at reasonable cost so that the users can easily access the data.
Data Integrity
Data integrity refers to the correctness of the data in the database. In other words, the data available in the
database is reliable and consistent data.
Data Security
Data security refers to the fact that only authorized users can access the data. Data security can be
enforced by passwords. If two separate users are accessing a particular data at the same time, the DBMS
must not allow them to make conflicting changes.
Each database must have user interface, which may be in the following
use of the mouse or keyboard. Menus do away with the need to memorize the specific commands and
syntax of a query language; rather, the query is composed step by step by picking options from a menu
that is displayed by the system. Pull-down and pop-up menus are becoming a very popular technique in
window-based user interfaces. They are often used in browsing interfaces, which allow a user to look
through the contents of a database in an exploratory and unstructured manner.
Advantages:
It is fast in carrying out task.
The user does not need to remember the commands by heart.
It is very easy to learn and to use.
Disadvantages:
The user is restricted to those few options available and thus is not flexible to use.
Form-Based Interfaces
A forms-based interface displays a form to each user.
The form has spaces for input/insertion of data
Insertion fields are provided together with validation checks on data entered.
It mirrors a hardcopy form.
Data is entered in strict order.
The form has explanatory notes /comments on the screen
It also uses drop-down lists tick boxes, etc
Each record in the database may have its own form displayed on the screen.
Users can fill out all of the form entries to insert new data, or they fill out only certain entries, in
which case the DBMS will retrieve matching data for the remaining entries.
Forms are usually designed and programmed for naive (inexperienced) users as interfaces to
canned (pre-recorded) transactions.
Many DBMSs have forms specification languages, special languages that help programmers
specify such forms.
Some systems have utilities that define a form by letting the end user interactively construct a
sample form on the screen.
Ensures that no data is missed/left un-entered.
It is very easy to insert validation checks/routines. (read Heathcote for more on Form-Based
interfaces and other forms of user interfaces)
Application: Ordering goods online, applying for membership online, applying for an e-mail address
online, completing postal order forms, etc. It ensures that only the relevant information is
captured/entered.
Advantages of GUI
It is faster to give commands by just clicking.
It is easier for a novice (beginner) to use the system right away. It is user friendly (this is an interface
that is easy to learn, understand and to use).
There is no need for users to remember commands of the language.
It avoids typing errors since no typing is involved.
It is easier and faster for user to switch between programs and files.
A novice can use the system right away.
Disadvantages of GUI
The icons occupy a lot of disk storage space that might be used for storage of data.
Occupy more main memory than command driven interfaces.
Run slowly in complex graphics and when many windows are open.
Irritate to use for simple tasks due to a greater number of operations needed
DBMS structure (views/schema)
View: Refers to how a user sees data stored in a database. Each user has his/her own view of data, e.g. a
standard database user can be restricted from seeing (viewing) sensitive data that only managers can
view. These two have thus different views of the database.
A relation that does not necessarily actually exist in the database but is produced upon request, at
time of request.
Contents of a view are defined as a query on one or more base relations.
Views are dynamic, meaning that changes made to base relations that affect view attributes are
immediately reflected in the view.
Provides powerful and flexible security mechanism by hiding parts of database from certain users.
Permits users to access data in a customized way, so that same data can be seen by different users
in different ways, at same time.
Can simplify complex operations on base relations.
A user’s view is immune to changes made in other views.
Users should not need to know physical database storage details.
Schema: Refers to the overall design of the database. It can be a collection of named objects. Schemas
provide a logical classification of objects in the database. A schema can contain tables, views, functions,
packages, and other objects.
Sub-schema: describe different views of database.
It consists of three levels/abstractions: External, conceptual and internal levels
Thus other users cannot view some data that the managers can views.
Data Independence
Data independence means that programs are isolated from changes in the way the data are structured
and stored. Data independence is the immunity of application programs to changes in storage structures
and access techniques. For example if we add a new attribute, change index structure then in traditional
file processing system, the applications are affected. But in a DBMS environment these changes are
reflected in the catalogue, as a result the applications are not affected. Data independence renders
application programs immune to changes in the logical and physical organization of data in the system.
Logical organization refers to changes in the Schema. Example adding a column or tuples does not stop
queries from working.
Physical organization refers to changes in indices, file organizations, etc
The scope of a query in an active DBMS is not only limited to the past and present data, but also
includes future data.
An active DBMS reverses the control flow between applications and the DBMS instead of only
applications calling the DBMS, the DBMS may also call applications in an active DBMS.
Active databases contain a set of active rules that consider events that represent database state
changes, look for TRUE or FALSE conditions as the result of a database predicate or query, and take
an action via a data manipulation program embedded in the system.
Distributed Database
A logically interrelated collection of shared data (and a description of this data), physically distributed
over a computer network.
• In a company, the database organization might reflect the organizational structure, which is distributed
into units. Each unit maintains its own database.
• Sharing of data can be achieved by developing a distributed database system which:
makes data accessible by all units
stores data close to where it is most frequently used.
DDBMS - characteristics
• Collection of logically-related shared data.
• Data split into fragments.
• Fragments may be replicated.
• Fragments/replicas allocated to sites.
• Sites linked by a communications network.
• Data at each site is under control of a DBMS.
• DBMSs handle local applications autonomously.
• Each DBMS participates in at least one global application.
Advantages of DDBMSs
• Reflects Organizational Structure
• Improved Sharing and Local Autonomy
• Improved Availability: A failure does not make the entire system inoperable
• Improved Reliability: Data may be replicated
• Improved Performance: Data are local to the site of “greatest demand”
• Modular Growth: easy to add new module
Disadvantages of DDBMSs
• More complex
• Cost: Especially in system management
• Security: network must be made secure
• Integrity Control More Difficult
• Database Design More Complex: due to fragmentation, allocation of fragments to a specific site.
(read Heathcote for more on record locking, Open Systems and ODBC, Client – Server databases, etc)
Advantages of Databases
Reduces data duplication: Avoids repetition of same records being stored more than once in the
database. This is because records are linked to each other allowing data stored in all tables to be used
through accessing one table
Duplication of data means same data being stored more than once.
This can also be termed as data redundancy. Data redundancy is a problem in file-based approach
due to the decentralized approach. The main drawbacks of duplication of data are:
Duplication of data leads to wastage of storage space. If the storage space is wasted it will
have a direct impact on cost. The cost will increase.
Duplication of data can lead to loss of data integrity; the data are no longer consistent.
Assume that the employee detail is stored both in the department and in the main office.
Now the employee changes his contact address. The changed address is stored in the
department alone and not in the main office. If some important information has to be sent
to his contact address from the main office then that information will be lost.
Validation checks are made on data during entry thereby reducing data entry errors.
Searching and retrieval of data is very fast.
Ensures data independence: A change in the program structure or view does not affect data stored
in tables. Data independence means independence between application program and the data. The
advantage is that when the data representation changes, it is not necessary to change the application
program
NB: Data Dependence: This means the application program depends on the data. If some
modifications have to be made in the data, then the application program has to be rewritten.
Improves security of data: Access to some data can be controlled because each user has own view of
data. The DBMS can use access rights (levels) for each user when accessing data, preventing users
from seeing data not of their level. Regular backups can be made to the data files automatically by
the DBMS to alternative devices. Usernames and passwords can be used to protect data from
unauthorised access, record locking during updating process, encryption of database, etc
Less likelihood of data getting lost.
Record structure can be easily modified if the need arises.
Files can be linked together making file updating easier and faster. Reduces data redundancy.
Redundancy means duplication of data. Data redundancy will occupy more space hence it is not
desirable as it will be more expensive to the organisation.
Data can be secured from unauthorised access by use of passwords.
Users can share data if the database is networked. Duplication of records is eliminated.
Ad hoc reports can be created easily.
Improves Data Integrity: refers to the correctness of data stored in databases. Data accessed will be
similar to all users, removing contradictions caused by duplicates of records with different data
values. This is because most of the information is stored only once. Integrity is also enhanced as data
is protect from wrong/inappropriate processing thereby leading to users trusting the correctness of
data
Sorting of records in any order is very fast
Removes data inconsistency: inconsistency means different copies of the same record will have data
with different values.
Disadvantages of databases
If the computer breaks down, you may not be able to access the data.
It is costly to initially setup the database.
Computer data can be easily copied illegally and therefore should be password protected.
Takes time and costs to train users of the systems.
Expensive to employ a database administrator who will manage the database
Individuals are concerned (worried) with their data held in Computers. This is because of:
Some people do not want others to see their details (personal data)
Individuals may be targeted because of their property or wealth
May lead to comparison with other people’s details, which may negate relationships with friends
and colleagues
May lead to blackmail if the data stored is wrong
Some of the data may be wrong
Some of the data may be used for other purposes against the owner
May lead to identity theft
SQL commands consist of English-like statements which are used to query, insert, update, and delete data.
English-like statements mean that SQL commands resemble English language sentences in their
construction and use and therefore are easy to learn and understand. SQL is referred to as nonprocedural
database language. Here nonprocedural means that, when we want to retrieve data from the database it is
enough to tell SQL what data to be retrieved, rather than how to retrieve it.
A query is a user–request to retrieve data or information using a certain condition. A query is a question
used to search and retrieve information is a database. It is a command written in data query language
which allows users to access and manipulate data stored in databases. It also allows users to define/
instruct the computer to list or print out selected information from the database, making use of
expressions. A query is structured so that the answer is true or false for each record in the database. The
result will be a list of all records in the form of a report that returns true to the search criteria. Thus
queries are used to interrogate, select and for searching records from the database.
The user specifies a certain condition. The program will go through all the records in the database file and
select those records that satisfy the condition. The result of the query will then be stored in form of a table.
The above can be written in SQL as given below in order to produce the same result:
NB: SQL is not only used for searching records from databases. It has commands to delete, insert, print,
update, modify, sort data stored in databases.
The three main divisions in SQL are DDL, DML, and DCL. The data definition language (DDL) commands of
SQL are used to define a database which includes creation of tables, indexes, and views. The data
manipulation commands (DML) are used to load, update, and query the database through the use of the
SELECT command. DML commands are usually written in uppercase. Data control language (DCL) is used
to establish user access to the database. (Read Heathcote for more SQL, page 308)
DATABASE RELATIONSHIPS
Attributes
This is a property or characteristic of an entity. Attributes are properties of entities. In other words,
entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.
The following are example of attributes:
– Brand, cost, and weight are the attributes of CELLPHONE.
– Student number, name, and grade are the attributes of STUDENT
Entity
An entity is something of interest to an organisation about which data is to be held. It could be a person,
place, object, event or concept about which data is to be maintained.
Relationship
This is a link or association between entities. Relationship type is a meaningful association between entity
types.
The examples of relationship types are:
– Teaches is the relationship type between LECTURER and STUDENT.
– Buying is the relationship between VENDOR and CUSTOMER.
– Treatment is the relationship between DOCTOR and PATIENT
Types of Relationship
One-to-one
Eg Products in a supermarket each have a unique barcode number.
A department in school is led up by a HOD, and this person only leads one department
One-to-many
Eg A video club member may hire out a number of videos.
The head of department may be in charge of many staff, but these staff members only have one
head of department.
Many to One
Many videos can be hired by one member.
Many-to-many
Teachers and pupils in a school. Each teacher teaches many pupils and each pupil has many
teachers.
A teacher may order many books, but each book could be ordered by many teachers.
Entity-Relationship Diagram
An entity-relationship diagram is a diagrammatic way of representing the relationships between the
entities in a database.
Example drives
Employee Company car (One-to-one)
Many – to-Many relationships are not encouraged in E-R diagrams since they violate the 3NF of databases.
To remove M-N relationships, a link entity is used to link entities with a M-N relationship as illustrated
below:
Data security
Refers to methods of keeping data safe from various hazards and from unauthorized access and this
includes:
FILE HANDLING
Types of files
1. Master File: it is apermanent file kept up-to-date by applying transactions that occur during the operation of
the business.It contains all information of the job. It contains permanent and semi-permanent data. Static
(permanent) data stored in database files can include Surname, First names, Date of birth, etc.
2. Transaction Files: These are temporary files that contain data that can change regularly, usually created on
daily basis and is used to update the master file. It contains details of all transactions that have occurred in the
last period only.This includes sales per day, student mark in a weekly test, etc. Transaction files are used to
update master files. They can be discarded once updating has occurred.
3. Reference files: These are files that contain permanent data which is required for reference purposes only.
This includes data on tax bands, formulae, etc. No changes to files are done.
4. Data file: A set of related records (either written or electronic) kept together.
5. Text file: file that only accommodated string data, no graphs, pictures or tables. Characters can be organised
in a line by line basis.
NB:-* Indicates the end of field marker, and the ≈ indicates the end of record marker, and these allow data to be
processed.
Variable length records have the following advantages:
They are more economical in terms of usage of disk storage space as they do not allow spaces to lie idle.
Less space is wasted on the storage medium.
It allows as many fields as possible to be held on a particular record, e.g subjects taken in an exam by a
particular student.
More records can be packed on one physical block, thereby reducing time spend in reading the file.
Data entered will not be cut but appears as entered no matter how long it is.
No truncation of data occurs
However, variable length records have the following disadvantages:
End of field and end of record markers occupy disk storage space that might be used to store data.
These records are difficult to update as the transaction and master files might have different lengths.
The processing required to separate out the fields is complex.
It is difficult to estimate file sizes accurately when a new system is being designed.
FILE ORGANISATION
Refers to the way in which records in a file are stored, retrieved and updated. This affects the number of records
stored, access speed and updating speed. The most common methods of file organisation are: Serial File
Organisation, Sequential File organisation, indexed – sequential file organisation and random (direct) file
organisation.
1. Serial File Organisation: This is whereby records are stored one after another as they occur, without any
definite order as on magnetic tapes. Data is not stored in any particular sequence. Data is read from the first
record until the needed data is found. New records are added to the end of the file. Serial file organisation is not
appropriate for master files since records are not sorted and therefore are difficult to access and to update.
Suitable for temporary/ transaction files since records are not sorted.
To delete records:
More complex
Read record to be deleted from the file, search it from 1st record until found=true
re-write the whole file to a new disk, omitting the unwanted record.
2. Sequential File Organisation: This is whereby records are stored one after another and are sorted into a key
sequence, that is, in ascending or descending order of a given key filed as on magnetic tapes. Records are held
one after another in key sequence. Sequential files organisation is appropriate for files with a high hit rate like
payroll processing.
They are suitable for master files since they are ordered. However, it takes too long to access required data since
the records are accessed by reading from the first record until the required data is found. Adding of new records
is difficult as this is done by re-entering the data and the new record is inserted at its right position. It is time
consuming to update such records. Suitable for master files since records are sorted. This is used where all
records need processing. They are faster and more efficient than serial files.
To access/view a record, each record on the file must be read, starting from the beginning of the file, until the
required record is found.
To add a new record, copy existing records up to where the new record is to be inserted, insert record, then
copy rest of file. The algorithm can be as follows:
open old master file for reading
open new master file for writing
start from beginning of old master file
Repeat
Read next record (call it current record)
If current record key>new record key THEN
Write new record to the new file
End If
Until new record is inserted or EOF (old)
If record not yet inserted THEN
Write new record to the new file
End If
To delete a record, the whole file is to be copied over to a new sequential file, omitting the file to be deleted.
Processing of records is faster than that of serial files
Hit rate– proportionor percentage of records being accessed on any one run. In payroll systems, the hit rate is
mostly 100% since every employee will be paid. Hit rate is calculated by dividing the number of records
accessed by total number of records in the file and then multiplying by 100. For example, if 270 records are
accessed out of 300 records, the hit rate is 270/300 x 100 = 90%
3. Indexed-Sequential Files: This is whereby records are ordered in sequence based on the value of the index or
disk address as supported by hard disks. It supports batch processing.It is also used for creating master file since
the records are ordered. It is also suitable for real time processing applications like stock control as it is fast in
accessing records and in updating them. It provides direct access to data as on hard disks, diskettes and compact
disks. It ensures that data is accessed in some order. It ensures that no data is missed during accessing. Can
provide direct access if requests are send online.
Indexed sequential files consists of 3 basic parts:
the index
The home area
Overflow area
The index:
Contains record keys and disk addresses. The record key can be one or more fields that uniquely identify a
record. Each record key is associated with a disk address (which can be surface, track and sector number) to
identify the specific sector of the home area. Thus the index points to the home area.
Overflow area
The home area may become too small and may not accommodate all records. The home area may become full. In
this case, the remaining part of the home area just store pointers to indicate position of overflow area of any
additional records as the home area gets full
NB: However, it may take longer to process the records. This is because records would have been placed in the
overflow area. After reading the index, it takes a single disc access to read a record in the home area. Each time
the home area is accessed, it takes at least two disc accesses; one to read the home area and one to read the
overflow. This problem can be solved by re-organising the file using the housekeeping program, which copies
the file to a new file, placing all the overflow records into the home area and re-writing the indices.
4. Random (Direct/Hash/Relative) File Organisation: This is whereby records are not in any order but stored
and accessed according to their disk address or relative position, calculated from the primary key of the record,
as supported by hard disks and compact disks. Records are stored and retrieved according to their disk address /
relative position within file. The hashing algorithm/formula translates the primary key into an address, using the
modulo method.
