Contents

1. Fundamental of Algebra 2
1.1. Exponents and Radicals 3
1.2. Algebraic Expressions 9
1.3. Rational Expressions 13
2. Linear and Quadratic Equations and Applications 16
2.1. Algebraic and Graphical Solution of Linear Equations 16
2.2. Solution of Linear Inequalities 21
2.3. Algebraic and Graphical Solution of Quadratic Equations 25
2.4. Quadratic Inequalities 36

1
 1. Fundamental of Algebra

In this first chapter we review the integral and fractional exponents and radicals,
polynomials and special products, factoring, and rational expressions. You are probably
already familiar with these concepts, but it is helpful to get a fresh look at how these
ideas work together to solve problems and model (or describe) realworld situations.
Let’s review the types of numbers that make up the real number system. We start with
the natural numbers:

N = { 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }

The integers consist of the natural numbers together with their negatives and 0:

Z = { ... − 4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }

We construct the rational numbers by taking ratios of integers. Thus, any rational
m
number r can be expressed as n

m
Q={ , where m and n are integers and n 6= 0 }
n

Examples are:
1 3 46 17
, − , 46 = , 0.17 =
2 7 1 100

√
There are also numbers, such as 2, that cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers
and are therefore called irrational numbers. It can be shown, with varying degrees of
difficulty, that these numbers are also irrational:
√ √ √
3 3
3, 5, 2, π,
π2

The set of all real numbers is usually denoted by the symbol R. When we use the word
number without qualification, we will mean real number. Figure below is a diagram of
the types of real numbers that we work with in this course.

2
1.1. Exponents and Radicals.
In this section we give meaning to expressions such as am/n in which the exponent m/n
is a rational number. To do this, we need to recall some facts about integer exponents,
radicals, and nth roots.

1.1.1. Integer Exponent.

A product of identical numbers is usually written in exponential notation. For example,
is 53 written as 5 · 5 · 5 = 53 . In general, we have the following definition.
Définition 1.1.1.1
If a is any real number and n is a positive integer, then the nth power of a is

an = a
| · a {z
· ... · a}
n f actors

The number a is called the base and n is called the exponent.

Example:
(1) (−3)3 = (−3) · (−3) · (−3) · (−3) = 81
(2) −34 = −(3 · 3 · 3 · 3) = −81
Laws of Exponents
(1) am an = am+n
am
(2) an
= am−n
m n mn
(3) (a ) = a
3
 (4) (ab)n = an bn
an
(5) ( ab )n = bn

Examples:
• 32 · 35 = 32+3 = 37
35
• 32
= 35−2 = 33
• (32 )5 = 32·5 = 310
• (3 · 4)2 = 32 · 42
32
• ( 34 )2 = 42

Zero and Negative Exponents

If a 6= 0 is any real number and n is a positive integer, then
1
a0 = 1 and a−n =
an
Examples:
• ( 47 )0 = 1
• x−1 = 1
x1
= 1
x
−3 1 1
• (−2) = (−2)3
= −8
= − 81

Practice: Simplify the following expressions.

x y2x 4 6st−4 y −2
(a) (2a3 b2 )(3ab4 )3 (b) ( )3 ( ) (c) (d) ( )
y z 2s−2 t2 3z 3
Answers:
(a)
(2a3 b2 )(3ab4 )3 = (2a3 b2 )[33 a3 (b4 )3 ]
= (2a3 b2 )(27a3 b12 )
= (2)(27)a3 a3 b2 b12
= 54a6 b14
(b)
x 3 y 2 x 4 x3 (y 2 )4 x4
( )( ) = 3
y z y z4
4
 x3 y 8 x4
=
y3 z4
y8 1
= (x3 x4 ) 3 4
y z
7 5
xy
= 4
x
(c)
6st−4 6s t14
=
2s−2 t2 2 s12 t2
6s
t4
= 2t2
s2
6s s2
= ·
t4 2t2
6ss2
= 24
2t t
3s3
= 6
t
(d)
y −2 3z 3 2
( ) = ( )
3z 3 z
9z 6
= 6
y
1.1.2. Radicals.
We know what 2n means whenever n is an integer. To give meaning to a power, such
as 24/5 , whose exponent is a rational number, we need to discuss radicals. The symbol
√
means ”the positive square root of.” Thus
√
a = b means b2 = a and b ≥ 0

For instance,
√
9 = 3 because 32 = 9

5
 Properties of square root:
•
√ √ √
a×b= a× b

• r √
a a
=√
b a

Square roots are special cases of nth roots. The nth root of x is the number that,
when raised to the nth power, gives x.
Definition 1.1.2.1:
If n is any positive integer, then the principal nth root of a is defined as follows:
√
n
a = b means bn = a

If n is even, we must have a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0.

For instance,
√
• 4 81 = 3 because 34 = 81 and 3 ≥ 0.
√
• 3 −8 = −2 because (−2)3 = −8.
√ √ √
But −8, 4 −8 and 6 −8 are not defined.

