Hydraulic Engineering – Land and Water Development

Main Drainage Systems1

Henk Ritzema

ALTERRA/ILRI
Wageningen University and Research Centre
Wageningen, The Netherlands
February 2007

1 These lecture notes were prepared for teaching purposes only. The author does not
assume responsibility for the accuracy or the completeness of the information enclosed
herein. These notes or any part of thereof may not be reproduced or translated without the
written permission of the author

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

SUMMARY
Course Hydraulic Engineering – Land and Water Development
Module 6. Aspects of Irrigation and Drainage
Subject Main Drainage Systems
Lecturer Ir. Henk Ritzema, Alterra-ILRI, Wageningen University and Research Centre
P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands, Email:
henk.ritzema@wur.nl
Study load Study load 18 hours
Contact hours:
• Lectures 4 hours
• Exercises 4 hours
Lecture notes • This workbook
• ILRI Publication 16 “Drainage Principles and Applications”, Chapter 19
• ILRI Publication 60 “Subsurface Drainage Practices: Guidelines for the
implementation, operation and maintenance of subsurface pipe drainage
systems”
Learning method • Lectures
• Individual assignments and exercises
• Self-study
Learning Knowledge Understand the need for drainage and the components out of which
Objectives a drainage system is built up.
Skills Application of the knowledge in design exercises and/or MSc
thesis.
Attitude Awareness that the design of a drainage system needs a
systematic approach and should not be done merely from
handbooks.
Brief description The need for drainage will be discussed: (i) in humid regions, drainage is a tool
of subject to combat waterlogging and waterponding and; (ii) in arid and semi-arid regions,
drainage is a tool to combat waterlogging and salinization. An overview of the
systems that are available to drain agricultural lands is presented and the soil
and hydrological factors which influence drainage are discussed.
Contents • The Need for drainage
• Components of a drainage system

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Contents

1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………..1

2 The need for drainage …………………………………………………………………………………2

2.1 Drainage for agriculture ………………………………………………………………………..2

2.2 Drainage to control water ponding ………………………………………………………………5
2.3 Drainage to control waterlogging ………………………………………………………………...5
2.4 Drainage to control salinisation …………………………………………………………………..6

3 Drainage systems ……………………………………………………………………………………... 8

3.1 The Components of a Drainage System ………………………………………………………....8

3.2 Outlet ………………………………………………………........................................................10
3.3 Main Drainage Systems ………………………………………………………...........................10
3.3.1 Sloping Lands ………………………………………………………...................................11
3.3.2 The Agricultural Area ……………………………………………………............................12
3.3.4 Location of the main drainage system ………………………………...............................16
3.3.5 Schematic Map of the Main Drainage System …………………………………….………18
3.4 Field Drainage Systems………………………………..............................................................20
3.4.1 Surface Drainage Systems ……………………………….................................................20
3.4.2 Subsurface Drainage Systems………………………………............................................24
3.4.3 Combined Drainage Systems ……………………………….............................................27

4 Examples of drainage systems ……………………………….........................................................28

4.1 Rain-fed lands in the temperate humid regions – Example from The Netherlands ………...28
4.1.1 Historical developments ……………………………….....................................................28
4.1.2 Large-scale reclamations in the 20th century ………………………………....................30
4.1.3 Commonly used subsurface drainage system ………………………………...................30
4.2 Irrigated lands in arid and semi-arid regions - Example from Egypt ………………………...31
4.3 Drained lands in the humid tropics - Example from Malaysia…………………………………33

BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………......................................................................................36

GLOSSARY ……………………………….............................................................................................46

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1 Introduction

This series of In this series of lectures “Main Drainage Systems” we shall discuss the
lectures procedure to design a main drainage system. After a brief introduction into the
need for drainage in irrigated lands (Chapter 2), the components of a drainage
system are discussed, (Chapter 3). To design a drainage system, we first have
to understand why we need drainage (Chapter 4) and which factors influence the
functioning of a drainage system (Chapter 5). After a brief introduction of the
design process, the three types of input factors needed for the design of are
discussed. The first set of factors are dealing with the agricultural objectives of
the proposed drainage system, these objectives have to be transformed in
drainage design criteria. The second set of factors is representing the soil and
hydrological conditions of the area for which a drainage system is designed. The
last set of factors represents the engineering tools we have to design the
system. These three types of input factors are combined to calculate the
specifications of the proposed drainage system. You have to select the
appropriate design equations (or models) to make the designs. The design
procedure is an iterative process as the input factors depend on outcome of the
calculation process and visa versa. To optimize the design the procedure has to
be repeated a number of times.

Purpose of this The purpose of this workbook is to guide you through the relevant theories
workbook presented in the ILRI Publiations 16 and 60. For each subject the relevant
sections of these two publications are indicated and, where necessary, specific
points are highlighted.

Glossary For the definitions of the technical terms and expressions used in this workbook,
please refer to the glossaries of the two ILRI publications.

Exercises When appropriate, exercises are included.

Follow-up You can use the theories discussed in this series of lectures to design a surface
or subsurface drainage system for a situation resembling the conditions in your
own country.

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2 The need for drainage

Self study ILRI Publication 16 - Chapter 17.3

Context In this chapter, the need for drainage is discussed.

2.1 Drainage for agriculture

Objectives of The four main objectives of drainage in agricultural land are:

drainage • Drainage to prevent or reduce waterlogging
• Drainage to control salinity, or
• Drainage to make new land available for agriculture
• Drainage to sustain the land and water resources

Water Agriculture depends on the availability of water (Figure 1). In humid regions, the
balance main source of water is rainfall (9), in arid or semi-arid regions supplemented by
irrigation. To apply irrigation water to a crop, water has to be diverted from a river
or lake (1) or from the groundwater reservoir (2). The amount of water diverted has
to be greater that the quantity required by the crops because the diverted water will
leave the area not only as evapotranspiration by the irrigated crop (3), but also as
evaporation (4), seepage (5) and operational spills (6) from the irrigation canal
system, as tailwater runoff from irrigated fields (7), and as deep percolation (8). In
the field, irrigation water together with any rainfall (9), will be partly stored on the
soil surface (10) and partly infiltrate in the soil (11).

Figure 1 The water balance in an irrigated area

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Water When rain or irrigation continues, pools may form on the soil surface, and this
ponding excess water needs to be removed. This standing water on the soil surface is
called ponding water.

Ponding is the accumulation of excess water on the soil surface

Waterlogging Part of the water that infiltrates the soil will be stored in the pores and used by the
crop (3) and part of the water will be lost as deep percolation (8). When the
percolating water reaches that part of the soil which is saturated with water, the
watertable will rise (12). If the watertable reaches the root zone, the plants may
suffer (Figure 2). The soil has become waterlogged.

Figure 2 After rainfall or irrigation the watertable may rise and reach the root zone

Waterlogging is the accumulation of excess water in the root zone of the soil.

Salinisation Drainage is needed to remove the excess water and to control the rise of the
watertable. Even in irrigation water of very good quality there are salts, thus
bringing irrigation water to a field means also bringing salts to the same field. The
irrigation water is used by the crop or evaporates directly from the soil. The salts,
however, are left behind (Figure 3). This process is called salinisation.

Salinisation is the accumulation of soluble salts at the surface, or at some point

below the surface of the soil profile, to levels at which they have negative effects
on plant growth and/or soils.

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Figure 3 Irrigation water brings alts into the soil

If these salts accumulate in the soil, they will hamper crop production. Some crops
are more tolerant to salts than others. The highly tolerant crops can withstand a
salt concentration of the root zone up to 10 dS/m, the moderately tolerant crops up
to 5 dS/m and the sensitive crops up to 2.5 dS/m (LECTURE NOTES Field
Irrigation and Drainage - Part 1). To grow more sensitive crops, drainage is
needed to remove these salts. Thus drainage is used to control ponding at the
surface, to control waterlogging in the soil and to avoid salinisation, and may be
defined as:

Definition of Drainage is the removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the land to
drainage enhance crop growth, including the removal of dissolved salts from the soil.

Drainage is necessary for successful irrigated agriculture because it controls

ponding, waterlogging and/or salinity. Drainage can be either natural or artificial.
Most areas have some natural drainage; this means that excess water flows from
the farmer's fields to swamps or to lakes and rivers. However, the natural drainage
is often inadequate to remove the extra water or salts brought in by irrigation and
in such a case an artificial or man-made drainage system is required.

Definition of A drainage system is an artificial system of land forming, surface and/or

a drainage subsurface drains, related structures, and pumps (if any), by which excess water is
system removed from an area.

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2.2 Drainage to control water ponding

Surface To remove excess (ponding) water from the surface of the land we use surface
drainage drainage. This is normally accomplished by shallow open field drains. In order to
facilitate the flow of excess water towards these open drains, the field is usually
given an artificial slope by means of land shaping or grading (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Surface drainage to remove excess water from the land surface

Surface drainage is the diversion or orderly removal of excess water from the
surface of the land by means of improved natural or constructed drains,
supplemented when necessary by the shaping and grading of land surfaces to
such drains.

2.3 Drainage to control waterlogging

Subsurface To remove excess water from the root zone we use subsurface drainage (Figure
drainage 5). By subsurface drainage we control the watertable, and excess water is
removed from the underground by gravity through open or pipe drains installed at
depths varying from 1 to 3 m.

Figure 5 Field drains for surface drainage may be open (A) or pipe (B)

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Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water and dissolved salts from
soils via groundwater flow to the drains, so that the watertable and root zone
salinity are controlled.

Tubewell Tubewell drainage is a special type of subsurface drainage where excess water is
drainage removed by pumping from a series of wells drilled into the ground to a depth of
several tens of metres. The pumped water is then discharged into open surface
drains.

