GEOGRAPHY

(STUDIES
IN DEVELOPMENT)
REGION I: NORTH AMERICA
BRITISH COLUMBIA
FISHING INDUSTRY
(a)A sketch map of British Columbia showing selected features;

(b)(i) Types of fish caught in British Columbia;

- Pelagic fish; Herring, Mackerel, Tuna. Sardines, Anchovies.
- Demersal fish; Cod, Halibut, Haddock, Hake, Alaska Pollack.
- Anandromous fish like salmon.
- Crustaceous fish Lobster, Crabs, Oysters, and Prawns.
Uses of fish apart from being a source of food/proteins;
- Used in making of medicines.
- Used in making soap.
- Used in making fertilizers.
- Used in making glue.
(ii) Factors favouring existence of the fish types above;
- Availability of abundant fish food (planktons).
- Existence of a large water body.
- Presence of a broad continental shelf.
- Presence of warm Alaska currents leads to defreezinbg of waters which
encourages breeding of fish in the area.
- Indented coastline allows fish breeding.
- Sheltered harbour which is good for fish landing sites.
- Existence of many rivers for upstream migration of fish (Salmon) /fresh
water.

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- Deep salty waters for the fish like herring, halibut.
- Ice free conditions all the year round.
- Cool climatic conditions that allows fish metabolism.
- Presence of oxygenated waters that allows growth of fish.
(c) Methods of fishing used in catching fish in British Columbia;
- Purse seining: This is a modern method of fishing which uses a sound
recorder/detector.
- When the sound records the presence of a school/shoal of fish, the net
supported on the top by floats and weights at the bottom is suspended in
the water like a tennis net.
- Then gradually a small boat pulls one end around until the net forms a
large circle.
- The bottom of the net has a rope passed through which is pulled in so that
the bottom edge closes to form a bowl shape in which the fish are enclosed.
The net is drawn onto the boat and the trapped fish is scooped out.
OR Illustration
Purse seining method

- Trawling: This is another modern method of fishing where a

trawler/vessel drags trawl or bag shaped/cone shaped net over the sea
bed to catch demersal water fish.
- The mouth of the net is kept open by wooden or metal/otter boards which
pulls outwards. The fish is caught in the process and the net is pulled out
of the water and fish is loaded on the trawler, ready for processing.

- Trolling/Long lining; This is a method mainly used to catch Salmon in

British Columbia as well as large pelagic fish like Tuna.

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 - It involves towing/pulling lines behind the boat moving at a moderate
speed. The hooks on the lines are baited. The fish are attracted to the
hooks by light reflected from the baited hooks.
OR Illustration;
- Trolling/Long lining;
(Identification =01mk, Explanation =02marks) (03marks)

- Drifting method/Gill netting; (Not Deep sea fishing method) Drift/Gill

nets are hang vertically in the sea like tennis net. They are supported with
floaters on the upper edge and weights below the water surface where fish
will swim into the net. The fish are entangled by their gills and are unable
to move either backwards or forwards because their heads are caught and
their bodies are too big to get through.
(a) Draw a sketch map of British Columbia and on it mark and name;
(i) The pacific ocean,
(ii) Rivers Nechako and Fraser,
(iii) Fishing ports; Vancouver, Kitimat and Victoria.
(a) A sketch map of British Columbia showing Pacific Ocean, Rivers;
Nechako and Fraser and major fish processing port:

(b)(i) Deep sea fishing methods;

- Purse seining methods.

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 - Trawling method.
- Long lining fishing. (For details refer to the previous work)
(c) Explain the conditions which have led to the development of the fishing
industry in B.C
Physical factors
- Existence of a large fishing ground in Pacific Ocean rich in Fisheries resources.
- Presence of numerous rivers, coastal creeks and fiords for fish breeding e.g.
Skeena, Fraser, Stikine rivers/indented/rugged coastline.
- Large/extensive continental shelf ideal for breeding, flourishing of planktons and
easy catching of fish.
- Smooth sea floor encouraging deep sea fishing e.g. trawling, trolling.
- Plentiful/Abundant supply of planktons acts as food for fish.
- Existence of a variety of commercially valuable fish species e.g. salmon, cod, and
herring that are highly marketable.
- Presence of smooth sea floor facilitating use of modern sea fishing methods.
- Availability of various forest which supply timber/wood fuel for boat making and
wood for fish preservation.
- Rugged terrain/infertile soils which limit agriculture making people turn to
fishing
- Presence of indented/rugged coastline provides deep natural harbour for port
development that have developed into major fish processing centres/with onsite
processing facilities.
- The meeting of North Pacific ocean current (Alaska) and California ocean current
result into upwelling (favorable) for the rapid multiplication of the food for fish
planktons.
- Ice free Conditions ensure fishing all the year around.
Human factors;
- Abundant Skilled labour to work in various activities like catching fish,
processing and marketing.
- Intensive fisheries research has resulted into breeding, conservation and
marketing.
- Large sums of capital from local and foreign investors to buy fishing gears.
- Ready market both domestic and foreign in Europe and sub tropic world.
- Supportive government policy encouraging fishing conservation policies,
research, investment.
- Modern transport network linking fishing grounds to market centres like e.g.
roads, railways, airways.
- Advanced technology involving modern methods of catching fish, processing and
transporting.
- Limited economic activities on land making fishing a viable alternative for
employment, local incomes, etc.
(d)Outline the benefits of fishing industry to the development of British
Columbia;
- Source of foreign exchange used in international trade.

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- Source of rich protein food for the people enriching their diet, as well as
livestock.
- Raw material for industries that make glue, soap, oils hence employment to
the people.
- Provision of employment such as fishermen/monger thus providing local
income.
- Fishing industry provides local income from the sales thus improving
standards of living.
- Development of infrastructure such as roads, railways line for easy transport.
- Diversification of the economy reducing over dependence on few sectors.
- Urbanization and port development such as Victoria, Vancouver, Kitimat,
Prince Rupert.
- Source of government Revenue through the taxes charged on fish processing
factories.
- Promotion of international relations through export trade.

(a) Problems/Challenges facing fishing industry in British Columbia;

- Violent winds which cause accidents leading to death of fishermen.
- Deep fiords make accessibility of river areas difficult hence not ideal for
fish landing.
- Sea predators which feed on fish
- Rugged terrain affects distribution of fish within Canada.
- Winter freezing of inland waters discourages fish breeding.
- Shortage of labour leads to fish wastage.
- High costs of fishing due to use of expensive trawling method reduces
profits.
- Sea pirates disrupt fishing.
- Pollution of rivers/Oceans by wastes from other factories like wood/pulp
at river mouth leads to death of fish.
- Stringent laws – closed seasons of no fishing between December and Jan
increase the cost of production.
- Damming of Rivers hinder seasonal migration of fish in rivers and limits
fish breeding.
- Construction of dams interferes with movement of fish to other breeding
grounds
- Overfishing in the accessible waters leads to exhaustion of some
commercial fish species like salmon.
- Small domestic market due to low population leads to wastage.
- Distant external markets reduce the profits from fish.
- Limited domestic market/Narrow internal market due to low population
discourages fisher men.
- Availability of other viable economic activities like mining leads to limited
labour supply.
- Price fluctuations lower incomes from the fishing activity.

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 - Disputes/conflicts over international fishing waters with other countries
like Japan./ Invasion of foreign vessels/encroachment by foreign vessels
of Japan reduce the fish catch of British Columbia
Measures/Steps being taken to solve the above problems/challenges;
- Using/signing of international agreements to solve territorial conflicts.
- Setting up factories that use fish as a raw material like Animal feeds
manufacturing.
- Carrying out market research to widen market for fish.
- Constructing of fish ladders for fish to increase access to dams.
- Introducing fish farming to supplement marine fisheries.
- Emphasizing mechanization to reduce labour shortage.
- Controlling fishing by the government to avoid fish depletion.
- Forming international bodies like North West Atlantic fishers Organization
to command for higher prices.
- Emphasizing proper disposal and treatment of industrial wastes to avoid
pollution of water bodies.

Study figure below, showing part of British Columbia answer the questions
that follow;

(a) (i) Rivers; 1 is R. Frazer, 2 is R. Skeena,

(ii) Ports; A is Vitoria, B is Prince Rupert.
(iii) Island 3 is Vancouver, (iv) Ocean current; 4 is North Pacific Ocean
current
(b)(i) Types of fish caught in British Columbia;
- Pelagic fish like Tuna, Herring, Sardines, Mackerel and Anchovies.

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 - Demersal fish like cod, Haddock, hake, Alaska Pollack.
- Anandromous fish like Salmon.
- Crustaceous fish like Lobster, crabs, Oysters, Prawns.
(ii) One commercial deep sea fishing method used in British
Columbia;
- Trolling/long lining,
- Trawling, Purse Seining. (Refer for the details)
Study the table below showing the processing of Pacific salmon in British
Columbia and answer the questions that follow; Table 35
Processing method ‘000 tonnes
Canned 637,000
Frozen 12,000
Smoked 2,000
Fresh 1,000
Fish oil meal 2,000
Total 654,000
Adapted: Gughes D, etal (1988) North America: A study of development, pg
128.
(a) Draw a pie chart to show the relative importance of the fish processing
method.
(a) Converting the calculations to degrees;
637,000 1,000
Canned = 654,0000
X 3600 = 350.6 ≈ 3510 Smoked = 654,0000
X 3600 = 0.6 ≈
10
12,000 2,000
Frozen = 654,0000
X 3600 = 6.60 ≈ 70 Fish oil meal = 654,0000
X 3600 =
1.1 ≈ 10
2,000
Fresh = 654,0000
X 3600 = 1.1 ≈10
A pie chart showing the relative importance of fish processing methods.
(Should have percentage value) (Use your graph book)
(b) (i) The most dominant method of fish processing is Canning.
(ii) Why canning is most popular?
- Fish can retain its flavour.
- Canning can take place on site during the process of fishing on the floating
canaries.
- Canning is a faster method to process a continuous supply of fish
throughout the year.
- Convenience of transporting canned fish to export markets.
- Presence of several fish canning factories at river mouths like Frazer, R.
Skeena.
- Canning preserves fish for a long time.
- The method is hygienically clean.
Major fishing ports in British Columbia;
- Prince Rupert, Vancouver, Victoria and Kitimat.
FORESTRY INDUSTRY

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(a) Differentiate between tropical rainforests and temperate forests;
Tropical rainforests Temperate forests

- Located in tropical regime - Located in temperate regions between

between latitude 00-100 north - latitude 400-600 North-South of the
south of Equator Equator.

- Have long gestation period. - Short gestation period.

- Wide variety of tree- - One type of tree species in a particular
species/mixed stands. forest/ stand in pure stands.
- Trees have canopies. - Trees are conical shaped.
- Have buttress roots. - Trees have shallow root system.
- Have huge tall trucks. - Trucks are tall and slender.
- Trees have broad leaves. - Have needle shaped leaves.
- Logs are heavy in weight. - Logs are light.
- Have hard wood trees. - Mainly consists of soft wood trees.
NB: Use “while” to form sentences to write the above answers.
(b) Factors which have favoured the development of temperate forests
in British Columbia;
- Conducive climate of cool temperatures and moderate rainfall ideal for the
growth of trees.
- Thin and infertile soils which do not favour agriculture.
- Rugged relief which does not favour human settlement and other economic
activities like arable farming.
- Presence of numerous rivers to transport the logs.
- Presence of extensive/vast land due to the low population
- Positive/Supportive government policy encouraging forestry.
- High/advanced technology in the various activities.
- Large/wide market both within the country and abroad.
- Availability of skilled and semiskilled labour force used in the various
activities.
- Well developed transport based on roads, water and rail.
- Intensive research for better varieties especially those which mature fast.
- Large/wide capital invested in forestry

Characteristics of forests in British Columbia.

- Pure stand and it is easy to harvest them.
- Have soft wood trees like spruce, western hemlock, Douglas fir, Red Cedar.
- Some species are fast maturing with straight trunks.
- Evergreen forests.
- Needle like leaves.
- Trees have thick barks to withstand winter.
- Trees have a conical shape.
- Trees are tall.
- Trees bear cone shaped polished fruits.

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 - There are some planted trees like pine
The factors which have led to the development of forestry industry in
British Columbia;
Physical factors
- Presence of large tracts of forested and due to low population, steep
Mtns/slopes.
- Rugged terrain which restricts other economic activities/landuse.
- Low temperatures /cold conditions which support the growth of coniferous
forests.
- Presence of many valuable tree species which are marketable.
- The thin soils which discourage agriculture allow the growth of trees.
- Many flowing rivers like Frazer allow transportation of logs by floating
them/Diversified transport modes like roads, railways and rivers.
- Winter conditions are ideal for transportation of logs.
- Moderate rainfall support growth of coniferous trees
- Lights nature of soft wood trees ease transportation along Rivers.
- Existence of trees in pure stands allows selective tree extraction.
Human factors;
- Large sums of capital to pay the workers in the forestry.
- Favourable government policy of offering licences to lumbering companies.
- Availability of skilled and semi skilled labour to exploit the trees.
- Modern technology like the use of modern machines like the power driven
chain saws, cranes.
- Availability of ready market at home and abroad for soft wood products.
- Availability of huge power supply used in the wood processing industry.
(c)(i) Tree species found in British Columbia;
 Spruce, Douglas fir, Western red cedar, western Hemlock, pine, Balsam fir,
Cyprus, Red wood, .
(ii) Importance/Benefits of the forestry industry in British Columbia;
- Source of employment to people of British Columbia as lumber jacks, drivers,
industrial workers.
- Source of revenue to the government through taxation.
- Source of foreign exchange though exportation of forests products.
- Provides raw materials for the industries that produce pulp and paper.
- Source of timber for construction.
- Environmental protection against soil erosion/soil conservation.
- Habitat for wild animals e.g. bears, foxes, reindeers encouraging ecotourism.
- Forests act as tourist attractions which earn foreign exchange to the country.
- Forests are source of drugs/medicine used for treatment.
- Promotes international relationship through trade between Canada and other
Countries.
- Modify the climate through formation of convectional rainfall encouraging
wheat growing.
- They diversify the economy from other activities like mining and fishing.

