Transport Phenomena

Professor unando DasGupta

Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 5
Example of Shell Momentum Balance (Contd.)
In our introductory class we have seen how important viscosity is in transfer of momentum.
Now viscosity plays a critical role whenever there is a difference in velocity between two
adjacent layers. So when two adjacent layers of fluids pass by one another, there would be
some amount of momentum transferred due to molecular motion. So molecules with higher
velocity would jump from one layer to the slower moving layer thereby transferring the
momentum from the faster moving layer to the slower moving layer. And the same thing
happens when a molecules from slower moving layer would come to the faster moving layer.
This has given rise to a transfer of momentum in a direction perpendicular to the flow which
we commonly call as the shear stress.

We have seen how the shear stress is generally represented. It's represented with double
subscript. The first subscript refers to the principal direction of motion and the second
subscript refers to the direction perpendicular to the principal direction of motion in which
the momentum gets transported. So if you think of a layer which is moving in the x direction
and another layer on top of it also being dragged in the x direction but with a lower velocity,
then the x momentum of flow gets transported because of viscosity in the y direction. So,
layers above the faster moving layer, then the next layer and the layer above that, all will start
to move in the x direction as a result of the invisible string which is the viscosity which binds
these two layers. So the momentum even though it is in the x direction it gets transported in
the y direction. This is also called the molecular transport of momentum and the double
subscript is a very common way to represent the shear stress. That means the stress being
exerted by the moving fluid on the layer just above it. So the area which is in contact with the
layer below it, it gets some stress, force per unit area, which is a direct result of viscosity.

The defining equation of viscosity as we have seen previously is the Newton's law of
viscosity where the shear stress is directly proportional to the cause, the velocity gradient and
the proportionality constant of this is known as the viscosity. So the fluids which follow
Newton's law of viscosity, can be expressed as τ =− µ × velocity gradient . The minus
signifies that the momentum always gets transported in the direction of decreasing velocity.
Those kind of fluids which follow this law are commonly known as Newtonian fluid.
Examples of different behaviors are quite common. There could be some fluids which would
first resist motion, but once a threshold stress is applied on it, it would automatically start to
move and from that point onwards the stress is going to be proportional to the velocity
gradient. So those kind of fluids which have a threshold stress which must be applied for it to
start its motion are called Bingham plastics and common example of Bingham plastic is the
toothpaste. You have to push the tube with a certain force. If we do not go beyond that force,
nothing will come out of the tube. So the toothpaste is an example of Bingham plastic.

And then in the subsequent classes we have seen that it is useful to define a shell in a moving
fluid and find out what are the forces, what are the momentum that are acting on that shell. So
these shells are generally defined and the smaller dimension of the shell is the direction in
which the velocity is changing. So in the previous class we saw the example of flow along a
flat plate. There would be a flow of liquid along a flat plate and obviously the velocity is
going to change in the perpendicular direction.

So at the solid-liquid interface the boundary condition is going to be no slip condition which
we know that at liquid-solid interface there cannot be any motion of the liquid molecules. So
the liquid molecules adjacent to the solid boundary will have zero relative velocity. So that's
called the no slip condition. At the other end where we have the liquid vapor interface, the
shear stress across the interface would be equal to zero. True for most of the cases when the
velocity differences are not too great or the air is not moving with a very high velocity
creating waves and so on. There we have seen since the velocity vary in the perpendicular
direction of flow, the shell that we are going to have a smaller dimension of Δx, let's say the
direction of velocity change is the x direction. It can be any length and any width and since
we are assuming its one dimensional laminar flow, incompressible flow, where the density
remains constant the velocity is not going to be a function of the axial distance, it is not going
to be a function of the width. It is only going to be the function of depth of the film. So for
those 1-D cases, we should always define the shell as having any length L, any width W, but
the depth of the shell is going to be Δx. Since between x and Δx, the velocity can change
substantially, we express the physics in the form of a difference equation
Let's say if this is the shell as shown in the figure above, then I am going to have some
amount of fluid which comes into the shell along z direction because of its flow but since I
don't have any velocity component either in this direction or in this direction nothing comes
in due to flow through the other four surfaces. So flow in along z direction will carry some
momentum along with it and flow out will take some momentum out of the control volume.
So these are the momentum in by convection. Since the velocity is changing in the x direction
so some shear stress will be felt by the bottom surface and some shear stress would be felt by
the top surface. So the forces due to the share which would act on the two sides of this shell
would be τ with the appropriate subscript multiplied with the bottom area and τ with again
with the right subscript multiplied by the top area. These are the net momentum in and out by
conduction, by molecular means, by viscous transport of momentum. There may be other
forces acting on it. For example this is freely falling so there is no pressure difference
between these two points. However since it’s inclined the component of gravity would act on
the volume of the liquid contained in this control volume. So the only force which is acting
on it would be the gravity force. In steady state, the sum of all these would be zero. So the
fundamental equation that we are going to write for any shell is,