To add a new record, use the hashing algorithm to work out the appropriate memory location. If the location is
empty, the records is inserted/written, otherwise the next block is examined until an empty space is found.
To search/access a record, its address is calculated from the record key using the hashing algorithm, the record
at that address is then read, if it not the required record, the next record is read and examined until either the
record is found or empty space is encountered. Suitable for online systems where fast response is required.
To delete a record, set flag to zero but leave the value there, therefore space can be reused but is not actually
empty. The record is not physically deleted but just marked as deleted.
It is appropriate where extremely fast access to data is required as in airline reservation. Updating of records is
in situ, very simple and very fast. Hard disk, compact disks and diskettes promotes random file organisation.
When records are deleted, they are just marked as deletedbut are not removed from the file. These deleted files
take up space and may slow down processing. This can be solved by saving the records on a different file,
removing the deleted records.
Overflow
If there is no space on the block, collision is said to have occurred and the record must be stored elsewhere.
A re-hashing algorithm is carried out on the block that is full in order to give another block that is not full. If the
given block is full again, the hashing algorithm is applied again until an empty block is found. The overflow area
can be used just as in the indexed sequential files.
NB:- If no further information is given, assume that overflow records are stored in the next block
Hashing algorithm - used to translate record key into an address. However, synonyms may occur, i.e. two
record keys generate the same address (use overflow area and flag)
FILE PROCESSING
Refers to any form of activity that can be done using files. This includes: file referencing, sorting, maintenance
and updating.
1. File Referencing/Interrogation: This involves searching of record and displaying it on the screen in order to
gain certain information, leaving it unchanged. The record can also be printed.
2. Sorting: Refers to a process of arranging (organising) records in a specific ordered sequence, like in ascending
or descending order of the key field.
3. Merging Files: This is the process of combining two or more files/recordsof the same structure into one.
Below is an example of how records can be merged:
Record A (sorted) Record B (unsorted)
12 34 71 78 101 103 67 3 90 12
Record C (Merged and sorted for records A and Record B)
3 12 34 67 71 78 90 101 103
4. File maintenance: This is the process of reorganising the structure of records and changing (adding or
removing or editing) fields. May also involve updating more permanent fields on each record, adding / deleting
records.This can be due to changes due to addition or deletion of records.
5. File Updating: Updating is the process of making necessary changes to files and records, entering recent
information. Only master files are updated and they must be up-to-date. For updating to occur, any one of the
following must have occurred:
A new record has been entered. Deletion of an unwanted record. An amendment (change) to the existing data has
been made, e.g. change in date of birth only.
a. Updating by copying
This happens in sequential file updating. The transaction file must be sorted in the same order with the master
file records. This is done through the following steps:
- A record is read from master file into memory.
- A record is then read from transaction file into memory.
- Record keys from each file are compared.
- If record keys are the same, the master file is updated by moving fields form transaction file to the new
master file.
In sequential file updating, it is recommended to keep at least three master file versions that will be used for data
recovery in case of a system failure or accidental loss of data. The first master file is called the Grandfather file,
the second master file is called the father file and the third master file is the son file. This relationship is called
the grandfather-father-son version of files. The process of keeping three versions of master files (grandfather-
father-son) as a result of sequential file updating is called File Generations. Thus the first master file
(grandfather file) is called the first generation file, the second master file (father file) is called the second
generation file and the third master file (son file) is the third generation file. The following diagram illustrates the
sequential file updating process:
It applies for random files since record is accessed by means of an address therefore can be written back to same
address after updating process.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. A garden design company keeps records of its customers. Each customer has had a design produced for
them which will be one of a library of design types stored by the company. Each design type uses plants.
Each customer is sent an account based on the number of plants in the design.
(a) Draw an E-R (entity-relationship) diagram in third normal form, based on this information. [10]
(b) Each delivery of plants to the garden design company is identified by a batch number. Explain how
customers who received eucalyptus trees from batch 12 can be contacted. [4]
3. (a) In relation to databases, describe what is meant by each of the following terms.
(i) Primary key. [1]
(ii) Secondary key. [1]
(iii) Foreign key. [1]
(b) Using, as an example, the database of student records in a school,
(i) Explain why different users should be given different access rights; [4]
(ii) Describe how these access rights can be implemented. [4]
4. A landscape garden company services a number of gardens. Each GARDEN is owned by an OWNER. Each
owner may have more than one garden. Each garden has a number of PLANTS in it and each plant may be
in a number of gardens.
Draw an entity relationship (E-R) diagram to represent this data model in third normal form and label the
relationships. [10]
The data that is stored about the patients includes their medical history and personal information about
them.
Explain the need for maintaining privacy of the data and describe methods by which the database
management system (DBMS) can help to achieve this. [6]
6. (a) The structure of a database management system (DBMS) consists of three levels;
• External level,
• Conceptual level,
• Internal level.
State the meaning of each of these levels. [3]
7. (a) Describe the function and purpose of the following parts of a database management system
(DBMS):
(i) data dictionary, [2]
(ii) data description language, [2]
(iii) data manipulation language. [2]
(b) Three advantages of using a relational database rather than flat files are:
(i) reduced data duplication,
(ii) improved data security,
(iii) improved data integrity.
Explain what is meant by each of these and why they are features of a relational database. [6]
8. Each LEAGUE has a number of TEAMs but each TEAM is only in one LEAGUE. Each TEAM plays at a
number of GROUNDs during the season and each GROUND will host a number of TEAMs during the
season.
(i) State the relationship between LEAGUE and TEAM.
Draw the entity-relationship (E-R) diagram to show this relationship. [2]
(ii) State the relationship between TEAM and GROUND.
Draw the E-R diagram to show this relationship. [2]
(ii) Explain how the relationship between TEAM and GROUND can be designed in third normal
form. [4]
This is a process of identifying problems of an existing system by analysing it and finding the best solution to
such a problem.
System users or the manager would have realized that the Information system is no longer reflective of or
satisfying the existing business aims and objectives. This problem could be triggered by many factors, some of
which are:
i. System users: they may be dissatisfied with the current system since they are the ones who operate it. They
will sent requests to have a new system or some modification to the existing one.
ii. Top management: they may issue directives in order to meet new organisational objectives. It can also be due
to changes in management (new manager), new requirements, etc.
iii. The need for improved operating efficiency: Errors in the existing systems may be intolerable, especially to
customers.
iv. Changes in technology: new hardware and software may force organisations to change their ways of
operation.
v. Change of government policies: new government laws and policies can force organisations to change their
systems
vi. The user could have changed his/her mind
Vii. The business might have expanded or due to other reasons
The systems analyst now needs to examine whether the said problem is real by carrying out an in-depth study,
after getting permission to conduct a feasibility study.
1. Feasibility Study:
-This is a preliminary investigation conducted to determine if there is need for a new system or modification of
the existing one.
-The Analyst examines whether a new system is feasible or not.
He assesses the magnitude of this problem and decides the scope of the project.
He examines the problem of the current system and what will be required of the new system.
-It involves evaluation of systems requests from users to determine if it is feasible to construct a new one.
Feasibility can be measured by its:
Economic feasibility: determining whether the benefits of the new system will out-weigh the estimated
cost involved in developing, purchasing, installing and maintenance of the new system. The cost benefits
analysis is important. Benefits can be tangible and quantifiable, e.g. profits in terms of monetary values,
fewer processing errors, increased production, increased response time, etc. Other benefits are intangible,
e.g. improved customer goodwill, employee morale, job satisfaction, better service to the community,
etc.
Technical feasibility: determines if the organisation can obtain software, equipment, technology and
personnel to develop, install and operate the system effectively.
Schedule feasibility: a measure of how long the system will take to develop, considering the desired
time frame.
Social feasibility: Will the system be acceptable by the local people, considering their values and norms
in their society? This also looks at impacts like loss of jobs,
Legal feasibility: determines whether the new system will not violet the legal requirements of the state,
for instance, laws outlined in the Data Protection Act.
Operational feasibility: determines whether the current work practices and procedures are adequate to
support the system, e.g. effects on social lives of those affected by the system
Thus the analyst must consider the following questions when producing a feasibility study:
- Is the solution technically possible?
- Is the solution economically possible to produce?
- Is the solution economic to run?
- Will the solution be socially acceptable?
- Is skilled workforce available? If not, are training requirements feasible
- How will the system affect employees
- Will profits increase?
- How long will it take to produce the system?
- etc
After carrying out the feasibility study, a feasibility study report must be produced and it contains the following
information:
A brief description of the business.
2. DATA COLLECTION
The systems analyst collects data about the system. The fact finding methods that can be used include:
interviews, record inspection, questionnaire, observations, etc.
i. Interview:
This refers to the face-to-face communication between two or more people in order to obtain information.
Interviews can also be done over the phone but the most common ones are face to face. Interviews are done
when you want to collect information from a very small population sample.
Advantages of Interviews
Effective when gathering information about a system
The researcher can ask for clarification on some points that may not be clear.
Encourages good rapport between the researcher and the respondent.
Non-verbal gestures like facial expressions can help the researcher to determine if the respondent is
telling the truth.
Information can be collected even from the illiterate since the respondent’s language could be used.
First-hand information is collected.
The researcher can probe to get more information.
Disadvantages of Interviews
It is expensive since the researcher has to travel to the interview venue.
Difficult to remain anonymous
It is time consuming as more time is spent travelling and carrying out the interview.
Good interview techniques are required as failure may lead to disappointments.
Biased information can be given since the respondent may not tell the truth.
iii. Questionnaire:
A document with carefully crafted questions to be answered by the respondent by filling on the spaces provided.
Questionnaires are used when collecting information from a widely spaced population sample and when
collecting information from many people. A questionnaire contains open-ended and closed questions. Open-
ended questions are gap filling questions which require the respondent to express his or her own view. Closed
questions are guided questions where the respondent just chooses Yes or No, True or False, or by just putting a
tick on given options. Questionnaires can be distributed personally or by post.
Advantages of questionnaires
Effective when collecting a lot of data
Questions are very simple to answer.
It saves time as questionnaires can be distributes and then collected later.
Respondents can fill questionnaires at their own pace.
Give guarantees confidential of information, thereby encouraging respondents to give accurate
information.
They are cheap to use as travel expense can be low
Disadvantages of questionnaires
Questions must be well thought out and precise.
Some questions are left blank.
Some questionnaires may not be returned. Biased information can be collected.
Respondents usually do not fill the correct information.
It is difficult to analyse information collect using questionnaires.
They are expensive to use if the postal system is used.
Abusive information can be filled by respondents.
iv. Observations:
It is a fact finding method that involves viewing the actual system in operation by the researcher. The researcher
can even take part in operating the system. It is used when the researcher wants to see for himself how the
system operates.
Advantages of observations
First-hand information is collected.
May identify problems that the users did not see
Accurate information can be obtained.
More reliable information is obtained.
Only areas of interest can be observed.
The researcher can take part in operating the system thereby getting insight on how the system operates.
Disadvantages of observations
People work differently if they feel that they are being observed, therefore inaccurate information can be
collected.
The researcher may not understand some of the activities being observed.
It is time consuming to collect the required information.
The researcher may interrupt some of the activities being done.
More expensive than other methods
Dataflow Diagrams
These are diagrams that show how data moves between external sources, through processes and data stores of a
particular system. Dataflow diagrams use the following symbols:
4. Design Stage:
This stage is concerned with the development of the new computer based solution as specified by the analysis
stage. The hardware and software requirements are identified and purchased, ready for the construction stage.
Functional diagrams are translated into hierarchical diagrams by the analyst so as to identify what programs are
needed and how they relate to one another. The analyst decides on the program structure, program interface and
the hierarchy in which programs will be arranged.
The Analyst ensures quality designs, incorporates security measures, designs easy to use input forms, output
reports interfaces.
The Database designer fulfills the file requirements. The output is a design specification.
Tools used are DFD, Data Dictionary, Data models, prototypes, system flowcharts: The personnel involved are
users, Analysts, Database Designer.
Design stage involves:
Input Design: includes designing of data entry forms, input methods (e.g. by filling forms, use of barcodes, etc)
and the user interface.
Output Design: Includes design of reports, data output formats, screen displays and other printed documents like
receipts, etc
File design: Involves designing tables/files, records and validation rules. It also involves determining how data is
to be stored and accessed, the media to be used for storage and the mode of file organisation. Fields in each files
can be designed, their length and data type, e.g.
File Name: Student File
Storage Location: Hard Disk
Mode of Access: Direct/Random
File Structure:
The prototype will have a working interface but may not actually process data
Special software will be used to design input screens and to run the system.
The prototype can then be discarded and the real system designed using other or the same software (throw away
prototype).
Prototyping can be used at any stage of the SDLC. The prototype can be further refined until the user is satisfied
with it and then it is implemented as it is (Evolutionary prototype).
Benefits of prototypes:
cheaper to setup than alternative methods that could be used to predict what will happen in a system
faster to design a system model
Gives user the chance to experience the look and feel of the input process and make suggestions where
necessary.
System is more likely to have fewer or no errors
More acceptable to users of the system since they are also involved in the design
Disadvantages of prototyping
prototypes can be very expensive to design
takes too long to finish system design, especially if the prototype is thrown away
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
- A programming language is a set of symbols in computer language that are used in coding computer
programs.
- A programming language is a specially written code used for writing application programs e.g. C, Pascal,
COBOL, BASIC, Visual Basic, C++ and Java (Originally for intelligent consumer-electronic devices (cell
phones), then used for creating Web pages with dynamic content, now also used for developing large-scale
enterprise applications)
- Program: a set of detailed and unambiguous instructions that instructs a computer to perform a specific task,
for example, to add a set of numbers.
- Programming: A process of designing, coding and testing computer programs
- Programmer: A person who specialises in designing, coding and testing computer programs
- Problem: any question or matter involving difficulty or uncertainty and is proposed for a computer solution.
- Very difficult to use and therefore very few programmers use them these days.
- It takes too long to debug and therefore is prone to some errors.
- It takes too long to develop working programs.
- They are machine dependent (they can only work on type of computer designed for and not work on
other computers)
b. Assembly Language:
- These are programming languages that use mnemonic codes in coding programs.
- Mnemonic codes are abbreviations used to represent instructions when coding assembly language programs,
for example, LDA for Load, ADD for Addition, etc.
- One assembly language statement is equivalent to one machine code instruction and therefore programming
lengthy and time consuming.
- However, assembly language programs are efficient.
- Programs also run faster as they are closer to machine language and therefore are used in designing programs
that needs efficient timing, e.g. games like chess, operating systems, etc.
- Assembly language is used when there is need to access registers and memory addresses directly.
- Assembly language instructions also occupy very little disc storage space.
- Mnemonic codes are very close to machine code, hence are low level language assembly language codes.
- They however run on specific computer architecture since they are hardware aligned.
- They also contain different forms of instruction, e.g. jump, control, arithmetic, etc.
- Assembly language allows immediate, direct and other forms of memory addressing.
Application: Assembly language is used in:
- Coding operating systems
- Coding device drivers
- Coding programs for embedded systems like DVD players, decoders, etc.
- Coding encryption software
- One statement is translated into several equivalent machine code instructions before it is executed.
- Below is an example of a BASIC program that accepts two numbers entered through the keyboard, adds them
and display the result on the screen:
INPUT “ENTER FIRST NUMBER.”, A
INPUT “ENTER SECOND NUMBER.”, B
SUM = A + B
PRINT SUM
END
- Programs written in High Level Language are first converted to machine code before running.
High level languages have the following features:
- Problem oriented (Machine independent): they are designed to solve an application problem and therefore
runs on any machine
- They are portable: they can be transferred from one machine to another and run without problem.
- Instructions are written in English statements which are easier to understand.
Disadvantages of HLL
- Takes long to run since they need to be first converted to machine code.
- They occupy a lot of disk storage space as compared to low level languages.
- The order of statements is very important and is to be obediently followed by the computer when
performing a task.
- Examples include C, Pascal, COBOL, BASIC, etc.
- Imperative languages have the following features:
built-in data types like integers, character, string, Boolean, etc
user defined data types like records, arrays, etc
Declarations for variables, arrays, constants, functions, procedures, etc.
Programming statements like assignments, control structures, procedure calls, function calls, etc.
Identifying the state and behaviour for real-world objects is a great way to begin thinking in terms of object-
oriented programming.
What Is an Object?
Objects
- are real world items that have state (attributes) and behaviour (operations) and belong to certain class, e.g.
desk, car, television set, bicycle, etc.
- In general, an object is an instance of a class and is an actual real-world entity.
State:
- These are attributes/characteristics/fields for an object, e.g. a car has colour, registration number, model,
etc.
- Bicycles have state of current gear, current speed, etc.
- Each object stores its own state.
- Dogs have state (name, colour, breed, hungry).
Behaviour (operations):
- Refers to methods that can be used on each object state, e.g. changing gear of a car, applying brakes, etc.
- Each class has its source code that is associated with it and defines the fields and methods.
- Dogs have behaviour (barking, fetching, wagging tail).
Class:
- A set of objects which share a common data structure and a common behaviour.
- In coding a program, a class is taken as an abstract data type that describes the fields and methods of the
class.
- Each class has different access levels, which can be private, protected or public.