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 - Lead to development of infrastructure especially transport routes e.g. roads,
railway lines and waterways.
- Source of fuel used in industries and at home.
- They important for recreation like picnics, forest walks.
- They are used for research/study purposes like about the different tree
varieties.
- Purification of air through transpiration.
- Development of ports and urban centres/towns like Vancouver, Victoria,
Kitimat.
(d)(i) Problems affecting the forestry industry in British Columbia;
- Fire outbreaks during summer which destroy large tracts of forestland.
- Over exploitation leading to their depletion.
- Severe winter conditions which limit forest exploitation/Harsh climatic
conditions.
- Shortage of labour since the area is sparsely populated limits extraction.
- Rugged terrain restricts/discourages the development of roads and railways.
- High transport costs due to distant markets/Long distances from the interior
centres to the coastal collecting centres increases transport costs.
- Pests like moths and caterpillars which destroy trees.
- Diseases which reduce the quality of trees/timber.
- Competition for market from other countries e.g. Norway, Sweden, discourages
lumber jacks.
- Accidents especially when felling trees leading to death of workers.
- Limited home market due to the low population.
- Modern technology limits the use of forest products like paper e.g. the use of
computers.
- Dangerous wild animals like the bears that attack the loggers.
(ii) Steps/measures being taken to solve the problems in (d)(i) above;
- Setting up of fire control towers to monitor any fire outbreak/using of
firefighting equipment e.g. water bombers/regular patrols by planes.
- Spraying with chemicals to control pests and diseases.
- Setting up of re-afforestation programmes/forest farming to avoid depletion.
- Planting of fast maturing tree species/research to encourage constant
extraction.
- Practice of log low during winter and log high in summer.
- Putting up strict laws on holiday activities to solve the problem of labour
shortage.
- Using of machines/Mechanization in the forestry activities to solve the problem
of labour shortage.
- Use of boom scooters to solve log jam.
- Patching of forests to reduce destruction of forests during fires.
- Dressing bright coloured garments/helmets by loggers to avoid accidents.
- Carrying out extensive research for market from outside countries..
A sketch map of British Columbia showing selected river, Timber
collecting centres and Coastal timber exporting ports;

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PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY IN BRITISH COLUMBIA:

A sketch map of British Columbia showing relief regions, Pulp and

paper centres;

- The Pulp and paper centres in British Columbia include the follow; Alberni,
Vancouver, Kitimat, Prince Rupert, Prince George, Fort Nelson.
Factors that have favoured the development of pulp and paper centres
(E.g. Vancouver) in British Columbia;
- Presence of large tracts of land under forestry provides a steady supply of
raw materials to the pulp and paper industries.
- Location of Vancouver/Alberni/Prince Rupert at the coast allows easy
logging of timber by floating them to the coast.
- Availability of huge hydro electric power generated from river peace and
Columbia to run the saw mills and paper factories.
- Advanced technology allows efficiency in pulp and paper mills.
- Availability of abundant skilled labour from immigrants and local people
facilitates operation of industrial machines.
- Availability of ready market for the pulp and paper products for example in
USA, UK, France, Japan and China.
- Large sums of capital provided by the local people and foreigners to invest
in the pulp and paper industry.
- Highly skilled labour released from other activities during winter.
- Presence of high value soft wood trees like spruce, Hemlock.
- Presence of Rivers for transportation of logs.

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 MINING INDUSTRY (BC)
Study Table 36 below showing the percentage of the population
employed in the various sectors in British Columbia and answer the
questions that follow;
Table 36
Type of sector Percentage of population
employed

Fishing 04
Agriculture 06
Forestry 35
Mining 11
Others 44

Total 100

Adapted from: Monkhouse, F.J. and Cain. H.R. North America: A certificate
series: Longman p.142.
(a) Draw a pie-chart to show the relative importance of the different
employment sectors.
(b) (i) Identify the relative importance of the mining sector in British
Columbia.
(a) Converting percentages to degrees;
04 11
Fishing = 100
X 3600 = 14.40 ≈ 140 Mining = 100
X 3600 =39.60
≈ 400
06 44
Agriculture = 100
X 3600 = 21.60 ≈ 220 Others = 100
X 3600 =
158.40 ≈ 1580
35
Forestry = 100
X 3600 = 1260
A pie chart showing the relative importance of the employment sectors in
British Columbia;
The pie chart should have both degrees and percentages
(Use your graph book)
(b) (i) The relative importance of the mining sector;
- Mining is the second largest employing sector in British Columbia next to
Forestry.
- It employs 11% of the population.
(ii) Factors for the development of the mining sector in British Columbia;
Physical factors;
- Presence of valuable/high grade minerals e.g. copper, bauxite, zinc, silver,
lead, oil.
- Presence of large quantities of power /energy for processing the minerals.

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- Presence of a variety of minerals for diversification of the mining activities.
- Presence of large minerals reserves for commercial extraction/exploitation.
- Large quantities of fresh water for processing the minerals.
- Occurrence of some minerals near the earth’s surface makes exploitation
easy.
- Proximity to the coast facilitates exploitation of minerals and the products.
Human factors;
- Variety of energy sources like HEP, Thermal energy and nuclear to run the
mining machines.
- Efficient transport well served by the Canadian – pacific railway and the great
northern rail/road and the British Columbia railway. These facilitate the
movement of minerals to industrial centres.
- Availability of large capital brought in by settlers who came in during the
period of the “gold rush”.
- Advanced technology in mining techniques from primitive to open pit
methods.
- Improved /intensive research into new uses of rare minerals e.g. tungsten and
molybdenum in electricity and steel industries.
- Existence of ready market for the valuable minerals within and abroad (lead
and zinc).
- Availability of skilled and semi-skilled labour to work in the mining sector.
- Favourable government policy of licensing mining companies in the mining
sector.
- Relative political stability favoured long term investment in the mining
industry.
(c) Contribution/Benefits of the mining sector to the development of
British Columbia.
- Provides employment leading to improved Standard of living.
- It earns foreign exchange through exportation of minerals.
- It provides income to the people who work in the mining sector leading to
improved standard of living.
- Development of industries which utilize the minerals as raw materials.
- Provides oil and natural gas used as fuel in domestic and industrial
operations.
- It has diversified the economy thus reducing overdependence on forestry and
fishing.
- Development of infrastructure like railways, roads and HEP.
- Urbanization/growth of towns and its related advantages like market, social
and economic infrastructure.
- International relations with other countries that import the minerals.
- It provides revenue through taxes thus facilitating social economic
infrastructure.
(d) problems faced by the mining sector in British Columbia;
- Rugged terrain makes accessibility of some areas difficult.
- Severe/harsh winter conditions make it difficult to mine throughout the year.

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- Exhaustion of some minerals which leads to deserting of old towns/ghost
towns.
- High cost of mining where some minerals are deep in the synclines.
- High cost of transporting minerals from the interior to distant consuming
coastal centers.
- Accidents in the mines lead to loss of lives.
- Floods in the mines distort mining activities.
- Price fluctuations on the work market discourage miners.
- Competition for market with other mineral producers like Germany.
- Shortage of labour/competition for labour with other sectors limits mineral
extraction.
- Pollution of the environment negatively affects the miners.
Other minerals mined in British Columbia apart from Oil
- Gold, Copper and Zinc.
Effects of mining on the physical environment of British Columbia;
- Has led destruction of the natural landscape.
- Destruction of forests where mining activities are carried out.
- Has led to contamination of rivers and the Ocean with mineral refuse.
- Has led to of lowering of the water table.

THE CANADIAN PRAIRIES

AGRICULTURE
1. Study the table below showing grain production in Canada (2013/14) and
answer the questions that follow; Table 37
Type of Grain Production (‘000 Metric Tonnes)

Wheat 31,000
Barley 10,000
Rye 200
Oats 4,000
Corn 14,000

Total 59,200

Adapted: Statistics Canada and industry consultation, p9

www.rayhlen.com/pdf/Canada.
(a) Draw a pie chart to show the relative importance of each type of grain in
Canada.
(a) Calculations; (000)
31,000 10,000
Wheat = X 100 = 52.4% Barley = X 100 = 16.9%
59,200 59,200

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 52.4 16.9
=100
X 3600 = 188.6 ≈1890 = 100
X 3600 = 60.8 ≈610
200 4,000
Rye = X 100 = 0.34% Oats = X 100 = 6.76%
59,200 59,200
0.34 6.76
= 100 X 3600 = 1.2 ≈10 = 100
X 3600 = 24.3 ≈240
14,000
Corn = X 100 =23.6%
59,200
23.6
= 100 X 3600 = 85.1 ≈850
A pie chart showing the relative importance of each type of grain in Canada
(Should have both degrees and percentage) (Use your graph book)
(b) (i) - Largest is Wheat with 31,000,000 tonnes.
- Smallest is Rye with 200,000 tonnes.
(ii) Provinces which produce grains in Canada;
- Alberta - Saskatchewan - Manitoba.
(c) Conditions which have favoured the growing of grains in Canadian provinces
identified in (d)(ii) above. (Refer to factors that have favoured extensive
wheat farming on the Canadian prairies)
Study the sketch map of showing the main export routes for Canadian wheat
and answer the questions that follow;

(a) Name the; (i) Ports marked 1 and 2,

(ii)Provinces marked X, Y and Z, (iii) Towns marked 3 and 4.
(d) (i) Ports: 1 is Prince Rupert, 2 is Churchill.
(ii) Provinces; X is Alberta, Y is Saskatchewan, Z is Manitoba,
(iii) Towns; 3 is Edmonton 4 is Winnipeg.
Countries to which Canada exports her wheat;
- Britain, China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, USA.
Disadvantages of transporting wheat along route A.;
- It’s difficult to cross the Rocky Mountains.
- The route is too long to reach the foreign markets.
- It’s expensive to reach the coast due to long railway distance.
- It’s closed by snow during winter.
Advantages of transporting wheat along route C;
- It’s the eastern route through the St.Lawrence seaway.

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 - It’s cheaper to use because of using water transport.
- Its ice free for most of the time over 8 months.
- It’s highly accessible to the large market of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
- There is a short distance covered to reach the market.
- There are many port facilities along this route.
A Sketch map of Canada showing selected features;

(a) Factors that have favoured extensive wheat farming on the Canadian
prairies.
Physical factors
- Extensive cheap extensive land that allows establishment of wheat
plantations.
- Presence of fertile black chernozerm soils allow luxuriant growth of wheat.
- The relatively flat landscape the allow mechanization/ Undulating landscape
from Manitoba province to Saskatchewan and Alberta allows mechanization.
- A long frost free growing season that allows growth and ripening of wheat
that is over 120 days.
- The warm summer temperatures allow ripening of wheat.
- The warm Chinook winds melt ice thus adding moisture to the soils.
- Low incidence of pests and diseases allows proper growth of wheat.
- Abundant water supply from lakes and rivers like River Athabasca and Lakes
like Manitoba and Winnipeg facilitates crop irrigation.
- The grassland vegetation was easy to clear to set up wheat plantations.
Human factors;
- Availability of ready market for wheat in Canada at Regina, Winnipeg and
externally in China and Britain.
- Developed transport network based railways and waterways facilitate
distribution of wheat to market centres.
- Modern technology used wheat planting and harvesting has led to large scale
wheat growing.
- Large sums of capital used to buy farm implements.
Benefits of Agricultural sector/Grain farming to the people of Canada;
- Provides employment opportunities to the people.

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 - Provides food like wheat, corns, and animal products for feeding people and
livestock.
- Has led to development of towns and ports/urbanization like Calgary,
Regina, Edmonton, and Winnipeg.
- Has led to development of infrastructure like Roads, Railways.
- Has led to development of industries that produce Bread, wheat flour and
animal feeds.
- Has improved people standard of living through increased incomes from
agricultural products.
- Has promoted foreign relations through trade in agricultural produce.
- Has led to diversification of the economy thus reducing over dependence of
mining.
- Earns government revenue through taxation.
- Provides raw materials to agro based industries.
- Provides market for agricultural inputs like fertilizers.
- Promotes research in the development of high yielding varieties, soil
conservation and marketing of crops.
- Provides fodder for animals feeding.
Problems/Challenges faced by the farmers growing grains in Canada/
Problems facing wheat farmers in Canada;
- Over production of wheat and other grains leading to losses and high costs in
storing the excess.
- Overdependence on foreign market leading to fluctuation of prices hence
losses.
- Price fluctuations discouraging farmers especially when prices drop.
- Reduced soil fertility as a result of monoculture leading to low yields.
- Stiff competition for port facilities leading to delays in delivery.
- Stiff competition for market from other world producers like India, Pakistan
reducing the market.
- Pests and diseases that destroy grains fir example rust and locusts.
- Shortage of skilled labour especially during harvesting season leads to post
harvest losses.
- High cost of maintaining the extensive farms leads to reduced profits.
- Pollution of soils due to over use of chemicals leading to low yields.
- Winter freezing limits the type of crops to be grown and the grown season.
- Winter blizzards/hailstorms destroy crops.
- Growth of stubborn weeds like wild onions compete for nutrients leading to
low yields.
- Prolonged drought resulting into use of costly methods of growing grains like
irrigation.