Tubewell drainage is the control of an existing or potential high watertable, or of

artesian groundwater, through a group of adequately-spaced wells.

2.4 Drainage to control salinisation

Leaching To remove salts from the soil, water is used as a vehicle: more irrigation water is
applied to the field than is required for crop growth. This additional water infiltrates
into the soil and percolates through the root zone. During percolation the water
takes up part of the salts from the soil and removes these through the subsurface
drains (Figure 6). This process, in which the water washes the salts out of the root
zone, is called leaching.

Figure 6 Extra irrigation water is applied to remove salts from the rootzone

Leaching is the removal of soluble salts by the passage of water through soil.

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The additional water required for leaching must be removed from the root zone by
means of drainage, otherwise the watertable will rise and this will bring the salts
back into the root zone. Thus salinity control is achieved by a combination of
irrigation and drainage measures. The different types of drainage systems, which
can be used for the control of the watertable and/or the soil salinity, are discussed
in Chapter 3.

Example Example: Drainage to sustain irrigated agriculture in Egypt

Agriculture in the Nile Delta in Egypt depends almost entirely on irrigation from the
River Nile. The total amount of irrigation water applied to the crops is about 1200
mm/year. Although this irrigation water is of good quality (0.3 dS/m) it brings a lot
of salts into the soils:
Total volume of irrigation water :
Vi = 1200 mm/year = 1200 x 10-3 x 104 m3/ha/year = 12 x 103 m3/ha/year
Salinity of irrigation water:
ECi = 0.3 dS/m = 0.3 x 640 mg/l = 200 mg/l = 2 x 10-4 ton/m3
Total salts brought into the soil:
S = Vi x ECi = 12 x 103 m3/ha/year x 2 x 10-4 ton/m3 = 2.4 ton/ha/year

Thus every year about 2.4 tons of salts are added to the soil profile and leaching is
required to maintain a favorable salt balance.

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3 Drainage systems

Self study ILRI Publication 16 - Chapter 17.2 and 19.2

In this chapter, we shall discuss the components of a drainage system.

3.1 The Components of a Drainage System

Components of A drainage system can be divided into three components (Figure 7):
a drainage • Field drainage system
system • Main drainage system and
• Outlet.

A field drainage system is used to avoid ponding water and/or to control the
watertable in the field, the main drainage system is used to convey the water away
from the farm area and an outlet is the point of safe disposal of the drainage water.
In the following we will briefly discuss the three components.

Figure 7 Schematic lay-out of a drainage system

Field drainage The field drainage system is a network that gathers the excess water from the
system land by means of field drains, possibly supplemented by measures to promote the
flow of excess water to these drains.

For the farmers the field drainage system is the most important part of a drainage

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system. A field drainage system controls ponding and/or waterlogging. It can be a

surface drainage system (to remove ponding water from the surface of the land) or
a subsurface drainage system (to control the watertable in the soil). In surface
drainage, field drains are shallow graded channels, usually with relatively flat side
slopes (Figure 4). In subsurface drainage, field drains are open or pipe drains.
Open and pipe drains have the same function, the difference is the way they are
constructed: an open drain is a ditch with an exposed watertable (Figure 5A), and
an pipe drain is a buried pipe (Figure 5B). The length and spacing of field drains is
determined by a wide variety of factors such a topography, soil type, depth of the
impermeable layer, root depth, drainage requirement and farm size. In Section 3.2
we will discuss the field drainage systems in more detail.

Main drainage The main drainage system is a water conveyance system that receives water
system from the field drainage systems, surface runoff, and groundwater flow, and
transports it to the outlet point.

The main drainage system consists of collector drains and a main drain. A
collector drain is a drain that collects water from the field drains and carries it to the
main drain for disposal. As field drains, collector drains may be either open or pipe
drains. The main drain is the principal drain of an area, it receives water from
collector drains, diversion drains, or interceptor drains (= drains intercepting
surface or groundwater flow from outside the area), and conveys this water to an
outlet for disposal outside the area. The main drain is often a canalized stream
which runs through the lowest parts of the agricultural area.

Outlet The outlet is the terminal point of the entire drainage system, from where it
discharges into a river, lake, or sea.

Gravity outlet The outlet can be a gravity outlet structure or a pumping station. A gravity outlet
or pumping structure is a drainage structure in an area with variable outer water levels, where
station drainage can take place by gravity when outside water levels are low. In delta
areas, drainage by gravity is often restricted to a few hours per day during low tide.
In the upstream regions of a river, drainage by gravity can be restricted for several
weeks, during periods of high river discharges. A pumping station is needed in
areas where the required water levels in the drainage system are lower than the
water level of the river, lake or sea.

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3.2 Outlet

Outlet The site where drainage water is to be discharged into a river, lake, or sea
influences the lay-out and functioning of the drainage system. To ensure the
uninterrupted discharge of water throughout the drainage season, the outlet should
not be blocked by a sand bank or vegetated flats, nor should it be at the inner
curve of a river, where sedimentation occurs. At the outlet, the main drainage
canal usually cuts through the natural river embankment or the dyke. To prevent
flooding of the agricultural area, the outlet is usually fitted with a sluice, which can
be closed when the outside water level is high. The sluice should be near the
lowest part of the area to be drained. Soil conditions in such a location, however,
may cause foundation problems, and the sluice may have to be moved.

Location To avoid damage if there is a change of the river course or coast line, sluices are
built at a certain distance from the river or sea. The entire length of the main canal
reach downstream of the sluice must be protected, and some length of river
embankment or coast must be protected against erosion.

Access To operate and maintain the gates properly, it is essential that the sluice be
accessible throughout the year. The cost of constructing and maintaining an
all-weather access road may influence the choice of a site for the drainage outlet.
If the hydraulic gradient over the outlet sluice is insufficient to discharge all
drainage water within a selected period (3 or 5 days), a pumping station may be
added to the outlet. In such a case also the cost of power supply to the pumping
station influences its location.

3.3 Main Drainage Systems

Main drainage Systems of drainage canals and their related structures collect and carry away
system excess water to prevent damage to crops and to allow farm machinery to work the
land. Besides these agricultural functions, a drainage canal system may have to
supply water for irrigation in the dry season, act as a means of transport for
shipping, etc. In this chapter, we shall concentrate on the agricultural functions of
the system.
Sloping lands

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Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of drainage canal systems:

• A system to intercept, collect, and carry away water from sloping land
adjacent to an agricultural area. Most of the water in this system originates
Flat agricultural from surface runoff. It will be discharged for brief periods only, causing
plains high flow rates and sediment transport;
• A system to collect and carry away water from a relatively flat agricultural
area. Here, the main source of water is precipitation on the area or
irrigation. Because of surface detention and groundwater storage, water is
discharged over a longer period than above. Furthermore, the flat gradient
canals have little or no sediment transport capacity.

In designing a drainage canal system for an agricultural area that is partly bounded
by sloping lands, the engineer can either design two canal systems, which drain
the sloping and agricultural area separately, or he can design a combined system.

3.3.1 Sloping Lands

Sloping lands If a flat agricultural area is partly surrounded by sloping lands, the surface runoff
from these lands should be intercepted and discharged to prevent inundation of
the agricultural area. The extent to which drainage problems in the agricultural
area are caused by this surface runoff should be determined by making a water
balance of the area.

High Runoff from sloping lands causes two major problems in the downstream areas; (i)
discharges and rainfall causes high discharges of short duration, (ii) the surface runoff causes
erosion erosion, and the related sediment transport down the steep gradient of the
channels causes sedimentation in the flatter channel reaches.

Both problems can be eased by a combination of the following techniques:

• Planting trees and encouraging the growth of natural vegetation on steep
slopes;
• Contour ploughing and terracing intermediate slopes (up to 10%).
Terracing is the levelling of the slopes along the contour lines in
combination with the planting of crops;
• Encouraging the growth of crops that give a soil cover during the rainy
season;

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• Constructing retention reservoirs in the streams to temporarily store peak

runoff.

These techniques are a form of erosion control; their application greatly eases the
downstream drainage problems.

In sloping areas, the main drainage system usually will be limited to the
reconstruction of channel reaches and to the construction of energy dissipators.

Routing Streams originating in sloping areas can be connected to a major river, lake, or
sea along two alternative routes; (i) via an interceptor canal, which channels the
water around the agricultural area to a suitable outlet, or (ii) via a canalized stream
through the agricultural area.

The major advantage of the interceptor canal is that peak discharges and
sediments from the sloping lands do not disturb the functioning of the drainage
system in the flatter agricultural area.

Limiting It is possible to limit the required discharge capacity of a channel that transports
discharge rates water from sloping lands to a suitable outlet if the channel discharges from one of
the following two structures:
• A retention reservoir that is filled by the peak stream flow, which is then
released through a bottom outlet. As a result, the discharge peak is lower,
but of longer duration;
• A regulating structure that consists of a weir of limited discharge capacity
in the stream and a side weir immediately upstream of it. If the stream flow
exceeds a predetermined rate, it overtops the crest of the side weir. Most
of the additional stream flow then discharges over the side weir into an
area where inundation or overland flow causes little damage.

Which of these two lay-outs (or an intermediate lay-out) is the best solution can
usually only be decided after a reconnaissance study.