- Example of class declarations in Java are as follows:
class Bicycle {
int speed = 0;
int gear = 1;
void changeGear(int newValue) { gear = newValue; }
void speedUp(int increment) { speed = speed + increment; }
void applyBrakes(int decrement) { speed = speed - decrement; }
void printStates() {System.out.println(speed:"+speed+" gear:"+gear); }
}
- ChangeGear, speedup, applyBrakes, printStates are the behaviour (methods) of the class. All bicycles
have the states and operations above.
- The following coding is for the creation of objects for the class Bicycle.
Encapsulation
- This is a technique of combining operations (methods) and data (fields) into one unit as in classes.
- Encapsulation can be in two forms:
(a) Data encapsulation: Hiding states internally and requiring all interaction to be performed through an
object's methods. It involves restricting access to the states (fields).
(b) Procedural encapsulation: users do not need to know how the behaviour happens, that is hiding
operations from the user.
Inheritance
- In Object-oriented programming, inheritance is whereby classes can re-use (assume) commonly used state
and behaviour from their parent (base) class.
- Inheritance is the ability of a class to use the variables and methods of a class from which the new class is
derived (parent class)
- Inheritance allows a new class to be derived from an existing class.
- Inheritance therefore is a relationship among classes, where a sub-class (derived class) shares all the fields
and methods of the base (parent) class, plus its own methods and states.
- Consider the inheritance diagram below:
- Base Class: This is the parent class or the first class to be created from which other class can inherit states
and methods.
- Derived class: These are new classes that are created from the base class, and therefore have methods and
states of the base class plus their own methods and states.
- The syntax for creating a subclass is use the extends keyword, followed by the name of the class to inherit
from:
class MountainBike extends Bicycle
{
// new fields and methods defining a mountain bike
// would go here
}
Polymorphism
- In general, polymorphism is the ability to have the same operation performing differently in different
circumstances.
- Polymorphism allows an operation to perform differently depending on the parameters that are passed.
- This is the ability of classes to use the same name in the class hierarchy for a method but each class
implementing the method differently.
- In polymorphism, derived classes are able to re-define some of the base (super class) methods.
Containment/aggregation/composition
- These are links/associations between objects that allow them to communicate.
- For instance: a form on a screen is an object. On the object form, there are other objects, e.g. delete button,
display button, exit button, etc.
- These buttons (which are objects) communicate with the form (another object).
- Thus the linkage between the form and the buttons is called the containment.
Event handlers: small program codes which are invoked (called) in response to external events.
Dispatcher: small program codes that call event handlers so that events can be processed.
Advantages of OOP
Grouping code into individual software objects provides a number of benefits, including:
- Modularity: The source code for an object can be written and maintained independently of the source code
for other objects. Once created, an object can be easily passed around inside the system.
- Information-hiding: By interacting only with an object's methods, the details of its internal implementation
remain hidden from the outside world.
- Code re-use: If an object already exists, you can use that object in your program.
- Easy debugging: If a particular object turns out to be problematic, you can simply remove it from your
application.
- Reliability: if codes are designed by specialists, they are more likely to free from errors due to intensive
testing.
- Time saving: re-use of existing methods and states means less time needed to code programs.
- Smaller program codes: since the states and methods of classes are re-used, the code of the program is
smaller, taking less disk storage space.
- Storage structures of an object may be altered without affecting the programs that make use of it.
Object Code
- Refers to a machine code version of a source code.
- All programs written in source code must be converted to object code for the computer to understand them.
TRANSLATORS
- These are programs used to convert High level Language programs as written by the programmer (source
code) into machine code that the computer can execute.
- Translators are in three types, which are assemblers, interpreters and compilers, which are further
explained below:
1. Assemblers:
- These are programs used to translate assembly language instructions (program) into machine language
instructions before execution.
- Since each computer has its own assembly language, it also has its own assembler.
- Assembler programs are written either using assembly language, or using high level languages like C.
- Assemblers are simpler to program as compared to compilers.
- Assemblers are in two types: One-Pass Assemblers and Two-Pass Assemblers
One-Pass Assemblers
- These go through the source code once and assume that all the symbols will be defined before any
instruction that reference them. This is equivalent to declaring variables at the top of the source code
regardless of where they are used in a high level language program.
- It has an advantage of speed since only one phase in gone through
Two-Pass Assemblers.
- Creates a table with all the symbols and their values in the first pass and then use the table in the second
pass to generate code.
- Has an advantage that symbols can be defined at any stage in the source code.
- Two-pass assemblers make programs easier to read and to maintain.
Uses of Assemblers
- The uses of assemblers include:
They generate machine code that is equivalent to assembly language.
They are used to check the validity of instructions, that is, checking for syntax errors in an instruction.
They also assign memory locations to variables.
2. Interpreters
- These are programs that translate and run one (command) instruction of a program at a time before going to
the next instruction until the end of the program, e.g. the BASIC interpreter.
- Interpreter must be present to run the program. It is used during program writing (coding) because it easily
aids in debugging.
- An interpreter translates one instruction at a time and then executes it.
- The translated program retains the source code.
- They do not produce the machine code version (object code) of a program; hence translation is repeated every
time the program is executed.
- If the program is run 100 times, translation for each instruction is also carried out 100 times.
Functions of Interpreters
- They translate each instruction in turn into machine language and run it.
- Allocates storage space to variables.
- They check syntax error in a program statement.
- Gives error messages to the user
- Finds wrong and reserved words of the program
- Determines wrong use of variables
Advantages of interpreters
- It is easy to find and correct syntax errors in interpreted programs.
- There is no need for lengthy recompilation each time an error is discovered.
- It is very fast to run programs for the first time.
- Allows development of small program segments that can be tested on their own without writing the
whole program.
- It is easier to partially test and debug programs, especially during the programming stage.
- It is very fast to run small programs.
- individual segments can be run, allowing errors to be isolated
- running will be necessary after very minor changes
- continual compilation of whole code is wasteful/time consuming
Disadvantages of interpreters
- They are very slow in running very large programs.
- They do not produce an object code of a source code and hence difficult to use since conversion takes
place every time the program is run.
3. Compilers
- These are programs that convert a high level language program into its machine code equivalent at one go (at
once) and then run it, e.g. the COBOL compiler.
- Compiler must be present for compiling the program only and NOT during the running process.
- Creates an object code version of the source code
- Once compiled, the program no longer needs conversion since the machine code version is the one that will
be run, until some changes are made to the program code.
- Compilers run faster when called and therefore may be held as library routines.
- Once compiled, the program can then be run even on a computer without the compiler since the program will
already be in machine code.
- The compilation processes involves many complex stages which will be looked later in this course.
Functions of Compilers
- They check syntax errors in program statements.
- They allocate storage space to variables.
- Translate the whole program into machine code at one go.
- Run object code of the program.
- Produces a program listing which indicates position of errors in a program.
- Gives error messages to the user
- Finds wrong and reserved words of the program
- Determines wrong use of variables
Advantages of Compilers
- The object code can be saved on the disc and run when needed without the need for compilation.
- Compiled programs run faster since only the object code is run.
- The object code can run on any computer, even those without the compiler. Therefore compiled
programs can be distributed to many users and used without any problems.
- The object code is more secure since can cannot be read without the need for reverse engineering.
- Compilers indicate the line numbers with syntax errors and therefore assist programmers in debugging
programs.
- They are appropriate even for very large programs.
Disadvantages of Compilers
- Slower than interpreters for running programs for the first time.
- They can cause the computer to crash.
- Difficult to find errors in compiled program.
- There is need for lengthy recompilation each time an error is discovered.
5. Variables
- A variable is a name given to a memory location that stores a certain value, which may change (the
value) during program execution.
- Variables can be field identifiers, e.g. surname is a valid variable name.
- Variables must not be reserved words.
- Variables must be unique in the procedure or program (if all are global).
- Variables are declared at the beginning or at some point inside the program code. Every variable must be
declared before use, otherwise an error is generated.
- Variable names, as are all identifiers, start with an alphabetic character.
- They can be one character or a string of characters.
- Variable names can be alphanumeric (combination of alphabetic and numbers).
- They must be one word and must be related to the data stored in them so that the programmer cannot be
confused, e.g. Surname should be variable that stores a surname.
- If two words are used as a variable, they must be joined by and underscore ( _ ), with no spaces between
the words, e.g. Student_Surname, NOT Student-Surname.
- Alternatively, one may join the words as follows, StudentSurname.
- Variable names should not be too long, 8 characters are ok although VB supports longer variables names
but must not be more than 255 characters.
- Variables can store numeric, character or string values and must be declared appropriately.
- In Visual Basic 6.0, variables must be declared first before they are used. The keyword Dim is used to
declare variables, and each variable should have a data type, e.g.
a. Global variables
- These are variables that are accessed and can be used by any procedure or function within the same
program.
- They are public variables
- The value of the variable exists throughout the program.
- Global variables are declared outside the procedure.
- In VB 6.0, global variables are declared as follows:
Public Sname As String
The word Public implies that it is a global variable.
b. Local variables
-These are variables that are defined within a procedure and that are accessible just within the procedure
they are declared.
- They are defined within the procedure.
- They are private variables
- The value of the variable only exists within the procedure it is defined.
- They are therefore local to that procedure in which they are declared and therefore cannot be used (not
accessible) by other procedures.
- Local variables are declared as follows:
Private Sname As String
Form Variables
- The above diagram shows that every variable name starts with a Letter, followed by any of the following
(Letter, digit or _ ) at any position, or a mixture of both in any order, as long as the first character is a letter.
- Using the diagram above, a variable like 3_Name, is invalid since it starts with a number.
- variable names must follow the rules of the language
- the translator tries the rules against the variable names used and reports any errors
- The contents of variables must be of a specific type otherwise an error created by the attempted use of
anything else.
6. Reserved words
- Reserved (key) words are identifiers with a pre-defined meaning in a specific programming language,
for example Dim, if, End, integer, As, etc. in Visual basic.
- Reserved words must not be used as variables.
- Each programming language has its own reserved words, which may differ from other languages.
- translator program maintains a dictionary of reserved words
- if the reserved word used is not in this dictionary then an error has been made and message may be given
which suggests one close to spelling provided
7.
Expressions
- An expression is a construct made up of variables and operators that makes up a complete unit of
execution.
Example:
NumberA = a+b-c*d
- The above is a statement. However, a+b-c*d is an expression found in a statement.
- Expressions can be arithmetic (as given above), Boolean or string expressions. For example,
(a>b) and (a>=c)
- Operator precedence is very important in evaluating expressions and therefore it is important to enclose
expressions is brackets where possible. Operator precedence is as follows, starting from the highest to the
lowest:
( ), Not, ^, {*,/,}\,Mod, {+, -,}{=,<,>,<=, >= },…
NB: Operators is set braces indicates that they are in the same level.
- Arithmetic expressions are evaluated first, followed by comparisons and lastly logical expressions.
8. Statements
- A statement is a single instruction in a program which can be converted into machine code and executed.
- A statement can just be one line of program code but in some cases a statement may have more than one
line.
- For example: Name = “Marian” is a statement.
Example 1
NumberA = a + b
- this is an assignment statement, that is, variable NumberA is assigned the sum of the values of variables a
and b. thus if a=2 and b = 3, NumberA is assigned the value 5.
- An assignment is an instruction in a program that places a value into a variable, e.g total = a + b
- The above is just one line statement.
Example 2
If a>b Then MsgBox "a is bigger than b.", vbExclamation
- The above is a one line statement composed of if statement.
Example 3
If b < 0 Then
MsgBox "b is less than zero. Command cannot be executed", vbExclamation
Exit Sub
End If
- This is a statement (starting at the first if and ending at End If.
- This state comprises of other statements between it.
9. Block structure
- A block is a group of zero or more statements between balanced braces and can be used anywhere a single
statement is allowed. For instance
if (condition) Then ( begin block 1)
………………. (end block 1)
else (begin block 2)
……………….
End If (end block 2)
10. Functions
- A function is a self-contained module that returns a value to the part of the program which calls it every
time it is called/executed.
- A function can be just an expression that returns a value when it is called.
- A function performs a single and special task, e.g. generate a student number.
- Because they return a value, functions are data types, e.g. integer, real, etc.
- Functions can be in-built functions or user-defined functions.
- In-built functions are pre-defined procedures of a programming language that returns a value, e.g. Val
(returns a numeric value of a string), MsgBox (creates a textbox on the screen), Abs (returns an absolute
value of a number), etc.
- Visual Basic has in-built date functions, string functions, conversion functions, etc.
- A user-defined function is a procedure (module) that returns a value whenever it is called. The structure
of a user defined function is as follows:
Public Function count_rec(ByVal rs As Recordset) As Boolean
If rs.RecordCount <= 0 Then
MsgBox "There is no record in the table.", vbExclamation
count_rec = True
Else
count_rec = False
End If
End Function
- Note that a Function starts with the word Function and ends with the statement End Function. This
function returns a Boolean value(either true or false). The function name as just after the word Function,
i.e count-rec in the case above.
11. Procedures
- A self-contained module that does not return a value.
- Procedures usually starts with the key word Procedure and then procedure name, e.g Procedure
FindTotal. Procedures are user defined.
- The name of the procedure should be related to its task
- Each procedure name must be unique within the same program.
- A procedure can be called from the main program or by other modules.
- A procedure is called by stating it name
- Parameters are usually passed when calling procedures.
- Parameters/arguments are values that are passed from one procedure to another and can be the actual
values or variable names. They are therefore values given to a function by statements from other
modules.
- Parameters can be formal or actual parameters
Actual parameters: these are arguments found in the calling module/statement, could be variables or
actual data like 30, 40.
Formal parameters are those variables that receive data from calling module or statement.
- When processing of the called procedure is finished, processing goes to the next stated after the calling
statement.
- Parameters can be passed by value or by reference
- If the programmers does not specify ByVal or ByRef function, Visual Basic assumes that it if ByRef by
default.
12. Semantics
The meaning attached to statements and the way they are used in a certain language.
13. Syntax
- These are grammatical rules and regulations governing sentence construction and layout of different
programming languages.
- For example, Pascal uses a semi-colon(;) at the end of each instruction, it also uses the reserved (key)
word writeln to display items on the screen, etc.
- Each programming language has its own syntax.
- A program with syntax errors does not run.
14. Literals
- A literal is a variable which is given a fixed value within the code of the program.
- A literal is the source code representation of a fixed value.
- Literals are represented directly in your code without requiring computation, as shown:
DATA TYPES
Variable length:
Does not specify the number of characters, each data items occupies the number of spaces it requires.
This is declared as follows
Dim Sname as string
2. Boolean
- Represents instructions that evaluate to either True or False only. The default value is False and
occupy 2 bytes of storage.
- Mostly used together with If….. Then……. Else Construct.
3. Character
- A data type that holds just one alphabetic or special character like %, $, a, etc.
- can be written as char in most programming languages.
User-defined data.
These are defined by the user depending on the method of solution, e.g classes when the used define own classes.
Enumerated data:
These are data types with a list of items that are pre-defined, e.g days of the week, months of the year, etc.
Word: a computer word is group of bits that can be handled or transferred by the processor as a single unit (word
length).
Disadvantages of Modularisation
- Documentation will be long and thorough, therefore may take time to produce
- Can lead to problems of variable names as the modules are developed separately.
- However, it may be difficult to link the modules together.
*NB: Library programs: this refers to a collection of standard pre-written programs and subroutines that are
stored and available for immediate use by other modules in the system.
Library programs are programs that are required by other modules during execution, e.g. the Dynamic Link
Libraries (DLL) in the Windows environment.
Libraries contain common tasks like saving, deleting, etc.
Library programs are referenced by most modules in the systems and they provide data to other modules.
*NB: Stepwise refinement: a technique used in developing the internal working of a module.
This is a recursive definition as integer is defined in terms of itself. Applying this definition several times
produces the sequence
To stop this we use the fact that, eventually, <integer> is a single digit and write
<integer> ::= <digit>|<digit><integer>
We now have the full definition of an unsigned integer which, in BNF, is
<unsigned integer> ::= <digit>|<digit><unsigned integer>
<digit> ::= 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9
Variables in BNF
Valid variables start with a letter (Upper or lowercase) and followed by any character (which must be a letter,
digit or underscore) upt to any length. This can be defined in BNF as:
This stage can also be called parsing and is done by a program called a parser.
Source Code
Lexical Analyser
Syntax Analyser
Semantic Analyser
Code Generator
Code Optimiser
Object Code
Analysis Phases
Consists of the lexical analyzer, syntax analyzer and the intermediate code generator.
Lexical Analysis
This is where scanning of the source program is done. Each sequence of characters that have an atomic
meaning are recognized and represented by a token.
A token represents a class of valid letters, for example a program is going to analyse numbers, variables
and functions.
Syntax Analysis
This is the stage where tokens are grouped into large structures, for example, assignment statements.
Semantic Analysis
This is where there is transition of tokens into code generation and complex errors are detected.
Synthesis Phase
This phase consists of the Code Optimiser and Code Generator.
Code Generation
The target code is generated from the intermediate code to perform static scheduling and register
allocation.
Code Optimiser
There is reduction of the number of instructions in order to allow the program to run faster.