Problem resulting from overdependence on wheat as an export crop in

Canada;

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- Price fluctuation due to Competition with other wheat producing Countries
like USA, Pakistan, China and India discourages farmers.
- Natural hazards like pests, frost, diseases have led to destruction of crops and
loss of farmers’ income.
- Soil exhaustion due growing of the same crop/monoculture.
- High post harvest losses due to labour shortage.
- Leads to unemployment as many farmers withdraw from wheat growing when
prices fall leading to low standard of living.
- Lead to low government revenue because of limited export during bumper
harvests leads to unfavourable balance of payments.
Measures being taken to promote /improve agriculture in Canada/
Steps being taken by the Canadian government to solve the problems
above;
- Diversifying crops by growing other crops like rye and oats to reduce on
adverse effects of pests and diseases.
- Storing of wheat when there is over production to cater for future shortages
and control price.
- Introducing of quota system to pre-determine production levels so as to
control prices.
- Setting up of industries to process wheat into flour before exporting it.
- Improving on the quality of wheat produced to off-set competition.
- Processing of excess wheat into animal feeds to reduce its wastage.
- Fallowing of land to restore soil fertility.
- Introducing of winter resistant wheat varieties.
- Diversify of agriculture through mixed farming to improve soil fertility.
- Carrying out research into several crops grown.
- Forming of cooperatives to help in marketing of products.
Uses of Wheat to the people of Canada;
- Baking of chapatti, - Used in brewing beers.
- Making of bread, Biscuits - Making of cattle feeds
Study the table below showing the average yield of cereals per hectare in
Canada (1986 – 96) and answer the questions that follow; Table 38
Year Average yield (kgs/ha)

1986 – 88 2,238
1988 – 90 2,200
1990 – 92 2,531
1992 – 94 2,566
1994 – 96 2,702

Adapted from World series: (1990 – 1999) A Guide to the Global Environment
Oxford , UNDP and The World Bank.
(e) Draw a bar graph to show the information given in the table above.
(f) Describe the;
(i) Trend of the average yield of cereals grown in Canada,
(ii) The conditions which have influenced the trend in (b)(i) above.

Page 18 of 238
 (a) A bar graph showing average yield of cereals per hectare in Canada (1986
– 96).
(Use your graph book)
(b) (i) Trend
(ii) The conditions which have influenced the trend in (b)(i) above.
For decline in production;
- Increase in climatic hazards like drought, frost, hailstorms, pests and
diseases.
- Decline in soil fertility due to monoculture.
- Increase in post harvest losses.
For increase in production;
- Increase in research leading to introduction of winter resistant crops.
- Increase in use of fertilizers.
- Increase in irrigation farming to control drought.
- Increase in the use of pesticides and herbicides.
- Increase in mechanization for efficient harvesting.
- Increase in labour supply to plant and harvest.
(c)(i) Cereal crops grown in Canada.
- Oats, Corns, Barley, Wheat and Maize
Non cereal crops grown in Canada;
- Beans, Tobacco, and vegetables.
(ii) Important cereal growing provinces in Canada;
- Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba.
Study the table below showing the climate of Winnipeg on the Canadian Prairies
and answer the questions that follow;
Table 11: Winnipeg; Canada –Altitude 232 m. Table 39
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D

Temp
(0C) -20 -17 -9 2 11 16 19 18 11 5 -6 -14

Rainfall
(mm) 23 23 28 34 56 79 77 64 56 39 26 23

Adapted from Young, E.W and Lowry, J.H. (1984) A course in World Geography
– North America, Edward Arnold, p.31.
(a) Draw a suitable graph to show the climate of Winnipeg.
(a) A bar and Line graph showing the climate of Winnipeg on the Canadian
prairies. (T=02marks, VS=02marks, HS=01mark, Acc=04) Use your
graph book
(b)(i) Identify the;
- Coolest month is January with -200C. - Wettest month is June with
79mm.
(ii) Calculate the;
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 23+23+28+34+56+79+77+64+56+39+26+23
Mean annual rainfall = 1
= 1

Page 19 of 238
 528
1
= 528 mm pa
Annual range of temperature = 𝐻𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡
(19𝐶– −20 C) = 19+20 = 390C
(c) Explain the climate related problems faced by the farmers living on
the Canadian prairies;
- Extreme cold conditions during winter (Nov-March) limits the growing season
and types of crops to be grown.
- Frozen ground/water bodies in winter restrict movement of farmers and
disrupt transport and marketing schedules.
- Winter freezing limits outdoor grazing.
- Winter frost destroys crops and farmlands.
- There are weather vagaries like winter blizzards (snow storm), hailstorms that
destroy crops.
- Drought on the plains of Alberta leads to expensive irrigation farming.
- Wind erosion leading to unproductive soils.
(d) Outline the steps being taken to solve the problems in (c) above;
- Irrigating is carried out to supplement rainfall for agricultural activities.
- Intensive scientific research has led to introduction of quick maturing crop
varieties like Red-fife sounder marquis (wheat varieties).
- There is stall feeding/indoor grazing of livestock during severe winters.
- Use of large stores/grains elevators/silos of stores wheat and other grain
crops awaiting export in winter.
- Insurance against crop loss in case of destructive winter conditions like
hailstorms, winter blizzards.
- Early warning/weather forecast by use of satellites to avert/stop crop
loss/speed up harvests.
- Diversification of crop varieties to include new crops such as peas, flax.
- Halting farm activities and concentrate on repair of machines, farm
structures, Book keeping, others.
Study table II below showing grain production in Canada (2013/14) and
answer the questions that follow;
Table 40: Grain Production in Canada (2013/2014) Table 40
Type of Grain Production (‘000 metric tons)

Wheat 31,025

Barley 10,237

Corn 14,194

Oats 3,906

Rye 223

Total 59,585

Page 20 of 238
 Adapted: statistics Canada and industry Consultation pp.9.www.ray
glen.com/pdf/Canada.
(a) Draw a pie- Chart to represent the information contained in the table above.
(b) (i) Identify the type of grain which is produced in,
- Smallest, - Largest, quantities in Canada.
(ii) Name any one major grain growing region in Canada.
(a) Calculations: Production (‘000 metric tons)
31,025
Wheat = 59,585
× 3600 =187.40 ≈1870
10,237
Barley = 59,585 × 3600 = 61.80 ≈ 620
14,194
Corn = 59,585 × 3600 = 85.75 ≈ 860
3,906
Oats = 59,585 × 3600 = 23.60 ≈ 240
223
Rye = × 3600 = 1.30 ≈ 10
59,585
A pie chart showing grain production in Canada in 2013/14
(Use your graph book)
(b)(i) Type of grain which is produced in;
- Smallest; Rye with 223,000 metric tons.
- Largest; Wheat with 31,025,000 metric tons
(ii) One major grain growing region in Canada; - The Canadian prairies.

(iii) Two ports through which Canada exports its goods;

- Montreal, - Chicago, - Vancouver, - Prince Rupert,
- Churchill, - Duluth, - Quebec - Thunder
bay
(c) Activities carried out on the farm in all the four climatic seasons in
the region identified in (b)(iii) above);
Winter (Dec-Feb)
- Farmers are involved in indoor activities like;
- Stall feeding of animals. - Repair of machinery
- Update of records. - Placing orders for seeds, fertilizers, herbicides,
others.
- Planning for the following year’s activities. - Planting of winter wheat
Spring (Mar-May)
Farmers are engaged in.
- Ploughing and planting of grains. - Harvesting of winter wheat
- Outdoor grazing of animals. - Planting of fodder crops and grasses
Summer; (June- August)
- Spraying of weeds. - Beginning of harvesting.
- Fallow cultivation. - Outdoor grazing of animals
Autumn (Sept – Nov)
- Grain harvesting. - Fertilizer application.
- Making hay for winter stall feeding of animals.
- Planting of winter wheat. - Farmers’ holiday in November.
(d) Steps being taken to increase grain production in Canada;

Page 21 of 238
 - Diversifying of grains/crops to increase on the grain production.
- Applying of fertilizers to increase on soil fertility.
- Developing of better and high yielding varieties through research.
- Planting of quick maturing wheat varieties.
- Pest and disease control through spraying by using chemicals.
- Early planting/ploughing.
- Using of skilled labour in the grain production.
- Using of modern machines to solve labour shortage.
- Ensuring against crop failure.
- Using of better storage facilities to reduce post harvest losses.
- Advertising/searching for market is being done.
- Opening of more areas of grain production through irrigation schemes
especially in the western part.
- Promoting dry farming to ensure moisture preservation.
- Training of more personnels in crop management.
Study table below, showing the climate of Edmonton on the Canadian Prairies
and answer the questions that follow; Table 41
Months J F M A M J J A S O N D

Temp (0C) -15 -12 -4 5 11 14 16 16 10 5 -4 -10

Rainfall(mm) 23 15 18 20 20 81 89 61 36 18 18 20

Adapted: Monkhouse, F.J. and Cain H.R. (1979) Geographies: A Certificate

series; North America, Longman p.31.
(a) A combined bar and line graph representing the climate of Edmonton on
the Canadian prairies; (Use your graph book)
Use the graph book.
(b) (i) Coolest month is January with -150C - Driest month is February
with 15mm
(ii) Annual range of temperature =
Highest temperature – Lowest temperature = (16− -15) = 16+15 =
31 C0

Mean annual rainfall = Sum of the monthly rains in the year

1 year
23+15+18+20+20+81+89+61+26+18+18+20 = 409mm p.a
1
(b) Influence of climate on the agricultural activities on the Canadian prairies;
Season Weather conditions Activities done

Spring - Experiences light rains. - Ploughing.

(April – - The warm Chinook winds - Planting/sowing.
May) help in melting of ice. - Outdoor grazing.
- Has warm temperatures - Weeding.
- Spraying.
- Spreading of fertilizers.

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 -
Harvesting of winter wheat.
Summer - The summers are warm -
Harvesting.
(June, -
Drying of crops.
July, -
Processing.
August) -
Grading.
-
Packaging.
-
Storing, marketing.
-
Out grazing.
Autumn - Mild temperatures/ -
Harvesting.
(Sept, Cool temperatures. -
Ploughing.
October) -
Dry farming.
-
Processing. - Grading.
-
Packing.
-
Storing. - Marketing.
Winter - Winter old conditions -
Book keeping.
(Nov- -
Repair of machines.
March) -
Planning for next year’s
activities.
- Indoor rearing of animals.
NB: The above answers should be phrased in sentence form.

INDUSTRIALISATION IN CANADIAN PRAIRIES

A sketch map of Canadian prairies showing selected features.

Page 23 of 238
 (a) Conditions which have led to the establishment of industries on
the Canadian prairies;
Physical factors;
- Presence of abundant raw material inform of minerals like copper, Zinc,
agricultural produce like wheat to feed industries.
- Availability of vast land for the construction of industries.
- Abundant water from lakes and rivers which is used to cool industrial
machines.
Human factors;
- Availability of large sums of capital from the government and private
investors to set up industries.
- Existence of both local and foreign markets because of its location from
other manufacturing cities.
- Developed transport like Canadian Trans-Canadian Highway, pipelines to
supply natural gas, raw materials and finished goods.
- Availability of abundant skilled and semiskilled labour provide by the large
population in cities like Regina.
- Favourable government policy of diversifying the Canadian prairies economic
operation.
- Availability of modern technology like the use of Robots and computers and
automated machines.
- Availability of large sums of capital to invest in industries.
(b) Benefits of the industrial sector to the people of Canada;
- Employment opportunities to the people from which they get salary/wages
- Diversification of the economy thus creating more opportunities.
- Source of revenue to the government through taxes/licences paid by
industrialists.
- Provides industrialists goods for use hence improved standard of living.

Page 24 of 238
- Has led to growth of towns/urbanization and associated advantages like
education and commerce.
- Provides market for agricultural products thus leading to value addition.
- Has led to establishment of roads and other infrastructure.
- Has promoted international relationships through export of industrial goods
to Britain.
(c) Environmental problems which have resulted from the establishment of
industries in on the Canadian prairies;
- Shortage of land limits expansion.
- Pollution of air, water and land.
- Devegetation/destruction of vegetation cover.
- Destruction of landscape that reduces its productivity.
- Stiff competition for land increases the price of land as a resource.
- Urban related problems like slums, unemployment and prostitution.
NEW YORK PORT/ CITY
POPULATION OF NEW YORK
Study the table 14 below showing urban population for selected Cities in Canada
and USA and answer the questions that follow; Table 42
City Population

Toronto 5,312,000
Chicago 8,814,000
New York 18,718,000
Vancouver 2,188,000
Montreal 3,640,000

Adapted: 2008 World Development Indicators, The World bank, p182.

(a) Draw a bar graph to represent the information contained in the table.

(a) A bar graph showing City population size for selected Cities in North
America: (Use the graph book).
(b)(i) The City with the highest population size is New York.
(ii) Factors which have led to a large population size in New York;
- Availability of employment opportunities. New York being a home of wide
range of business, world headquarters, port facilities and industries
attracts a lot of people from various part of the world.
- Availability of developed social infrastructure. New York has got a wide ran
ge of social services ranging from transportation to medical services that
have attracted a lot of people to enjoy such services.
- Political stability in the city. There has been stable political stability in New
York and USA which has attracted several business and institutions to the
city.
- Ice free conditions with the port ice almost free of ice throughout the year.
This has attracted a lot of people and business hence the high population.