Properties of nth Roots

Property Example
√ √ √ √ √ √
(1) n ab = n a n b 3
−8 · 27 = 3
−8 3
27 = (−2)(3) = −6
√
na
q √4
16
(2) n ab = √ 4 16 2
p
n = √ 4 =3
p √
b
√ p81√ 81
√
3
(3) m n
a = mn a 729 = 6 729 = 3
√ p
(4) n an = a if n is odd 3
(−5)3 = −5
√ p
(5) n an =| a | if n is even 4
(−3)4 =| −3 |= 3

Practice:
Simplify the following expressions.
√3
(1) x4
6
 p
(2) 4
81x8 y 4
Answers:
√3
√
3
√
3 √ √
(1) x4 = x3 x = x3 3 x = x 3 x

p √ √ 4
p p
(2) 4
81x8 y 4 = 4 81 x8 4 y 4 = 3 4 (x2 )4 | y |= 3x2 | y |

1.1.3. Rational Exponents.

To define what is meant by a rational exponent or, equivalently, a fractional exponent
such as a1/3 , we need to use radicals. In order to give meaning to the symbol a1/n in a
way that is consistent with the Laws of Exponents, we would have to have

(a1/n )n = a(1/n)n = a1 = a

So, by the definition of nth root,

√
a1/n = n
a

In general, we define rational exponents as follows.

Definition 1.1.3.1:
For any rational exponent m/n in lowest terms, where m and n are integers and n > 0,
we define
√ √
am/n = ( n a)m or equivalently am/n = n
am

If n is even, then we require that a ≥ 0.

Examples:Use the definition of rational exponent to simplify.

√
(1) 41/2 = 4 = 2

√
(2) 82/3 = ( 3 8)2 = 22 = 4

(3) 125−1/3 = 1
1251/3
= √
3
1
125
= 1
5

(4) √1
3 4
x
= 1
x4/3
= x−4/3
7
Practice: Simplify the following expressions.
(1) a1/3 a7/3 = a8/3

a2/5 a7/5
(2) a3/5

(3) (2a3 b4 )3/2

3/4 y4
(4) ( 2x
y 1/3
)3 ( x−1/2 )
Answers:
(1)

a1/3 a7/3 = a8/3

(2)
a2/5 a7/5
3/5
= a2/5+7/5−3/5 = a6/5
a
(3)

(2a3 b4 )3/2 = 23/2 (a3 )3/2 (b4 )3/2

√
= ( 2)3 a3(3/2) (b4 )3/2

√
= 2 2a9/2 b6

(4)
2x3/4 3 y 4 23 (x3/4 )3
( 1/3
) ( −1/2
) = 1/3 3
· (y 4 x1/2 )
y x (y )

8x9/4 4 1/2
= ·y x
y

= 8x11/4 y 3
8
1.2. Algebraic Expressions.
Definition 1.2.1.1
A variable is a letter that can represent any number from a given set of numbers. If
we start with variables such as x, y, and z and some real numbers, and combine them
using addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, powers, and roots, we obtain an
algebraic expression. Here are some examples:
√ y − 2z
2x2 − 3x + 4 x + 10
y2 + 4

A monomial is an expression of the form axk , where a is a real number and k is a

nonnegative integer. A binomial is a sum of two monomials and a trinomial is a sum of
three monomials. In general, a sum of monomials is called a polynomial. For example,
the first expression listed above is a polynomial, but the other two are not.

Definition 1.2.1.2
A polynomial in the variable x is an expression of the form

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0

where a0 , a1 , ..., an are real numbers, and n is a nonnegative integer. If an 6= 0, then

the polynomial has degree n. The monomials ak xk that make up the polynomial are
called the terms of the polynomial.

Note that the degree of a polynomial is the highest power of the variable that appears
in the polynomial.

9
1.2.1. Combining Algebraic Expressions.
We add and subtract polynomials using the properties of real numbers. The idea is to
combine like terms (that is, terms with the same variables raised to the same powers)
using the Distributive Property. For instance,

5x7 + 3x7 − 2x5 = 8x7 − 2x5

Practice
(1) Find the sum (x3 − 6x2 + 2x + 4) + (x3 + 5x2 − 7x)
(2) Find the difference (x3 − 6x2 + 2x + 4) − (x3 + 5x2 − 7x)
(3) Expand (2x + 1)(3x − 5)
Answers:
(1)

(x3 − 6x2 + 2x + 4) + (x3 + 5x2 − 7x) = (x3 + x3 ) + (−6x2 + 5x2 ) + (2x − 7x) + 4

= 2x3 − x2 − 5x + 4
(2)

(x3 − 6x2 + 2x + 4) − (x3 + 5x2 − 7x) = x3 − 6x2 + 2x + 4 − x3 − 5x2 + 7x

= (x3 − x3 ) + (−6x2 − 5x2 ) + (2x + 7x) + 4

= −11x2 + 9x + 4
(3)
(2x + 1)(3x − 5) = 6x2 − 10x + 3x − 5 = 6x2 − 7x − 5

Special Product Formulas

If A and B are any real numbers or algebraic expressions, then
(1) (A + B)(A − B) = A2 − B 2
(2) (A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B 2
(3) (A − B)2 = A2 − 2AB + B 2
10
 (4) (A + B)3 = A3 + 3A2 B + 3AB 2 + B 3
(5) (A − B)3 = A3 − 3A2 B + 3AB 2 − B 3

Practice: Use the special product to expand the following.