Linkers
A linker is a program that compiles all loaded modules and then create linkages between them. Other functions
of linkers are:
- Linker joins the modules compiled correctly
- Calculates addresses of the separate modules
- Allows library routines to be linked to several programs
- Ensures jump instruction from module to module properly addressed
- Produces an executable file
- matches up address references between modules
Editors
These are programs that are used to key–in and amend source code. It is also used to display and edit text before
compilation.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the terms
(i) data encapsulation
(ii) inheritance
(iii) Polymorphism
when applied to programming in an object oriented programming language. (4)
2. Distinguish between procedural languages and declarative languages. (4)
3. Explain the passing of parameters by reference and by value. (4)
4. (a) Explain the difference between the translation techniques of interpretation and compilation [2]
(b) Give two advantages of each of the two translation techniques. [4]
5. An amount of money can be defined as
• A $ sign followed by either
• A positive integer or
• A positive integer, a point, and a two digit number or
• A point and a two digit number
A positive integer has been defined as <INTEGER>
A digit is defined as <DIGIT>::= 0/1/2/3/4/5/6/7/8/9.
a) Define, using Backus Naur form, the variable <AMOUNT OF MONEY>
b) Using the previously defined values of INTEGER and DIGIT, draw a syntax diagram to define AMOUNT OF
MONEY.
6. State the three stages of compilation and briefly describe the purpose of each. [6]
7. Explain in detail, the stage of lexical analysis. [6]
8. Explain the role of
(i) linkers,
(ii) loaders
in the running of programs [4]
9. Two of the stages which a high level language program undergoes during compilation are lexical analysis and
syntax analysis.
Discuss how errors are discovered during each of these two stages. [5]
10. (a) (i) Describe what is meant by source code. [2]
(ii) Explain why source code needs to be translated into object code. [2]
(b) State what is meant by the following types of programming error:
(i) syntax error [1]
(ii) arithmetic error [1]
11. (a) Explain how the translator program prepares the programmer’s code into a program that the machine can
run. [2]
(b) (i) Explain what is meant by a procedure. [2]
(ii) Describe how procedures and the programming construct “selection” can be used to code a simple
menu system for a user. [3]
12. (a) Explain the difference between interpretation and compilation of a program written in a high level
language. [2]
(b) Explain what happens during the lexical analysis stage of compilation. [5]
(c) Describe two things that happen during code generation. [4]
(d) A program has been written using a top-down technique. The individual modules in the program have been
fully tested and there are no errors in any of them.
Explain why the program may fail to run or may produce incorrect results, despite the testing that has been done.
[2]
(e) When a computer runs a program, the program may fail to run successfully because there are errors in the
code.
Describe two types of error that may be present, giving an example of each. [6]
18. Explain why an interpreter would be preferred to a compiler as a translator when writing a high level
language program. [5]
19. In a particular object oriented programming language, the following classes are defined
SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION
Documentation refers to the careful and disciplined recording of information on the development, operation and
maintenance of a system. Documentation is in two main types: user documentation and technical documentation
(a) User Documentation: It is a manual that guides system users on how to load, operate, navigate and exit a
program (system). User documentation contains the following:
System/program name.
Storage location.
System password.
Instruction on how to install the program.
Instruction on how to operate the system: e.g.
o How to quit the program
o how to load/run the software
o how to save files
o how to do print outs
o how to sort data
o how to do a search
o how to add, delete or amend records
o print layouts (output)
o screen layouts (input)
o the purpose of the system/program/software package
o error handling/meaning of errors
o troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs
o how to log in/log out
(b) Technical Documentation: This is a manual for programmers which aid them in modifying the system and
in correcting program errors. The following are found in technical documentation:
Algorithms of the program, program listings,
Program testing procedures and test data, File structures.
Sample of expected system results, Validation rules
Program structure showing modules and Output formats
their relationships, Bugs in the system
System flowcharts, Hardware requirements
Programming language used, Software requirements
Program code,
NB: VOLUMETRICS: Refers to the amount of data to be processed and the characteristics of the users. This
may include:
- The number of input documents or online requests
- The number of users and mode of processing (online/batch)
The computer environment is prepared, the programs to be written are done and they are tested, user
documentation and training manuals are developed.
Computer environment being prepared: electrical wires, network cables are installed, furniture, air conditioning
are in place. The computers are installed and tested.
Programs are written per the program and design specifications. The programs are tested using walk through
and group reviews. The Analyst supervises the writing of training manuals and user documentations. User
documentation includes user manuals, user quick reference guides, on-screen help etc.
It also involves the construction and assembling of the technical components that are needed for the new system
to operate. This includes preparation of the computer room environment, coding of the computer program using
a specific programming language, testing of the coded program, user training (users are trained on how to enter
data, search records, edit fields, produce reports, etc).
Testing strategies
First step involves testing of the programs and various modules individually, e.g.
- Top-Down testing: program is tested with limited functionality. Most functions are replaced with stubs
that contain code. Functions are gradually added to the program until the complete program is tested.
- Bottom – up testing:
Each function is tested individually and then combined to test the complete program.
-
- Black-box testing:
Program is regarded as a black box and is tested according to its specification.
No account is taken of the way the program is written
Different values are entered for variables to determine whether the program can cope with them.
This includes standard (typical/normal), extreme (borderline) and abnormal data values.
testing will include:
Use of extreme, standard and abnormal data
Inputting error free data into the system to see if error free outputs can be produced.
Inputting data that contains errors into the system to see if the validation procedures will
identify the errors.
Inputting large quantities of data into the system to test whether or not the system can
cope with it.
Testing all the regular and occasional processing procedures.
Inputting data that contains extreme ranges of information to check that the validation
procedures can cope with it.
-
- White-box testing:
Each path through the program is tested to ensure that all lines of code work perfectly.
Involves testing the program to determine whether all possible paths through the program
produce desired results
Mostly appropriate if the program has different routes through it, i.e. uses selection control
structure and loops
Involves testing of logical paths through the code
Involves testing of the structure and logic of the program (if it has logical errors)
Involves desk checking (dry running)
-
- Alpha testing:
The first testing done within the developers company (at owners’ laboratory).
Testing is done by members of the software company
Some errors may still be in existence after alpha testing as the testers are programmers not users.
The software version will be unfinished
Testers have knowledge of the software and of programming
- Beta testing: System testing done after alpha testing; in which the program version is released to a
number of privileged customers in exchange of their constructive comments. Mostly similar to the
finally released version.
Once a program is tested, it is installed and the analyst can now test it. A very large program must be tested
using the following types of tests:
1. Unit testing: the process of testing each program unit (sub-routine/module in a suite) singly to determine if
it produces expected results.
2. Integration Testing: testing to see if modules can combine with each other and work as expected. The
whole program is tested to determine if its module integrate perfectly
3. System testing: the testing of the whole program after joining the modules to determine if it runs perfectly.
4. User acceptance testing: determining if users of the new system are prepared to use it. Usually the final
step. It enables identification of some bugs related to usability. User gain the confidence that the program
being ushered meets their requirements
Ergonomics: the design and functionality of the computer environment and includes furniture setup, ventilation,
security, space, noise, etc. some of the ergonomic concerns include:
Incorrect positioning of the computer facing the window can lead to eyestrain from screen glare. Incorrect sitting
positioning can lead to backache. Constant typing with inadequate breaks can lead to RSI. Printer noise can lead
to stress. Badly designed software can cause stress. Trailing electricity cables are a safety hazard.
a. Parallel Run: This involves using of both the old and new system concurrently until the new system proves to
be efficient. It involves operating the new and old systems simultaneously until management is confident that the
new system will perform satisfactorily. Other workers will be using the old system while others use the old
system but doing the same type of job.
- Both the old and new system run concurrently until the new system proves to be efficient.
- Used for very important applications.
- Costly (expensive) but the costs are worth paying for.
- can correct the new system while the old system is running
- allows workers to get familiar with the new system
- Output from new system is compared with output from existing system.
Advantages of parallel run
Results for both systems are compared for accuracy and consistency.
If the new system develops problems, it will be easier to revert to the old one.
There is enough time given to determine if the new system produces expected results.
Employees have enough time to familiarise with the new system.
ii. Abrupt (Direct) changeover: Involves stopping using the old system on a certain day and the new system
takes over on the next morning. This is suitable for control systems like in chemical plants and for traffic lights.
- new system takes over immediately
- stopping using the old system on a certain day and the new system takes over on the next morning.
- Suitable for control systems like in chemical plants and for traffic lights.
- Very risky because results are so important
- allows no time for training
-No duplication of work, Cheap for the organisation, faster to implement, difficult to revert back to the old
system if the new one fails. [2]
Advantages of Direct Changeover
Reduces cost as of running two systems at the same time.
Faster and more efficient to implement.
There is minimum duplication of tasks.
Enough resources can be allocated to make sure that the new system operates successfully.
iii. Phased / Partial conversion: This is whereby the old system is gradually removed while the new system is
gradually moved in at the same time. This can be done by computerising only one department in an organisation
this month, then the next department in two months’ time, and so on until the whole system is computerised.
iv. Pilot conversion: one area of organization is converted to the new system while the remainder still uses
the old system
- could be even one subject / department
- program is tested in one organisation (or department),
- allows workers to familiarise with the new system on department by department basis.
- effect of one or more problems could be minimised
- Expensive to have a pilot study
This is whereby a program is tested in one organisation (or department), and is applied to the whole organisation
if it passes the pilot stage. It serves as a model for other departments. A pilot program can then be applied in
phases, directly or using the parallel run method.
7. Maintenance/review/evaluation Stage:
This stage is concerned with making upgrades and repairs to an already existing system. Certain sections of the
system will be modified with time.
Maintenance can be
Implies that there room for improving the system even if it is running effectively. For example,
improving report generation speed to improve response time. May also incde adding more management
information into the system.
Involves correcting some errors that may emanate later, for example, wrong totals, wrong headings on
reports, etc. such errors may have been realized when the system has been later a short period of time.
Adaptive Maintenance
Involves making the system adapt to changing needs within the organization. For example, changing the
system from being a standalone to a multi-user system. May be caused by purchasing of new hardware,
changes in software, new government legislation and new tax bands.
NB
Criteria used to evaluate a computer based solution includes the following:
- Were the objectives met? (Successes of the system are compared with set objectives)
- Does it carry out all the required tasks?
- Easiness to use (user friendly)
- Maintainability
- Compatibility with existing systems and hardware
- Offering better performance than the previous one
- Cost effectiveness, etc.
SYSTEM SECURITY
It is important to keep data secure so that it may not be damaged or get lost. The risks and their solutions are as
follows:
Risk Solution
Hardware -Frequent back-up of data, at least one copy to be kept at different locations on
failure daily basis
-Log files to be kept for all transactions
Fire Keep backup file at fireproof safe or storage at an alternative location
Theft Physical security measures like locking rooms, use security cameras, guards,
electric fence, screen gates, etc
Disgruntled Employee checks (ID cards to check workers, careful vetting during
employees employment, instant removal of access right to sacked workers, separation of
tasks for workers, educating workers to be aware of security breaches)
Hackers Usernames & Passwords, firewalls
Viruses Latest and updated Antiviruses (, firewalls
Floods Building rooms at higher grounds, waterproof safes for backups
If a hard disc fails, files can be recovered by using the last backup, which is copied on to another hard disc. The
log file should be used to update the master file.
During the recovering process, the master file will not be available but the system could be maintained at a lower
level of services. Any transaction could be logged and used to update the master file when the system is up and
running.
Employee resistance: When a new system is introduced, some employees may resist the change and this could
be catastrophic if not handled appropriately. Some fear losing their jobs, of being demoted or being transferred
and change of their job description. Resistance can be in the following forms:
Through strikes and demonstrations.
Giving false information during system investigation.
Entering wrong and inappropriate data so that wrong results are produces, etc.
User training:
Once a new system is put in place, existing employees are trained on how to operate the new system, otherwise
new employees are recruited. User training can be in the following forms:
i. On the job training: Users are trained at their organisation by hired trainers. This has the following
advantages:
Learners practice with actual equipment and the environment of the job.
Learners can engage in productive practices while on training.
This is cheaper for the organisation.
Enough practice is gained on how to operate the system.
ii. Classroom training: Users are send to other colleges and institutions which offer courses on the subject
matter. This could be expensive to organisations since employees take study leave while being paid at the same
time. Employees can also be trained on aspects that they will not apply when they finish the course. The gap
between what is learnt and what is needed at the job may be too wide.
- User dissatisfaction. SDLC assumes that the user already knows all their requirements thus the analysts
expect the users to tell them their requirements and once documented the requirements should remain
unchanged, thus they develop the system with these requirements only to find that when the system is
implemented, it does not provide for their need or their changed requirements, hence they become
dissatisfied with the system.
- Failure to meet the needs of the management in that the systems developed with the approach are
mainly operational processing systems such as payroll, invoicing which deals with low level operational
tasks, thus ignoring the information needs of the tactical and top management, that they require to make
decisions e.g. which products to stop selling etc.
- Unambitious system design, in that the systems developed by this approach often tend to computerize
the manual operational tasks like invoicing, thus they tend to come up with systems design that is similar
to the existing manual process.
- Application backlog, this approach has many phases with sub phases, It may take many weeks to
complete a phase, thus the overall development time of a single project may be months and if there are
other system waiting to be developed using this process, it may cause a backlog.
- Maintenance workload since the firm may have many systems to develop, the development is often
quick and ‘dirty’ so as to make the delivery date, thus brings about systems which take a huge effort to
maintain.
- Problems with documentation, this approach provides for documentation of the implementation
process which is very ideal, but the notation of the documentation is towards the computer person in that
the documentation is highly technical and not easy to understand by the user.
ALGORITHMS
- A set of instructions describing the steps followed in performing a specific task, for example, calculating
change.
- They are a sequence of instructions for solving a problem.
- Algorithms can be illustrated using the following:
Descriptions, Flowcharts, Pseudocodes, Structure diagrams
a. Descriptions:
- These are general statements that are followed in order to complete a specific task.
- They are not governed by any programming language. An example is as follows:
Enter temperature in oC
Store the value in box C
Calculate the equivalent temperature in oF
Store the value in box F
Print the value of box C and F
End the program.
b. Pseudocodes:
- These are English-like statements, closer to programming language that indicates steps followed in
performing a specific task.
- They are means of expressing algorithms without worrying about the syntax of the programming language.
- There are no strict rules on how pseudocode statements should be written.
- Indentations are very important in writing pseudocodes since they clearly indicate the extent of loops and
conditional statements.
- They are however independent of any programming language.
- An example is as follows:
Enter centigrade temperature, C
If C = 0, then stop.
Set F to 32 + (9C/5)
Print C and F
End
A B C
The above 3 Pseudocodes produces the same result.
Cascaded/Nested If Statements
This is whereby if statements are found inside other if statements (nested Ifs) as shown below:
Start
Enter “First Number”, A
Enter “Second Number”, B
Enter “Third Number”, C
If A>B Then
If B>C Then
Print “A is the biggest Number”
End If
End If
End.
CASE Statement: This is an alternative to the IF...THEN...ELSE statement and is shorter. For example:
Enter first Number, A
Enter second number, B
Enter operand (+, -, * /)
CASE operand of:
“+”: C = A + B
“-”: C = A-B
“*”: C = A*B
“/”: C = A/B
ENDCASE
Print C
END
iii. Repetition/Iteration/looping:
A control structure that repeatedly executes part of a program or the whole program until a certain condition is
satisfied.
Iteration is in the following forms: FOR...NEXT LOOP, REPEAT... UNTIL Loop and the
WHILE...ENDWHILE Loop.
a. For...Next Loop: A looping structure that repeatedly executes the loop body for a specified number of times.
The syntax of the For...Next loop is as follows:
A group of statements between the looping structures is called the loop body and is the one that is repeatedly
executed.
The For...Next loop is appropriate when the number of repetitions is known well in advance, e.g. five times. An
example of a program that uses the For...Next loop is as follows:
Sum, Average = 0
FOR I = 1 to 5 DO
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + number
NEXT I
Average = Sum/5
Display Sum, Average
End
b. Repeat...Until Structure: This is a looping structure that repeatedly executes the loop body when the
condition set is FALSE until it becomes TRUE. The number of repetitions may not be known in advance and the
loop body is executed at least once. The syntax is as follows:
Repeat
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
Until {Condition}
For example
Sum, Average, Count = 0
Repeat
Enter Number (999 to end)
Sum = Sum + Number
Count = count + 1
Until Number = 999
Average = Sum / count
Print Sum, count, Average
End
In the above program:
- Count records the number of times the loop body executes.
- 999 is used to stop further data entry through the keyboard and thereby ending the loop. Such a value
that stops further data entry through the keyboard thereby terminating a loop is called a Rogue value or
sentinel.
- The condition here is {Number = 999}. The loop exits when the number 999 is entered. If 999 is part of
the number to be entered in this program, then the user has to split it into two numbers, that is 999 = 990
+ 9, therefore can be entered separately as 990 and 9.
- A flag is also used to control the loop. In this case 999 is also a flag.
NB. As for the Repeat...Until loop, the condition is tested after the loop body has been run at least once, even
when the condition is true from start. This is rather misleading.