Page 25 of 238
 - New York is an administrative city with the home of several United Nations
of Organization including the UN headquarters. New York attracts a lot of
people worldwide hence the high population.
- Tourist functions. New York has got vast tourist and education resources,
famous hotels, and entertaining centres that attract people from all parts
of the World.
(c) Problems resulting from the concentration of population in any one
City in (b)(i) above;
- Moral decay as a result of a large population and limited employment
opportunities, many women have resorted to prostitution.
- High crime rates because of rampant unemployment, many people like the
youths have resorted to theft, robbery, drug abuse.
- Overcrowding and congestion which leads to delays in transportation
during rush hours.
- Limited land for expansion limits productivity.
- A lot of pollution of air, water and land that affects people health.
- Traffic congestion especially during rush hours leads to delays.
- Rampant poverty due to high rates of unemployment.
- Racial discrimination because New York ahs attract ted many people from
different parts of the world. Especially Africans, Chinese, and Indians.
- Unemployment due to the presence of many people leading to low standard
of living.
- Pollution of the environment by the untreated industrial wastes and
human wastes.
- Food shortage leading to poor health.
- Destruction of vegetation leading to land degradation.
- Limited accommodation leads to slum development.
(d) Measures being taken to solve the problems in (c) above;
- Constructing of sky scrappers to reduce land shortage and congestion.
- Establishing more industries to create more employment especially for the
Negros and the blacks.
- The government is constructing cheaper and better housing facilities to
reduce slum development.
- Reducing the number of vehicles to minimize the exhaust fumes to the
atmosphere.
- Encouraging the use of public means to transport instead of private to
reduce on congestion.
- Construction a number of tunnels and tall bridges to reduce on
congestion.
URBANISATION
(a) A sketch map of New York showing selected Islands, Rivers and the
Atlantic Ocean

Page 26 of 238
(b) Factors which favoured the growth of New York City/Port;
- Presence of a sheltered natural harbour which is not affected by strong
waves.
- Strategic location on the Eastern side of American continent gives it easy
accessibility to Europe and Africa.
- Historical factors e.g. the coming of the early settlers e.g. the Dutch and
later the British who founded the city.
- A Variety of transport e.g. water, air, railways giving it easy accessibility to
its hinterland.
- Strategic location at southern end of Hudson-Mohawk gap giving it
accessibility to the interior.
- Presence of rich and productive hinterland providing a variety of goods to
be handled by e.g. agricultural and industrial products.
- New York has a diversity of functions like the Headquarters of UN,
commercial centre.
- Improved technology allowed the construction of modern bridges, tunnels
to connect the various Islands that make up the city.
- The Flat relief providing ideal conditions for the construction of sky
scrapers and other infrastructure.
- Presence of a hard basement rock provided a firm foundation for the
construction of sky scrapers and tunnels.
- Numerous Islands gives enough space for the expansion of the city.
- Ice free conditions allow the use of the Port through the year.
- Low tidal range allows port activities to be carried through without
disturbances by waves.
- Presence of wide rivers give large space for docks (natural enclosed harbour
loading and unloading of ships) and quays (artificial land place for loading
and offloading of ships)
- Deep water harbours allow anchorage of large vessels near the shore thus
accommodating large vessels.

Page 27 of 238
 - Favourable government policy of providing large capital base for developing
the city.
- Availability of highly skilled labour to construct infrastructure/city.
(d) Functions of New York City;
- New York is an administrative centre with the Headquarters of UN.
- It’s a commercial /trading centre/business centre.
- It’s banking centre and financial centre for example the presence of stock
exchange.
- It is a recreational and entertainment centre with several entertainment
facilities.
- It’s an EntrePort with adequate port facilities to other parts of the world.
- It is a tourist centre.
- It is an industrial entre like ship building, chemical industries.
- It is an educational centre.
- It is communication centre/transport centre.
(e) Environmental problems which have resulted from the development of
New York City; / Explain the problems facing New York Port.
- Pollution of air, water and land by wastes, gases, chemicals, poor disposal
of wastes (human wastes.
- Traffic congestion leading to accidents.
- Overcrowding/Over population of the City leading to shortage of
space/Shortage of accommodation facilities.
- High population leads to unemployment.
- Poor sanitation leading to spread of diseases.
- Development of slums and associated problems like theft and robbery.
- Smog leading to poor visibility which results into accidents.
- Unemployment leading to high rates of crimes.
- High cost of living due to high demand for basic needs of life.
- Land shortage which limits expansion.
- Problem of flooding due to expansion of the city to the coastal
lowlands/valleys.
- Fog during certain periods causes accidents.
(f) Outline the measures being taken to solve the above problems.
- Strengthening police force to fight and reduce crimes.
- Putting tough restrictions on immigrants to New York to reduce slum
development and unemployment.
- Improving Public/air transport to reduce traffic congestion.
- Constructing of more industries to create more jobs/reduce
unemployment.
- Emphasizing treatment of industrial wastes to reduce environmental
pollution.
- Emphasizing the use of public transport to reduce on traffic congestions.
- Using of radars/strong lights to solve the problems caused by fog.
- Constructing of bridges and canals to create more access of Manhattan
Island to other Islands.

Page 28 of 238
 Exports handled by New York Port;
- Textiles, Machinery, Wheat, Chemicals.
Imports handled by New York Port;
- Cotton, Cocoa, Sugar, Tea, Coffee.
Study the table below showing types of transport used in Manhattan, New York
City and answer the questions that follow; Table 43
Means of transport Percentage Degrees

Subway (underground trains) - 252

Train 9 32
Bus 6 -
Ferry 2 -
Car, Lorry, Taxi - 47

Total 100 360

Adapted: White, RG and Boorman: North America.

(a) (i) Complete the table above.
(ii) State the least popular means of transport used in Manhattan.
(b)Draw a pie chart to show the relative importance of the different types
of transport. (Use your graph book)
Problems faced by the transport sector in New York City;
- Occurrence of fog that causes accidents.
- Pollution from automobiles affects passengers.
- Traffic jam especially during rush hours leading to delays.
Effects of the transport sector on the environment of in New York.
Negative effects;
- Destruction of natural vegetation.
- Destruction of swamps during road construction.
- Congestion which often causes accidents.
- Pollution of the water, land and air.
Positive effects;
- Creation of employment to thousands of people.
- Generation of revenue to the government.
- Easy movement of people and goods.
- Has facilitated development of tourism industry by creating access to
tourism attractions.
- Has led to urbanization with better accommodation and education
services.
COTTON BELTS AND THE SOUTH (USA)
THE OLD COTTON BELT
A sketch of the South (USA) showing the Old and New Cotton Belts.

Page 29 of 238
 OLD COTTON BELT
States in the Old Cotton Belt;
- Virginia - North Carolina
- South Carolina - Tennessee - Georgia
State the factors that favoured cotton growing in the Old Cotton Belt;
- Ready market for cotton.
- Presence of cotton ginning machines.
- Presence cheap slave labour.
- Presence of vast land crop cultivation.
- The 200 days of frost free growing period.
- Presence of well drained soils.
- Alternating wet and dry conditions of moderate rainfall and hot temperatures
allow growth and ripening of cotton.
Factors that led to the decline in cotton growing in the Old cotton
Belt;
- The strong winds destroyed crops hence low yields/natural calamities in the
old cotton belt e.g. hurricanes, floods led to destruction of cotton plantations.
- Availability of vast land in the west which encouraged mechanized farming.
- Competition for market from synthetic fibres threatened cotton farmers.
- The low prices for cotton discouraged farmers.
- Pests and diseases like cotton boil weevils destroyed large cotton farmlands.
- Soil exhaustion/decline in soil productivity due to monoculture practices led
to low yields.
- Growth of pastures for animals that reduced the land under cotton.
- Abolition of slave trade reduced labour available for cotton farming.
- Loss of valuable labour to the newly established industries in the South.
- Irrigation in the new areas made production more worth than in the old cotton
belt.
- Government policy that encouraged the growing of the new areas (West) for
cotton growing thus discouraging cotton growing by creating soils banks.
- Competition for land between cotton and other newly introduced crops in the
old cotton belt like Soya beans, Pea nuts, Rice, Vegetables, fodders/

Page 30 of 238
 Introduction of new crops like soya beans to improve soil fertility limited land
for cotton growing.
State the changes that that took place in the old cotton belt after the
decline in cotton growing;
- Thousands of Negros and poor whites started working in the new industries/
Industries were set up to offer employment.
- Cotton has been given in many poor soil areas because farmers are paid by the
government to put their soil in the soil bank that is not in use for cotton
growing.
- Beef, dairy and poultry were introduced to increase farmer’s income.
- Better farming methods like crop rotation and mixed farming for better yields.
- Forests were planted to control soil erosion.
- Crop diversification was done through growing more crops like soya beans and
wheat.
- Introduction of new cash crops and food crops like Soya beans, vegetables, rice
to improve people’s standard of living.
THE NEW COTTON BELT & THE SOUTH (USA)
States in the New Cotton Belt;
- Texas, - Oklahoma
- Arizona - New Mexico.
Factors that favoured cotton growing in the New cotton belt/ Factors that
led to the shift of the cotton growing belt to the new areas.
- Deep fertile soils allowed proper growth of cotton.
- Light soils that were easy to cultivate.
- Relatively gentle landscape enabled the use of machines.
- Large tracts of land where cotton was grown.
- The sunny conditions favoured growth and ripening of cotton.
- Drier conditions in the west limited pests and diseases.
- Availability of skilled labour used in planting and harvesting of cotton.
- Modern/advanced technology used in irrigating cotton farms allowing farming
throughout the year.
- Well developed transport to distribute cotton to market centres.
- Positive government policy through providing extension services to farmers.
Benefits of Cotton growing in the New cotton belt.
- Source of government revenue through taxes thus allowing construction of
roads, schools, hospitals.
- Promotes economic diversification thus reducing overdependence on mining.
- Promotes international cooperation through agricultural exports.
- Has created employment opportunities hence improving people’s standard of
living.
- Agricultural exports bring in foreign n Exchange.
- Stimulated development of roads, railways.
- Provides foodstuffs like cooking oil to people.
- Has stimulated the growth of agro based industries like textiles.
Explain the problems facing Agriculture in the South;

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- Limited market for the produce grown under the use of artificial fertilizers leads
to wastage.
- Price fluctuations discourage farmers.
- Shortage of labour during the busy harvesting periods leads to loss of crops in
the fields.
- Pests and diseases destroy the crops.
- Limited land discourages extensive farming leading to low output.
- Climatic failure like prolonged drought leads to low harvests.
- High cost of controlling weeds makes farming expensive.
- Soil exhaustion due to over cultivation and monoculture leads to low
productivity.
Outline the measures being taken to solve the above problems;
- Using chemicals and pesticides to control pest and diseases.
- Carrying out land consolidation to increase total land under cultivation and
output.
- Carrying out mechanization to reduce labour shortage.
- Employing migrant labour from Mexico to reduce labour shortage.
- Using organic fertilizers like manure to improve on soil fertility.
Negative effects of cotton growing to the people of the South;/
- Cotton farming near rivers led to siltation.
- Burning of cotton weeds and cotton stalks leads to atmospheric pollution.
- Many forests were cut down to establish cotton plantations thus leading to low
rainfall amounts.
- Decline in food supply as farmers concentrated on cotton growing.
- Reduced labour for other sectors.
- Easy spread of cotton diseases
- Application of fertilizers led to contamination of water resources/pollution.
- Spread of diseases due to monoculture.
- Salination due to irrigation farming.
- Soil exhaustion due to monoculture practices.
Effects of cotton growing on the physical environment of the South;
- Destruction of the natural landscape through deforestation and construction
of transport routes.
- Soil exhaustion due to over cultivation.
- Environmental degradation due to destruction of forests.
- Formation of acid rains as a result of polluted atmosphere from the cotton
industries.
- Promotion of soil erosion, landslides and mass wasting because of exposing
rocks to denudational forces through deforestation.
- Global warming due to destruction of the ozone layer by the industrial gases
like chlorine, carbon diode from the cotton industries.

Page 32 of 238
 Study the table below showing area under cropland in one of the states in the
South (Mississippi) and answer the questions that follow:
Area under cropland in the South (Mississippi) Table 44
Type of crop Area under crop land “000” (Ha)

Soya bean 1,012

Cotton 704

Hay 286

Cereals 154

Others 44

Total 2,200

Adapted: Hyghes: Detal (1984) North America Studies in Development, Longman

P.69.
(g) Draw a pie-chart to represent the information in the table.

Converting variables to degrees;

1,012 704
Soya beans = × 3600 = 1660, Cotton = × 3600 = 1150
2,200 2,200

286 154
Hay = 2,200
× 3600 = 470, Cereals = 2,200
× 3600 = 250

44
Others = 2,200
× 3600 =70
A pie-chart showing area under cropland in Mississippi in the South.
(Use your graph book)
(a) Why more land has been used for growing of soya bean than cotton?
- Soya beans were emphasized to improve fertility of the soil since it a
leguminous crop.
- The climate is more favourable for growth of Soya beans than any other
crop.
- There was a lower incidence of pests and diseases affecting Soya beans
than cotton.
- The cost of production for Soya beans was relatively lower than for Cotton.
- There was a great need to diversify crop production.
(c) (i) Mention any other two states in the South where cotton is
grown.
- Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia.
Conditions which have favoured the growing of cotton in the south.