(1) (3x + 5)2
(2) (x2 − 2)3
√ √
(3) (2x − y)(2x + y)

Answers:
(1)
(3x + 5)2 = (3x)2 + 2(3x)(5) + 52 = 9x2 + 30x + 25
(2)
(x2 − 2)3 = (x2 )3 − 3(x2 )2 (2) + 3(x2 )(2)2 − 23
= x6 − 6x4 + 12x2 − 8
(3)
√ √ √
(2x − y)(2x + y) = (2x)2 − ( y)2
= 4x2 − y

1.2.2. Factoring.
We use the Distributive Property to expand algebraic expressions. We sometimes need
to reverse this process (again using the Distributive Property) by factoring an expres-
sion as a product of simpler ones.

Examples: Factor each of the expressions

(1) 3x2 − 6x
(2) 8x4 y 2 + 6x3 y 3 − 2xy 4
(3) (2x + 4)(x − 3) − 5(x − 3)
Answers:
(1) 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2)
(2) 8x4 y 2 + 6x3 y 3 − 2xy 4 = 2xy 2 (4x3 + 3x2 y − y)
11
 (3) (2x + 4)(x − 3) − 5(x − 3) = (x − 3)[(2x + 4) − 5] = (x − 3)(2x − 1) By trial and
error we find that the two integers are 3 and 4. Thus, the factorization is

x2 + 7x + 12 = (x + 3)(x + 4)

= 3x(2x − 1) + 5(2x − 1)

= (2x − 1)(3x + 5)

We may use the special product to factor an expressions special product formulas
If A and B are any real numbers or algebraic expressions, then
(1) A2 − B 2 = (A + B)(A − B)
(2) A2 + 2AB + B 2 = (A + B)2
(3) A2 − 2AB + B 2 = (A − B)2
Example: Factor the following using the special product
(1) x2 − 6x + 9
(2) 4y 2 + 4y + 1
(3) t2 − 25

Answer:
(1)

x2 − 6x + 9 = x2 − 2 · 3 · x + 32 = (x − 3)2

(2)

4y 2 + 4y + 1 = (2y)2 + 2 · 2 · y + 12

(3)

t2 − 25 = t2 − 52 = (t − 5)(t + 5)

12
1.3. Rational Expressions.
Definition 1.3.1.1
A rational expression is a fractional expression where both the numerator and denom-
inator are polynomials. For example, the following are rational expressions:
2x x x3 − x
x−1 2
x +1 x2 − 5x + 6
1.3.1. Simpliflying Rational Expressions.
To simplify rational expressions, we factor both numerator and denominator and use
the following property of fractions:
AC A
=
BC B
Example: Simplify

x2 − 1
x2 + x − 2
Answers::
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
=
x2 + x − 2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
(x + 1)
=
(x + 2)
1.3.2. Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions.
To multiply rational expressions, we use the following property of fractions:
A C AC
· =
B D BD
This says that to multiply two fractions we multiply their numerators and multiply
their denominators.
Example:Perform the indicated multiplication and simplify:

x2 + 2x − 3 3x + 12
·
x2 + 8x + 16 x − 1
Answer:
We first factor.
x2 + 2x − 3 3x + 12 (x − 1)(x + 3) 3(x + 4)
· = ·
x2 + 8x + 16 x − 1 (x + 4)2 x−1
13
 3(x − 1)(x + 3)(x + 4)
=
(x − 1)(x + 4)2

3(x + 3)
=
(x + 4)

To divide rational expressions, we use the following property of fractions:

A C A D
÷ = ·
B D B C
This says that to divide a fraction by another fraction we invert the divisor and multiply.

Example:Perform the indicated division and simplify

x−4 x2 − 3x − 4
÷
x2 − 4 x2 + 5x + 6
Answers:

x−4 x2 − 3x − 4 x − 4 x2 + 5x + 6
÷ = ·
x2 − 4 x2 + 5x + 6 x2 − 4 x2 − 3x − 4

(x − 4)(x + 2)(x + 3)
=
(x − 2)(x + 2)(x − 4)(x + 1)

(x + 3)
=
(x − 2)(x + 1)

1.3.3. Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions.

To add or subtract rational expressions, we first find a common denominator and then
use the following property of fractions:
A B A+B
+ =
C C C
Although any common denominator will work, it is best to use the least common de-
nominator (LCD). The LCD is found by factoring each denominator and taking the
14
product of the distinct factors, using the highest power that appears in any of the fac-
tors.

Examples:Perform the indicated operations and simplify:

(1)
3 x
+
x−1 x+2
(2)
1 2
−
x2 − 1 (x + 1)2
Answers:
(1) Here the LCD is simply the product (x − 1)(x + 2)
3 x 3(x + 2) x(x − 1)
+ = +
x−1 x+2 (x − 1)(x + 2) (x − 1)(x + 2)

3x + 6 + x2 − x
=
(x − 1)(x + 2)

x2 + 2x + 6
=
(x − 1)(x + 2)

(2) The LCD of x2 − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1) and (x + 1)2 is (x − 1)(x + 1)2 .

1 2 1 2
− = −
x2 − 1 (x + 1) 2 (x − 1)(x + 1) (x + 1)2

(x + 1) − 2(x − 1)
=
(x − 1)(x + 1)2

x + 1 − 2x + 2
=
(x − 1)(x + 1)2

3−x
=
(x − 1)(x + 1)

15
 2. Linear and Quadratic Equations and Applications

2.1. Algebraic and Graphical Solution of Linear Equations.

We can use algebraic, graphical, or a combination of algebraic and graphical methods
to solve linear equations. Sometimes it is more convenient to use algebraic solution
methods rather than graphical solution methods, especially if an exact solution is de-
sired. The steps used to solve a linear equation in one variable algebraically follow.