WHILE {condition}
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
ENDWHILE
c. Flowcharts
It is a diagram used to give details on how programs and procedures are executed. Flowcharts are drawn using
specific symbols, each with its own meaning, as given below:
Symbol Explanation
Process Symbol - Indicates where some form of processing occur
Flowchart
Start
Enter number, A
Enter number, B
Sum = A + B
Display Sum
Stop
3. Using Iteration
(a) Repeat ... Until Structure
Flowchart Pseudocode equivalent
Sum, Average, Count = 0
Repeat
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + Number
Count = count + 1
Until Count > 10
Average = Sum / count
Display Sum, count, Average
End
Flowchart (a) above indicates modules named Accept Numbers, Add numbers Multiply Numbers and Display
Results. Flowcharts for individual modules can then be designed as given in diagram (b) above, only the first
module is indicated. Can you do the rest?
d. Structure Diagrams/Structure Charts: These are diagrams that show relationships between different
modules, thereby giving the structure of a program. They also illustrate the top-down approach to programming.
It is useful as a documentation of a complex program once it is completed. It resembles a family tree as given
below.
Start
Sum, Product = 0
Enter First Number, A
Enter Second Number, B
Sum = A + B
Product = A * B
Display Sum, Product
End
- The structure diagram above indicates five sub-programs of the program Process Numbers, namely
Initialise, Accept Numbers, Process Numbers, Display Results and Exit.
- The module Process Numbers has its own sub-programs, which are Add Numbers and Multiply
Numbers.
- Modules are appropriate for very large programs.
- If the module is repeatedly executed (loop), then an asterisk (*) must be placed at the top right corner of
the module (inside).
- All the boxes at the same level indicate selection.
- Boxes below others indicate sequence.
- The program can be written as a continuous single program as indicated on the right side of the diagram.
Recursion
A recursive function or procedure occurs when the procedure calls itself other than calling another procedure.
If a recursive method is called with a base case, the method returns a result. If a method is called with a
more complex problem, the method divides the problem into two or more conceptual pieces: a piece that
the method knows how to do and a slightly smaller version of the original problem. Because this new
problem looks like the original problem, the method launches a recursive call to work on the smaller
problem.
For recursion to terminate, each time the recursion method calls itself with a slightly simpler version of
the original problem, the sequence of smaller and smaller problems must converge on the base case.
When the method recognizes the base case, the result is returned to the previous method call and a
sequence of returns ensures all the way up the line until the original call of the method eventually returns
the final result.
Both iteration and recursion are based on a control structure: Iteration uses a repetition structure;
recursion uses a selection structure.
Both iteration and recursion involve repetition: Iteration explicitly uses a repetition structure; recursion
achieves repetition through repeated method calls.
Iteration and recursion each involve a termination test: Iteration terminates when the loop-continuation
condition fails; recursion terminates when a base case is recognized.
Iteration and recursion can occur infinitely: An infinite loop occurs with iteration if the loop-
continuation test never becomes false; infinite recursion occurs if the recursion step does not reduce the
problem in a manner that converges on the base case.
Recursion repeatedly invokes the mechanism, and consequently the overhead, of method calls. This can
be expensive in both processor time and memory space.
PROGRAMMING ERRORS
Programming errors are grouped into:
i. Syntax error:
- this is an error of violating the grammatical rules governing sentence construction in a certain
programming language, for example, misspelled reserved words or leaving out a semi-colon at the end
of each line in Pascal.
- Syntax errors are detected by the computer. A program cannot run with syntax errors.
ii. Logic error (Semantic error):
- refers to an error in the sequencing of instructions, modules and specifying wrong formulae that will
produce undesirable results.
- For example, specifying a jump instruction to the wrong procedure or instructing the computer to display
result before any processing has been done.
- Logic errors cannot be detected by the computer.
- The user just finds wrong and unintended results of a process.
- For example:
NetSalary = GrossSalary + Deductions + AidsLevy
- It is also an error generated by entering the wrong data type during program execution, for example,
entering a text value where a numeric value is needed.
1. Translator diagnostics.
Each of the commands that are in the original program is looked at separately by the computer translator to
execute it. Each command will have a special word which says what sort of command it is. The translator looks
at the special word in the command and then goes to its dictionary to look it up. The dictionary tells the translator
program what the rules are for that particular special word. If the word has been typed in wrongly, the translator
will not be able to find it in the dictionary and will know that something is wrong. If the word is there, but the
rules governing how it should be used have not been followed properly, the translator will know that there is
something wrong. Either way, the translator program knows that a mistake has been made, it knows where the
mistake is and, often, it also knows what mistake has been made. A message detailing all this can be sent to the
programmer to give hints as to what to do. These messages are called translator diagnostics.
2. Debugging tools.
These are part of the software which help the user to identify where the errors are. The techniques available
include:
a) Cross-referencing.
This software checks the program that has been written and finds places where particular variables have been
used. This lets the programmer check to make sure that the same variable has not been used twice for different
things.
b) Traces.
A trace is where the program is run and the values of all the relevant variables are printed out, as are the
individual instructions, as each instruction is executed. In this way, the values can be checked to see where they
suddenly change or take on an unexpected value.
Test strategies are important to establish before the start of testing to ensure that all the elements of a solution are
tested, and that unnecessary duplication of tests is avoided.
Using VB 6.0, if you reach a point in your code that calls another procedure (a function, subroutine, or the script
associated with an object or applet), you can enter (step into) the procedure or run (step over) it and stop at the
next line. At any point, you can jump to the end (step out) of the current procedure and carry on with the rest of
the application.
Break points can be set within program code so that the program stops temporarily to check that it is operating
correctly to that point.
Step Into: Traces through each line of code and steps into procedures. This allows you to view the effect of each
statement on variables.
Step Over: Executes each procedure as if it were a single statement. Use this instead of Step Into to step across
procedure calls rather than into the called procedure.
Step Out: Executes all remaining code in a procedure as if it were a single statement, and exits to the next
statement in the procedure that caused the procedure to be called initially.
jump to the end (step out) of the current procedure and carry on with the rest of the application
DATA TESTING
After a program has been coded, it must be tested with different data types to determine if intended results are
produced. The types of test data that can be used include:
i. Extreme Data: Refers to the minimum and the maximum values in a given range. For example, a computer
program requires the user to enter any number from (between) 1 to 20. 1 and 20 are extreme data and the
computer must accept these. Thus extreme data is accepted by the computer.
ii. Standard (normal) Data: This refers to data that lies within (in-between) a given range. In our example
above, the numbers from 2 to 19 are standard data and are accepted by the computer.
iii. Abnormal Data: This refers to data outside a given range. As to our example above, the number 0, -1, -50
and all number from 21 and above are abnormal data.
iv. Valid data: refers to data of the correct data type. Invalid data is data of the wrong data type. Thus if the user
enter the value “Terrence” instead of a number, this is referred to as a wrong (invalid) data type. Only numbers
are needed, not text.
PROGRAM TESTING
Can be done using the following testing methods:
Unit testing, Integration Testing, User acceptance testing, black box testing, white box testing, bottom-up testing,
top-down testing, etc.
DATA STRUCTURES
A data structure is a collection of different data items that are stored together as a single unit and the operations
allowable on them. Such data structures includes arrays, trees, linked lists, stacks and queues. Data structures can
be static or dynamic.
The last option modifies the starting value and the ending value of the indices, but the number of elements still
remains the same.
By default, this implies that the array stores at most 5 elements. On running, the computer creates 5 contiguous
memory locations under the name “Names”. Thus Names will contain 5 partitions. Each memory partition will be
accessed using an index, which is the address of the memory space in the array.
In Visual Basic, the number of elements stored in an array is N + 1, N being the number (subscript) used
when declaring the array.
Array index starts at Zero up to N, N being the number in the declaration of the array.
The index is also called Subscript, and therefore arrays are subscripted data types.
It is not possible to exceed the upper limit or go below the lower limit on the array index values. You will receive
a “Subscript out of range” error message if you try to do so.
In the above declaration, the array index starts from 0 to 4 and are integer values. The memory locations will be
as follows:
The five individual locations are Names (0), Names (1), Names (2), Names (3) and Names (4).
Each data item is called an element of the array. To reference a particular element one must use the appropriate
index.
NB: However, most programming languages differ with Microsoft Visual basic in handling arrays,
especially on the amount of memory allocated. For example, using Java, the following declaration:
Int [4 ]Names;
This array declaration creates exactly 4 memory spaces for the array Names. The indices of the array range
from 0 to 3 which are
Names[0], Names[1], Names[2] and Names[3]
Names(3) = “Manyeruke”
Arrays simplify the processing of similar data. An algorithm for getting four names from the user and storing them
in the array Names is shown below:
One-dimensional arrays
A one-dimensional array is a data structure in which the array is declared using a single index and can be visually
represented as a list.
The following diagram shows the visual representation of the array Names(4):
0 Theresa
1 Lameck
2 Johanne
3 Laurence
4 Fadzai
Two-dimensional arrays
A two-dimensional array is a data structure in which the array is declared using two indices and can be visually
represented as a table.
Indices 0 1 2 3
0 Makombe Tinashe M 4A
1 Vheremu Alex M 4B
2 Mununi Mary F 3C
3 Chirongera Salpicio M 2C
4 Mutero Violet F 4C
The diagram above shows the visual representation of a 2 dimensional array Names(4,3)- 5 rows and 4 columns:
Each individual element can be referenced by its row and column indices. For example:
Names(0,0) is the data item “Makombe”
Names(2,1) is the item “Mary”
Names(1,2) is the item “M”
Initialising an array
Initialising an array is a procedure in which every value in the array is set with starting values – this starting value
would typically be “” for a string array, or 0 for a numeric array.
Initialisation is important to ensure that the array does not contain results from a previous use, elsewhere in the
program.
The above algorithm will shift elements of the array up (or left), removing the first element and then completely
removing the last element in the array.
The algorithm first searches the element to delete, and then remove it from the array.
NB:
If the item is string, it replaces with empty spaces. However, if it is numeric, it replaces with a 0.
Deleting form an array is often difficult as elements need to be shifted positions after deletion. It is an
effective method for deleting elements.
This allows the user to create the array when he/she actually needs it, using a ReDim statement: Dynamic arrays
can be re-created at will, each time with a different number of items. When you re-create a dynamic array, its
contents are reset to 0 (or to an empty string) and you lose the data it contains. If you want to resize an array
without losing its contents, use the ReDim Preserve command:
-
The data items are held in nodes.
The possible routes are called paths/branches. They are lines connecting the nodes.
Each node has two possible paths.
The nodes are arranged in layers.
The first node is called the root, or root node. Each tree has only one root node. However, each branch
can have its branch root.
Node created by another one is called child node (children)
Each child node has only one parent node
Each parent node has at most two children
The last node is called the leaf node/terminal node (has no children)
Nodes that share common parent are called siblings
For example, given the following numbers: 20, 30, 5, 2, 7, 6, 17, 58, 41
Placing them in the binary tree is as follows:
- The first element becomes the root node, i.e. 20
- For other numbers, the bigger number goes to the right and the smaller one to the right of a node. Every
time start from the root node, until you get to an empty space to place the new node.
- For example, 30, is bigger than 20, therefore is placed to the right hand side of 20. There is nothing on
this side and therefore a new node is created and 30 placed inside.
- Next is 5, which is smaller than 20 (root node) and therefore goes to the left. There is an empty space
therefore a new node is created and 5 is placed inside.
- Then 2 is smaller than 20 (root node) and therefore goes to the left. On the left there is 5. 2 is smaller
than 5, therefore we go to the left and place 2 there.
- Next is 7, which is smaller than 20, we go to the left where there is 5. Seven (7) is bigger than 5,
therefore we place it to the right of 5.
- ……….finish on your own!!!!!!!!!!!
A. Pre-Order traversal
The order of traversal is:
- Visit the Node
- Traverse the Left sub-tree
- Traverse the Right sub-tree.
This is generally given as NLR
For the diagram above, the pre-order traversal will be as follows:
20, 5, 2, 7, 6, 17, 30, 58, 41.
B. In-Order Traversal
The order of traversal is:
- Traverse the Left sub-tree
- Visit the Node
- Traverse the Right sub-tree.
This is generally given as LNR
For the diagram above, the pre-order traversal will be as follows:
2, 5, 6, 7, 17, 20, 30, 41, 58.
NB: In-order traversal prints items in ascending order or in alphabetical order if they are alphabetic items.
C. Post-Order Traversal
The order of traversal is:
OR:
The entire sub-tree without its root is read to a list
The sub-tree is deleted
The values in the list are read back into the tree (element which was originally on the left will replace the
deleted element (becomes root of that branch))
Binary tree maintain the order of elements. However, if one element is deleted, the order is affected.
In some cases, each node (data) may be assigned pointers (right and left pointer). This is as illustrated below:
Binary trees are also important in the evaluation of postfix expressions (Reverse Polish Notation)
Infix Expressions
Normal mathematical expressions are written as follows:
A+B
This method is called Infix Notation, because the operator is found between the operands to be acted upon. Infix
notation involves the use of brackets and observes operator precedence, e.g. BODMAS/BOMDAS.
For example, the expression below is an Infix:
(A+B)*C+(D-A)
If there are no brackets, the expression will give a different answer. It is not easy for the computer to evaluate
infix expressions.
Prefix Expressions
The Polish Notation is also called the prefix. In Prefix (Polish) notation, the operator precedes the operands. For
example, the infix expression
A + B is given as: +AB
This has an advantage that it removes ambiguity and avoids use of brackets
Postfix Expressions
Reverse Polish Notation (Postfix) is a way of writing mathematical expressions without using parenthesis and
brackets, and in which the operands precede the operator. Reverse Polish Notation is also called Postfix. For
example, the Infix expression A + B is written as follows in Postfix:
AB+
Likewise, the infix expression (A+B)*C+(D-A) is written as:
AB+C*DA-+
The first procedure is to put elements into a binary tree, with each operator or operand being a node on its own.
To do this, we look at operator precedence. The operator with the lowest / weakest precedence becomes the root
node. When the weakest operator is identified, it is placed as the root node.
Expressions on the left hand side of this weakest operator makes up the left sub tree, while those on the right
hand side makes the right sub-tree. This procedure is applied as we move down the tree.
- The weakest operator to the right of = is +, therefore it becomes the first node to the left of the root.
- To the left of the + sign, the weakest sign is the *, which we place as the node to the left of +
- To the left of * there is A, which becomes a node.
- To the right of * there is B, which becomes a node.
- We are now done with the left branch of the + node, lets move to the right side.
- The weakest sign is /, it becomes a node there.
- To its left there is C, which becomes a node.
- To the right of / there is D, which also becomes a node.
- Thus all the items are now in a binary tree , which appears as follows:
NB: If the original expression to be converted contains, brackets or parenthesis, ignore them, that is, don’t put
them in the tree, but use them in getting the weakest operator. Items in brackets have a higher priority and
therefore are inserted in the tree latter than those NOT in brackets.
Using the above tree, the reverse polish notation will be as follows;
ab+cde-*-
The above can be shown diagrammatically. Can please draw this on your own?
Questions
1. (a) State the difference between dynamic and static data structures giving an example of each. (3)
b) Show how a binary tree can be used to store the data items Feddi, Eda, Joh, Sean, Dav, Gali in alphabetic
order. (4)
c) Explain why problems may arise if Joh is deleted from the tree and how such problems may be overcome.
2. An array is to be used to store information. State three parameters that need to be given about the array before
it can be used, explaining the reason why each is necessary.
3. (a) Explain the difference between static and dynamic data structures. [2]
(b) Give an example of a
(i) static,
(ii) dynamic
data structure, giving an advantage of each. [4]
(c) The details of a car part are stored in a binary tree according to this algorithm
READ VALUE NEW_PART
START AT ROOT NODE
WHILE NODE NOT EMPTY, DO
IF NEW_PART < VALUE AT NODE
THEN FOLLOW LEFT SUBTREE
ELSE FOLLOW RIGHT SUBTREE
ENDIF
ENDWHILE
INSERT NEW_PART AT NODE
END
(i) Show the binary tree after the following values have been input
Radio Visor Brakes Tyres Alternator Windscreen [3]
(ii) Explain how Clutch is added to the tree in (i). [5]
(iii) Describe an algorithm that can be applied to the binary tree of car parts, so that the tree is read in alphabetic
order.
4.
The following binary tree diagram contains a number of integers. In each case the right pointer indicates the
condition “higher number” and the left pointer indicates the condition “lower or equal number”.
(ii) Write down the order in which the nodes would be accessed to find the integer 2528. [1]
(iii) Copy the tree and show where a new node containing the integer 3106 would be added. [1]
(iv) The integer 2550 is not in the diagram. Explain what would happen if a search was made for this code.
Real
A real is a number that contains a decimal point. Real numbers can also be referred to as single or double,
depending upon the number of bytes in which they are stored.
Boolean
A Boolean is a data-type that can store one of only two values –True or False.
In the computer, Boolean data is stored in one byte – True being stored as 11111111 and False as
00000000.
A simple example of its use would be in the control program for an automatic washing machine.
One of the important pieces of information for the processor would be to know whether the door was
shut.
A Boolean variable could be set to 0 if it was open and to 1 if it was shut.
A simple check of that value would tell the processor whether it was safe to fill the machine with water
String
A string (or text) is a series of alphanumeric characters usually enclosed in quotation marks.