Rate of momentum in-Rate of momentum out + Sum of all forces acting on it = 0 , at steady
state.

And then we identify that the momentum can come in as a result of convection and as a result
of conduction. Convection is with the flow, conduction is perpendicular to the flow due the
presence of the shear stress. So once we have the difference equation then we are successful
in expressing the physics of the problem in the form of difference equation which contains
the smaller dimension, let's say Δx, if x is the direction in which the velocity is changing. So
the next step would be to divide both sides by Δx and taking the limit when ∆x → 0 . So that
would essentially be using the definition of the first derivative and out of the difference
equation you get the differential equation. So that was the fundamental of shell balance which
we have discussed in the previous class. And we have used an example of flow along an
inclined flat plate to clarify some of the concepts.

Once we have the governing differential equation we need boundary conditions, since we are
going to integrate that in order to obtain the expression for velocity for certain case. The two
common boundary conditions that one would expect in momentum transport is no slip at the
solid-liquid interface and no shear at the liquid-vapor interface. So we have used those two
conditions to obtain a compact expression for the velocity as a function of depth.

Once we have the expression for velocity, we would be able to obtain what is the maximum
velocity and then we should also be able to express not the point value of velocity but the
average velocity. All such kinds of averages are always done across the flow cross-sections,
across a face which is perpendicular to the flow direction. So if I have flow in this direction,
then I need to find out what is the velocity at every point in an area that is perpendicular to
the direction of flow. So with that we have obtained what is the expression for average
velocity and once we have the average velocity then we can calculate what is the volumetric
flow rate and the mass flow rate of the falling film along the incline. In two or three classes
we would see some examples of the use of shell momentum balance in in everyday situations
that we know of.

So the most common fluid flow phenomena that you see almost every day is, flow of water
let's say, through a circular pipe. So you would like to see in this exercise how we can use the
shell momentum balance to obtain an expression for velocity in a tube through which the
liquid is flowing. Now we are going to assume in this case is that the tube is vertical. So there
will be effect of gravity. Gravity would try to pull the liquid towards the downward direction.

There is also pressure gradient. There would be some pressure at the top and a slightly lower
pressure at the bottom. So the pressure gradient, the pressure force is forcing the liquid to
move downwards. There would be gravity force which is going to pull the liquid downwards.
So the effect of pressure gradient and gravity is to create a flow in the downward direction.
Now as the fluid starts to flow, it is going to interact with the walls of the tube and the way it
is going to interact is through viscous forces. But when it reaches steady state, the sum of all
forces acting on the control volume suitably define for flow in a pipe must be equal to zero.
So if I can define a control volume for flow in a pipe then we are going to find out what is the
rate of momentum into the control volume by convection and by conduction. What is the
surface force that is acting on the control volume, namely pressure in this case. The force due
to gravity that is acting on it would be the total amount of liquid contained in this control
volume multiplied by ρ and g. So, at steady state the sum of all these would be equal to zero.
So with that difference equation we should be able to obtain a differential equation and we
should be able to use appropriate boundary condition for this case to obtain what is the
velocity distribution of a flowing fluid in a tube subjected to pressure gradient and subjected
to gravity.