2.1.1. Algebraic Solution of Linear Equations.

Steps for Solving a Linear Equation in One Variable
(1) If a linear equation contains fractions, multiply both sides of the equation by a
number that will remove all denominators from the equation. If there are two
or more fractions, use the least common denominator (LCD) of the fractions.
(2) Perform any multiplications or divisions to remove any parentheses or other
symbols of grouping.
(3) Perform any additions or subtractions to get all terms containing the variable
on one side and all other terms on the other side of the equation. Combine like
terms.
(4) Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of the variable.
(5) Check the solution by substitution in the original equation. If a real-world
solution is desired, check the algebraic solution for reasonableness in the real-
world situation.
Example 1
(1) Solve for x:
2x − 3 x
= +1
4 3
(2) Solve for y:
y 1 y 7
− ( )=
5 2 2 20
(3) Solve for x if y = 0.72:

y = 1.312x − 2.56
16
Answers:
(1) Multiply both sides by the LCD, 12.
2x − 3 x
= +1
4 3
2x − 3 x
12( ) = 12( + 1)12
4 3
3(2x − 3) = 4x + 12

6x − 9 = 4x + 12

2x = 21

x = 21/2

(2) Remove parentheses first to find the LCD.

y 1 y 7
− ( )=
5 2 2 20
y y 7
− =
5 4 20
y y 7
20( − ) = 20( )
5 4 20
4y − 5y = 7

−y = 7

y = −7

(3) Substitute 0.72 for y.

y = 1.312x − 2.56

0.72 = 1.312x − 2.56

3.28 = 1.312x

x = 2.5
17
Example 2
It is hard for some people to pay off credit card debt in a reasonable period of time
because of high interest rates. The interest paid on a 10, 000 dollars debt over 3 years
is approximated by
y = 175.393x − 116.287 dollars

when the interest rate is x percent. What is the interest rate if the interest is 1637.60
dollars? (Source: Consumer Federation of America)

Answers:
To answer this question, we solve the linear equation

1637.60 = 175.393x − 116.287

1753.887 = 175.393x

x = 9.9998

Thus, if the interest rate is approximately 10 percent, the interest is 1637.60 dollars.
(Note that if you check the approximate answer, you are checking only for the reason-
ableness of the estimate.)

Zero of a Function
Any number a for which f (a) = 0 is called a zero of the function f (x). If a is real, a is
an x-intercept of the graph of the function.

2.1.2. Graphical Solution of Linear Equations.

Solving a Linear Equation Using the x-Intercept Method with Graphing Utilities
(1) Rewrite the equation to be solved with 0 (and nothing else) on one side of the
equation.
(2) Enter the nonzero side of the equation found in the previous step in the equation
editor of your graphing utility and graph the line in an appropriate viewing
18
 window. Be certain that you can see the line cross the horizontal axis on your
graph.
(3) Find the x-intercept by using ZERO button . The x-intercept is the value of x
that makes the equation equal to zero, so it is the solution to the equation. The
value of x displayed by this method is sometimes a decimal approximation of
the exact solution rather than the exact solution. Note: Using MATH FRAC
buttons will often convert a decimal solution of a linear equation (approximated
on the display) to the exact solution.

Example
2x−3 x
Solve 4
= 3
+ 1 for x using the x-intercept method.

Answers:
To solve the equation using the x-intercept method, first rewrite the equation with 0
on one side.

x 2x − 3
0= +1−
3 4

Next, enter the right side of the equation,

x 2x − 3
+1−
3 4

in the equation editor of your graphing utility as

y1 = (x/3) + 1 − (2x − 3)/4

and graph this function. You should obtain a graph similar to the one seen in Figure
below

19
Using ZERO button gives the x-intercept of the graph, 10.5. This is the value of x that
makes y = 0, and thus the original equation true, so it is the solution to this linear
equation.

Solving a Linear Equation Using the Intersection Method

(1) Enter the left side of the equation as y1 and the right side as y2 . Graph both of
these equations on a window that shows their point of intersection.
(2) Find the point of intersection of the two graphs with INTERSECT button .
This is the point where y1 = y2 . The x-value of this point is the value of x that
makes the two sides of the equation equal, so it is the solution to the original
equation.

The equation

2x − 3 x
= +1
4 3

can be solved using the intersection method. Enter the left side as y1 = (2x − 3)/4
and the right side as y2 = (x/3) + 1. Graphing these two functions gives the graphs
in Figure below. The point of intersection is found to be (10.5, 4.5). So the solution is
x = 10.5

20
2.2. Solution of Linear Inequalities.

2.2.1. Algebraic Solution of Linear Inequalities.

An inequality is a statement that one quantity or expression is greater than, less than,
greater than or equal to, or less than or equal to another.