Any type of alphabetic or numeric data can be stored as a string, e.g: “Mutare”, “07/02/1978”, “123” and
“36.85” are all strings.
Each character within a string will be stored in one byte using its ASCII code.
However modern systems might store each character in two bytes using its Unicode.
The maximum length of a string is limited only by the available memory.
Character
A character is any single digit, letter or symbol that can be represented in a computer, for example, 2, t, G, %, &,
M, space, etc. Each character is represented using binary digits, which the computer can understand; therefore
take up a single unit of storage on the computer. Some programming languages refer to this as a Char. Can be
used to represent coded data e.g. M for Male, F for Female.
Date
Used to represented dates, e.g date of birth, etc. can be long or short dates, e.g dd/mm/yy, dd/mm/yyyy or dd-
MonthName-yyyy. Dates usually take 8 bytes of storage.
Visual Basic uses User Defined Data types (UDTs) as a way of implementing data structures. In C/C++, they are
called Structures (structs) and in Pascal and COBOL they are called records.
UDTs can be declared only at the module-level (form) (you may not declare a UDT in an individual Sub or
Function).
UDTs may have Public (project-level) or Private (module-level) scope. If the keyword Public or Private is
omitted, the default is Public.
UDTs with Public scope may only be defined in standard modules, not forms.
For example, to define a UDT for an employee record, you might code the following:
To use a UDT, you must define a variable "As" the name following the keyword "Typ e" (in this case,
"EmployeeRecord"). For example:
1. Bit
Bit is short for BInary digiT. It is a single digit in base 2, that is, either 1 or 0. A bit is the smallest unit of data
that the computer can process. Therefore a binary number is composed of these two values only, that is 1 and 0.
Bit represents two states, “ON” or “OFF”, true or false, or yes or no
2. Byte
A byte is a group of 8 bits representing a character. A character is any digit, letter or symbol that can be
represented in a computer, for example, 2, t, G, %, &, M, space, etc. Each character is represented using
binary digits, which the computer can understand, therefore take up a single unit of storage on the computer.
With 8 bits in a byte, you can represent 256 values ranging from 0 to 255:
0 = 00000000
1 = 00000001
2 = 00000010
...
254 = 11111110
255 = 11111111
NB: However, the byte size may differ with the architecture of the computer. Other computers use an 8-bit byte,
other 32-bit byte, others 64-bit byte. Thus in general, a byte can be a unit representation of character, which
could be 8, 16, 32 or in 64 bits. However, for this course, we will assume a bit as a group of 8-bits representing a
character.
3. Word
A word is a fixed-size group of bits that can be handled as a unit by the processor.
Word size refers to the number of bits that the CPU can simultaneously process, which could be 8 bits, 16
bits, 32 bits or 64 bits. The bits are processed as a unit during input and output. A 64 bit processor can
process data faster than a 32 bit processor, thus word size affects processor speed.
DATA REPRESENTATION
The form of data representation is in its character set. All the characters that a system can recognise, which
often equates to characters on the keyboard, is called its character set. Character set (or data representation)
can be as follows:
Each character is represented using a unique set of bits which are equivalent to 1 or 2 bytes. Character set of a
computer is represented as binary codes, ASCII, UNICODE and EBCDic using 7/8 bits.
1. American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
It is a set of codes that a computer understands and is represented in a single byte of 7 or 8 bits per character,
which allows communication between systems. ASCII uses 7 bits which gives 128 combinations. However the
extended ASCII now uses 8 bits so there are 256 different codes that can be used and hence 256 different
characters. However, this is not quite true, as some of the bits can be used for parity checks.
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is widely used in computers of all types.
ASCII codes are of two types –ASCII-7 and ASCII-8.
• ASCII-7 is a 7-bit standard ASCII code. In ASCII-7, the first 3 bits are the zone bits and the next 4 bits are for
the digits. ASCII-7 allows 27 = 128 combinations. 128 unique symbols are represented using ASCII-7. ASCII-7
has been modified by IBM to ASCII-8.
• ASCII-8 is an extended version of ASCII-7. ASCII-8 is an 8-bit code having 4 bits for zone and 4 bits for the
digit. ASCII-8 allows 28 = 256 combinations. ASCII-8 represents 256 unique symbols. ASCII is used widely to
represent data in computers.
• The ASCII-8 code represents 256 symbols.
o Codes 0 to 31 represent control characters (non-printable), because they are used for actions like, Carriage
return (CR), Bell (BEL) etc.
o Codes 48 to 57 stand for numeric 0-9.
o Codes 65 to 90 stand for uppercase letters A-Z.
o Codes 97 to 122 stand for lowercase letters a-z.
o Codes 128-255 are the extended ASCII codes.
In the ASCII character set, each binary value between 0 and 127 is given a specific character. Most computers
extend the ASCII character set to use the full range of 256 characters available in a byte. The upper 128
characters handle special things like accented characters from common foreign languages.
You can see the 127 standard ASCII codes below. Computers store text documents, both on disk and in memory,
using these codes. For example, if you use Notepad in Windows OS to create a text file containing the words,
"Four score and seven years ago," Notepad would use 1 byte of memory per character (including 1 byte for each
space character between the words -- ASCII character 32). When Notepad stores the sentence in a file on disk,
the file will also contain 1 byte per character and per space.
Try this: Open up a new file in Notepad and insert the sentence, "Four score and seven years ago" in it. Save the
file to disk under the name getty.txt. Then use the explorer and look at the size of the file. You will find that the
file has a size of 30 bytes on disk: 1 byte for each character. If you add another word to the end of the sentence
and re-save it, the file size will jump to the appropriate number of bytes. Each character consumes a byte.
If you were to look at the file as a computer looks at it, you would find that each byte contains not a letter but a
number -- the number is the ASCII code corresponding to the character (see below). So on disk, the numbers for
the file look like this:
F o u r a n d s e v e n
70 111 117 114 32 97 110 100 32 115 101 118 101 110
By looking in the ASCII table, you can see a one-to-one correspondence between each character and the ASCII
code used. Note the use of 32 for a space -- 32 is the ASCII code for a space. We could expand these decimal
numbers out to binary numbers (so 32 = 00100000) if we wanted to be technically correct -- that is how the
computer really deals with things.
The first 32 values (0 through 31) are codes for things like carriage return and line feed. The space character is
the 33rd value, followed by punctuation, digits, uppercase characters and lowercase characters.
ASCII codes can just be used for representing characters and not for arithmetic calculations.
ASCII codes also occupy a lot of disc storage space.
2. Binary System
Data is represented in 0s and 1s, thus in base 2. It is obtained by dividing the denary number by 2, taking the
remainders only. The number of bits in the answer does not matter unless specified.
3. BCD
Each decimal digit is represented by its own 4-bit binary code as follows:
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
BCD is used to represent some numbers that are not proper numbers (numbers that don’t behave like numbers).
A barcode looks like a number, but if the barcodes are added together the result is not a barcode for any product.
The arithmetic does not give a sensible answer. Values like this that look like numbers but do not behave like
them are often stored in binary coded decimal (BCD). Each digit is simply changed into a four bit binary number
which are then placed after one another in order.
- This has the advantage that it is easy to convert a number from BCD to decimal form and vice versa.
- There is no rounding off numbers when computing fractional numbers, thus no errors due to rounding off.
- Used in businesses where significant digit needs to be retained.
However:
- As compared to pure binary, more bits are needed to store a number, thus more memory is needed
- Calculations with such numbers are more complex than in pure binary numbers, e.g.
Adding 1 and 19, i.e 0000 00012
+ 0001 10012
0001 10102, the first digit, 1 is wrong and 1010 does not exist in BCD.
The error is caused by the range of numbers used for representing data in BCD. BCD used 4 bits which is 24 = 16
combinations. However the maximum range of numbers represented 9. 6 has to be added to the result if the sum
of bit is greater than 9. Thus adding the result above, 0001 10102 to 6 (0110) gives us 0010 00002, which is 20 in
BCD.
4. EBCDIC
The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) uses 8 bits (4 bits for zone, 4 bits for digit) to
represent a symbol in the data.
• EBCDIC allows 28 = 256 combinations of bits.
• 256 unique symbols are represented using EBCDIC code. It represents decimal numbers (0-9), lower
case letters (a-z), uppercase letters (A-Z), Special characters, and Control characters (printable and non-
printable e.g. for cursor movement, printer vertical spacing etc.).
• EBCDIC codes are used, mainly, in the mainframe computers.
5. UNICODE
Unicode is a universal character encoding standard for the representation of text which includes letters, numbers
and symbols in multi-lingual environments. This is an international 16-bit data coding method which represents
65536 different characters. It is enough to represent characters in any language, even Chinese and hieroglyphics.
A problem arises when the computer retrieves a piece of data from its memory. Imagine that the data is
01000001. Is this the number 65, or is it A?
They are both stored in the same way, so how can it tell the difference?
The answer is that characters and numbers are stored in different memory locations so it knows which one
it is by knowing whereabouts it was stored.
In an n-bit unsigned binary number, the magnitude of the number n is stored in n bits. An 8-bit unsigned number
can represent data in the range 0 to 255 (28= 256).
The magnitude of a number is its natural value, regardless of the sign. Thus the magnitude of -25 and +25 is 25
(not considering the sign in this situation). In binary form, 25 = 11001. Thus using Sign and Magnitude
representation:
+25 = 0 11001
-25 = 1 11001
What only differ is the sign bit, not the magnitude.
1’s Complement
One’s complement of a binary number is obtained by simply converting 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s. For example, given
the following four-bit binary number 10102, its 1’s complement becomes 01012. The alternating of bits only
applies to negative numbers, positive numbers do not change. For example
+6 = 000001102
-6 = 111110012
-6 is the complement (negative) of +6. Just convert 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s and thus -6 in 1’s complement.
Given the 1's complement we can find the magnitude of the number by taking it's 1's complement. The range of
numbers that can be represented in 1’s complement is found by the formula:
-(2n-1-1) to +(2n-1-1)
If the binary number has 8-bits (n=8). Thus the range of numbers will be from (-127) 100000002 to 011111112
(127)
Therefore the largest number that can be represented in 8-bit 1's complement is = 127. The smallest is -127.
However 1’s complement has a problem that it has two different representations (values) for zero, which are
000000002 and 111111112 both represent zero.
When adding binary numbers using 1’s complement, the carry bit is added back to the sum in the rightmost
position. There is no overflow as long as the magnitude of the result is not greater than 2n-1-1. We do not throw
away the carry bit.
2’S COMPLEMENT
Two’s complement of number is obtained by:
a) Positive numbers remain the same
b) Negative numbers: - Change the number to its 1’s complement.
- Add 1 to the result and the number will be in 2’s complement.
OR
- Rewrite the bits starting from the right hand side, all 0s take as they are at their
respective position and the first 1 value encountered. The rest alternate a 1 to 0
and a 0 to a 1 and your number will be in 2’s complement.
For example, in 2’s complement,
+6 = 000001102
-6 = 111110102
We can also find the magnitude the 2's complement number. The largest number that can be represented in 8-bit
2s complement is 011111112 = 127. The smallest is 100000002 = -128. The formula used for range is -(2n-1)
n-1
to +(2 -1)
This suggests that one way to detect overflow is to look at the sign bits of the two most significant bits and
compare it to the sum. Refer to diagrams below:
11111011
Step-1 00000100
Complement the number.
Step-2 -00000101
Add one add prefix a minus sign.
Step-3 -5
Convert binary to decimal.
When the addition of two values results in a carry, the carry bit is ignored and is thrown away. There is no
overflow as long as the magnitude is not greater than 2n-1-1 nor less than –(2n-1).
The two's-complement system has the advantage that the fundamental arithmetic operations of addition,
subtraction, and multiplication are identical to those for unsigned binary numbers (as long as the inputs are
represented in the same number of bits and any overflow beyond those bits is discarded from the result). This
property makes the system both simpler to implement and capable of easily handling higher precision arithmetic.
Also, zero has only a single representation, other than in ones'-complement where it has two values.
Binary arithmetic
The arithmetic operations - addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, performed on the binary numbers is
called binary arithmetic. The basic arithmetic operations performed on the binary numbers are
Binary conversion
Binary Addition, and
Binary Subtraction,
Binary Conversion
This involves converting a number in binary from to either denary (base 10), octal (base 8) or hexadecimal( base
16)
(a) Conversion from decimal (denary) to Binary
Divide the denary number by 2, listing the remainders until the answer is 0 remainder 1.
Take the remainders only from the last one until the first.
For example:
Add all the equivalent to values in the table, whose binary digit correspond to 1 and add them. The result
is the denary equivalent.
That is 16 + 4 = 20. This is a short form of (16 x 1) + (4 x1) = 20
= 1168
Octal Digits 1 1 6
= (64 x 1) + (8 x 1) + (1 x 6) = 78
(e) Decimal to hexadecimal
Hexadecimal means base 16.
A hexadecimal number contains numbers from 0 to 15.
However, 10 to 15 are represented by uppercase alphabetic characters from A to F respectively.
As on binary, take the number, divide it by 16 and take the remainders only, e.g.
209 to hexadecimal will be expressed as:
The relationship between binary and hexadecimal numbers is that hexadecimal (16) is 24. Thus binary
bits are put in groups of 4, starting from the right going to the left.
If the last batch (to the left) does not have 4 bits, append 0s to its left in order to get 4 digits in each
batch.
Each group is then separately converted to its decimal equivalent, which will automatically be in base
16.
NB: Pupils should be able to add and subtract hexadecimal numbers, which were left out in this module.
Cognisance should be taken on carry if the answer after adding exceeds 16. Bear in mind also that the decimal
number 10, 11…15 and represented by letters A, B…F respectively.
Binary Addition
The table below illustrates procedure for binary addition, just like the addition of normal figures.
Binary subtraction
Subtraction of binary numbers follow the principles laid down on the following table:
In the octal number system there are only eight different symbols.
Step-1
Divide the binary number into groups of three digits starting at the 111 101
LSB.
Step-2
7 5
Write down the hexadecimal equivalent for each group of digits.
e.g
Express the denary number 78 as:
(i) a binary number stored in an 8 bit byte,
-Divide 78 by 2 and then take the remainders, to get 1001110. This answer has 7 bits but you are
required to give your answer in 8-bit. Add a 0 to the leftmost side of the block to produce 010011102
which is the correct answer.
Explain how the binary value of 78 can be used to write down the equivalent octal value with a minimum
amount of calculation [3]
- The binary value of 78 is 01001110.
- Put this binary number in groups of 3 starting from the right, and this gives us 001 001 110.
- Each group of 3 bit can be converted separately to denary or octal form
Convert -63 and -94 into 2’s complement, 8 bit, binary numbers.
- Convert the first number into its binary form by dividing it by 2 and take the remainders.
- If answer does not have 8 bits, add 0s to the left until the bits add up to 8.
- Convert it to one’s complement by converting 1s to 0s and vice versa.
- Add 1 to the result and the number will be in 2’s complement.
- Perform the above stages for the second number.
The results will be as follows:
-63 in to binary form give 111111, which has 6 bits instead of 8. A leading 0 is added to the left to make
them 8, thus giving us: 00111111. Change 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s, which gives us 11000000. Add 1 to
the number and will give us 11000001. Which is now in 2’s complement of 64 which is -63.
The result above indicates overflow as the result of adding two negative numbers cannot give a positive answer.
There was overflow from positive bits into negative bits. The processor will produce an error because carry in to
MSB is different from carry out.
The decimal point in an integer is implied and does not change its position. The register used to store an integer
value will be as follows:
* * * * * * * *
There is no memory space for the decimal point. However computers represent a finite number of digits. This
limitation allows us to evaluate the maximum and minimum possible numbers that can be represented. These
include:
This is 1.0000000 = -1
The decimal point is fixed at one position and therefore does not move. In binary we can have functional column
headings.
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 . 1 1
=164.75
Binary Fraction Fraction Decimal
0.1 1/2 0.5
0.01 1/4 0.25
0.001 1/8 0.125
0.0001 1/16 0.0625
For negative numbers we use two's complement representation on the entire bit pattern.
Example
Represent -5.2510 in 8-bit binary with the binary point after the fourth digit.
Step-1
5 . 2 5
Calculate the positive equivalent number in
binary.
0 1 0 1 . 0 1 0 0
Step-2
Change 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s 1 0 1 0 . 1 0 1 1
(Complement).
Step-3
1 0 1 0 . 1 1 0 0
Add 1 to the result.
The floating point number representation uses two registers. The first register stores the number without the
binary point. The second register stores a number that indicates the position of the binary point in the first
register.
In decimal notation the number 23.456 can be written as 0.23456 x 10 2. This means that we need only store, in
decimal notation, the numbers 0.23456 and 2. The number 0.23456 is called the mantissa and the number 2 is
called the exponent. This is what happens in binary.
Similarly, in decimal, 0.0000246 can be written 0.246 x 10-4. Now the mantissa is 0.246 and the exponent is –4.
The floating point representation of a number has two parts: mantissa and exponent. The mantissa is a signed
fixed point number. The exponent shows the position of the binary point in the mantissa. For example, the
binary number +11001.11 with an 8-bit mantissa and 6-bit exponent is represented as follows -
• Mantissa is 01100111. The left most 0 indicates that the number is positive.
• Exponent is 000101. This is the binary equivalent of decimal number +5.