Page 33 of 238
 - Moderate to heavy rainfall of between 500-1000mm p.a. with most of it
received in the first 160 days.
- Availability of well drained fertile soils which favour growth of cotton.
- Hot summers with temperatures ranging between 23-270C which allows
proper growth and convenient harvesting of cotton.
- Availability of cheap slave labour to work on cotton plantations.
- There was a high demand for cotton especially from the industrialized
North and Western Europe.
- High level of technology used in mechanization.
- Availability of vast land for growing the crop.
(d) Contributions of cotton growing to the South (USA)

- Has generated employment opportunities to cotton farmers, transporters

and in other agricultural related activities.
- Has led to diversification of the economy through supplementing
industrial production.
- Has promoted international relations especially with countries which buy
American cotton.
- Source of foreign exchange through exporting cotton and its products to
foreign countries like Germany and Western Europe.
- Source of raw materials to the textile industries. In this, cotton growing
promoted industrial establishment.
- Cotton growing improves farmers’ standard of living by earning them
income.
- Research had been carried out hence breeding of high yielding crop
varieties.
- Cotton growing had stimulated infrastructural development. E.g. Roads,
railways and ports were constructed to facilitate production and
transportation.
Study the table below showing seasonal work on a selected plantation in the
South (USA) and answer the questions that follow; Table 45
Month Rainfall(mm) Temp( C) Work done on the plantation
0

JAN 90.5 3.6 Repairing machines and updating record books

FEB 90.5 6.2 Planning next season’s work and purchasing seeds.
MAR 106.1 11.7 Preparing of cotton fields
APR 112.3 16.9 Planting cotton
MAY 109.1 19.0 Planting legumes especially soya beans.
JUN 96.7 24.3 Harvesting wheat planted the previous year.
JUL 101.0 26.0 Weeding and spraying
AUG 89.0 29.0 Weeding and spraying
SEPT 79.3 22.6 Harvesting cotton
OCT 69.9 17.0 Legumes are harvested.
NOV 70.0 10.5 Application of fertilizers in the field
DEC 88.2 5.0 Planting of winter wheat.

Page 34 of 238
 Adapted: World Resource Series (1990 – 1999)
- Draw a line graph to show the climate of the selected plantation in the
South. (Use your graph book)
- Identify the agricultural activities done on the plantation during;
Winter:
- Winter wheat is planted,
- Fertilizers are applied to fields.
- Ploughing of for the next season.
- Updating records ,purchasing seeds,
Summer;
- Harvesting wheat.
- Weeding/spreading of herbicides.
- Harvesting of cotton.
- Planting legumes like Soya beans.
Explain the contributions of the agricultural sector to the
development of the South.
- Agricultural exports to Germany and Switzerland earns the South Foreign
exchange.
- Cotton growing provides raw material to textile industries.
- Has led to growth of Town like Birmingham which act as accommodation
centres.
- Has led to economic diversification thus reducing over reliance on mining
sector.
- Provides employment opportunities to farmers and marketers thus
improved standard of living.
- Has promoted international cooperation trough export.
- Provides food like cereals thus better diet.

Evidence of modernization in the area;

- Utilization of machinery for ploughing.
- Use of herbicides and fertilizers.
- Planning and record keeping.
Crops grown in the South include;
- Cotton, wheat, legumes (soya beans).
Study the table below showing cotton growing in selected States of the Southern
USA and answer the questions that follow; Table 46
States Production (%) Cotton Belt Degrees

California 25 90
Texas 30 New Cotton -
Mississippi 10 Belt -
New Mexico and Arizona 10 -
Others 25 Old Cotton -
Belt

Page 35 of 238
 Adapted from: Hughes, D,et al (J 988) North America: A study 0, (Development
; Longman p68.
(a) (i) Calculate the missing values to complete the table above.
(ii) Name any two States with the lowest percentage of cotton production in
the Southern USA.
(b) Draw a pie chart to show the information given in the table above.

i. (i) Missing values for the states in the table;

30
Texas; 100
X 3600 = 1080
10
Mississippi = 100
X 3600 = 360
10
New Mexico and Arizona = 100
X 3600 = 360
25
Others = 100
X 3600 = 900
(ii) States with the lowest percentage of cotton production in Southern
USA;
- Mississippi with 10%
- Arizona and New Mexico with 10%
ii. A pie chart showing Cotton growing in selected states of Southern USA.
(Use your graph book)

INDUSTRIALISATION IN THE SOUTH (USA)

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(a) (i) Industries found at;
Houston;
- Oil refineries, - Textiles, - Space industry
- Food processing, - Engineering, - Petrol –chemical
Birmingham;
- Iron and steel, - Food processing, - Machinery/Engineering
- Chemical, - Fertilizers
(ii) Factors which have favoured industrial development in the South
(USA);
NB: take a case study;
- Presence of varied mineral resources like Oil and natural gas at Houston,
Coal and Iron ore at Birmingham.
- Reliable water supply from river Mississippi to cool industrial machines.
- Availability of large capital for mineral exploitation and industrial
development.
- Availability for skilled and semiskilled labour from North Eastern coast.
- Supportive government policy of taxes exemptions, to attract industrial
investors to the South.
- Availability of a ready market for the industrial products within the
region for example the agricultural machinery, food.
- Ideal climatic conditions favourable for industrial development that is no
winter/summer disparities allow production of light goods throughout
the year.
- Advanced technology allows quality production.
- Huge power supply to run industrial machines.
- Industrial inertia allows industrial establishment to share infrastructure.
(d) (i) Advantages of industrial development in the Southern States
of USA;
- Has provided employment opportunities to millions of people.
- Taxes imposed on industries earn USA revenue which is used for social
economic development.

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- Industrial exports like fighter jets earn USA foreign exchange.
- The sale of industrial goods earns people local income hence improved
standard of living.
- Has promoted infrastructural development like air ports, railways,
roads.
- Industrial development has led to economic diversification thus
reducing overreliance on agriculture.
- Has promoted growth of towns/urbanization at Birmingham, Houston,
and New Orleans which act as residential centres.
- Provides market to mineral and agricultural raw materials. Such as Oil
and cotton.
(ii) Disadvantages of industrial development in the Southern
States of USA; (Problems resulting from industrialization)
- Has encouraged pollution of environment due to emission of air and
industrial discharge.
- Has led to exhaustion of raw materials due to high rate of exploitation.
- Has led to congestion due to high rate over concentration of industries.
- Has led to urbanization and the related evils like theft.
- Had led overcrowding to limited land.
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY (TVA)
A multi-purpose Scheme is the one that is specially established to serve more
than one use/purpose like generation of HEP, Controlling of floods, Promoting
tourism, establishing industries.
Aims of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
- To generate HEP for domestic and industrial use.
- To contain environmental problems like flooding, drought though
afforestation.
- To improve navigation along river Tennessee through constant dredging.
- To control the flooding of river Tennessee and its tributaries so as to retain
land for settlement.
- To eradicate the water borne diseases and save human lives.
- To control soil erosion and reclaim the badly eroded areas for agricultural
use

Page 38 of 238
 Other examples of Multipurpose Schemes in USA are;
- The St.Lawrence Sea Way,
- The Central valley water way,
- The Appalachian Regional development Act/Appalachian Plan.
Factors/Conditions that led to establishment of the Tennessee
Valley Multipurpose Scheme;
- Poor housing facilities by the local population caused poor living
conditions.
- Poor farming methods including mono-cropping that led to soil exhaustion
and erosion.
- Limited fuel resources especially due to rapid deforestation within the river
valley. The Tennessee scheme wanted to provide heap HEP to the region.
- Flooding of the existing Rivers like R. Tennessee used to flood during the
rainy season caused a lot of damage to property and loss of life.
- Navigational problems with in the Valley caused by waterfalls, rapids and
shallow zones necessitated a navigable way along the Tennessee.
- The need to diversify the economy from predominantly agriculture to
industry.
- Ignorance of the people about causes and dangers related to soils erosion.
- Water borne diseases which used to attack the local population.
- Famine was very rampant among the local people. The scheme wanted to
create a constant food supply in the region by providing water for
irrigation.
- Environmental problems like soil erosion necessitated afforestation.
- The desire to modernize agriculture through research and use of fertilizers,
creation of demonstration farms in the region.
- The desire to create employment opportunities in the region through
industrialization/ Wide spread unemployment and poverty due to
destruction of farmlands.

Page 39 of 238
 - Underdeveloped infrastructures like schools, roads, electricity, health
units.
- Siltation of River Tennessee and its tributaries like Cumberland displaced
people and destroyed farmlands.
- Poverty as people‘s incomes were too low.
SOIL EROSION IN THE TENNESSEE STATE
Factors that led to soil erosion in the Tennessee State;
- Over cultivation led to soil exhaustion and disintegration hence soils
erosion.
- Over grazing of livestock exposed the soils to agents of erosion.
- Flooding of river Tennessee carried away a lot of soils hence erosion.
- Monoculture practices led soil deterioration hence erosion.
- The steep slopes accelerated surface run-off leading to soil erosion.
- Heavy torrential rainfall increased the massive erosion.
- Ploughing up and down the hill slopes crated channels which later formed
gulleys.
- Cutting of trees exposed soils to agents of erosion.
Steps taken to control soil erosion.
- Contour ploughing was done along the steep slopes to control surface run-
off.
- Strip cropping was introduced along the steep slopes to control soil erosion.
- Farmers were taught about the cause and ways of controlling soil erosion.
- Crop rotation was introduced to maintain soils fertility.
- Manures and fertilizers were used to improve on soil fertility.
- Terraces were constructed to reduce soil erosion in areas of steep slopes.
- Cover crops like pumpkins were planted to provide a protective cover to the
soils.
- Afforestation was done to bind the soils together.
- Dams were constructed to control river flooding.
(b)Measures/steps taken by the Tennessee Valley Authority to
address the problems of environmental degradation;
- Construction of dams like Kentucky dam to prevent flooding.
- Afforestation and re-afforestation programmes to control soil erosion and
encourage rainfall formation along Appalachian highlands.
- Industrialization to increase employment opportunities and reduce
pressure on land.
- Terracing of steep slopes to conserve the soils from gulley erosion.
- Introduction of better farming methods like contour ploughing to control
soil erosion.
- Diversification of agriculture through introduction of dairy farming.
- Resettlement of the people to create better villages.
- Development of socio-economic infrastructure to improve production and
marketing of products.
- Cover crops like pumpkins were grown to control splash erosion.
- Using of family planning methods to control on population growth.

Page 40 of 238
 - Leguminous crops like soya beans capable of improving soil fertility were
panted.
- Establishment of demonstration farms to train farmers.
- Dredging of river Tennessee in order to deepen the river channel and
encourage navigation.
- Spraying to control pests and diseases.
- Refilling of canals to improve navigation/water flow.
(c) Benefits/Contributions/Achievements of the Tennessee Valley Multi-
purpose Scheme;
- The several dams constructed by the Scheme provide cheap hydro electric
power used in industries and at home.
- The scheme has fully controlled flooding in the region attracting
permanent settlement.
- Has ensured constant water supply to the region for domestic and
domestic use.
- Has ensured constant food supply like pumpkins, beans thus improved
diet.
- Provided lakes for recreational purposes thus earning the region foreign
exchange and income.
- Controlled flooding of River Tennessee thus controlling water borne
diseases like Bilharzia.
- Controlled environmental problems like soil erosion through afforestation
and reafforestation programmes.
- Eradicated poverty through establishment of industries and other
economic activities.
- Bridges constructed over rivers enabled the improvement of transport and
communication.
- The local people were taught better farming methods like crop rotation and
use of fertilizers.
- Led to wildlife conservation in Tennessee through offering wildlife
education and recreation.
- Provided employment opportunities to local people like farmer and
industrialists.
- Led to development of tourism and education at the recreational centres.
- Led to growth of Towns like Nashville which acts as a trading centre.
(d) Contributions of the Tennessee Valley Project to industrial
development in the region. /Influence of the TVA on industrial
growth;
- The several dams constructed by the Scheme provide cheap hydro electric
power used in industries and at home.
- Has ensured constant water supply to the region for industrial use.
- Creation of skilled labour through training used in industries.
- Provided lakes for that provide water for industrial use.
- Generated HEP from dams like Kentucky used for industrial use.

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 - Improved navigation along River Tennessee leading to transportation of
raw materials and finished goods.
- The scheme controlled flooding in the region thus attracting permanent
settlement in the region for industrial operations.
- Forests planted have planted raw materials to timber based industries.
(a) Problems still faced by the people living in the Tennessee Valley;
- Urbanization and industrialization led to new challenges like
unemployment, overcrowding, traffic and congestion of the population.
- Increased demand for land led to high cost of land/limited land for
agriculture/shortage of land.
- Siltation of rivers due to damming at Kentucky dam.
- Environmental pollution of air, water and land due to establishment of
industries.
- Displacement of population from the areas formerly inhabited ion an
effort to establish forests.
- Seasonal floods that destroy property.
- High cost of living leading low stand of living.
- Soil erosion in some areas destroyed crops.
- Pests and diseases destroy farmlands.
(e) Problems which resulted from the establishment of the Tennessee
Valley Multipurpose Scheme;
- Loss of Scenic Beauty which discourages the tourist industry.
- Over exploitation of sources of energy like coal for industrialization.
- Displacement of people by the lakes formed through damming of rivers.
- Urbanization and related problems like slum development.
- Pollution of the environment from industries.
- Increased demand for electricity leading to high cost of power.
- Over utilization of resources leading to their depletion.
- Regular dredging leading to high costs of maintenance.

Study the map of the Tennessee valley provided below and answer the
questions that follow.

Page 42 of 238
 (a) Name the;
(i) Rivers marked A and B, (iii) Dam marked C,
(ii) States marked 1 and 2, (iv) Towns marked 3 and 4.

(b)Describe the factors which led to the establishment of the Tennessee

Valley Multipurpose Scheme.
(c) Explain the contributions the Tennessee Valley Multipurpose Scheme
to the development of any one State named in (a)(iii) above.
(d)Outline the problems which resulted from the establishment of the
Tennessee Valley Multipurpose Scheme.
ST.LAWRENCE SEAWAY AND GREAT LAKES
Study figure below showing the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence waterway and
answer the questions that follow:

.
Aims of constructing the Sea Way;
- To generate revenue through charging taxes on the vessels.
- To generate HEP for domestic and industrial use.
- To control the flooding of River St.Lawrence and destruction of property.