That is what we are going to look in this class and in the next classes because this would give
rise to some of the equations which are quite known to us and some equations which are
going to play a very important role. Let's say if you are designing an experiment to measure
the viscosity of a liquid, all of you probably have used capital viscometer. So what is the
principle on which capital viscometer work? So how do you design the experiment? How you
can relate viscosity with the flow rate? So there will be many such examples which you
would be able to understand once we solve the problem of flow through a pipe. So that's the
first problem that we are going to look at in this class, flow through a circular tube. What you
see here is the pipe which has a radius equal to R. There is flow from the top. The pressure at
the top is p0 and pressure at the bottom is pL. The length of the tube is L and the r and the z, z
coordinates are shown in figure below.

(Refer Slide Time 14:58)

Now we understand that as the flow takes place in the tube, the velocity at steady state and
for in incompressible cases, is a function of r only.The closer to the wall the liquid layer is,
the lower is going to be its velocity and as it moves progressively towards the center, the
velocity will increase. Now whether this increase is going to be a straight line increase or
some other form? That's what we are going to find out in here.

So the first job for this case, where I have flow from the top as a result of pressure difference
and as a result of gravity, is to define a shell. And across that shell, we are going to make the
momentum balance. So what would this shell look like? It could be of any length L, it does
not matter since the velocity is not a function of L. Velocity vz in the z direction is not a
function of z. It is definitely a function of r.

(Refer Slide Time 16:16)

Since it a function of r, then my shell will have the smaller dimension as Δr. The way that I
have shown in the slide, the one in blue. So the thickness is Δr. The inside point is r and the
outside point is at r + Δr.

(Refer Slide Time 16:28)

The length of the shell does not really matter since the velocity is not a function of z. would
try to see what would be the momentum in and momentum out term within the blue shell.
Then we will look into all the forces due to the surface force and the body force acting on the
liquid contained in this shell. So in the below slide I have just enlarged this section and what
you see here is that through the top surface of the imaginary shell, momentum gets in by
convection.

(Refer Slide Time 17:13)

So the liquid is crossing the inlet points carrying away with it some momentum along
alongith it. But since the velocity is changing in the r direction, there would be a gradient in
velocity along radial direction. Since there is a velocity gradient, there would be viscous
transport of momentum. So momentum in and out by viscous transfer is taking place to the
sidewalls. So if you think of the momentum which is in by convection the area on which it is
acting on must be equal to 2π r ∆r .

(Refer Slide Time 18:42)

Whereas when we talk about viscous transport, its acting at the inner area and the
corresponding area for that would simply be equal to 2π rL or if you think about the outer
one 2π ( r + ∆r ) L . So these are the two different areas through which the convictive transport

of momentum and conductive transport of momentum is taking place.

So what is the volume through which momentum transport by convection takes place? It
would be simply equal to 2π r ∆rL . So this is the volume of the fluid which is contained in
this shell. This is the area on which the fluid is coming in. So if you think that my shell is
vertical, then this top area is the one through which the convective momentum is coming in.
So whatever would be the velocity multiplied by the area would give me the amount of mass
which is coming in. The mass of fluid that comes in carries with it some amount of
momentum. So, the momentum would be area × vz z =o
× vz . So that’s the rate of momentum

coming in through the top surface.

Whereas when you think of the inside area, if I open up the shell its simply going to be 2π rL
. So when I open this up 2π rL this is the area that encounters the molecular transport of
momentum.

(Refer Slide Time 20:06)

When you think of pressure p0 it's this top surface on which the pressure force is acting.

(Refer Slide Time 20:15)

pL is acting at the bottom and whatever be the liquid contained in this thin strip of imaginary
shell that is also being acted on by the gravity force.

(Refer Slide Time 20:19)

So the mass of the fluid contained in this strip is 2π rL ρ g that would give me the total body
force which is acting on this shell.