3.3.2 The Agricultural Area

The agricultural areas that require drainage are usually coastal plains, river

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valleys, or plains where the inefficient use of irrigation water has caused
waterlogging. In coastal plains, the drainage problems are exacerbated by some
hydrological feature, typical of such plains, being:
Problems • Gentle hydraulic gradient of the rivers in the coastal plain, which leads to
related to low flow velocities and the deposition of sediments;
drainage • Ttidal levels on river water levels near the sea and of saline water
intrusion;
• Complicated network of river branches and ramifications, which can cause
natural drains to disappear in coastal swamps giving the river or stream
what is known a "bad outlet";
• Rapid changes in channel configuration that can occur after each major
flood;
• Low elevation of the coastal plain with respect to the level of rivers and the
sea. To prevent the inundation of the coastal plain, dykes along the rivers
and the sea shore are essential.

Examples of To illustrate alternative lay-outs of the drainage canal system, let us consider an
lay-outs irrigated coastal plain that lies between sloping lands (hills) and the sea. The plain
is intersected by parallel rivers and streams and by an irrigation canal system.
Depending on factors such as: run-off from the sloping land, construction and
maintenance cost of canals, quality of drainage outlets, etc., alternative lay-outs
can be considered:

Combined Drainage System

Combined Figure 8 shows a drainage canal lay-out that combines the drainage system of the
drainage sloping land with that in the plain. All run-off from the sloping land is intercepted
system and carried away by canalized streams. These streams, and the lateral drains
along the river dykes, flow into a main drain that runs parallel to the sea dyke. One
drainage sluice with a well-defined, stable (suitable) outlet has been planned on
that drain. The other streams are dammed by the sea dyke. Concentrating all the
drainage water discharge through one sluice eases sedimentation problems in the
outlet channel.

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Figure 8 Combined system: the sloping land and coastal plain are drained by one
combined system

Separate System for Sloping Land

Separate If relatively high discharges come from the sloping lands, or if the plain is wide,
system for intercepting and diverting streams into the nearest river is a sound alternative to
sloping the lay-out shown in Figure 9. The streams are dammed and the interceptor drains
lands discharge all water from the sloping lands through two sluices into the rivers. As a
result, the coastal plain has a separate drainage system that discharges
precipitation, unused irrigation water, and groundwater inflow. Drainage has been
decentralized into three independent systems: two for the sloping land and one for
the coastal agricultural area.

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Figure 9 Separate system for sloping lands: the sloping land and coastal plain are
drained by three separate systems.

Two Drainage Systems in a Coastal Plain

Two drainage The transport of mud and sand along a coastline often blocks the outlets of all
systems in a minor streams into the sea, and dredging may be needed to maintain a sufficient
coastal plain depth at the river mouths. Under such circumstances, none of the stream mouths
is suitable as a drainage outlet. Water that is collected by the main drain along the
coastal dyke is then discharged into the nearest river. Figure 19.3 shows four
separate drainage canal sub-systems: two for the sloping lands and two for the
coastal plain.

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Figure 10: Two drainage systems in a coastal plain: the sloping land and coastal
plain are drained by four separate systems

3.3.4 Location of the main drainage system

Location of To determine the location, hydraulic properties, visual characteristics, and

drainage condition of existing channels, planned canals, and related structures, one needs a
channels and 1:10 000 scale topographical map with a contour interval of 0.50 m or less, and a
related 1:10 000 controlled photo mosaic. Maps, especially in flat topography, should be
structures field checked. This step should be done in the earliest planning stage to avoid the
need for major revisions later. The following information is needed to plan a canal
system (adapted from U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 1977):

1. Drained area and the junctions of existing streams and all flow control
points. Drainage areas should also be delineated for the "land level units";
2. Approximate profiles in existing channels, showing the elevation of the
channel bottom, low bank, points of natural low ground away from but
subject to drainage into the channel, and elevation and dimensions of all
structures in or over the channel. The condition and serviceability of all

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structures should be recorded. Adequate survey data are needed for all
structures to compute the discharge capacity for each;
3. Representative channel and valley cross sections for each hydraulic or
economic reach. Additional cross sections should be taken as needed for
a reliable estimate of: quantities of excavation and land clearance,
damage evaluation in the plain or valley because of high water levels, and
to permit the computation of storage in flood plains, ponds and marshes;
4. Manning's coefficient 'n' for each existing channel. Even if channel
elements are very uniform, the n value should be estimated for each 1-km
reach;
5. Location and elevation of all soil investigation sites along the proposed
canals. To determine the maximum permissible velocities and bank
slopes, soil investigations should extend to a depth of at least 3 m below
the anticipated future canal bottom (Figure 19.4). Use the Unified Soil
Classification of Section 19.3.4;
6. Landscape character and use patterns along major existing and
anticipated drains. Data must include: scenic views, area and density of
brush and trees, and isolated but valuable trees;
7. Location and ownership of boundary lines in the vicinity of all probable
canals and structures;
8. Other significant features that will be affected such as roads, pipelines,
power and telephone lines, buildings, wells, cemeteries, and fences.

Preparing a Based on the above information, the center line of all the canal system is drawn in
preliminary pencil on the photo mosaic, showing curves, intersecting angles, and so on. Mark
design the stationing on these center lines with a short dash at each 100-m point.

After this preliminary design phase at the office, the canal location should be field-
checked. For this check, one should walk the full length of the canal's center line,
noting the following on the preliminary design drawing:
• Probable realignment of the center line;
• Points of significant breaks in the grade;
• Location of all rock outcrops or critical soil conditions;
• Approximate locations of points where more cross sections could be
obtained;
• Location of significant canal junctions and places where side inlets may be
needed;

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• If not already visible on the aerial photo, note the location of all buildings,
utilities and structures that may be affected by the drainage canal works.
These include, but are not limited to, facilities that are within 100 m of the
alignment and 1 m below the future canal bottom;
• Location of valuable landscapes and large individual trees adjacent to the
alignment.

Following the field check, one should accurately establish the revised center line
on the photo mosaic. The final alignment should be based on the previous cross
sections, and geological and environmental data. Indicate on the photo mosaic
where the cross sections and soil surveys were made.

Field
investigations
for canal
alignment

Figure 11 Depth of preliminary exploratory holes for canal alignment (after U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation, 1973)

3.3.5 Schematic Map of the Main Drainage System

Schematic map Maps showing the layout of a drainage canal system must give detailed
of main information on the location of canal reaches and related structures. Normally, this
drainage information is given on the same map that shows the irrigation canal system,
system roads, and the boundaries of irrigation units. To keep such maps legible, standard
symbols must be used to indicate the center line of the canals and related
structures. The schematic map in Figure 12 uses these symbols. It shows:
• Location of the center lines of drains and irrigation canals, numbered for

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each reach;
• Radii of the center lines;
• Reserve boundaries of canals and boundaries of any adjacent
obstructions, roads, and land level units. The area of land level units must
be shown also;
• Boundaries and number of irrigation units (if applicable);
• All structures, numbered and with position dimensioned with respect to
center lines or boundaries;
• North point and scale.

Example of a
schematic map

Figure 12 Example of a schematic map

Longitudinal A schematic map must be supplemented by longitudinal profiles of all main and
profiles lateral canals. On both the map and longitudinal profile, a certain notation has
been used to identify a canal reach and its related structure. After the system has
been constructed, this notation must also appear on the structure. The notation
consists of two parts: (i) the number of the canal and (ii) the number of the canal

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

reach or the structure identification number. It is presented in the following table.

Notation for Notation for canals and related structures

canals and Type of canal or First part of Second part of notation
structure notation (ii)
related (i)
structures Drainage canal:
• main MD
• lateral D9 Number only; assigned
• sublateral D9B consecutively from
Irrigation canal:
} upstream end of canal
• main MS or drain
• lateral S6
• sublateral S6C
Discharge regulator C Plus number;
Water-level check CH assigned
Drop structure DR consecutively
Check-and-drop structure CD } from upstream
Wasteway W end of canal or
Bridge, culvert, or syphon S drain
On-line pumping plant P
Turnout (measures flow) TO Number of
Drainage outlet (farm) DO structure;
Irrigation well
Drainage well
SW
DW
} identical to farm
block number
Farm access bridge AB or number
of irrigation
unit served or
adjacent
Drain or relief outlet OL } No number
Non-return gate NG
Drainage outlet sluice
Drainage outlet pumping }
station Proper name only
River diversion dam
Storage dam

3.4 Field Drainage Systems

3.4.1 Surface Drainage Systems

Surface A surface drainage system is used to remove excess water from the soil surface. A
drainage surface drainage system has always two components:
Shaping of the surface by land forming to enhance to flow of water towards the
field drains, and
Construction of open field drains to divert this water to the collector drainage

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

system.

A surface drainage system is a system of drainage measures, such as open

drains and land forming, meant to divert excess surface water away from an
agricultural area in order to prevent ponding.

Land forming Land forming is defined as changing the micro-topography of the land to meet the
requirements of surface drainage or irrigation. Three land-forming systems are
distinguished: bedding, land grading, and land planing. Bedding is the oldest
surface drainage practice. Under this system the land surface is formed into beds
by manual labour, animal traction, or farm tractors. The beds are separated by
parallel shallow, open field drains oriented in the direction of the greatest land
slope (Figure 13). The water drains from the beds into the field drains, which
discharges into a collector drain constructed at the lower end of the field and
perpendicular to the field drains.

Figure 13 A bedding system

Bedding Bedding is a surface drainage method accomplished by ploughing land to form a
series of low narrow ridges, separated by parallel field drains.

The bedding system is normally used for grassland. In modern farming, bedding is
not considered an acceptable drainage practice for row crops, because rows
adjacent to the field drains will not drain satisfactorily. To overcome the
disadvantages of the bedding system, two other methods of land forming have
been developed: land grading and land planing. Land grading is the process of
forming the land surface to predetermined grades, so that each row or surface
slopes to a field drain.