Page 43 of 238
 - To facilitate deep water transport along river St.Lawrence.
- To connect the rich interior to Atlantic Ocean for trade.
(b) Steps taken to improve navigation on the Great lakes and St.Lawrence
River.
- Ice breakers are used to remove ice during winter.
- Canals were constructed to by-pass waterfalls and rapids foe example
Welland canal to by-pass Niagara Falls.
- Dams and Locks were constructed to raise the water level to allow the
sailing of large vessels.
- Dredging and excavation were done to deepen the sea way.
- Blasting was done was use of explosives to remove the Islands.
- Radars and strong lights were put along the sea way to increase visibility.
(c) Conditions/Factors which have led to the construction of the Great
Lakes and St. Lawrence Seaway;
- Presence of numerous obstacles such as shoals of rocks which was
restricting smooth flow of oceans going vessels.
- Existence of rapids and waterfalls e.g. Niagara Falls, Sault St. Marie made
navigation impossible.
- The seasonal flooding needed to be controlled by using dams and locks to
regulate the flow of water.
- Seasonal blockage of the seaway by ice during winter needed to be broken
to minimize the piling of goods and navigation delays.
- The need to open up the interior of North America by exploiting resources
such as extraction of iron ore at Labrador, wheat growing in the prairies
of Canada, others.
- Some parts of river St.Lawrence were narrow that needed widening for all
vessels to sail through.
- Some parts of St. Lawrence Seaway were shallow therefore needed to be
deepened.
- There was silting of the seaway which reduced the depth of the seaway.
- The great lakes were at different altitudinal levels e.g. Lake Superior (183m
a.s.l), Huron (174m a.s.l), Erie (177m a.s.l) and Ontario (75m a.s.l) and so
a need to regulate the level of water by building locks.
Contributions the St Lawrence Seaway and Great lakes to the
surrounding areas
- Has strengthened international cooperation between USA, Canada and
other countries like Spain and Japan.
- Niagara Falls, Soo Canals have promoted tourism thus earning foreign
exchange.
- Has attracted dense settlement in towns like Detroit, Duluth and
Chicago.
- Has promoted industrialization by facilitating importation of raw
materials.
- Has enhanced agriculture by creating access to the Canadian wheat
growing area.

Page 44 of 238
 - Has led to growth of towns/ Urbanization like at Duluth, Quebec and
Montreal which act as accommodation centres.
- Has opened up remote areas by creating access to Canadian prairies.
- Has led to generation of HEP from dams like Iroquois dam for domestic
and industrial use.
- Provides employment opportunities to tax collectors thus improving their
standard of living.
- Has led to technological advancement through Canal construction like
Soo, Welland.
- Earns government revue through taxes imposed on users of the Seaway.
- Acts as a natural boundary between Canada and USA.
(d) Problems faced by people using the seaway;/Problems still faced by the
users of the Seaway;
- Pollution of the seaway by well established industries and oil spills
causing air, water and land pollution.
- Delays resulting from congestion at the locks and canals.
- High costs of maintenance of locks and channels.
- Poor visibility due to smog and foggy conditions which cause accidents.
- Seasonal freezing of the seaway for three months.
- Very large vessels cannot be used due to small size of the canals.
- There are problems of sea pirates.
- Continuous silting of the Seaway.
- Ice causes accidents.
(d) Measures being taken to solve the above problems;
- Time tabling/scheduling of ships/vessels to avoid congestion, delays and
accidents.
- Containerization to ease loading and off loading.
- There is use of flood light/strong head light/radars on ocean going
vessels.
- Use of ice breakers/automatic submarine defreezers during winter to
clear the seaway.
- Use of alternative means of transport like roads, railways, others during
winter when the seaway is frozen.
- Constant dredging to overcome siltation/use of improved technology.
- Twinning of locks is being done which allows two-way traffic.
- Establishment of strict laws/legislation against pollution that is clear air
production, others.
- Regular patrolling of the sea way to check sea pirates.
Study figure below: map of the Great lakes region provided below and answer
the questions that follow;

Page 45 of 238
 Industries found are more or less the same;
Name the town; Montreal/Chicago/Toledo
- Petro-chemical industries, - Clothing and textile industries,
- Iron and steel manufacturing, - Engineering/metallurgical industry.
- Timber and furniture products. - Motor vehicle assembly,
- Cement manufacturing, - Glass manufacturing, food processing,
- Printing and publishing.
Types of industries found in any one industrial centre;
- Iron and steel/steel rolling,
- Food processing. - Textile/clothing industries.
- Oil refineries. - Motor vehicles assembly/Engineering.
- Ship building and repair. - Timber processing/pulp and paper.
- Cement manufacture. - Glass manufacture
- Printing and publishing.
Industries found in Chicago;
- Electronics, - Chicago,
- Printing and Publishing. - food processing
OR Industries found in Pittsburg;
- Chemical industries,
- Machinery,
- Food processing
(ii) The conditions that influenced the location of industries in the Great lakes
region;
- There is easy transportation due to proximity to the Great lakes and
St.Lawrence Seaway.
- Presence of plenty of water for industrial use from the Great lakes and St.
Lawrence River.
- Nearness to bulky raw materials e.g. coal from Pittsburg, Iron ore from the
Appalachians.
- Influence of historical factors like early settlers.
- Presence of large population to offer local market.

Page 46 of 238
- Nearness to the prairie region; rich agricultural hinterland necessitated the
development of agricultural inputs/machinery.
- Presence of supportive/positive government to make the region self sufficient.
- Sufficient power supply to run industrial machines.
- Large space for expansion of industries.
- Improved technology.
- Large sums of capital to purchase industrial machines and inputs.
Factors/Conditions which have favoured the development of industries
in the Great Lakes region
- Plenty of fresh water for lakes and rivers for washing, and cooling of
machines.
- A variety of raw materials that include agricultural, minerals and forest
products./ Presence of abundant agricultural and mineral raw materials
such as iron ore from Messabi ranges used in the iron and steel industry.
- Abundant and varied sources of power/energy to light industrial premises
and run machines/ Presence of a variety of power resources e.g. and HEP
from Niagara Falls for running the industrial machines.
- Vast land and gentle relief in the region thus easing construction and
expansion of industries. / Large tracts of cheap land enabled location and
expansion of industries in this region.
- Skilled labour to work in Industries such as machine operators, Engineers./
Presence of abundant skilled labour to work for example chemical engineers
needed in textile industries.
- Availability of large sums of capital to buy industrial equipment/raw
material./ Large capital to purchase raw material, industrial machinery, pay
labour was generated from international trade.
- Wide local and foreign market e.g. in the tropical and sub tropical world/
Presence of huge/wide market for manufactured goods both within and
foreign like Britain, China, Japan.
- Presence of abundant water from the great lakes either to be used as a raw
material or for washing and cooling purpose.
- Positive government policy of encouraging investment in the industrial
sector./ Supportive government policy of locating industries in this region
for industrial development.
- Modern transport and communication network e.g. Roads, railways and
waterways that ease collection of raw materials and distribution of finished
goods./ Presence of a reliable transport network for transporting raw
material and manufactured goods along the St.Lawrence seaway
- Advanced technology leading to production of high quality goods that are
competitive on the international market./ Modern technology such as use
of conveyor belts, automatic machines has led to large scale production.
- Relative political stability that enhances industrial activities.
- Intensive research leading to expansion of market for industrial goods
- Industrial inertia which has attracted many industries concentrate in the
region to share mechanics, roads, security, and electricity.

Page 47 of 238
 (c) Contributions of industrial sector to the development of Great lakes
region/Benefits of industrialization/ industrial sector in the
development of the Great lakes Region;
- Provision of employment opportunities for the people and so improving their
standard of living.
- Has earned revenue to the government of through taxes imposed on industrial
goods.
- Development of infrastructure like roads, railways, waterways and ports.
- Urbanization/conurbation and associated advantages like accommodation,
trade and commerce.
- Has led to economic diversification, leading to creation of alternative
employment.
- Earning foreign exchange through export of industrial/manufactured goods.
- Promotion of regional and International cooperation between USA and Canada
hence promoting trade.
- Industries have led to exploitation of natural resources like agriculture and
minerals such as iron ore from Labrador mines (Messabi ranges).
- Development of skills through training on job.
- Inter-industrial linkages for expansion of market for other sectors like
agriculture.
- Diversification of the economy that reduced overdependence on one economic
activity.
- Provides market for primary sectors like agriculture, mining forestry, and
fishing
- Source of income to people thus rising standards of living.
- Provision of consumer goods/manufactured goods to people improved
standard of living.
Problems faced by the manufacturing sector in the Greta lakes region;
- Limited raw materials for heavy industries like iron and steel industries.
- Negative government policies like heavy taxes discourage industrial
production.
- Limited electricity to run industries leads to low output.
- Congestion along facilities affects transportation of raw materials and
distribution of manufactured goods.
- Limited skilled labour like technicians, Engineers limits industrial operation.
- Limited market for industrial goods due to competition with highly qualitative
and low priced goods from Britain, Japan.
- Limited capital to expand the industries.
(d) Steps being taken to improve the industrial sector in the Great Lakes
region;
- Importing of cheaper raw materials e.g. Agriculture and minerals.
- Recycling/Reuse of scrap to solve shortage of raw materials.
- Use of raw material saving technology to minimize the cost of raw
materials.
- Applying automation/using of Robots to boots industrial output.

Page 48 of 238
 - Carrying out intensive industrial research to increase quality and
competitiveness of manufactured goods.
- Diversifying of transport and communication networks to ease collection
of raw materials and connect industrial, centres to distant markets.
- Diversifying of the energy/power sources to attain reliability and efficiency.
- Emphasizing intensive advertisement and research to boost trade in the
manufactured goods from the region.
- Providing of loans for investment in the industrial sector from local and
foreign banks.
- Offering of subsidies on industrial inputs to minimize cost of production
(a) Environmental problems that have resulted from industrialization in
the Great lakes region; / Negative effects of the industrial sector on
environment of the great region;
- Pollution of water, land and air e.g. the canals leading to loss of aquatic
life/general health hazards/, shortage of clean and safe water for
domestic and industrial use.
- Increased accidents in the Great lakes waterways due to smog.
- Traffic congestion leading to delays at ports and locks.
- Removal of top fertile soils by mining leading to decline in production.
- Loss of forest cover leading to environmental degradation.
- Emergence of ghost towns due to updated technology.
Problems faced by these industrial cities.
- Displacement of people due to setting up of industries.
- Land shortage thus limiting land for other purposes.
- Urban related problems such as slum development.
- High crime rates due to wide spread unemployment.
- Overcrowding leads to easy spread of disease like swine flu.
- Displacement of people from their land for industrial expansion.
- Increase in the crime rate such as drug abuse, robbery, prostitution.
- Shortage of accommodation facilities leading to slum development with
their associated evils such as poverty.
- Limited land for expansion limits growth of the cities.
- Increased government expenditure to maintain the city in form of garbage
removal, street lights, and road and railway rehabilitation.
- Increase of smog by industrial and vehicle fumes affects visibility and
cause health problems such as asthma.
- Exhaustion of minerals due to over exploitation.
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY IN THE GREAT LAKES
REGION:
Study the table below showing the principal types of Cargo entering the Great
lakes region and answer the questions that follow; Table 47
Type of cargo Montreal – Lake Ontario Section Welland Canal

Iron Ore 22,700 16,000

Iron and Steel 6,000 670

Page 49 of 238
 Others 9,300 7,300

Adapted: Young E. W and Lowry JH (1984) A geography in World

Geography, Book 7; North America, 4th Edition, Edward Arnold, p195.
(a) Calculate the percentage of each type of Cargo reaching the Welland
Canal from Montreal.
(a)Percentage of each type of Cargo reaching the Welland Canal from
Montreal;
16,000
- Iron Ore = 22,700
X 100 = 70.5%
670
- Iron and Steel = 6,000
X 100 = 11.2%
7,300
- Others = 9,300
X100 = 78.5%
(b) (i) Raw materials used in the iron and steel industry;
- Silver,
- Iron ore, limestone - Aluminium
(ii) Iron and steel industrial centres found in the Great lakes region
of North America;
- Detroit, - Baltimore, - Buffalo, Chicago
- Pittsburgh, Rochester, port authur
(c) Conditions which have led to the development of iron and steel
industries in the Great Lakes region;
Physical factors;
- Presence of huge deposits of iron ore in the great lakes region attracted the
establishment of iron and steel industries.
- Availability of abundant water supply from the Great lakes of Superior,
Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario used in cooling the iron and steel
plants.
- Abundant energy in form of coal, nuclear and hydro Eclectic power used
to run industrial machines.
Human factors;
- Availability of an efficient transport system based on the Great Lakes, rails
and roads facilitate the distribution of iron and steel products.
- Availability of large sums of capital provided by the USA government and
private investors used to setup and maintain the iron and steel industries.
- Availability of advanced technology used in the USA iron and industrial
iron and steel industry.
- Availability of a ready market for the iron and steel products like
automobiles, heavy machinery, construction equipment and demand
abroad in Europe (Germany, France)
- Availability of abundant skilled labour provided by the large population of
USA and immigrant from Europe helped to operate industrial machines.
(d) Effects of the industrial development on the environment of the
Great lakes region;
Negative effects;

Page 50 of 238
 - Has led to destruction of natural vegetation during industrial
establishment.
- Has led to exhaustion of minerals due to high rates of mineral
exploitation.
- Has led to smog created by fumes from industries.
- Has led to pollution of water, air and land by the industrial fumes and
wastes.
- Spread of respiratory diseases.
- Shortage of land
- Increased cost of water and air purification.
- Overcrowding of people and traffic jam.
- Land degradation in the mining areas due to creation of hollow and
residue hills.
NEW ENGLAND
AGRICULTURE
A sketch map of New England showing major crops grown and
dairy farming;

Conditions favouring agriculture in New England;

- Reliable rainfall suitable for the growing of a variety of crops.
- Warm summer temperatures facilitate ripening of crops like fruits.
- Well drained fertile soils support growth of several crops.
- Ready market for agricultural commodities like at Boston.
- Adequate capital to buy seedlings and farm inputs.
- Intensive research has led to introduction of quick maturing crops.
- Developed transport facilitates distribution of agricultural produce to
market centres.
Benefits/Contributions of agricultural sector to the people of New
England.
- Provides employment opportunities to farmers, transporters and
veterinary doctors thus improving their standard of living.