So what I am going to do now is to write each of these terms and then see if it is possible for
me from the basic physics or our basic understanding to cancel the terms that are not
important or that are equal to each other. The momentum in term is going to be
( 2π r ∆rvz ) ρ vz z =o . 2π r ∆rvz is the volumetric flow rate, m3/s. I will multiply that with ρ,

which is kg/m3. So that makes it kg/s second, the mass flow rate. This mass flow rate is again
multiplied by a velocity, vz with units of m/s which makes it the total amount of convective
momentum which is coming into this. So this has units of force

(Refer Slide Time 21:54)

So this is the convective momentum into the system and the convective momentum out of the
system would simply be equal to again ( 2π r ∆rvz ) ρ vz z=L
.

(Refer Slide Time 22:31)

Now vz is not a function of z. So whatever be the value of vz at z = 0, must be equal to the

value of vz at z = L. vz does not vary with z. And therefore these two terms will cancel out
each other. So the convective momentum in and the convective momentum out would simply
be equal in this case.
(Refer Slide Time 22:59)

So with that then we are going to write what is going to be the molecular transport of
momentum. The area on which it is working on is 2π rL and the shear stress is the z
component of momentum due to viscosity that gets transported in the r direction. So therefore
the the momentum gets transported due to the presence of viscosity at r would be 2π rL τ rz r =r

and the one that goes out would be 2π rL τ rz r = r +∆r

. So this is the viscous momentum in,

viscous momentum out.

(Refer Slide Time 23:56)

What is remaining is then is the pressure force? The pressure force acting at the top would
simply be the area multiplied by whatever be the pressure that is p0. So the expression of
pressure force at z=0 would be 2π r ∆rp0 and at z = L, 2π r ∆rpL

(Refer Slide Time 24:46)

And I also have body force which is acting on it. In order to obtain the body force, I need to
first find out the total volume of fluid that is present in here. The total volume is 2π r ∆rL . So
the gravity force would be 2π r ∆rL ρ g which is going to pull the liquid in the direction of
increase in z.

(Refer Slide Time 25:14)

So the governing difference equation would simply be sum of net momentum in by
convection, net pressure which is acting at the top and the gravitational force which is acting
on it. Now the next step as we have done in the case of difference equations is to divide both
sides by the smaller dimension which in this case is Δr. So we divide both sides of the
equation by Δr and taking the limit when ∆r → 0 and what we get out of it is a differential
equation. So if I divide both sides and take the limit my equation would be

lim  ( rτ rz ) r +∆r − ( rτ rz )r   p0 − pL 
 =   + ρ g  r . So if we use a definition of the first
∆r → 0  ∆r   L 

P −P
( rτ rz ) =  0 L 
d
derivative, you are going to get  r where simply P= p − ρ gz . There is
dr  L 
no additional significance to this P, this is introduced so to give it just compact shape.

(Refer Slide Time 27:41)

So, once I have the governing equation, it has to be integrated to obtain the velocity
expression. That's what we would like to do. But before we do that, this τrz must be
substituted in order to express it in terms of velocity. And if we assume the fluid to be
dvz
Newtonian, then τrz would simply be τ rz = − µ .
dr
 d  dvz   P0 − PL 
So once you substitute that in here then you will have − r µ =  r . This
dr  dr   L 
equation can now be integrated and that's what we are going to do in the next class.

(Refer Slide Time 29:28)

So what we have done in this present exercise which we will continue in the next class is, we
have found out simply by making a shell balance, we would be able to account for all the
factors by which momentum can come into the system or leave the system. We have also
correctly identified what are the different forces, surface and body, that are acting on the
control volume. At steady state the algebraic sum of that would be zero. That difference
equation can be converted into a differential equation.

And once we have the differential equation and plugging the expression for Newton's law of
viscosity, we have a differential equation of velocity in terms of the physical property µ, in
P0 − PL
terms of the imposed operating condition that is the pressure gradient, . And the force
L
field, body force field present which is g. So this expression we will now integrate in order to
obtain a very compact useful relation for the velocity and subsequently the flow rate of fluid
through a tube in which there is a pressure gradient and in which there is the effect of gravity.
So that relation we are going to do in the next class.