Land Land grading is the forming of the surface of the land to predetermined grades so
grading that each row or surface slopes to a field drain.

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

Land grading for surface drainage consists of forming the landscape by cutting,
filling, and smoothing it to planned continuous surfaces (Figure 14). It is a one-time
operation, involving the transport of earth according to specified cuts and fills
based on the predetermined grades. Land grading for surface drainage differs from
land levelling for irrigation in that, for drainage, a non-uniform grade is required.
The grades can be varied as much as is necessary to provide drainage with the
least amount of earthmoving. After land grading it is sometimes necessary to break
up the soil which has become compacted by the construction machinery.
Compared to bedding, land grading reduces the number of field drains, thus
reduces the need for weed control and maintenance, and enables better land
utilization.

Figure 14 Land grading for surface drainage is the forming of the land surface to
predetermined grades

Land Land planing is the process of smoothing the land surface with a land plane to
planing eliminate minor depressions and irregularities without changing the general
topography (Figure 15). It is frequently applied in conjunction with land grading,
because irregular micro-topography in a flat landscape in combination with heavy
soils can cause substantial crop losses.

Land planing is smoothing the land surface with a land plane to eliminate minor
depressions and irregularities without changing the general topography.

Figure 15 Land planing for surface drainage is the process of smoothing the land

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

surface

Random Two typical lay-outs of surface drainage systems are applied at field level: the
field drainage random field drainage system, and the parallel field drainage system. The random
system field drainage system is applied where a number of depressions are distributed at
random over a field. Often these depressions are large but shallow, and a
complete land-forming operation is not (yet) considered economically feasible. The
random field drainage system connects the depressions by means of field drains
and evacuates the stagnant water into a collector drain (Figure 16). The system is
often applied in situations where farm operations are limited (e.g. on pasture land)
or where mechanization is done with small equipment. The field drains should be
shallow with gentle side slopes so that they can be crossed with farm machinery.

Figure 16 The random field drainage system

Parallel field The parallel field drainage system (Figure 17), in combination with proper land
drainage forming, is the most effective method of surface drainage. The parallel field drains
system collect the surface runoff and discharge it into the collector drain, through which
the water flows towards the main drainage system. The spacing of the field drains
depends on the size of fields that can be prepared and harvested economically, on
the tolerance of crops to ponding, and on the amount and costs of land forming.
The system is applicable in flat areas with an irregular micro-topography and
where farm operations require regular shaped fields.

Figure 17 The parallel field drainage system

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

3.4.2 Subsurface Drainage Systems

Subsurface A subsurface drainage system is a system for the removal of excess water and
drainage salts from the soil using the groundwater as a vehicle.

A subsurface drainage system is a man-made system that induces excess water

and dissolved salts to flow via the soil to pipe or open drains, from where it can be
evacuated.

If one has decided to install a subsurface drainage system, one has to make a
choice between open or pipe drains. Open drains have the advantage that they
can receive overland flow and thus can also be used for surface drainage. The
disadvantages of open drains are the loss of land, the interference with the
irrigation system, the splitting-up of the land into small farm blocks, which hampers
farming operations, and a maintenance burden. To overcome these disadvantages
pipe drains can be installed. The choice between open or pipe drains has to be
made at two levels: for field drains and for collector drains. If the field drains are to
be pipes, there are still two options for the collectors:
• Open collector drains, so that we have a singular pipe drainage system.
• Pipe collector drains, so that we have a composite pipe drainage system.

Singular pipe In a singular pipe drainage system, each field pipe drain discharges into an open
drainage collector drain (Figure 18). In a composite system, the field pipe drains discharge
system into a pipe collector (Figure 19), which in turn discharges into an open main drain.
The collector system itself may be composite with sub-collectors and a main
collector.

A singular drainage system is a drainage system in which the field drains are
buried pipes and all field drains discharge into open collector drains.

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

Figure 18 In a singular pipe drainage system each pipe drain discharges in to an

open collector drain

Composite pipe
drainage A composite drainage system is a drainage system in which field drains and
system collector drains are buried pipes.

Figure 19 In a composite system the collector drain is also a buried pipe

Lay-out For subsurface drainage we can also make a distinction between the different lay-
outs of the systems. A random system connects scattered wet spots, often as a
composite system (Figure 20A). A regular pattern is installed if the drainage
network must be uniformly cover the total area. Such a regular pattern can either
be a parallel grid system, in which the field drains join the collector drain at right
angles (Figure 20B), or a herringbone system, in which they join at sharp angles
(Figure 20C). Both regular patterns may occur as a singular or a composite
system.

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

Figure 20 Three lay-outs for a subsurface drainage system: (A) random system;
(B) parallel grid system, and; (C) herringbone system

Tubewell Tubewell drainage systems are, similar to subsurface drainage system, used to
drainage control the watertable, however, better use is made of the more permeable deeper
soil layers (Figure 21).

A tubewell drainage system is a network of tubewells to lower the watertable,

including provisions for running the pumps, and drains to dispose of the excess
water.

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

Figure 21 Tubewell drainage is a technique of controlling the watertable by

removing the excess water from the (more permeable) underground

3.4.3 Combined Drainage Systems

Combined Sometimes combined surface and subsurface drainage systems are used.
drainage Whether this is needed depends on a combination of factors like the intensity and
system duration of the rainfall, surface storage, the infiltration rate, the hydraulic
conductivity, and the groundwater conditions. Some examples of combined
systems are:
In irrigated areas in arid and semi-arid regions, where the cropping pattern
includes rice in rotation with 'dry-foot' crops (maize, cotton, etc), as in the Nile-
Delta in Egypt. Subsurface drainage is needed for salinity control of the dry-foot
crops, whereas surface drainage is needed to evacuate the standing water from
the rice fields, e.g. before fertilizer applications or to dry the crop before harvest.
Areas with occasional high-intensity rainfall (say more than 50 mm/day) that
causes water ponding at the soil surface, even when a subsurface drainage
system is present.

In both cases, the standing water could be removed by the subsurface drainage
system, but this would either take too long or require drain spacings which are
economically unjustifiable. In such circumstances, it is generally more efficient to
remove the ponded water by surface drainage.

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

4 Examples of drainage systems

Self study ILRI Publication 16 – Chapter 17.5

ILRI Publication 60 – Part III – Case studies

4.1 Rain-fed lands in the temperate humid regions –

Example from The Netherlands

4.1.1 Historical developments

Example from the In the Netherlands, 25% of the land is below sea level and about 65% of it
Netherlands would be flooded where it not for the dikes (Figure 22).

NORTH SEA
Rhin
e
us

e
Me

ldt Land periodically

Sche Belgium
Germany flooded by sea
and or river waters
0 80 km when there would
have been no dikes
1 m + m.s.l.

Figure 22 Land periodically flooded by sea and river

Climate The climate is relatively mild with an average annual rainfall of about 750
mm and an annual evaporation of about 475 mm (Figure 23). The removal

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

of excess rainfall in combination with the low elevation, the lowest area is
6.5 m below mean sea level, requires an intensive drainage system to
Agricultural keep one’s feet dry, both man and crops. The expansion of agriculture in
development the Netherlands started some 1000 years ago with a gradual change from
since 1000 AD shifting cultivation towards a more permanent development and occupation
of the land. Farmers had to learn to organise themselves to mobilise
enough labour and capital under evolving authorities: abbeys (1000-1200
AD), feudal rulers (1200-1500), locally organised groups (1300-1500) and
water boards (1300-present). Moreover the water management was
influenced by private or municipal land reclamation companies and peat
mining companies (1500-1700), companies to drain and reclaim lakes
(1500-1900), and governmental services to reclaim lakes, swamps and
heath lands (1900-2000). Field drainage has always been the responsibility
of the land user and the main drainage systems the responsibility of the
above-mentioned institutions. Exceptions are the large-scale, government-
supported, land reclamation and land consolidation projects in the second
half of the 20th century: in these projects both the field and main drainage
systems were implemented.

Figure 23 Monthly values of rainfall, evaporation, storage and drainage

surplus in The Netherlands

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

4.1.2 Large-scale reclamations in the 20th century

Large scale The generally felt need for better agricultural production conditions in the
reclamations 20th century resulted in a number of government-financed, long-term
programmes in which the construction of subsurface drainage systems was
a significant part. Important programmes were the land reclamation
programme in the former Zuiderzee area and the rural development
programmes on the “old lands”, the so-called land consolidation projects.
The public organisations involved in these programmes were the
IJsselmeerpolders Development Authority (for the newly reclaimed areas)
IJsselmeerpolders and the Government Service for Land and Water Use (for the “old lands”).
Development Both organisations were multi-purpose organisations whose tasks included
Authority drainage installation. The IJsselmeerpolders Development Authority carried
out most of the works themselves in forced account. The construction of
drainage systems in the land consolidation projects was carried out by
consultants and contractors under contract with Government Service for
Land and Water.

4.1.3 Commonly used subsurface drainage system

Singular pipe field In the Netherlands, subsurface drainage systems are used in almost all
drains, open agricultural lands, except in the peat areas, where a high groundwater
collector and table is require to reduce subsidence and only shallow open drainage
main drains and a systems are used. The most commonly installed subsurface drainage
pumped outlet system is a singular system with piped field drains discharging into open
collector drains (Figure 24). The main function of the field drains is to
control the watertable level. The corrugated plastic field drains (Ø 60 mm)
are installed at a depth of 1.0 to 1.3 m. In fine or reduced (risk of ochre
formation) soil layers, voluminous organic (coconut fibres) envelopes were
used in the past, but they have been replaced by synthetic pre-wrapped
envelopes. Depending on the drain depth and soil texture, installation is
done by either trencher or trenchless drainage machines (Part I Figure
5.8). The discharge from the subsurface field drains and the surface runoff
is removed by gravity through a system of open collector drains.