Steps for Solving a Linear Inequality Algebraically

(1) If a linear inequality contains fractions with constant denominators, multiply
both sides of the inequality by a positive number that will remove all denomina-
tors in the inequality. If there are two or more fractions, use the least common
denominator (LCD) of the fractions.
(2) Remove any parentheses by multiplication.
(3) Perform any additions or subtractions to get all terms containing the variable
on one side and all other terms on the other side of the inequality. Combine like
terms.
(4) Divide both sides of the inequality by the coefficient of the variable. Reverse
the inequality symbol if this number is negative.
(5) Check the solution by substitution or with a graphing utility. If a real-world so-
lution is desired, check the algebraic solution for reasonableness in the realworld
situation.
21
Example 1:
1
Solve the inequality 3x − 3
≤ −4 + x.

Answers:
To solve the inequality
1
3x − ≤ −4 + x
3
first multiply both sides by 3:
1
3(3x − ) ≤ 3(−4 + x)
3
Removing parentheses gives
9x − 1 ≤ −12 + 3x

Performing additions and subtractions to both sides to get the variables on one side
and the constants on the other side gives.

6x ≤ −11

Dividing both sides by the coefficient of the variable gives

11
x≤−
6
11
The solution set contains all real numbers less than or equal to 6
. The graph of the
solution set (−∞, − 11
6
] is shown in Figure below

Example:
For an electronic reading device, the weekly revenue and weekly cost (in dollars) are
given by R(x) = 400x and C(x) = 200x + 16, 000 respectively, where x is the number
of units produced and sold. For what levels of production will a profit result?

22
 Answers:
Profit will occur when revenue is greater than cost. So we find the level of production
and sale that gives a profit by solving the linear inequality R(x) > C(x), or 400x >
200x + 16, 000.
400x > 200x + 16, 000.
200x > 16, 000
x > 80
Thus, a profit occurs if more than 80 units are produced and sold.

2.2.2. Graphical Solution of Linear Inequalities.

In Section 2.1.2, we used graphical methods to solve linear equations. In a similar
manner, graphical methods can be used to solve linear inequalities. We will illustrate
both the intersection of graphs method and the x-intercept method.

Steps for Solving a Linear Inequality with the Intersection Method

(1) Set the left side of the inequality equal to y1 , set the right side equal to y2 , and
graph the equations using your graphing utility.
(2) Choose a viewing window that contains the point of intersection and find the
point of intersection, with x-coordinate a. This is the value of x where y1 = y2 .
(3) The values of x that satisfy the inequality represented by y1 < y2 are those
values for which the graph of y1 is below the graph of y2 . The values of x that
satisfy the inequality represented by y1 > y2 are those values of x for which the
graph of y1 is above the graph of y2 .
Example:
Solve the inequality 5x + 2 < 2x + 6 by using the intersection method.

Answers:
Let
y1 = 5x + 2 and y2 = 2x + 6
Entering y1 and y2 and graphing the equations using a graphing utility (Figure below)
shows that the point of intersection occurs at x = 4/3. Some graphing utilities show
23
this answer in the form x = 1.3333333. The exact x-value (x = 4/3) b can also be
found by solving the equation 5x + 2 = 2x + 6 algebraically. Figure below shows that
the graph of y1 is below the graph of y2 when x is less than 4/3 . Thus, the solution to
the inequality 5x + 2 < 2x + 6 is x < 4/3, which can be written in interval notation as
(−∞, 4/3).

Solving Linear Inequalities with the x-Intercept Method

(1) Rewrite the inequality with all nonzero terms on one side of the inequality and
combine like terms, getting f (x) > 0, f (x) < 0, f (x) ≤ 0, or f (x) ≥ 0.
(2) Graph the nonzero side of this inequality. (Any window in which the x-intercept
can be clearly seen is appropriate.)
(3) Find the x-intercept of the graph to find the solution to the equation f (x) = 0.
(The exact solution can be found algebraically.)
(4) Use the graph to determine where the inequality is satisfied.
Example:
Solve the inequality 5x + 2 < 2x + 6 by using the x-intercept method.

Answers:
To use the x-intercept method to solve the inequality 5x + 2 < 2x + 6, we rewrite the
inequality with all nonzero terms on one side of the inequality and combine like terms

5x + 2 < 2x + 6

3x − 4 < 0
Graphing the nonzero side of this inequality as the linear function f (x) = 3x − 4 gives
the graph in Figure below. Finding the x-intercept of the graph gives the solution to the
24
equation 3x − 4 = 0. The x-intercept (and zero of the function) is x = 1.3333... = 4/3.

We now want to find where f (x) = 3x − 4 is less than 0. Notice that the portion of the
graph below the x-axis gives 3x − 4 < 0. Thus, the solution to 3x − 4 < 0, and thus to
5x + 2 < 2x + 6, is x < 4/3, or a (−∞, 4/3).

2.3. Algebraic and Graphical Solution of Quadratic Equations.

2.3.1. Factoring Methods.

An equation that can be written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, with a 6= 0, is called
a quadratic equation. Solutions to some quadratic equations can be found exactly by
factoring; other quadratic equations require different types of solution methods to find
or to approximate solutions.