• The floating point number is Mantissa x 2exponent , i.e. + (.1100111) x 2+5.
Example: consider the binary number 10111. This could be represented by 0.10111 x 25 or 0.10111 x 2101. Here
0.10111 is the mantissa and 101 is the exponent.
Thus, in binary, 0.00010101 can be written as 0.10101 x 2-11 and 0.10101 is the mantissa and –11 is the
exponent.
It is now clear that we need to be able to store two numbers, the mantissa and the exponent. This form of
representation is called floating point form. Numbers that involve a fractional part, like 2.46710 and 101.01012 are
called real numbers.
Give the denary number which would have 01000000 00000000 as its binary, floating point
representation in this computer
The answer is 0.5 or ½ because it will be 0.1 x 20
It is not possible to represent zero as a normalised floating point number because a normalised value must have
the first two bits of the mantissa different. Therefore one must be a 1- which must represent either -1 or + ½, but
not zero.
Normalisation
This is done to simplify operations and expressing numbers in standard form.
Normalisation Principles:
Let us look at the following diagram
- For a positive number, there must be NO leading 0s to the left of the MSB, excluding the sign bit.
With positive numbers, the binary point in the mantissa was always placed immediately before the first
non-zero digit because it allows us to use the maximum number of digits.
Suppose we use 8 bits to hold the mantissa and 8 bits to hold the exponent. The binary number 10.11011
becomes 0.1011011 x 210 and can be held as
The first digit of the mantissa is zero and the second is one. The mantissa is said to be normalised if the first two
digits are different. Thus, for a positive number, the first digit is always zero and the second is always one. The
exponent is always an integer and is held in two's complement form.
Now consider the binary number 0.00000101011 which is 0.101011 x 2 -101. Thus the mantissa is 0.101011 and
the exponent is –101. Again, using 8 bits for the mantissa and 8 bits for the exponent, we have
Care needs to be taken when normalising negative numbers. The easiest way to normalise negative numbers is to
first normalise the positive version of the number. Consider the binary number –1011. The positive version is
1011 = 0.1011 x 2100 and can be represented by
As another example, change the decimal fraction –11/32 into a normalised floating point binary number.
Leave the negative sign first and solve it for just 11/32, 11/32 = 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/32 = 0.01 + 0.0001 + 0.00001 = 0.01011;
converted to binary equivalent.
Now we have 8 bits mantissa and 8 bits exponent, 00101100 00000000,
It is not normalized so normalize it by removing a 0 from location worth 1/2 in mantissa and subtracting that 1
location from exponent 0 reveals -1. That is, 01011000 11111111; this is Floating Point equivalent of 11/32.
For -11/32 keep the exponent same and in mantissa start from right side. Keep all digits same until first 1 and
toggle rest.
Benefits of Normalisation
- Ensures that a single representation of a number is maintained (standardisation).
- Ensures maximum possible accuracy with a given number of bit is maintained.
- Can be used to detect error conditions such as underflow and overflow
- Tires to maximise the range of numbers that can be represented in a fixed point representation (Range and
accuracy is limited in fixed point representation)
● The size of the exponent determines the range of numbers that can be represented
The range of numbers is expanded by increasing the number of bits that are used to represent the
exponent. This will however decrease precision.
Reducing the number of bits in the exponent will reduce the range because power of two which the
mantissa is multiplying by is decreased.
At the same time decreasing the exponent’s bits will increase accuracy because more digits are
represented after the binary point.
● The size of the significant determines the precision of the numbers that can be represented
Precision can be increased by increasing the number of bits that are used to represent the significant
This will decrease the range.
● The only way to increase both range and precision is to use more bits
that is, the use of single-precision numbers, double-precision numbers, etc
If we use more bits for the mantissa we will have to use fewer bits for the exponent. Let us start off by using 8
bits for the mantissa and 8 bits for the exponent for explanations below:
The largest positive value we can have for the mantissa is 0.1111111 and
The largest positive number we can have for the exponent is 01111111.
This means that we have 0.1111111 x 21111111 = 0.1111111 x 2127.
This means that the largest positive number is almost 1 x 2127.
Also:
The smallest positive mantissa is 0.1000000 and
the smallest exponent is 10000000.
This represents 0.1000000 x 210000000 = 0.1000000 x 2-128 which is very close to zero; in fact it is 2-129.
Furthermore:
The smallest negative number (i.e. the negative number furthest from zero) is 1.0000000 x 2 01111111 = -
1.0000000 x 2127 = -2127.
Zero cannot be represented in normalised form. This is because 0.0000000 is not normalised because the first
two digits are the same. A normalised value must have the first two bits of the mantissa different. Therefore one
of them must be a 1 which must represent either -1 or + ½, but not zero. Usually, the computer uses the smallest
positive number to represent zero.
Also, size of number mean the furthest to the left on a number line so -1 is a bigger number than -2. Whereas, if
we talk about largest magnitude negative number then the -2 is greater magnitude than -1 because the integer
value is greater (not considering the sign).
Range: Allowable values for a register representation of data, starting from the lowest (minimum)
allowable to the highest (maximum) allowable values. It can also be defined as the difference between the
lowest and the highest acceptable values.
Floating and fixed point numbers will be accurate to the smallest number they can represent.
Accuracy: is the degree of closeness (nearness) of measurements of a quantity to that quantity's actual
(true) value.
Precision: precision is the degree to which further measurements or calculations show the same or
similar result. More bits for precision is a measure of reliability (repeatedly give the same value). More
bits for mantissa means the number will be more precise, i.e by having more significant figures
Round-Off Errors
Rounding: Expressing a number to the nearest whole/decimal/binary number. For example 3.9569
rounded to 3 decimal places is 3.957. If rounded to the nearest whole number, it becomes 4.
Often we cannot represent a denary fraction exactly even if we allow many bits in memory. Therefore the
number stored is "rounded off" to the closest possible binary equivalent.
In rounding, the least significant bit may be increased depending on digits removed. The result should represent
the value that is nearest to the original value, e.g
100.1 = 100 (2 s. f)
10101 = 1100 (2 .f)
11011 = 11000 (2 s.f)
11.101 = 100 (2 s.f)
Truncation Errors
Truncation is shortening by cutting off some characters/ending text abruptly at a certain point; e.g. 3.9569
truncated to 3 decimal places is 3.956. If truncated to the nearest whole number, it becomes 3.
Truncation error is difference between a truncated value and the actual value. A truncated quantity is
represented by a numeral with a fixed number of allowed digits, with any excess digits "chopped off"
Often, in either floating or fixed point systems, results are calculated with too many places of accuracy to
be represented. We get this type of error when trailing bits are truncated to fit the result in the memory location
available.
100.1 = 100 (2 s. f)
10101 = 10000 (2 .f)
11011 = 11000 (2 s.f)
11.101 = 11 (2 s.f)
Overflow
Underflow
An underflow is produced when a result that is smaller in magnitude than the smallest number that can
be represented.
It occurs when a small number is divided by a large number or
When small numbers are multiplied together.
There exists the largest and smallest positive value. Around 0, there exists a range of values that cannot
be represented (stored) and this is underflow.
NB: Overflow and underflow occur when a result of calculations falls outside the range of values
permitted by the representation of the number.
Practice Questions
1. (a) Describe how characters are stored in a computer. (3)
b) Explain what is meant by an integer data type. (2)
c) State what is meant by Boolean data. (1)
4. (a) Add together the binary equivalents of 34 and 83, using single byte arithmetic, showing you working. (3)
(b). Describe a floating point representation for real numbers using two bytes. (4)
5. a) Explain how the fraction part of a real number can be normalised. (2)
b) State the benefit obtained by storing real numbers using normalised form. (1)
6. a) A floating point number is represented in a certain computer system in a single 8 bit byte. 5 bits are used for
the mantissa and 3 bits for the exponent. Both are stored in two’s complement form and the mantissa is
normalised.
(i) State the smallest positive value,
(ii) state the most negative value
that can be stored. Give each answer as an 8 bit binary value and as a decimal equivalent. (4)
b) Explain the relationship between accuracy and range when storing floating point representations of real
numbers. (4)
7. (a) Express the denary number -95 as a two’s complement integer in an eight-bit byte. [2]
(b) Add together the following binary numbers. Show your working.
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 and 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 [2]
8. Part of the information stored in the data dictionary describes the type of data which is being stored.
A particular piece of data is 10010110.
State what the data stands for if the data dictionary describes it as:
(i) a two's complement binary number; [1]
(ii) a sign and magnitude binary number; [1]
(iii) a binary coded decimal number. [2]
9. Floating-point numbers in a particular computer system are stored using 12 bits. The first 6 bits are used for
the storage of the mantissa and the second set of 6 bits is used to store the exponent.
(a) One way to represent 6.5 as a floating-point number in this representation is 001101000100
Explain why this representation is equivalent to 6.5 [4]
(b) (i) Using the representation above to help you, write the number 6.5 as a floating-point number in normalised
form. [2]
(ii) Explain the effects of changing the representation so that 8 bits are used for the mantissa and 4 bits for the
exponent. [2]
(c) The numbers 011011001101 and 101100001110 are stored with 6 bits for the mantissa and 6 for the
exponent.
Add the exponents of the two floating-point numbers together. [2]
12. (a) Show how the denary number –90 can be represented, using 8 bits, in:
(i) sign and magnitude,
(ii) two’s complement. [2]
(b) The denary number 10¾ is to be represented as a floating point binary number using 12 bits.
The first 8 bits are to be used for the mantissa and the remaining four bits are to be used for the exponent.
(i) Explain what is meant by the mantissa of a floating point number. [2]
(ii) Explain what is meant by the exponent of a floating point number. [2]
(iii) Show why 001010110101 is a floating point representation of 10¾.[3]
(iv) Normalise the floating point value given in (iii). [2]
13. (a) (i) Express the number 93 as an 8 bit binary number. [2]
(iii) Express the number 93 as a number in hexadecimal. [2]
(b) (ii) Describe the connection between binary representation and hexadecimal. [2]
14. A computer stores fractional numbers in floating point binary representation. Five bits are used for the
mantissa and three bits for the exponent. All values are stored in two’s complement form.
(a) By using a diagram of this representation, state the value of each of the bits. [4]
(b) By using 2 ½ as an example, explain how real numbers can be shown in normalised form in this
representation. [3]
(c) State the floating point binary value of - ¾ in this representation. [2]
15. A computer stores numbers in floating point form, using 8 bits for the mantissa and 8 bits for the exponent.
Both the mantissa and the exponent are stored in two’s complement form.
(a) Explain the effect on the
• range
• accuracy
of the numbers that can be stored if the number of bits in the exponent is reduced. [4]
(b) Give the denary number which would have 01000000 00000000 as its binary, floating point representation in
this computer. [2]
(c) Explain why it is not possible to represent zero as a normalised floating point number. [2]
LOGIC GATES
- A logic gate is a device that produce signals of 1 or 0 when the input logic requirements are met and are
used in manipulating binary information.
- A logic gate is a device (or electrical circuit) that performs one or more logical operations on one or
more input signals.
- Its output represent Boolean (T or F) or binary values (1 or 0) as voltages.
- Logic gates are the building blocks of digital technology.
- They can be used in applications like:
Building computer chips
Programming traffic signals
Chips for automatic alarm systems
Chips for automated control systems
The number of rows in a truth table shows the number of combinations of the inputs of a particular
circuit. The number of rows for each gate is found using the following formulae: rows = 2 n , n being the
number of inputs in the gate or circuit. For example, a gate or circuit has the following rows
corresponding to the number of input (excluding column headings):
- 1 input = 21 = 2 rows
- 2 inputs = 22 = 4 rows
- 3 inputs = 23 = 8 rows
The name inside the gate gives us the type of the gate
(a) OR gate
This represents two inputs entering the gate and one output from the gate. The inputs can be
represented by any alphabetic characters, e.g. A and B, while the output can be X, given as follows:
- X= A OR B
- The output (X) is true if the INPUT A OR INPUT B are true.
- Thus if any one of the inputs is 1, the output is automatically 1
- Output only becomes 0 if all inputs are 0
The output (X) is only true if the INPUT A AND INPUT B are both true. If any one of the inputs is 0, then
the output becomes 0 also.
Thus X = A AND B.
The NOT gate has only one input and one output. The input is negated. Thus if input is 1, output is 0, and
vice versa.
The output (X) is true when the INPUT A is NOT TRUE.
The output (X) is False when the INPUT A is TRUE.
BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS
Boolean Expressions are equivalent expressions of the logic state of gates. For example, the Boolean
expression for:
a NOT gate with input A and output C: C = NOT A
NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates because they are inexpensive to manufacture and any
Boolean function (AND, OR, NOT) can be constructed using only NAND or only NOR gates. Even NAND and
NOR gates can be used as each other’s alternatives in a circuit.
2. Multiplication Sign
- This represents an AND gate
- E.g C = AB,
- C = AxB,
- C = A.B
- C= (AB)(AC)
- C = (A.B).(A.C)
- All these are various versions of the AND gate.
Draw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when the stop signal could be
received.
Answer
Step 1: Deduce and Write the logic statement
- The first statement can be re-written as: (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) since Length > 100 metres
corresponds to a binary value of 1 and Velocity <=10 m/s corresponds to a binary value of 0 (i.e. NOT
1).
- The second statement can be written as (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1)
- Both these statements are joined together by OR which gives us the logic statement: if (L = 1 AND V =
NOT 1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1) then S = 1
- The above statement can be written as: S = 1 if (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1)
NB: the Student should first of all write the following logic statement before coming up with a truth
table or logic circuit as this has some marks awarded to it., i.e.
S = 1 if (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1)
Questions
1. A computer will only operate if three switches P, S and T are correctly set. An output signal (X = 1) will
occur if R and S are both ON or if R is OFF and S and T are ON. Design a logic network and draw the truth
table for this network.
2. A traffic signal system will only operate if it receives an output signal (D = 1).
This can only occur if:
Either (a) signal A is red (i.e. A = 0)
Or (b) signal A is green (i.e. A = 1) and signals B and C are both red (i.e. B and C are both 0)
Design a logic network and draw a truth table for the above system.
3. A chemical plant gives out a warning signal (W = 1) when the process goes
wrong. A logic network is used to provide input and to decide whether or not
W=1
Draw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when
the warning signal could be received
4. A power station has a safety system based on three inputs to a logic network.
A warning signal (S = 1) is produced when certain conditions occur based on
these 3 inputs:
Draw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when
the warning signal could be received.
6. Device a suitable Boolean expression and truth table for the circuit below:
8. a. Simplify the following logic equations by using the rules of Boolean algebra.
a. A • C + A • B • C
b. (A + B) • (B + Ā)
c. A • (Ā + C) + C
b. For each of the previous questions, create a circuit for the Boolean expression before simplification.
- Analogue Data: Data is in continuously varying form, e.g. human voice. This is difficult to handle as it
will be in form of waves. Sensors collect data in analogue form, eg. 67, 93 are all analogue data
Transmission Media
Transmission media refers to the path through which data is transferred from one point to another. Transmission
media can be either guided or unguided.
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair: These are cables with two copper wires of about 1 millimetre thick. The wires are
twisted to avoid crosstalk. Twisted pair is very cheap to buy and offer good performance over short distances.
Disadvantages of twisted pair: Twisted pair is very cheap to buy. Has big attenuation. Has low bandwidth
3. Fibre optic: A media that uses light to transmit data. Used in Wan and Man networks. Its benefits are:-
It has less attenuation and therefore fewer repeaters are needed,
has very high bandwidth and cannot corrode (not affected by corrosion),
it is thin and therefore has less weight.
It allows very fast data transfer,
has no electromagnetic interference,
is physically secure.
Fibre optics is in two forms, multimode and monomode. Multimode fibre optic cable carries 2 or more signals at
a time, each at a slightly different reflection angle. This is used over short distances. Monomode (Single mode)
cable carried one signal at a time and is appropriate for long distance communication.
However, fibre optics is very expensive to buy and is uni-directional (travels in one direction only). Cable cannot
bend around tight corners. It is also difficult to interface with computers.
Unguided Transmission
Wireless Transmission media
1. Bluetooth (Refer to presentations)
2. Radio (refer to presentations)
3. WIFI (Wireless Fidelity)
It is a Wireless LAN(A local area network) that uses high frequency radio signals to transmit and receive
data over distances of a few hundred feet; using Ethernet protocol. it is a set of standards that set forth
the specifications for transmitting data over a wireless network. There must be a wireless router which
enables wireless devices to connect to the network and to the internet.
- Range: Wi-Fi provides local network access for around a few hundred metres
- Speed: maximum of 54 Mbps,
- Provides local area network
- Limited to one subscriber
- Can be used where cables cannot run
- Wireless network adaptors are inbuilt withion most devices like laptops, therefore cheaper and easier to
get.
- Tend to be slower if more devices are added to the network
-
4. WIMAX (World Wide Inter-operability for Marking Access)
- a single WiMAX antenna is expected to have a range of up to 30 Kilometres
- Speed: with speeds of 70 Mbps or more. As such, WiMAX can bring the underlying Internet
connection needed to service local Wi-Fi networks
- Can accommodate many subscribers
-
5. Infra-red waves: Refers to data transmission in form of waves as through some remote controls of
televisions. It has enormous bandwidth. However, infrared waves do not travel through obstacles like
buildings, they only work for very short distances, affect eyes and consume a lot of power.