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

Pumping
Drain station
Sea or lake

Secondary drain
Primary drain

Drain pipes

Figure 24 The single subsurface drainage system in the Netherlands

consists of pipe field drains, open collector, secondary and primary drains
and a pumping station.

4.2 Irrigated lands in arid and semi-arid regions -

Example from Egypt

Climate Egypt’s Nile Valley and Delta, one of the oldest agricultural areas in the
world, has been under continuous cultivation for at least 5000 years. Egypt
has an arid climate, characterised by high evaporation rates (1500-2400
mm/year) and little rainfall (5-200 mm/year), thus agriculture depends
almost entirely on irrigation from the river Nile (Figure 25). From ancient
times onwards, irrigated agriculture in the Nile Valley and Delta depended
on the annual floods of the River Nile. The receding floods also drained and
leached the cultivated areas. The construction of the Aswan High Dam in
Aswam high dam
1964 ended the annual flooding but made irrigation water available
throughout the year. Since then, two to three crops can be grown each
year, resulting in a practical continuous growing season.

These developments had as a secondary effect that the natural annual

Need for
drainage and leaching ceased to exist. The absence of this natural drainage
drainage and leaching, in combination with the intensification of agriculture, made it
necessary to provide the Nile Valley and Delta with an artificial drainage
system to control water logging and salinity. Although the quality of the
water from the River Nile is good (EC = 0.3 dS/m), salinity control is
needed; otherwise over the years salt will be accumulated in the root zone.
Therefore, in the 1960’s, the Egyptian Government started an ambitious
programme to drain all of Egypt’s agricultural land (approximately 2.5 million
ha). This programme is expected to be completed around 2012. Since the

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

1960, organisational reforms, the local production of drainage materials,

mechanisation of the installation together with the necessary basic and
operational research has resulted in a drainage organisation and drainage
industry that has an annual implementation capacity of about 75 000 ha.

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Alexandria Port Said

QATTARA Suez
DEPRESSION SINAI
Cairo

Siwa Oasis El Fayum

Bahariya Oasis

Farafra Oasis Asyut

RED SEA

Dakhla Oasis
Kharga Oasis

NEW VALLEY

Old lands Aswan

Reclaimed land since 1952
Land proposed for future reclamation
Nile River

0 50 100 150 200 km

Figure 25 Agricultural land in Egypt

Composite field The drainage systems in Egypt consist of a network of piped field drainage
drainage system, systems and open main drains (Figure 26). The field drainage system
consists of subsurface field (lateral) and collector pipes that runs by gravity.
open main
The piped collectors discharge into open main drains from where the
drainage system drainage water is pumped into large open gravity drains which eventually
a pumped outlet discharge into the River Nile or the sea. Pumping is necessary almost
everywhere in the Delta and the Valley, expect in some areas in Upper
Egypt, where there is enough gradient to dispose of the effluent freely by
gravity.

The implementation of drainage systems involves the following steps:

Implementation • Construction of open main drains or the remodelling of the existing
main drains;
process
• Construction of drainage pumping stations to keep the water level
in the open main drainage system at 2.5 m below field level so that
the piped systems can discharge by gravity in these main drains;

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

• Construction of piped field drainage systems consisting of field

drains (named laterals in Egypt) and piped collector drains.

Sea or lake

Collector

Open drain
Pumping Outfall drain
Lateral station

Manhole

Figure 26 Schematic representation of the drainage system used in Egypt

4.3 Drained lands in the humid tropics - Example from

Malaysia
Climate The climate in Malaysia is characterised by its uniform temperature, high
humidity, and high rainfall intensity. It is influenced by two monsoon winds,
namely the Northeast Monsoon from November to February and the
Southwest Monsoon from April to September. The mean monthly
temperature is stable, varying between 24°C and 27°C. The rainfall is
higher than the annual evaporation (Figure 26). The evaporation is fairly
constant. The rainfall, however, is much more irregular, both in time and
space. There are significant, and often consistent, differences between the
different regions; for example the rainfall in Pontian in the south western
part of Peninsular Malaysia is around compared to 3600 mm in Mukah, in
Central Sarawak (Figure 27). These differences are linked closely to the
average rainfall intensity and not so much to the number of days of rainfall.

33
Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

mm
800

rainfall Mukah
rainfall Pontian
600
evaporation Mukah
evaporation Pontian

400

200

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Okt Nov Dec

Figure 27 Long-term average monthly rainfall (P) and evaporation (ET) in

Pontian (Western Johore) and Mukah (Sarawak)

Open drains As rainfall exceeds evaporation, drainage is needed to sustain agriculture.

Because of the high rate of excess rainfall, drainage systems consist of
open field and main drains. The design criteria are based on an extreme
rainfall with a return period of 1 x 5 years. To minimize costs, the design for
the secondary drains follows the steepest possible gradient, i.e.
perpendicular to the contour lines. As an example the main characteristics
of the drainage system for the Western Johor Integrated Agricultural
Development Project, located in the south western part of Peninsular
Malaysia (Figure 28), are:

Secondary drains Tertiary Drains

Spacing (m) 800 200

Design depth (m) 1.6 0.9

Design discharge (mm/d) 52 - 86 52

Design discharge (l/s/ha) 6.0 - 10.0 6.0

Duration of flooding (hours):

- coconut, rubber, oil palm, orchards 72
- banana, cocoa, coffee, papaya 48
- maize, sorghum, and pineapple 24
- tobacco, vegetables 0

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

Segamat

MALAYSIA

MALAYSIA
Kuala Lumpur

Muar
project area
Kluang

PHASE II

Batu Pahat

PHASE I

Pontian Johore Bahru

Singapore
0 25 50 km

Figure 28 Location of the Western Johor Integrated Agricultural

Development Project

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(Ref: ILRI Publication 60)

DRAINAGE OF CLAY SOILS

1995 Rycroft, D.W. and M.H. Amer. Prospects for the Drainage of Clay Soils. Irrigation and
Drainage Paper No. 51. FAO, Rome. 52 pp.
This bulletin discusses the drainage of clay soils. The book starts with a discussion of
the physical and chemical properties of clay soils, the movement of water and salts in
these soils and then reviews the techniques to drain and reclaim heavy clay soils. Case
studies of drainage of heavy clay soils in Yugoslavia, Portugal, Spain and Egypt are
included.

DRAINAGE DESIGN
1984 Framji, K.K., B.C. Garg, and S.P. Kaushish. Design Practices of Open Drainage
Channels in an Agricultural Land Drainage System : A Worldwide Survey. ICID, New
Delhi. 343 pp.
This volume on open drainage channels consists of two parts: Part I is devoted to a
general review of the design aspects of open drainage channels: system lay-out, design
capacity, channel shape, roughness coefficient, permissible channel velocity,
longitudinal channel slope, side slope; Part II contains the country reports of Australia,
Bangladesh, Canada, Colombia, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, France, Federal Republic of
Germany, German Democratic Republic, Great Britain, Greece, India, Iraq, Ireland,
Japan, Malaysia, Morocco, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and the U.S.A.

1980 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Drainage Design Factors.
Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 38. 1980. FAO, Rome. 52 pp.
This manual, which is based on an expert consultation, gives 28 questions and answers
regarding drainage design factors.

1978 U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation. Drainage Manual – A guide to
integrated plant, soil, and water relationships for drainage of irrigated lands. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, 286 p.
The manual contains the engineering tools and concepts that have proven useful in
planning, constructing, and maintaining drainage systems for successful long-term
irrigation projects. Although the manual is not a textbook, it provides drainage
engineering with a ready reference and guide for making accurate estimates of

36
Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

drainage requirements. All the methods and techniques covered in the manual have
proven to be very satisfactory through observed field conditions on irrigated lands in the
USA but also in other parts of the world.

DRAINAGE GUIDELINES
1992 Ochs, Walter J. and Bishay G. Bishay. Drainage Guidelines. 1992. World Bank
Technical Paper Number 1995, The World Bank, Washington. 186 pp.
This paper provides research results for and experiences with agricultural drainage and
related subjects. It has been developed to guide Bank staff, consultants, and borrowing-
country technicians as they work through the project cycle, seeking to assist planners
and designers, as well as those responsible for implementation and follow-up, when
projects involve drainage measure.

1990 Schultz, B. Guidelines on the Construction of Horizontal Subsurface Drainage Systems.

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi. 236 pp.
These guidelines give general criteria and recommendations for the construction of
horizontal subsurface drainage systems. The book starts with an inventory of
subsurface drainage systems and then briefly reviews design aspects. It gives attention
to drainage materials and to equipment to install the drains. It then recommends
construction methods, and describes operation and maintenance. Finally, it treats the
cost-benefit analysis of projects. Includes a glossary.

1983 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Guidelines for the Preparation
of Irrigation and Drainage Projects. Revised Edition. FAO, Rome. 31 pp.
Gives guidelines for the main text of a feasibility study, which provides the answers to
questions that might be raised in the course of project appraisal.

DRAINAGE MATERIALS
2001 Vlotman, W.F., L.S. Willardson, and W. Dierickx. 2001. Envelope Design for Subsurface
Drains. ILRI Publication 56, ILRI, Wageningen, 358 p.
The book is a compilation of the most recent information on how to design and select
envelope materials for agricultural drains. It is especially valuable for drainage
engineers, contractors, drainage-equipment manufacturers, students, teachers, and
researchers who need to understand soil-hydraulic conditions and how to prevent soil
particles from moving into drains so that they can design successful subsurface
drainage systems. The publication consists of two parts. In part one, guidelines for the
design of envelopes for subsurface drains are presented, it includes the following

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

subjects: the needs for a drain envelope, material selection, design, cost,
implementation, maintenance and evaluation. Part two, the “resources” section,
presents the back-ground of drain envelope design, the theory and testing of existing
design criteria and experiences.