Example 1:
Solve the following equations
(1) x2 − x − 12 = 0
(2) 3x2 + 7x = 6

Answers:
(1) To factor a quadratic equation, x2 − x − 12 = 0 where the coefficient of x2 is 1,
we find the factors of -12 that add up to -1(ie coefficient of b).
The factors of -12 are: (1, −12), (−1, 12), (3, −4), (−3, 4), (−2, 6) and (2, −6).

x2 − x − 12 = 0
25
 (x+3)(x−4) = 0

x+3=0 or x−4=0

x = −3 or x=4
(2) We first subtract 6 from both sides of the equation to rewrite the equation with
0 on one side:
3x2 + 7x − 6 = 0
To factor a quadratic equation where the coefficient of x2 is NOT 1, we first
multiply 3 and -6 and find the factors that add up to 7.

3x2 + 7x−6 = 0

& .

−18
The factor of -18 are:(1, −18), (−1, 18), (3, −6), (−3, 6), (2, −9) and (−2, 9).

3x2 + 7x − 6 = 0

3x2 −2x + 9x − 6 = 0

x(3x − 2) + 3(3x − 2) =

(3x − 2)(x + 3) =

3x − 2 = 0 or x+3=0

x = 2/3 or x = −3

Practice:
1. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0

(x + 2)(x + 1) = 0

x = −1 or x = −2
26
2. y 2 + 9y + 20 = 0
3. 2x2 + 4x + 2 = 0

Example 2:
The height above ground of a ball thrown upward at 64 feet per second from the top
of an 80-foot-high building is modeled by S(t) = 80 + 64t − 16t2 feet, where t is the
number of seconds after the ball is thrown. How long will the ball be in the air?

Answers:
The ball will be in the air from t = 0 (with the height S = 80) until it reaches the
ground (S = 0). Thus, we can find the time in the air by solving

0 = −16t2 + 64t + 80

Because 16 is a factor of each of the terms, we can get a simpler but equivalent equation
by dividing both sides of the equation by -16:

0 = t2 − 4t − 5

This equation can be solved easily by factoring the right side:

0 = (t − 5)(t + 1)

0 = t − 5 or 0=t+1

t = 5 or t = −1
The time in the air starts at t = 0, so t = −1 has no meaning in this application. S
also equals 0 at t = 5, which means that the ball is on the ground 5 seconds after it
was thrown; that is, the ball is in the air 5 seconds.

Practice:
Solve the following quadratic by factorizing:
(1) y 2 + 2y = 15
(2) 6x2 = +x + 1
Answers:
27
(1)
y 2 + 2y = 15

y 2 + 2y − 15 = 0

The factors of -15 that add up to 2 are 5 and -3. So

y 2 + 2y − 15 = (y + 5)(y − 3) = 0

y+5=0 or y−3=0

y = −5 or y=3

(2) 6x2 = +x + 1
6x2 − x − 1 = 0

Since the coefficient of x2 is Not 1, then we multiply 6 and -1

6x2 − x − 1 = 0

& .

−6

The factors of -6 that add up to -1 are 2 and -3

6x2 − x − 1 = 0

6x2 − 3x + 2x − 1 = 0

3x(2x − 1) + 1(2x − 1) = 0

(2x − 1)(3x + 1) = 0

2x − 1 = 0 or 3x + 1 = 0

x = 1/2 or − 1/3

28
2.3.2. Graphical Methods.
In cases where factoring f (x) to solve f (x) = 0 is difficult or impossible, graphing
y = f (x) can be helpful in finding the solution. Recall that if a is a real number, the
following three statements are equivalent:
• a is a real solution to the equation f (x) = 0.
• a is a real zero of the function f .
• a is an x-intercept of the graph of y = f (x).
It is important to remember that the above three statements are equivalent because
connecting these concepts allows us to use different methods for solving equations.
Sometimes graphical methods are the easiest way to find or approximate solutions to
real data problems. If the x-intercepts of the graph of y = f (x) are easily found, then
graphical methods may be helpful in finding the solutions. Note that if the graph of
y = f (x) does not cross or touch the x-axis, there are no real solutions to the equation
f (x) = 0. We can also find solutions or decimal approximations of solutions to qua-
dratic equations by using the intersection method with a graphing utility.

Example:
Consider the daily profit from the production and sale of x units of a product, given by

P (x) = −0.01x2 + 20x − 500 dollars

(1) Use a graph to find the levels of production and sales that give a daily profit of
1400 dollars.
(2) Is it possible for the profit to be greater than 1400 dollars?
Answers:
(1) To find the level of production and sales, x, that gives a daily profit of 1400
dollars, we solve
1400 = −0.01x2 + 20x − 500

To solve this equation by the intersection method, we graph

y1 = −0.01x2 + 20x − 500 and y2 = 14001400

29
 To find the appropriate window for this graph, we note that the graph of the
function y1 = −0.01x2 + 20x − 500 is a parabola with the vertex at
−b −20
x= = = 1000 and y = P (1000) = 9500
2a 2(−0.01)
We use a viewing window containing this point, with x = 1000 near the center,
to graph the function (Figure below). Using the intersection method, we see
that (100, 1400) and (1900, 1400) are the points of intersection of the graphs of
the two functions. Thus, x = 100 and x = 1900 are solutions to the equation
1400 = −0.01x2 + 20x − 500, and the profit is 1400 dollars when x = 100 units
or x = 1900 units of the product are produced and sold.