6. Satellite transmission: These include earth stations which communicate with geostationary satellites
(36 000 to 80 000 km above the earth. These have high bandwidth and support very long distance
communication. However, they have big attenuation and are slow in sending messages.
- This is a method of networking computers and computer devices without the use of cabling, e.g. using
bluetooth, radio, satellite and infra-red.
- The devices that are used in wireless technology include:
GPS - A navigational system involving satellites and computers that can determine the latitude and longitude of
a receiver on earth by computing the time difference for signals from different satellites to reach the receiver
Asynchronous Transmission:
- This is whereby data is send character by character over a transmission channel.
Broadband transmission
- This is a multi-channel system where several channels are combined into one carrier signal, where the
bandwidth is shared by different channels.
- Broadband carries multiple signals on a fixed carrier wave.
- Bandwidth is shared by different channels.
- It offers faster transmission rates
- Enables transmission of voice, video, computer data, etc, simultaneously.
- Broadband is expensive to install and maintain
-
Transmission Modes
Transmission modes include Simplex, Duplex (Full duplex) and Half Duplex
Simplex Mode: This is a mode of data transmission in which data travels only in one direction. Thus one
computer acts as the sender and the other as a receiver at any given time. A good example is teletext service. See
diagram below:
Half Duplex: This is a transmission mode in which data travels in both directions but not simultaneously. The
receiver waits until the sender has finished sending data in order for him to respond. Examples include police
radios, uses ‘Over’ to allows time for other to transmit
Duplex/Full Duplex: This is a transmission mode in which transmission is possible in both directions
simultaneously. See diagram B above. There is no need for one to wait until the channel is free from data. Used
by high speed mainframes on the internet.
Transmission impairments
This refers to change in signal form as it propagates through the transmission channel. Transmission impairments
include:
Attenuation: The loss of signal power as it moves through the transmission channel.
Noise: Occurs when an unwanted signal from other sources than the transmitter enters the transmission channel.
Distortion – means that the signals are deformed a more or less different signal as it propagates through the
medium
Multiplexing
This is a method of allowing multiple signals to share the same channel, reducing too much cabling, as shown
below:
A multiplexer is used in
multiplexing. A multiplexer is a
device that joins two or more
channels into one channel while
the de-multiplexer is responsible
for splitting a channel into a
number of them for easy
transmission to the intended
destination.
Bandwidth
Refers to the carrying capacity of a transmission channel. It is generally the volume of data that a communication
channel can carry at a given time. It is the difference between the lowest and the highest (range) amount of data
that a channel can transmit. It determines the amount of data a channel can transmit at a given period of time.
Fibre optic cables have high bandwidth and therefore transmits data faster than coaxial cables, which have low
bandwidth.
Baud rate: the amount of bits that can be send of a channel per second. It is a key measure of data transfer rate.
One baud = one bit per second
Packet switching:
- Data is first split into smaller chunks called packets (or datagrams) which may take different routes and
then reassembles to the original order at their destination.
- Packets are routed to the next (intermediate) node along an appropriate route, which can store and
transmit the packet until the destination.
- Each packet takes its own convenient path and then re-assembled at the receiving end.
- Packets do not necessarily arrive at the same time or in correct order.
- At the destination, packets are re-grouped to the original message.
- Packets can be of fixed size
- Each packet has the following data: source address, destination address, error control signal, packet size,
packet sequence number, etc.
NB: A virtual circuit must be established between the sender and the receiving end. Virtual circuit – A temporary
'dedicated' pathway between two communicating points on a Packet Switched System before sending of packets.
Bandwidth is allocated for a specific transmission pathway.
Message Switching
This is whereby the whole message may be routed by any convenient route.
No physical/dedicated path is established in advance between sender and receiver
Data is stored at a hop (which may be router) then forwarded one hop later.
Each block is received in its entity form, inspected for errors
Data is not transmitted in real time.
Blocking cannot occur
Delays are very common
Sender and receiver need not be compatible since sending will be done by routers, which can change data
format, bit rate and then revert it back to original format on receiving or submit it in different form.
Storing data solves congested networks since data can be stored in queue and forwarded later when
channel becomes free
Priorities can be used to manage networks
Very slow if the number of nodes is many since each node stores before forwarding the data
In message switching, whole message is routed in its entirety, one hop at a time.
Now implemented over packet or circuit switched data networks.
Each message is treated as a separate entity.
Each message contains addressing information, which is used by switch for transfer to the next
destination.
Also called a store and forward network
Used in e-mails and in telex forwarding
There is often no real limit on the message / block size.
Advantages
• more devices can share network bandwidth
• reduced traffic congestion
• one message can be sent to many destinations through broadcast addresses
Disadvantages
• often costly – must have large storage devices to hold potentially long messages
• not compatible with most real time applications
Transmission protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern how data is transferred in a network. It defines the rules on how network
devices communicate, e.g the TCP/IP. This includes:
A network communication protocol: a standard method for transmitting data from one computer to another
across a network. Some of the protocols are:
i. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
This is a protocol that defines the process of identifying, requesting and transferring multimedia web
pages over the internet. It is used for transferring data across the internet, usually between servers and
computers on the internet. It is based on the client –server relationship. It uses TCP/IP to transmit data
and messages
ii. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
it is a protocol used to transfer data from one computer to another. It is often used to download software
from the internet, and it uses the TCP/IP protocol in doing this. However, FTP has no security to data as
the data is not encrypted prior to its transmission.
iii. TELNET
This is a network protocol that allows a computer user to gain access to another computer and use its
software and data, usually on a LAN and on the Internet. It allows users to access data stored on servers
from their terminals. Telnet allows computers to connect to each other and allows sharing of data and
files. Telnet has security problems especially on the internet.
iv. VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)
It is a method of using the internet to make ordinary voice telephone calls. Thus it is a way of having
phone conversations using the internet as a way of communication. By VoIP, international and long
distance calls are of the same price as local calls and sometimes are for free. However, the system does
not offer emergency calls. An example of VoIP is Skype.
Application Layer – defines how user applications interface or access communication services, initiates
or accepts a request, provide network applications like data transfer, messaging, operating system
functions, etc
Presentation Layer – deals in how information is presented, e.g ASCII, adds formatting or data
transformation,(e.g. from ASCII to Unicode), data compression and data encryption.
Session Layer – creates and terminates sessions, e.g. login session, file transfer session, adds traffic-
flow control information, etc.
Transport Layer - allows error correction during transmission, maintains flow control, allows data
recovery, allows routing, addressing and multiplexing of signals.
Network Layer - adds sequencing and address information, sets logical protocols, creating frames
(consisting of address fields, control filed, date, and error control field)
Data Link Layer - provides error-checking and formats data for physical transmission, type of network
and packet sequencing is defined, used for syncronisation.
Physical Layer – level of actual hardware. define physical characteristics of ntwork e.g connections,
wiring, voltage signals, etc
At each level, additional information is added to allow service to be provided. This layered model is also called
protocol stack
NETWORKING
Types of networks
i. LAN (Local Area Network
A LAN is a privately owned connection of computers on a very small geographical area for sharing of data
and files by users of the network, for example, within an single room. Usually connected using cables of radio
connections.
Bridge: - this is a device that connects networks using the same communication protocols. It is used to
connect different parts of a LAN, thus is used to connect different LAN segments together. However, it
cannot handle multiple paths for data. In general a bridge is used for:
Routers:- this is a network device that connect different types of networks together, for example,
connects a school LAN to the internet (which is a WAN). It can route packets of the same protocol (e.g.
TCP/IP) over networks with dissimilar architectures (e.g. Ethernet to token ring). It receives transmitted
messages and forwards them to their correct destinations over the most efficient available route. A router
is used to form complex networks with multiple paths between network segments (subnets), each subnet
and each node on each subnet is assigned a network address.
A router is very intelligent. It uses network addresses and IP addresses of other routers to create routes
between two networks. They keep tables of addresses that will be used in routing information. Routers
are thus used for:
Determining the path of data packets using destination addresses of the packets.
Used for packet switching
Gateway: - a device used to connect different kinds of networks. Thy act as link to different WANs. A
gateway is a device that connects networks with different architectures and different protocols. When
packets arrive at a gateway, the software strips all networking information from the packet, leaving only
the raw data. The gateway translates the data into the new format and sends it on using the networking
protocols of the destination system. Thus it becomes a protocol converter.
Modem (MOdulator DEModulator):- This is a device that converts digital signal received from a
computer into an analogue signal that can be sent along ordinary telephone lines, and back to digital at
the receiving end. Mostly used to connect to the internet using the ordinary telephone line. The speed of
modems is measured in bits per second e.g. 56K bps. The following parameters must be specified when
a modem is installed:
the telephone number of the ISP
baud rate of modem
number of data bits per block
number of stop bits
whether odd or even parity is used
Cable modems - employ broadband transmission across regular cable television wires
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) line – it is a digital telephone service that provides fast,
accurate data transmission over existing copper telephone wiring, for internet connection. It is a set of
communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network
services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. ISDN is a line that allows
the transmission of digital signals without them being changed into analogue which leads to improved
quality for the user. It requires a network adapter and a network termination device (no modem required)
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ASDL) - offers Internet connection up to 30 times faster than dial-
up modems still using traditional copper wires but allocating more bandwidth to the data flow from the
ISP to the PC than is allocated from the PC to the ISP
Dial-up networking: user pays for the amount of time spent using the telephone link. It is less expensive.
more appropriate for low-volume applications requiring only occasional transmission
Dedicated/leased line: the line is continually available for transmission and the user pays a flat rate for
total access to the line. It transmits data at higher speeds. It is more appropriate for high volume
transmission
Value-added network (VAN):- This is a private, multipath, data-only, third-party managed network. It is
used by multiple organisations. It may use ISDN lines, satellite links etc. it is set up by a firm in charge
of managing the network. Its subscribers pay a subscription fee and for data transmission time. The cost
of using the network shared among many users. subscribers do not have to invest in network equipment
or perform their own error checking, routing and protocol conversion
Electronic data interchange (EDI):-e.g. transmitting A level results to schools using BT's
CampusConnect . virtually instantaneous electronic transmission of business data from one firm's
computerised information to that of another firm. It increases accuracy and eliminates delays.
Internetwork:- This is created when two or more independent networks are connected but continue to
function separately e.g. Internet. In larger networks it is common to supply multiple paths through the
network to provide fault tolerance
This refers to the shape/configuration of the network. This may refer to logical or physical configuration. The
shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of the network. This refers to the
layout of cabling, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling. The
physical topology of a network is determined by the capabilities of the network access devices and media, the
level of control or fault tolerance desired, and the cost associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits.
The logical topology is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through
the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. Logical
topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For example, the original twisted pair Ethernet
using repeater hubs was a logical bus topology with a physical star topology layout. Token Ring is a logical ring
topology, but is wired a physical star from the Media Access Unit.
Common network topologies are Ring, bus, star, mesh and hybrid network topologies.
Token passing
a small packet called a token is passed around the ring to each computer in turn
to send information, a computer modifies the token, adds address information and sends it down the ring
information travels around the ring until it reaches its destination or returns to the sender
when a packet is received by the destination computer, it returns a message to the sender indicating its
arrival
2. Star Network:
Computers form a star shape with host computer at the centre.
The Server (host computer) manages all other computers/terminals on the network.
If the terminals are not intelligent, they have to rely on the host computer for everything.
This network is as shown below:
3. Mesh Network
- A network in which each computer serves as a relay point for directly sending information to any other
computer on the network.
- No central device oversees a mesh network, and no set route is used to pass data back and forth between
computers.
- Thus, if any one computer is damaged or temporarily unavailable, information is dynamically rerouted to
other computers—a process known as self-healing
all components are connected via a backbone (a single cable segment connecting all the computers in a
line)
entire network will be brought down by a single cable break
terminator at the end of the line absorbs all signals that reach it to clear the network for new
communication
data is sent in packets across the network and received by all connected computers; only the computer
with the packet destination address accepts the data
only one computer can send information at a time
Ethernet uses a collision system - carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA-CD) - if
transmitted messages collide, both stations abort and wait a random time period before trying again.
network performance degrades under heavy load
Definition of Terms
(a) Bus/Backbone: the dedicated and main cable that connects all workstations and other computer devices like
printers.
(b) Nodes: these are connection points for workstations and the bus.
(c) Terminator: devices that prevent data in the bus from bouncing back, causing noise and prevents data from
getting lost.
Advantages of Bus network
5. Hybrid
This topology is a combination of two or more different network topologies into one. When different topologies
are connected to one another, they do not display characteristics of any one specific topology.
NB: Point – to-Point Connection: Point-to-point topology is the simplest connection, consisting of two
connected computers.
A. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): CSMA is a contention access method in which each station first
listens to the line before transmitting data. It first of all checks if there is data in the transmission channel before
transmitting. Thus it cannot transmit while another device is transmitting.
a) CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
This is an access method in which a station transmits whenever the transmission medium is available and
retransmits when collision occurs. A device first listens before transmitting, and if the channel is idle, it sends the
data. If the channel is busy, it continues listening until the channel is no longer busy.
However, two device (stations) may be listening at the same time and then transmit simultaneously when they
detect that the channel is idle. This causes collision. The transmitting devices detects that collision has occurred,
and they cancel all the data in transmission, broadcast a message to other channels that collision has occurred.
These channels are then given a random period of time to start listening again in-order to re-transmit.
CSMA/CD control software is relatively simple and produces little overhead. CSMA/CD network works best on
a bus topology with burst transmission
Disadvantages
• CSMA/CD protocols are probabilistic and depends on the network (cable) loading.
• Considered unsuitable for channels controlling automated equipment that must have certain control over
channel access. (This could be OK for different channel access).
• We can set priorities to give faster access to some devices (This is, probably, not an issue in some
applications)
Refers to Class Presentation by Nicole- ofr CSMA-CD/CSMA-CA, Token passing and Contention
c) Token passing
• In token-passing systems, a small frame (the token) is passed in an orderly fashion from one device to
another.
• A token is a special authorising message that temporarily gives control of the channel to the device
holding the token.
• Passing the token around distributes access control among the channel's devices.
• Each device knows from which device it receives the token and to which device it passes the token.(see
fig.)
• Each device periodically gets control of the token, performs its duties, and then retransmits the token for
the next device to use.
• System rules limit how long each device can control the token.
• Whenever the network is unoccupied, it circulates a simple three-byte token.
• This token is passed from NIC to NIC in sequence until it encounters a station with data to send.
• That station waits for the token to enter its network board. If the token is free the station may send a
data frame.
• This data frame proceeds around the ring regenerated by each station.
• Each intermediate station examines the destination address, if the frame is addressed to another station,
the station relays it to its neighbor.
• If the station recognizes its own address, copies the message, checks for errors, and changes four bits
in the last byte of the frame to indicate address recognized and frame copied.
• The full packet then continues around the ring until it returns to the station that sent it.
Advantages
• Even though there is more overhead using tokens than using CSMA/CD, performance differences are not
noticeable with light traffic and are considerably better with heavy loads because CSMA/CD will spend
a lot of time resolving collisions.
• A deterministic access method such as Token Ring guarantees that every node will get access to the
network within a given length of time. In probabilistic access method (such as CSMA/CD) nodes have to
check for network activity when they want to access the network.
Disadvantages
• Components are more expensive than for Ethernet or ARCnet.
• Token Ring architecture is not very easy to extend to wide-area networks (WANs).
• Token Ring network is much more expensive than Ethernet. This is due to the complex token passing
protocol.
d) Contention
• With contention systems, network devices may transmit whenever they want.
• No referee mandates when a device may or may not use the channel.
• This scheme is simple to design
• The scheme provides equal access rights to all stations.
• Stations simply transmit whenever they are ready, without considering what other stations are doing.
• Unfortunately, the "transmit whenever ready" strategy has one important shortcoming.
• Stations can transmit at the same time.
• When this happens, the resulting co-mingling of signals usually damages both to the point that a
frame's information is lost.
• This unhappy event is called a "collision."
•
Polling Access Method
• Polling is an access method that designates one device (called a "controller", "primary", or "master") as a
channel access administrator.
• This device (Master) queries each of the other devices (“secondaries”) in some predetermined order to
see whether they have information to transmit.
• If so, they transmit (usually through the master).
• Secondaries may be linked to the master in many different configurations.
• One of the most common polling topologies is a star, where the points of the star are secondaries and
the master is the hub.
• To get data from a secondary, the master addresses a request for data to the secondary, and then
receives the data from the secondary sends (if secondary sends any).
• The primary then polls another secondary and receives the data from the secondary, and so forth.
• System limits how long each secondary can transmit on each poll.
•
Advantages
• Polling centralizes channel access control.
• Maximum and minimum access times and data rates on the channel are predictable and fixed.
• Priorities can be assigned to ensure faster access from some secondaries.
• Polling is deterministic and is considered suitable for channels controlling some kinds of automated
equipment.
Disadvantages
• Polling systems often use a lot of bandwidth sending notices and acknowledgments or listening for
messages.
• Line turnaround time on a half- duplex line further increases time overhead.
• This overhead reduces both the channel's data rate under low loads and its throughput.
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