2000 Stuyt, L.C.P.M., W. Dierickx and J. M. Beltrán. Materials for subsurface land drainage
systems. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 60. FAO, Rome, 183 p.
This paper provides practical information to drainage engineers and contractors for the
selection, installation and maintenance of drainage materials as well as specifications
and standards for such materials. In addition, the manual also contains practical
guidelines for the implementation of laboratory and field investigations to evaluate the
performance of drainage materials.

1970 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Drainage Materials. Irrigation
and Drainage Paper No. 9. FAO, Rome. 122 pp.
This manual gives an overview of the materials used in the construction of pipe
drainage systems.

DRAINAGE PLANNING, DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT

2004 Smedema, L.K., W.F. Vlotman and D.W. Rycroft. Modern Land Drainage: Planning,
Design and Management of Agricultural Drainage systems. 450pp.
New edition of the publication Land Drainage (published in 1983). The book is based on
traditional drainage methods for rainfed agriculture in the humid temperate zone.
Significant parts are devoted to drainage for salinity control of irrigated lands in (semi-
)arid zones, and to drainage of rice land in the humid tropics. Institutional, management
and maintenance aspects are covered, as well as the mitigation of adverse impacts of
drainage interventions on the environment. Moreover, various applications for drainage
design and management are treated. The book is intended for use both as a university
level textbook and as a professional handbook.

1983 Smedema, L.K., and D. Rycroft. Land Drainage: Planning and Design of Agricultural
Drainage Systems. Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd., London, United Kingdom.
376 pp.
The text discusses the diagnosis of agricultural drainage problems and their solutions,
based on an understanding of the physical principles involved. Land drainage is treated
as being a field of applied soil physics and applied hydrology. All major drainage
problems are covered, each in its particular environment and field of application:

38
Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

Groundwater Drainage; Watertable Control; Surface Drainage of Sloping and Flat

Lands; Shallow Drainage of Heavy Land; Drainage for Salinity Control in Irrigated Land;
Drainage and Reclamation of Polders; Drainage for Seepage Control; Main Drainage:
Design Discharges, Canal Design, Outlets. The book stresses the universal
relationships between the main design variables and soil, climatology, and other
relevant environmental conditions.

DRAINAGE PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

1994 Ritzema, H.P. (Editor-in-Chief). Drainage Principles and Applications, Second,
Completely Revised Edition. ILRI Publication 16, ILRI, Wageningen, 1125p.
This completely revised second edition on drainage principles and applications is based
on lectures delivered at the International Course on Land Drainage, which is held
annually by the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement,
Wageningen, The Netherlands. The book presents the basic principles of land drainage
with applications. The book provides a coverage of all the various topics useful to those
engaged in drainage engineering. Includes a glossary.
Also available is a Spanish version published in 1977, entitled: Principios y Aplicaciones
del Drenaje (en cuatro volúmenes).

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
1999 Skaggs, R.W., J. van Schilfgaarde (Ed.). Agricultural Drainage. Number 38 in the series
Agronomy, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, USA, 1328 p.
This monograph summarises the information developed during the past two decades
and deals with the many aspects of contemporary agricultural irrigation and drainage
systems, placing these systems into the perspective of comprehensive water
management. It can serve as the scientific basis for decision-makers in developing
management strategies to improve the soil conditions of the field and protect water
quality from contamination by cropping practices. The 42 chapters which contributions
from 71 scientists and professions are presented in 12 sections: I) Introduction; II)
Overview of drainage and crop production; III) Soil water movement in drained lands;
IV) Movement and fate of solutes in drained lands; V) Modelling in the performance of
drainage systems; VI) Drainage for salinity control and reclamation; VII) Water table
control; VIII) Hydrology and water quality impacts of drainage; IX) Planning and design
of drainage systems; X) Drainage methods and materials; XII) Special drainage
problems; XII) Determination of soil properties for drainage design, and; XII) Socio-
economic impacts of agricultural water management systems.

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Main Drainage systems Alterra-ILRI/HPR/2007

DRAINAGE TESTING
1976 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Drainage Testing. Irrigation
and Drainage Paper No. 28. FAO, Rome. 172 pp.
This publication gives guidelines on how to test the functioning and adequacy of single
drains and drainage systems.

DRAINAGE TRAINING MANUALS

1996 Ritzema, H.P., R.A.L. Kselik and F. Chanduvi. Drainage of Irrigated Lands. Irrigation
Water Management Training Manual No. 9. Food and Agricultural Organisation of the
United Nations, Rome, 74 p.
Drainage of Irrigated Lands is the ninth in a series of training manuals on irrigation. The
manual is intended for use by field assistants in agricultural extension services and
irrigation & drainage technicians at the village and district levels who want to increase
their ability to deal with farm-level irrigation and drainage issues. It discusses the needs
for drainage in irrigated areas, focusing on drainage at farm level. It reviews the
systems that are available to drain irrigated lands and explains which factors of soil and
hydrology influence drainage. It touches briefly upon the design, construction, operation
and management of field drainage systems.

CASE STUDIES
Egypt
2003 Advisory Panel Project on Water Management. Precious Water: a celebration of 27
years of Egyptian- Dutch Cooperation. APP Central Office, Cairo, Egypt, 84 p.
The booklet published through the Secretariat of the Egyptian-Dutch Advisory Panel on
Water Management, on the occasion of the Third World Water Forum, March 2003,
presents an overview of an unique 27-year cooperation between the Governments of
Egypt and the Netherlands in the Egyptian-Dutch Advisory Panel on Water
Management. This bilateral cooperation on water started, in 1975, on drainage, with a
main focus on design and implementation of large-scale drainage systems. Throughout
the years of the bilateral co-operation, the Advisory Panel successfully widened its
scope from drainage specific issues to water management topics and gradually
changed from technical support to policy advice. The main objective of the Panel in its
present set-up is to assist the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation in carrying out
its responsibilities towards managing the quality and quantity of Egypt’s freshwater
resources more efficiently and effectively. This task is accomplished with an Annual
Panel Meeting, Workshops, consultant missions (local and international), Working

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Group Meetings, Task Forces, etc., coordinated by a Secretariat, based in Cairo, Egypt,
and Wageningen, The Netherlands.
In the booklet the “nuts and bolts” of the Panel as well as many of the achievements of
the last 27 years are described in 13 interviews with Panel members, Officials of the
Netherlands Embassy in Cairo, and the Panel’s Secretariat.

2003 El Guindy, S., M. Salah El Deen, A. Bazaraa & W. Wolters. “Seminar on Water
Management Development in Egypt, Results of Long-term Egyptian-Dutch
Cooperation”. Proceedings seminar on water management development, 12-14
December 2002, in Hurghada, Egypt. Advisory Panel Project on Water Management,
Cairo, Egypt.
The proceedings highlight the results of the long-term, 27 years from 1975-2002,
Egyptian-Dutch cooperation on water management. The objectives of the Seminar were
threefold:
• To highlight the achievements of more than 25 years of Egyptian-Dutch cooperation
• To reflect on the evolution of the cooperation programme from technology transfer in
land drainage towards integrated water management and planning, institutional
reform, capacity building and environmental management.
• To exchange experiences, lessons learned, vision for the future of Egypt’s water
sector and coordination issues of donor cooperation.
The proceedings include the critical success factors for such a bilateral cooperation
programme as well as the Main Findings and Recommendations of the Seminar. A CD
with all papers and presentations completes the Proceedings.

2001 Drainage Research Project I & II. 2001. Drainage Research Project I & II, Final Report,
Dec 1994 – June 2001. Drainage Research Institute, Kanater, Cairo, Egypt, 172 p.
The report presents the results of the long-term co-operation of drainage research in
Egypt between the Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Egypt and the International
Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), the Netherlands. After a brief
sketch of agriculture and agricultural research in Egypt, with emphasis on the activities
by DRI, the achievements in the field of design criteria are described in 6 sections: I)
Project details; II) Research on design criteria; III) Monitoring and evaluation; IV)
Research on drainage technology; V) Crop production and water management; VI)
Research Management. The report concludes with a list of publications by the project.

2000 H.J. Nijland (Ed.) Drainage along the River Nile. RIZA Nota nr. 2000.052, Ministry of
Public Works and Water Resources, Egypt, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and

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Water Management, Directorate-General of Public Works and Water Management, The

Netherlands, 323 p.
This publication presents the achievements of 15 years of co-operation on institutional
and technical aspects of Agricultural Land Drainage in Egypt between the Egyptian
Public Authority of Drainage Projects (EPADP) and the Netherlands Directorate
General of Public Works and Water Management (RWS). It presents various aspects of
large-scale implementation of drainage, covering subjects that are technical, economic,
and organisational, or that concern operation research, and institutional and human
resources development. The contributions of 40 authors are presented in 5 parts: I)
Drainage in Egypt and The Netherlands; II) Training: III) Planning and Organisation; IV)
Information Technology, and; V) Drainage Technology.