(2) We can see from the graph in Figure above that the profit is more than 1400
dollars for many values of x. Because the graph of this profit function is a
parabola that opens down, the maximum profit occurs at the vertex of the
graph. As we found in part (1), the vertex occurs at x = 1000, and the maximum
possible profit is P (1000) = 9500 dollars, which is more than 1400 dollars.
Practice:
Solve 0 = 3x2 − x − 10 by using the following steps.
(1) Graphically find one of the x-intercepts of y = 3x2 − x − 10.
(2) Algebraically verify that the zero found in part (1) is an exact solution to 0 =
3x2 − x − 10.
30
 (3) Use the method of factoring to find the other solution to 0 = 3x2 − x − 10.
Answers:
(1) The vertex of the graph of y = 3x2 − x − 10 is at x = 1/6 and y ≈ −10.08,
and and because the parabola opens up, we set a viewing window that includes
this point near the bottom center of the window. Graphing the function and
using the x-intercept method, we find that the graph crosses the x-axis at x = 2
(Figure below). This means that 2 is a zero of f (x) = 3x2 − x − 10.

(2) Because x = 2 was obtained graphically, it may be an approximation of the

exact solution. To verify that it is exact, we show that x = 2 makes the equation
0 = 3x2 − x − 10 a true statement:

3(2)2 − 2 − 10 = 12 − 2 − 10 = 0

(3) 3x2 − x − 10 = 0. The factors of 3 × (−10) = −30 that add up to -1 are 5 and
-6 so,
3x2 − x − 10 = 0

3x2 − 6x + 5x − 10 = 0

3x(x − 2) + 5(x − 2) = 0

(x − 2)(3x + 5) = 0

x − 2 = 0 or 3x + 5 = 0

x = 2 or x = −5/3
31
2.3.3. The Square Root Method.
√
The solutions of the quadratic equation x2 = C are x = ± C. Note that, when we
take the square root of both sides, we use a ± symbol because there are both a positive
and a negative value that, when squared, give C.
Note that this method can also be used to solve equations of the form (ax + b)2 = C.

Example:
Solve the following equations by using the square root method.
(1) 2x2 − 16 = 0
(2) (x − 6)2 = 18
Answers:
(1) This equation can be written in the form x2 = C, so the square root method
can be used. We want to rewrite the equation so that the x2 -term is isolated
and its coefficient is 1 and then take the square root of both sides.

2x2 − 16 = 0

2x2 = 16
x2 = 8
√ √
x = ± 8 = ±2 2
√ √
The exact solutions to 2x2 − 16 = 0 are x = 2 2 and x = −2 2.
(2) The left side of this equation is a square, so we can take the square root of both
sides to find x.

(x − 6)2 = 18
√
x − 6 = ± 18
√
x = 6 ± 18
√ √
x=6± 9 2
√
x=6±3 2

32
2.3.4. Completing the Square.
When we convert one side of a quadratic equation to a perfect binomial square and use
the square root method to solve the equation, the method used is called completing the
square.
To make x2 + bx a perfect square, add ( 2b )2 , the square of half the coefficient of x. This
gives the perfect square
b b
x2 + bx + ( )2 = (x + )2
2 2
Example:
Solve each equation.
(1) x2 − 8x + 13 = 0
(2) 3x2 − 12x + 6 = 0
Answers:
(1)
x2 − 8x + 13 = 0
x2 − 8x = −13
8 8
x2 − 8x + ( )2 = ( )2 − 13
2 2
2
x − 8x + 16 = 16 − 13
(x − 4)2 = 3
√
x−4=± 3
√
x=4± 3
(2) After subtracting 6 from each side of the equation, we must divide both terms
of the equation by the coefficient of x2 (the 3) to have the correct form for
completing the square.

3x2 − 12x + 6 = 0

3x2 − 12x = −6
3 2 12 −6
x − x=
3 3 3
2
x − 4x = −2
4 4
x2 − 4x + ( )2 = ( )2 − 2
2 2
33
 x2 − 4x + 4 = 4 − 2
(x − 2)2 = 2
√
x−2=± 2
√
x=2+± 2

2.3.5. The Quadratic Formula.

We can generalize the method of completing the square to derive a general formula that
gives the solution to any quadratic equation. We use this method to find the general
solution to ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0.

ax2 + bx + c = 0

ax2 + bx = −c
b c
x2 + x = −
a a
We would like to make the left side of the last equation a perfect square trinomial. Half
b b2 b2
the coefficient of x is 2a
, and squaring this gives 4a2
. Hence, adding 4a2
to both sides
of the equation gives a perfect square trinomial on the left side, and we can continue
with the solution.
2 b b2 b2 c
x + x+ 2 = 2 −
a 4a 4a a

b 2 b2 − 4ac
(x +
) =
2a 4a2
r
b b2 − 4ac
x+ =±
2a 4a2
√
b b2 − 4ac
x=− ±
2a 2a
√
2
−b ± b − 4ac
x=
2a
The formula we have developed is called the quadratic formula.

The solutions of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by the formula
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
34
Note that a is the coefficient of x2 , b is the coefficient of x, and c is the constant term.

Example 1:
Solve 6 − 3x2 + 4x = 0 using the quadratic formula.