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 - Has led to economic diversification thud reducing over reliance on
industry.
- Provides market to industrial products like fertilizers.
- Earns New England revenue through agricultural exports.
- Provides raw materials to agro-based industries like textiles.
- Provides food stuffs like fruits to people thus improving on their diet.
Challenges/problems facing agricultural sector in New England;
- Shortage of capital to purchase farm inputs limits production.
- Price fluctuation of agricultural produce discourages farmers.
- Shortage of land to establish big plantations limits production.
- Shortage of labour to harvest crops leads to losses.
- Pests and diseases destroy crops.
- Steep relief of the Appalachian Mountains limits mechanization.
- Soil exhaustion due to over cultivation leads to low output.
- Short growing season due to cold winters leads to few crops grown.
Measures being taken to improve agriculture in New England;
- Using glass houses to control winter problems.
- Carrying out intensive research to introduce quick maturing and high
yielding crop varieties.
- Exporting of commodities to widen market.
- Spraying with pesticides to control pests and diseases.
- Conserving soils through contour ploughing and mulching to improve soil
fertility.
- Using of machines to solve labour shortage.
- Applying of fertilizers to improve soil fertility.
MANUFACTURING SECTOR IN THE NEW AND OLD
INDUSTRIAL REGIONS
1. (a) Draw a sketch map of New England and on it, mark and name;
(i) Water bodies; Atlantic Ocean and river Connecticut,
(ii)The Old industrial region, (iii) The new industrial region,
(iv) States; Vermont and New Hampshire.
(b) Describe the factors that led to the shift of industries from the old to the
new industrial region.
(c) Explain the importance of manufacturing industries to New England.
(d) Outline the environmental problems which have resulted from the
establishment of industries in New England.

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 (a) A sketch map of New England showing the Old and the New
Industrial Belts;

Study the figure below: sketch map of Old and New Industrial regions of the
New England and answer the questions that follow;

(a) (i) Rivers; A is R. Merrimack, B is R. Connecticut.

(ii) Old industrial towns; 1 is New Haven, 2 is Providence.
(iii) New industrial towns; 3 is Spring fields 4 is Manchester.

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 (b) Conditions which have led to the decline of industries in the
old industrial region; / Factors for the shift of industries from the Old
to the New Industrial region;
- Shortage/ Decline in cotton production which was the main raw material
for the textile industry in the old industrial region.
- Competition from the new industries in the new industrial belt using
synthetic materials.
- Highly skilled labour in the new industrial belt using raw material saving
technology.
- Introduction of new energy sources like HEP in the New industrial belt
after the depletion of coal and oil in the old industrial belt.
- Shift of market from the old industrial belt due to increased population
in the new industrial belt that provided large market.
- High labour costs in the old industrial region which led to increased
costs of production.
- Better working conditions in the new industrial belt led to migration of
labour from the old to the new industrial belt.
- High transport costs since most of the industrial raw materials like coal,
oil had to be imported.
- Outdated technology in the old industrial belt was outcompeted by
advanced technology in the new industrial belt.
- Congestion of industries in the old industrial belt necessitated a shift to
the new industrial region where there was space.
(c) Importance of manufacturing industries to New England;
- Production of diversity/variety of goods and services for the population.
- It has led to the development of infrastructure such as roads, railways,
water transport system for the transportation of products to market
centres.
- It is a source of income to the people thus improving their standard of
living.
- It is a source of revenue to the government through taxes levied on
manufacturing companies and also workers’ incomes.
- It has provided employment opportunities to the people of New England
thereby improving their standard of living.
- It has led to advancement in technology through acquisition of skills in
the relevant manufacturing sectors.
- Provides market to the agricultural and mining products.
- Foreign exchange is earned through exportation of industrial goods.
- It has led to growth of towns/urban centres like Boston, New Bedford
which offer accommodation.
- Has led to diversification of the economy of New England thereby
reducing overdependence on Agriculture.
- Has promoted international relationship through trade in manufactured
goods.
- Industrial exports to Britain have earned New England foreign exchange.

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(d) Environmental problems which have resulted from the
establishment of industries in New England;
- Pollution of the environment that is air, water and land by industrial
emission/wastes.
- Loss of vegetation cover/biodiversity through industrial establishments.
- Exhaustion of raw materials hence leading to decline in the production of
such goods like cotton for textiles industries, minerals leading to closure
of mineral related industries.
- Migration of labour leading to disruption of social setup.
- Overpopulation within the industrial region has resulted to overcrowding
/congestion.
- Development of urban centers with related problems like prostitution,
drug abuse, terrorism.
- High cost of water extraction and purification of both domestic and
industrial uses.
- Decline in the water table leading to shortage of drinking water.
- Global warming leading to unpredictable weather changes/accumulation
of green house gases.
- Poor visibility due to smog and fog causing accidents.
- High cost of water treatment/purification for domestic and industrial
use.
- Shortage of land/competition for land for other activities.
2. (a) Draw a sketch map of New England and on it mark and name
(i) Appalachian Mountains, (iii) Rivers; Connecticut and
Merrimack,
(ii) Atlantic Ocean, (iv) Industrial Centres; Boston, New Bedford and
Holyoke.
(a) A sketch map of New England showing selected features;
Refer to the previous maps.
(b) (i) Types of industries found in any one industrial centre named in (a) (iv)
above.
- Boston; Chemical industries, Printing and publishing, Textile industries.
- New Bedford; Ship building, Printing and Publishing.
- Holyoke: Paper industry, Machinery manufacture, chemical industries.
(ii) Conditions which have favoured the establishment of industries
in New England;
- Presence of vast land for industrial establishment.
- Availability of ready market both domestic and foreign.
- Availability of well developed transport network like roads, railways,
ports and airports that facilitate movement of goods.
- Availability of huge supply of Hydro Electric power to run industrial
machines.
- Availability of large sums of capital to buy raw materials and pay
workers.

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 - Production of high quality goods that can compete with goods from
Japan.
- Better working conditions among workers that allow large scale
production.
- Availability of highly skilled labour to work in industries.
- The need to have new industries as old industries were phased out.
Benefits of industries in New England;
- Industries provide skills to their workers through on-job training and
short courses.
- Provide social and economic services like accommodation.
- Led to growth of towns like New Bedford, Holyoke.
- Provides market for agricultural products like cotton for textiles.
- Promotes international cooperation with countries that import industrial
goods.
- Stimulated infrastructural development like roads.
- Industrial exports bring in foreign exchange needed to develop the region.
- A source of government revenue through taxes and such revenue is used
to develop roads and hospitals.
- Provides consumer foods to the public like garments.
Great employment opportunities from which workers get income to
improve on their standard of living.
(c) Problems which have faced the industrial sector in New England;
- Shortage of raw materials limits large scale production.
- Congestion in the major cities like Boston leads to delays.
- The Appalachian Mountains create transport problems leading to delays.
- Competition for market with other industrialized nations like Britain.
- Limited land discourages industrial expansion.
- High cost of paying and maintaining labour reduces the profit margin.
- Changes in tastes and fashion limit production.
- Shortage of energy leads to wastage.
- Pollution discourages industrial operations.
(d) Steps being taken to solve the problems in (c) above;
- Introducing of raw material saving technology to minimize raw materials.
- Relocation of industries to reduce on congestion.
- Using of capital intensive technology to reduce labour shortage./Adoption
the use of machines like conveyor belts to solve labour shortage.
- Carrying out market research to increase market for the industrial
products.
- Relocating of industries to new areas where labour costs are lower.
- Using railway transport to reduce on transport costs.
- Importing of raw materials to supplement on available raw materials.
- Developing of alternative energy source to reduce the inadequate energy
supply.
Study the table below showing the processing of Mackerel and Hake in New
England and answer the questions that follow; Table 48

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 Processing Method ‘000 tonnes

Canned 637,000
Frozen 12,000
Fresh 2,000
Smoked 1,000
Fish oil meal 2,000

Adapted Hughes, etal, (1988) North America Study of development

(a) Draw a pie chart to the relative importance of the fish processing
methods.
(b) (i) Which processing method is most popular?
(ii) Why is the canning method identified in (b)(i) above most popular
(c) (i) Name two fishing ports in New England.
(ii)Describe the conditions which have favoured fishing in New England.
(d) Explain the problems facing fishing in New England.

CALIFONRNIA
AGRICULTURE
1. (a) Draw a sketch map of California and on it mark and name;
(i) Towns; Sacramento and Fresno, (iii) Rivers; San Joaquin and
Sacramento,
(ii)Mountains; Sierra Nevada and Coastal Ranges, (iv) Canal; Delta Mendota.
(a) A sketch map of California showing selected Towns, Rivers Mountains
and Delta Mendota Canal;

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 (a) (i) characteristics of market gardening;
- Land is intensively cultivated.
- Mainly carried out in or near urban centres.
- It is highly mechanized.
- Products are sold while still fresh.
- Fertilizers are applied to improve soil fertility.
- There is irrigation farming to avoid crop failure.
- It involves growing of fruits and vegetables for sale.
(ii) Conditions that favoured market gardening in the Central
Valley;
- Many rivers like Sacramento and San Joaquin provide water for irrigation.
- Presence of fertile alluvial soils deposited from Sierra Nevada ranges
allows proper growth of crops.
- Relatively gentle landscape in the central valley allows mechanization and
gravity irrigation.
- Hot Mediterranean climate and sunny conditions allow ripening of fruits.
- Vast land in the central valley allows extensive crop cultivation.
- Relative political stability in the central valley allows extensive crop
farming.
- Abundant skilled labour to attend to crops.
- Ready market for the produce in towns like Fresco, Los Angeles.
- Large sums of capital to invest in buying machines and chemicals.
- Modern transport facilitates distributions of produce to market centres.
- Supportive government policy of giving tax incentives to framers.
(b) Benefits of market gardening to California;
- Provides market for industrial products like fertilizers, chemicals and farm
implements.

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 - Has encouraged urbanization through provision of constant food supply.
- Provides raw materials for agro based industries such as food canning
factories at Fresco and Sacramento.
- Has led to economic diversification thus reducing over reliance on fishing
and tourism.
- Has facilitated the development of transport network like Delta Mendota
canal.
- Source of government revenue through taxes imposed on farmlands.
- Provides foodstuffs like tomatoes and inions thus improving the standard
of living.
- Source of foreign exchange through exportation of market garden crops to
Canada, France.
- Has promoted international cooperation between California and importing
Countries like Canada and UK.
- Provides employment opportunities to framers from which they get income
hence improving their standard of living.
Study the figure below showing California and answer the questions that
follow;

(a) (i) Valley 1 is Central Valley.(ii) Rivers; A is River San Joaquin, B is River
Sacramento
(iii)Dam 2 is Oroville dam, 3 is Parker dam.(iv)Aqueduct C is Delta Mendota canal
or California Aqueduct. (v) Mountain 4 is
Sierra Nevada.
(b)(i) Any two crops in California;
- Cereals like Wheat, barley, sugar beet, Cotton, Rice, Maize,
- Vegetables like cabbages, lettuce, lemon,
- Fruits like pears, apples, oranges, dates, and vines, citrus.
- Fodder crops like Alfa -Alfa, Hey.
(i) Conditions favouring agricultural activities in California;

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 - Fertile alluvial soils in the Central valley eroded from the Sierra Nevada
ranges support the growth of variety of crops.
- Presence of numerous rivers which provide water for irrigation e.g. River
Sacramento, River San Joaquin, etc.
- Availability of extensive land on the Central valley for crop growing.
- Cool temperate climate which allows the growth of temperate crops like
wheat and barley.
- Some areas have modified Mediterranean climate/warm sunny summer
and mild wet winter climate which favours the growth of citrus fruits.
- Use of advanced technology of irrigation/canning of agricultural
products/mechanized agricultural/refrigeration.
- Intensive research leading to improved variety of crops like fruits, cereals
and vegetables.
- Availability of abundant skilled and semiskilled labour to operate the
machines/carry out scientific methods of agriculture/truck farming.
- Presence of ready market for the agricultural products.
- There is relatively flat land in the central valley which allows irrigation
farming/use of machines.
- Availability of large capital to invest in farming activities.
- Presence of reliable power/HEP which is used for heating, lighting
agricultural green houses.
- Frost free conditions for a long period in a year in the Central valley and
Imperial Valley of California facilitate growing of crops.
- Low incidence of pests and diseases favour the growing of crops.
- Practice of mixed farming which offers complementary benefits like
provide manure.
- Presence of modern transport to distribute agricultural products.
- Favourable government policy to support agricultural/modern
agricultural activities.
(c) Contributions/Benefits of agriculture to the development of
California;
- It offers employment to the population.
- Exports of agricultural products lead to foreign exchange.
- Increased incomes/standard of living for the farmers.
- Development of infrastructure like HEP stations, aqueducts, Canals,
railway lines.
- Production of food for the population.
- Production of raw materials for the agro-based industries like textiles, wine
processing, fruits canning.
- Growth of towns/urban centres like Fresno, Sacramento, San Francisco.
- Provision of market for industrial products.
- Diversification of the economy.
- Provision of government revenue.
- It has led to international relationship with Countries that import the
agricultural products from California.