1989 Amer, M.H. and N.A. de Ridder (Eds.) Land Drainage in Egypt. Drainage Research
Institute, Cairo, Egypt and the International Institute for Land Reclamation and
Improvement (ILRI), The Netherlands, 377 p.
The project presents the achievements of 14 years of technical co-operation between
Egypt and The Netherlands on agricultural land drainage. The book summarises the
knowledge gained in research studies that were conducted to combat waterlogging and
salinity in the Nile Delta and Valley with the aim to provide some 2.1 million hectares
with subsurface drainage systems. The results are presented in seven: 1) Drainage
survey and design practices; 2) Drainage technology; 3) Operation and maintenance of
drainage systems; 4) Vertical drainage feasibility in the Nile Valley; 5) Re-use of
drainage water for irrigation; 6) Economic evaluation of drainage projects, and 7)
Institutional and management aspects of drainage projects. The book provides in depth
guidance to practising engineers in planning and designing drainage systems.

India
2003 Indo-Dutch Network Project on Drainage and Water Management for Salinity
Control in Canal Commands in India. Research on the control of waterlogging and
salinization in irrigated agricultural lands. Central Soil salinity Research Institute, Karnal,
India and Alterra-International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement,
Wageningen, The Netherlands, 4 Volumes, 380p.
This report presents the findings of the Indo-Dutch Network Project on research on the
control of waterlogging and salinization in irrigated agricultural lands in India. The
project, covering the period 1995 – 2002, was a collaboration between the Central Soil
Salinity Research Institute, Karnal , the four State Agricultural Universities of Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and Rajasthan and Alterra-ILRI. The four volumes of the

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report cover the following issues:

• A methodology for identification of waterlogging and soil salinity conditions using
remote sensing: Based on eight studies covering areas ranging from 5 000 to 350
000 ha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (3), heavy clay or black soils (3) and sandy soils
(2), two methodology, one based on visual and another for digital interpretation are
recommended.
• Recommendations on Waterlogging and Salinity Control based on pilot area
drainage research: presenting the research findings of 7 drainage pilot areas
(ranging in size from 20 to 188 ha), covering 5 agro-ecological sub-regions in India
with soils ranging from sandy loam to heavy clay. For each sub-region specifications
for subsurface drainage systems, both open and pipe drains, are presented.
• Computer modelling in irrigation and drainage: four computer simulation models,
SWAP, UNSATCHEM, SALTMOD and SURDEV, were tested to assess the short
and long-term impacts of water management options on the land and water
productivity and the environment.
• Human resource development and the establishment of a training centre: the report
discusses the adopted approach in technology transfer, capacity building and
institution strengthening of the four network centres.

1995 Rajasthan Agricultural Drainage Research Project. 1995. Analysis of Subsurface

Drainage Design Criteria. Chambal Command Area Development Authority, Rajasthan,
India, 260 p.
The report presents an intensive review of the present state of scientific knowledge and
technology in the subsurface drainage research activities undertaken by the Rajasthan
Agricultural Drainage Research Project (RAJAD) during1991-1994. These activities
have resulted in the development of criteria and guidelines for subsurface drainage
installation to assist with the formulation of large-scale subsurface drainage procedures
for the installation of subsurface drainage in about 25 000 ha in the Chambal Command
Area, Kota, Rajasthan, India. The information is presented in 10 chapters: 1) Project
description; 2) Background information on Chambal Command Area; 3) Salinity and
waterlogging; 4) Description of the experimental drainage test sites; 5) subsurface
drainage design criteria development; 6) Multidisciplinary aspects of subsurface
drainage; 7) Hydraulics of subsurface drainage systems; 8) Subsurface drain envelope
requirements; 9) Subsurface drainage installation costing procedures; 10) Design
guidelines for subsurface drainage.

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Netherlands
1993 Ven, G.P.van de (Editor). Man-made lowlands: history of water management and land
reclamation in the Netherlands. Matrijs, Utrecht, 293 p.
Man-made lowlands presents a comprehensive and richly illustrated picture of the way
the Dutch have made and kept their lowlands habitable. A indispensable standard work
for anyone interested in the Dutch history of water management and land reclamation.
The publication covers subjects: 1) The Netherlands, the country and its inhabitants; 2)
Water management from about 800 to about 1250; 3) Water management from about
1250 to about 1600; 4) Water management from 1600 to about 1800; 5) The
Netherlands, its inhabitants and water management administration from 1800 till
present; 6) Water management in ‘Laag-Nederland’ from about 1800 till present; 7)
Water management in ‘Hoog-Nederland’ from about 1800 till present; 8) Improvement
of the large rivers; 9) The Zuiderzee and the Delta projects; 10) Epilogue and the
prospects of water management in the Netherlands.

Pakistan
2001 Alterra-ILRI. Netherlands Research Assistance Project: a bilateral cooperation in
drainage between IWASRI and ILRI – Final Report 1988-2000. Alterra-ILRI Rapport
354, Wageningen, 90 p.
This is the final report of the Netherlands Research Assistance Project, a joint
undertaking by the International Waterlogging and Salinity Research Institute (IWASRI),
Lahore, Pakistan and the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement
(ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands. The project, with covered the period 1988-2000,
had two main activities: work on technical aspects of drainage and the development of a
participatory approach to drainage. The report discussed three main issues
1. Technical lessons learned, in particular: (i) envelope materials; (ii) drainage design
with computer simulations; (iii) drainage design criteria; (iv) salinity measurements
by magnetic induction; (v) interceptor drainage; (vi) groundwater approach to
drainage design; (vii) operation and maintenance of drainage systems (viii) benefits
of shallow drainage, and (ix) the use of poor quality water for crop production and
reclamation.
2. Participatory drainage development: lessons learned on development and
implementation, and
3. Institutional development, including capacity building through training and the
execution and dissemination of research.

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1984 MARDAN SCARP. 1984. MARDAN SCARP Subsurface Drainage Design Analysis.
Water and Power Development Authority, Pakistan, 224 p.
This reports presents the subsurface drainage design analysis for the Mardan Salinity
Control and Reclamation Project (SCARP) carried out by the Pakistan Water and Power
Development Authority (WAPDA) and consulting engineering companies Engineering
with assistance by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The
Mardan SCARP project encompasses 123 600 acres of the Culturable Command Area
of the Lower Swat irrigation canal in the Northwest Frontier Province of
Pakistan. The achievements are presented in 8 chapters: 1) Background information; 2)
Design drainage rates, drain depths and spacings; 3) Subsurface drainage pipework; 4)
drain envelopes; 5) Cost estimates; 6) Economic analysis; 7) Subsurface drainage
plans, and; 8) Evaluating the performance of subsurface drainage.

USA
1987 Pavelis, G.A. (Ed.). Farm Drainage in the United States: History, Status and Prospects.
Miscellaneous Publication No. 1455, United States Department of Agriculture, Economic
Research Service, Washington DC, 170 p.
This publication covers the historical, technological, economic, and environmental
aspects of agricultural drainage in the USA. The main purpose is to review the evolution
of modern farm drainage and to identify farm drainage objectives for agricultural
extension specialists and agents, environmental specialists, drainage consultants,
installation contractors, and educators. Farm production, water management, and other
benefits and costs associated with the drainage of wet soils on farms are described
within the context of existing USDA programs and other Federal policies for protecting
wetlands. The publication, which draws from the combined knowledge of academic and
USDA professionals, covers subjects: 1) A framework for future farm drainage policy:
the environmental and economic setting; 2) A history of drainage and drainage
methods; 3) Advances in drainage technology: 1955-85; 4) Purposed and benefits of
drainage; 5) Preserving environmental values; 6) Principles of drainage; 7) Drainage
system elements; 8) Planning farm and project drainage; 9) Drainage for irrigation:
managing soil salinity and drain-water quality; 10) Drainage institutions; 11) Economic
survey of farm drainage; 12) Drainage potential and information needs, and: 13)
Drainage challenges and opportunities.

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GLOSSARY (Ref: ILRI Publication 16)

Agricultural drainage: See Land drainage.

Alluvial plain: A plain bordering a river, formed by the deposition of alluvium eroded from areas of
higher elevation.

Aquifer: A water-bearing soil layer.

Base flow: Water flow appearing in a river or stream as a result of groundwater discharge, with a
characteristic delayed reaction to recharge. Most clearly visible after direct runoff has stopped.

Basin irrigation: A system of surface irrigation in which water is ponded on level land parcels
surrounded by earthen bunds or banks.

Bedding: A surface drainage method accomplished by ploughing land to form a series of low
narrow ridges, separated by parallel furrows. Water from the furrows discharges into a
perpendicular field drain at the lower end of the field.

Catchment: See Drainage basin.

Collector drain: A drain that collects water from the field drainage system and carries it to the main
drain for disposal. It may be either an open ditch or a pipe drain.

Composite drainage system: A drainage system in which both field drains and collectors are
buried.

Culvert: A square, oval, or round closed conduit used to transport water horizontally under a
highway, railway, canal, or embankment.

Design discharge: A specific value of the flow rate which, after the frequency and the duration of
exceedance have been considered, is selected for designing the dimensions of a structure or a
system, or a part thereof.

Direct runoff: That portion of excess rainfall that turns into overland flow.

Discharge hydrograph: A graph or a table showing the flow rate as a function of time at a given

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location in a stream.

Diversion channel: A channel constructed across a slope to intercept surface runoff and conduct it
to a safe outlet.

Diversion drain: See Interceptor drain.

Drain spacing: The horizontal distance between the centre lines of adjacent parallel drains.

Drainable surplus: The amount of water that must be removed from an area within a certain period
so as to avoid an unacceptable rise in the levels of groundwater or surface water.

Drainage base: The water level at the outlet of a drained area.

Drainage basin: The entire area drained by a stream in such a way that all stream flow originating
in the area is discharged through a single outlet.

Drainage coefficient: The discharge of a drainage system, expressed as a depth of water that
must be removed within a certain time.