Answers:
The equation 6 − 3x2 + 4x = 0 can be rewritten as −3x2 + 4x + 6 = 0, so a = −3, b = 4,
and c = 6. The two solutions to this equation are
p
−4 ± 42 − 4(−3)6
x=
2(−3)
√
−4 ± 88
x=
−6
√
−4 ± 2 22
x=
−6
√
2 ± 22
x=
3 √ √
2+2 22 2−2 22
Thus, the exact solutions are the irrational numbers x = 3
and x = 3
.
Three-place decimal approximations for these solutions are x ≈ 2.230 and x ≈ −0.897.

Example 2:
The real price of a gallon of gasoline (price adjusted for inflation) from 1990 to 2012
can be described by the function

G(x) = 0.006x2 − 0.054x + 1.780

where x is the number of years after 1990. If the model remains valid, in what year
after 2000 will the price of a gallon of gasoline be 5.00 dollars? (Source: U.S. Energy
Information Administration).

Answers:
To answer this question, we solve (using an algebraic, numerical, or graphical method)
the equation
0.006x2 − 0.054x + 1.780 = 5
35
We choose to use the quadratic formula (even though an approximate answer is all that
is needed). We first write 0.006x2 − 0.054x + 1.780 = 5 with 0 on one side:

0.006x2 − 0.054x + 1.780 − 5 = 0

0.006x2 − 0.054x − 3.22 = 0

This gives a = 0.006, b = −0.054, and c = −3.22. Substituting in the quadratic formula
gives
p
−(−0.054) ± (−0.054)2 − 4(0.006)(−3.22)
x=
2(0.006)
√
0.054 ± 0.080196
0.012)
x = 28.1 or x = −19.1

Thus, the price of a gallon of gasoline will reach 5.00 dollars in the 29th year after 1990,
or in 2019.
Practice:
Use the quadratic formula to solve the equations
(1) x2 − 5x + 2 = 0
(2) 5x + 3x2 = 8
Answer:
√ √
5− 17 5+ 17
(1) x = 2
or x = 2
(2) x = 1 or x = −8/3

2.4. Quadratic Inequalities.

To determine the intervals on which the values of a quadratic inequality are entirely
negative or entirely positive, use the following steps.
(1) Find all real zeros of the quadratic, and arrange the zeros in increasing order.
(2) Make a Table or Diagram. Use test values to make a table or diagram of the
signs
(3) Determine the solution of the inequality from the a Table or Diagram.
36
Example:
Solve the inequality x2 − 5x + 6 ≤ 0. Illustrate your answer on a diagram, interval and
set notation.

Answers:
(1)
x2 − 5x + 6 ≤ 0

(x − 2)(x − 3) = 0

x − 2 = 0 or x−3=0

x = 2 or x=3
(2) We make a diagram and put x = 2 and x = 3 on it. After, we take arbitrary
numbers around x = 2 and x = 3 to find the sign of each interval.
In the interval (−∞, 2) we choose 0:

(0)2 − 5(0) + 6 = +6

So the sign is positive(+).

In the interval (2, 3), we choose 2.5:

(2.5)2 − 5(2.5) + 6 = −0.25

So the sign is negative(-).

In the interval (3, +∞), we choose 4:

(4)2 − 5(4) + 6 = 2

So the sign is positive(+)

37
 (3) The inequality is x2 − 5x + 6 ≤ 0 meaning for which values of x the expression
is negative. From the diagram, we can see that it is in the interval [2, 3]. The
set notation is {x | 2 ≤ x ≤ 3}.

Practice:
Solve the following inequalities and illustrate your answer on a number line and on a
set.
(1) x2 − x − 2 ≥ 0
(2) y 2 + 2y − 15 < 0
(3) −6z 2 + 5z − 1 > 0
Answers:
(1) S = (−∞, −1] ∪ [2, +∞)
(2) S = (−3, 5)
(3) S = (1/3, 1/2)

2.4.1. Standard Form of a quadratic functions.

A quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c can be expressed in the standard form

f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k

by completing the square. The graph of f is a parabola with vertex(h, k).

• If a > 0 the parabola opens upward
• If a < 0 the parabola opens downward

38
 Example:
Let f (x) = 2x2 − 12x + 23

(1) Express f in standard form.

(2) What are the coordinates of the vertex?
(3) Find the x-intercepts and y-intercept.
(4) Sketch the graph of f .

Answer:

(1) Since the coefficient of x2 is not 1, we must factor this coefficient from the terms
involving x before we complete the square.

f (x) = 2x2 − 12x + 23

= 2(x2 −6x) + 23
−6 −6
= 2(x2 − 6x+( )2 − ( )2 ) + 23
2 2
2
= 2(x − 6x+9 − 9) + 23
= 2(x2 − 6x+9) + 2(−9) + 23
= 2(x − 3)2 − 18 + 23
= 2(x − 3)2 + 5

(2) The coordinates of the vertex are (3, 5).

(3) Let’s find the x-intercept.

2(x − 3)2 + 5 = 0
2(x − 3)2 = −5
(x − 3)2 = −5/2
p
x − 3 = ± −5/2
39
 Which is impossible so there is NO x-intercepts.
Let’s find the y-intercept.

y = 2x2 − 12x + 23
= 2(0)2 − 12(0) + 23
y = 23

(4)

Practice:
Let f (x) = −x2 − 4x + 4
(1) Express f in standard form.
(2) What are the coordinates of the vertex?
(3) Find the x-intercepts and y-intercept.
(4) Sketch the graph of f .

40