Drainage criterion: A specified numerical value of one or more drainage parameters that allow a
design to be calculated with drainage equations.

Drainage effluent: The water flowing out of a drainage system which must be disposed of either by
gravity flow or by pumping.

Drainage gate: A gravity outlet fitted with a vertically-moving gate or with a horizontally-hinged door
or plate (flap gate).

Drainage intensity: (1) An agricultural drainage criterion based on the ratio between the design
discharge and the depth of the watertable. (2) The number of drainage provisions (e.g. natural or
artificial open drains, pipe drains, or tubewells) per unit area.

Drainage sluice: A gravity outlet fitted with vertically-hinged doors, opening if the inner water level
is higher than the outer water level, and vice versa, so that drainage takes place during low
tides.

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Drainage survey: An inventory of conditions that affect the drainage of an area, made at various
levels, ranging from reconnaissance to design level.

Drainage system: (1) A natural system of streams and/or water bodies by which an area is
drained. (2) An artificial system of land forming, surface and subsurface conduits, related
structures, and pumps (if any), by which excess water is removed from an area.

Drainage techniques: The various physical methods that have been devised to improve the
drainage of an area.

Energy dissipator: A hydraulic structure in which the total hydraulic head of water in a canal is
safely reduced by providing a protected approach section, a drop, a stilling basin, and a
protected outlet transition.

Envelope: Material placed around pipe drains to serve one or a combination of the following
functions: (i) to prevent the movement of soil particles into the drain; (ii) to lower entrance
resistances in the immediate vicinity of the drain openings by providing material that is more
permeable than the surrounding soil; (iii) to provide suitable bedding for the drain; (iv) to stabilize
the soil material on which the drain is being laid.

Estuary: The mouth of a river, subject to tidal effects, where fresh water and sea water mix.

Evaporation: (1) The physical process by which a liquid (or solid) is transformed into the gaseous
state. (2) The quantity of water per unit area that is lost as water vapour from a water body, a
wet crop, or the soil.

Evapotranspiration: The quantity of water used for transpiration by vegetation and lost by
evaporation from the soil.

Excess rainfall: That part of the rain of a given storm which falls at intensities exceeding the soil's
infiltration capacity and is thus available for direct runoff.

Field drain: (1) In surface drainage, a shallow graded channel, usually with relatively flat side
slopes, which collects water within a field. (2) In subsurface drainage, a field ditch, a mole drain,
or a pipe drain that collects groundwater within a field.

Field drainage system: A network that gathers the excess water from the land by means of field

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drains, possibly supplemented by measures to promote the flow of excess water to these drains.

Field lateral: See Field drain.

Filter: A layer or combination of layers of pervious materials, designed and installed so as to

provide drainage, yet prevent the movement of soil particles in the flowing water.

Gravity outlet structure: A drainage structure in an area with variable outer water levels, so that
drainage can take place by gravity when outside water levels are low.

Groundwater: Water in land beneath the soil surface, under conditions where the pressure in the
water is equal to, or greater than, atmospheric pressure, and where all the voids are filled with
water.

Horizontal drainage: A method of groundwater drainage in which low watertables are maintained
by pipe drains or open ditches.

Hydrograph: A graph showing, for a given point, the stage, discharge, velocity, or other properties
of water flow as a function of time.

Ideal drain: A drain without entrance resistance.

Interception: (1) The capture and subsequent evaporation of part of the rainfall by a crop canopy
or other structure, so that it does not reach the ground. (2) The capture and removal of surface
runoff, so that it does not reach the protected area. (3) The capture and subsequent removal of
upward groundwater seepage, so that it does not reach the rootzone of crops.

Interceptor drain: A channel located across the flow of groundwater and installed to collect
subsurface flow before it re-surfaces, normally used on long slopes and on shallow permeable
surface soils overlying relatively impermeable subsoils.

Irrigation: Controlled applications of water to agricultural land to allow the cultivation of crops,
where otherwise, owing to a deficiency of rainfall, agriculture would be impossible.

Land drainage: The removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the land to enhance
crop growth, including the removal of soluble salts from the soil.

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Land forming: Changing the micro-topography of the land to meet the requirements of surface
drainage or irrigation. In land forming for surface drainage, two processes are recognized: land
grading and land planing.

Land grading: Forming the surface of land to predetermined grades so that each row or surface
slopes to a drain.

Land planing: Smoothing the land surface with a land plane to eliminate minor depressions and
irregularities without changing the general topography.

Land reclamation: Making land capable of more intensive use by changing its general character:
by draining excessively wet land, by recovering submerged land from seas, lakes, and rivers; or
by changing its saline, sodic, or acid character.

Leaching: Removing soluble salts by the passage of water through soil.

Leaching requirement: The fraction of irrigation water entering the soil that must flow effectively
through and beyond the rootzone to prevent a build-up of salinity resulting from the addition of
solutes in the water.

Longitudinal profile: An annotated design drawing of a canal along its centre line, showing original
ground levels, canal bank levels, design water levels, bed levels, and other relevant engineering
information.

Main drain: The principal drain of an area, receiving water from collectors, diversion drains, or
interceptor drains, and conveying this water to an outlet for disposal outside the area.

Main drainage system: A water conveyance system that receives water from the field drainage
systems, surface runoff, interflow, and groundwater flow, and transports it to the outlet point.

Mole drain: An unlined underground drainage channel, formed by pulling a solid object, usually a
solid cylinder with a wedge-shaped point at one end, through the soil at the proper slope and
depth, without a trench having to be dug.

Open drain: A channel with an exposed water surface that conveys drainage water.

Outlet: The terminal point of the entire drainage system, where it discharges into a major element

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of the natural open water system of the region (e.g. river, lake, or sea).

Outlet drain: A drain that conveys collected water away from the drained area or project, either in
the form of a natural channel or as a constructed drain.

Overland flow: Water flowing over the soil surface towards rills, rivulets, channels, and rivers. It is
the main source of direct runoff.

Peak runoff: The maximum rate of runoff at a given point or from a given area during a specified
period, in reaction to rainfall.

Pipe drain: A buried pipe - regardless of material, size, or shape - which conveys drainage water
from a piece of land to a collector or to a main drain.

Polder: A tract of low land, reclaimed from the sea or another body of water, by endiking it. In a
polder, runoff is controlled by sluicing or pumping, and the watertable is independent of the
watertable in the adjacent areas.

Precipitation: The total amount of water received from the sky (rain, drizzle, snow, hail, fog,
condensation, hoar frost, and rime).

Rip-rap: Broken stone or boulders placed compactly or irregularly on dams, levees, dikes, or similar
embankments, and at the downstream end of structures, to protect earth surfaces from the
action of waves, currents, and flowing water.

Roughness coefficient: A dimensionless parameter appearing in Manning's Equation for uniform

steady flow in open canals, related to surface irregularity, vegetal drag, and material retardance
of the wetted perimeter.

Salinity: The content of totally dissolved solids in irrigation water or the soil solution, expressed
either as a concentration or as a corresponding electrical conductivity.

Salinization: The accumulation of soluble salts at the surface or at some point below the surface of
the soil profile.

.Singular drainage system: A drainage system in which the field drains are buried and discharge
into open collectors.

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Subsurface drainage: The removal of excess water and salts from soils via groundwater flow to
the drains, so that the watertable and rootzone salinity are controlled.

Subsurface drainage system: A man-made system that induces excess water and salts to flow
via the soil to wells, mole drains, pipe drains, and/or open drains, and be evacuated.

Surface drainage: The diversion or orderly removal of excess water from the surface of the land by
means of improved natural or constructed channels, supplemented when necessary by the
shaping and grading of land surfaces to such channels.

Surface drainage system: A system of drainage measures such as channels and land forming,
meant to divert excess surface water away from an agricultural area in order to prevent
waterlogging.

Surface irrigation: Irrigation whereby the water flows over the soil surface, thereby partially
wetting the soil through infiltration, as in basin, border, and furrow irrigation.

Surface runoff: Water that reaches a stream, be it large or very small, by travelling over the
surface of the soil.

Tidal drainage: The removal of excess water from an area, by gravity, to outer water which has
periodic low water levels owing to tides.

Tidal river: A river whose water level is influenced by tidal water level fluctuations over a
considerable distance.

Tide: The periodic fluctuations of the sea-water level that results from the gravitational attraction of
the moon and the sun acting upon the rotating earth.

Tile drain: See Pipe drain

Tubewell: A circular well, which may be used to dispose of surface water, to control groundwater
levels, or to relieve hydraulic pressures, where local physical conditions are appropriate for their
use.

Tubewell drainage: The control of an existing or potential high watertable or artesian groundwater

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through a group of adequately spaced wells.

Tubewell drainage system: A network of tubewells to lower the watertable, including provisions
for running the pumps, and drains to dispose of the excess water.

Vegetated waterway: An earthen channel to dispose of excess water safely, and therefore lined
with vegetation to stabilize the channel and prevent erosion.

Vertical drainage: See Tubewell drainage.

Water balance: Equating all inputs and outputs of water, for a volume of soil or for a hydrological
area, to the change in storage, over a given period of time.

Waterlogging: The accumulation of excessive water on the soil surface or in the rootzone of the
soil.

Water management: The planning, monitoring, and administration of water resources for various
purposes.

Watershed: See Drainage basin.

Watertable: The locus of points at which the pressure in the groundwater is equal to atmospheric
pressure. The watertable is the upper boundary of groundwater.

Well field: See Tubewell drainage system.

Wetlands: Land where the saturation with water is the dominant factor determining the nature of
soil development and the types of plant

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