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 - There has been development of industries like those that supply chemicals
and those that supply agricultural raw materials.
(d) Steps being taken to promote agricultural sector in California;
- Diversifying of agricultural activities that is growing of crops and rearing
of animals.
- Mechanizing agricultural to cultivate extensive land areas.
- Specializing in high value crops.
- Constant dredging of rivers, canals and aqueducts.
- Using of green houses to protect plants from frost/harsh weather.
- Researching in new crop varieties and animal species which are more
resistant to pest and diseases.
- Extending of canals and aqueducts/transfer of water from well watered
hilly areas to those with low amounts of water/land reclamation.
- Applying of fertilizers/manure/organic farming.
- Constructing of water reservoirs.
- Searching for market of agricultural products.
- Spraying of crops with pesticides.
- Applying of herbicides to control weeds.
Study Figure below: Map of California provided below and answer the
questions which follow;

(a) (i) Mountain ranges; A is Coastal ranges, (iv) Dam 1 is Shasta

Dam.
(ii) River B is River Sacramento. (v) Canal 2 is Friant Kern
Canal
(i) Valley C is Central Valley (vi) Towns; 3 is Fresno, 4 is San
Francisco
(b) Factors which have favoured cotton growing in California;
- Arid areas of the Central Valley, San Joaquin with low incidence of pest
and diseases.
- Existence of large expanse of land for growing cotton.

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 - Low lying and gently sloping which allows the use of machines and canal
for irrigation.
- Presence of numerous rivers which constantly supply water for irrigation.
- High levels of technology e.g. cloud seeding to bring about artificial rain,
purification of underground water, scientific crop husbandry practices,
soil water regulation and monitoring.
- Well developed transport/communication systems by rails, water and
road.
- Availability of a ready market for cotton at Fresno.
- Favourable government policy to extend cotton growing that is the State
Federal Bureau of reclamation.
- Large capital to invest on the farms.
- Sunny conditions which allow ripening of cotton and harvesting.
- Improved intensive research which leads to improved cotton production.
(c) Contributions of cotton growing to the development of California.
- Employment to the population leading to generation of income e.g. to
drivers.
- Reclamation of formerly arid landscape to increase arable farming.
- Flood control through the use of river water for irrigation on the cotton
plantations.
- Source of revenue for infrastructural development.
- Source of raw materials for industrial sector like textiles, animal feeds, Oil.
- Development of infrastructure like roads, railways, canals.
- Growth of towns/urbanization with the related advantages like
infrastructure.
- Provides large market for the agro based industries like fertilizers,
insecticides and pesticides.
- Generation of income leading to improved standard of living.
- Diversification of agriculture to have a variety of products.
- International trade leading to international relations.
- Source of foreign exchange from exports to develop infrastructure.
(d) (i)Other crops grown in California apart from cotton;
- Rice, Barley, Wheat, Maize, Rye, Sorghum
- Oranges, Apples, peaches, Vines, Dates, Lemons.
- Lettuce, Alfa -Alfa, Sugar beets,
- Beans, Tomatoes, Carrots, Cucumber, Onions.
(ii)Other states in the New cotton belts of North America;
- Arizona, - New Mexico,
- Oklahoma, - Texas
- California - Arkansas,

(a) A sketch map of California showing the Central Valley, Sierra

Nevada highlands, Rivers, Delta Mendota Canal, Los Angeles city,
Shasta dam and California Aqueduct.

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(b) Conditions which have favoured irrigation farming in California;
- The area is semi-arid/receives low and unreliable rainfall necessitating
irrigation.
- Excessively hot temperatures which cause high evaporation rates.
- Low soil water balance due to hot temperatures.
- Presence of permanent rivers which provide water for irrigation e.g. river
Sacramento, River San Joaquin.
- High levels/advanced/improved technology to construct dams canals,
aqueducts, others.
- Warm sunny conditions for the ripening of crops.
- Gently sloping land which allows water flow by gravity.
- Availability of relatively flat land/gentle slopes favour easy mechanization.
- Low incidence of pests and diseases due to hot temperatures.
- Availability of extensive/vast/large land for establishment of irrigation
farms.
- Presence of fertile alluvial soils deposited by rivers favours crop growing.
- Availability of large/adequate/abundant capital to invest in irrigation
farming.
- Improved research leading to a variety of crops grown like fruits,
vegetables, legumes, others.
- Skilled and semi-skilled cheap labour to do work in commercialized
irrigation farms.
- Availability of large/wide market for the crops grown both at home and
abroad.
- Supportive government policy which encourages irrigation farming.
- Improved/well developed/efficient transport network based on rails,
water, and air to transport agricultural products.

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 - Formation of strong co-operative societies to overcome high cost of
irrigation farming.
(c) Contributions of the agricultural sector to the development of California;
- Source of food like vegetables, fruits, legumes for both human and animal
consumption.
- Provides employment opportunities to population which improves their
standard of living.
- Provides raw materials to the agro-based industries.
- Yield local income for the people leading to improved standards of living.
- Earns government foreign exchange through exports thus supporting
infrastructural development.
- Diversification of the economy as therefore providing alternative source of
foreign exchange.
- Growth of towns/urbanization e.g. Los Angeles, Fresno, Bakersfield and
the associated advantages like jobs, easy communication, others.
- Provides revenue to the government thought taxes for economic
development.
- Has led to industrial development which provides employment
opportunities to people.
- Promoted international relations thorough trade with other countries like
Britain, China, and Japan.
- Has led to river basin management hence efficient and sustainable water
management.
- Has led to development of infrastructure such as roads, railways, canals,
dams, aqueducts, towns, others.
(d) Measures being taken to improve the agricultural sector in California;
- Cloud seeding to increase the supplement on the amount of precipitation.
- Recycling of water/waste treatment.
- Construction of water reservoirs to supplement water for irrigation.
- Reclaiming of dry lands for crop growing/production.
- Extension of canals and aqueducts to transfer water to the farms.
- Spraying of crops with insecticides and pesticides to control pests and
diseases.
- Practicing mixed farming to encourage inter-dependence between crops
and livestock.
- Use of machines for extensive farming.
- Specialization of farming activities.
- Use of fertilizers/manure/organic matter.
- Constant dredging of canals to allow efficient flow of water for irrigation.
- Market research/international co-operation to widen market.
- Improved research into better yielding, fast maturing and disease resistant
crop varieties.
- Importation of labour/Hiring during harvesting season.
- Formation of strong co-operative to give loans to farms.
Problems arising from irrigation farming on the physical environment;

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 - Use of the chemicals and pesticides contaminates the crops.
- Encroachment on marginal lands like wetlands near urban centres.
- Encourages easy spread of water borne diseases like Bilharzia.
- Silting of river Sacramento and San Joaquin limits navigation.
- Growth of weeds affects growth of crops.
- Over use of fertilizers and chemicals has led to land degradation.
- Over use of irrigation has led to salination and reduced land
productivity.
- Has led to land fragmentation that reduces its productivity.
TOURISM IN CALIFORNIA
Study figure below provided and answer the questions that follow;

(a)(i) Water body A is R. Colorado, B is Pacific Ocean.

(ii) Dam C is Friant Dam (iii) Canal D is Delta Mendota Canal.
(iv) Mountain ranges; 1 is coastal ranges, 2 is Sierra
Nevada ranges
(v) Tourist Centres; 3 is San Diego, 4 is Los Angeles
(b) Factors for the development of tourism in California;
- Presence of a beautiful scenery like Mountains; Sierra Nevada, coastal
ranges, snow capped Mtns, cascading waterfalls, clear blue lakes, coastal
beaches, many desert landscape which attract tourists.
- Favorable Mediterranean climate with sunny summers facilitate activities
like filming, sun bathing and warm wet winters conducive for tourists
- Variety/Diversity of flora and fauna that is coniferous forests, plants,
animals like desert foxes and birds attract people from different parts of
the World.

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 - Presence of many summer sports like swimming, winter sports like ice
skating and skiing which attract tourist.
- Well organized tour packages which ease movement of tourists in
California.
- Highly developed transport like roads, airports, cable cars, electrified
railways which enable tourists to reach all tourist destinations.
- Modern accommodation facilities like hotels, Inns, lodges which offer
tourists a comfortable stay.
- Wide spread advertisement in Print and electronic media that exposes
California’s tourist potentials.
- Supportive/favorable government policy of organizing indoor and outdoor
tourist activities as well as financing the tourist sector.
- Availability of large sums of capital to invest in the tourism related
activities.
- Presence of highly hospitable people in California who welcome the
tourists.
- Use of many/diversity of international languages like Latin, French,
English which makes communication easy for the tourists.
- High level of advertisement through internet, Brochures, Televisions,
magazines widen the market.
- Abundant skilled labour to work in tourist related activities.
- Stable HEP that supports the electrification of the transport sector.
- Political stability that creates favorable environment for tourists.
- Advanced technology leading to modernization of the tourism industry like
space technology.
(c) Importance/Benefits of tourism industry to the people of California;
- Source of foreign exchange/revenue to the government used to develop
other sectors of the economy.
- Source of income to people (tourist guides, transporters and managers)
which has improved their standard of living.
- Has created employment opportunities to tourist guides leading to better
standard of living.
- Has led to protection of the environment that is flora and fauna for future
generation.
- Has led to development of infrastructure like roads, railways, hospitals,
museums, entertainment and recreational centres.
- Has led to diversification of the economy from agriculture to remove
dependence on one sector.
- Has led to urbanization/growth of towns thus bringing social services,
trade and commerce closer to people.
- Has promoted international relationship leading to more trade
opportunities.
- Advertisement of local industries to the outside world leading to expansion
of the foreign market.

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 - Has led to productive use of idle land which would have been unproductive
for other sectors
(d) Measures to promote the tourist industry/Steps being taken to
improve tourism in California;
- Control pollution of air/water/land in areas rich of tourism through anti-
pollution legislations.
- Diversifying languages to meet a variety of tourists.
- Maintenance of security for life and property.
- Intensify on local and international advertisement of the tourist industry.
- Increasing accessibility to remote areas by cable cars, tunneling, and
modification of highways.
- Joint venture with neighboring countries like Canada to develop tourist
sites like the Rockies where there are trans-boundary tourist attractions.
- Promotion of foreign relationship with other countries to widen market.
- Training of more skilled labour force to improve on tourism industry.
- Conservation of natural heritage/tourist assets like historical sites.
- Diversifying tourist attractions to attracting more tourists.
NB: Maintain the word should in each case.

REGION II
RHINELANDS REGION (EUROPE)
SWIZERLAND
RELIEF
Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow;
“Switzerland as in other highland areas of North West Europe, the landscape
has been created by ice. Glaciers formed in Mountains and flowed down hill,
enlarging and widening valleys and leaving jagged Scenery. When the ice
melted, Lakes were left on the valley floors”
Source: Waugh, D. The World pg 118.
Three glacial features mentioned in the passage; (Glacial erosion
features)
- Glacial erosion takes through the processes of; Plucking, Abrasion and
frost shuttering/Basal sapping/Rotational slip.
- Plucking means the removal of rock fragments along the landscape or
valley as the glacier moves down wards.
- Abrasion is the grinding process in which rock particles like pebbles or
boulders in the glacier are used as the grinding tool along the glacial
valley.
- Frost shuttering is the expansion and break up of rocks due to extreme
pressure created by freezing water/ice within the joints. The features
formed through these processes include the following;
- Cirques/ corries; These are steep sided rock
basins/hollows/depressions with a semi-circular shape on a mountain.
They formed when a pre-glacial hollow was enlarged by alternating

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 freezing and thawing of rocks. Abrasion deepened the hollow. When ice
melted a tarn lake was formed.
- Arête; This is a narrow steep sided ridge between corries /cirques. It
formed when two corries widened to form a narrow ridge separating the
two corries.
- Pyramidal peak; It’s a peak of sharp edges radiating from either sides. It
is a peak not yet worn out by erosion, formed at the junction of three or
more arêtes
Illustration of Glacial erosion features found in the Swiss Alps of
Switzerland;

(b) (i) The region is called the Swiss Alps

LAND USE TYPES/; Economic activities taking place in each of the region
of Switzerland;
Central plateau/Swiss plateau;
- Agriculture/arable farming,
- Settlement/Urbanization
- industrial development
- Tourism, Transport
The Jura;
- Pastoralism; Sheep and goats rearing.
- Cottage industries. Forestry, mining,
- Transport.
The Alps;
- Tourism,
- Dairy farming/ Pastoralism.
- Forestry, HEP generation.
- Transport.
(b) The influence of relief on land use in Switzerland;
- The high relief region of the Swiss Alps offers beautiful sceneries (snow
capped mountains, Arêtes) for tourist attractions.

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- Mountainous areas are ideal for skiing and skating (winter sports),
Mountaineering.
- The rugged high relief areas of the Alps limit areas for agriculture,
settlement and transport.
- The Alps have narrow gorges and hanging valleys which are ideal sites
for hydro electric power stations.
- The gentle relief of the Swiss plateau is suitable for arable farming,
industrial development and settlement.
- The plateau area/region has basins which contain lakes that attract
tourists for a variety of tourist activities.
- The Jura has simpler ranges of mountains which are rather flattened
and support animal rearing and growing of pastures.
Problems facing land use on the Swiss plateau;
- Land shortage resulting from competition from other forms of land use
which makes the cost of land expensive.
- Long winter season (three months of freezing) limits agricultural activities
as well as movement of people and goods.
- Over utilization of soils leading to soil exhaustion and heavy dependence
on fertilizers.
- High cost of production in the agricultural sector due to use of scientific
methods of production.
- Pollution of land, air and water resulting from improper disposal of
industrial wastes.
- Seasonal flooding destroys crops and property.
- Occurrence of pests and diseases that affects production activities and
quantity of output.
- Limited labour supply due to low population discourages production.
- Short growing period due to long maturing crops.
Measures/Steps taken to address the problems identified above;
- Proper planning for equitable allocation of land to the various industries.
- Planting of fast maturing crop varieties to avoid winter period problems.
- Using of recommended fertilizers to boost the soil fertility of the
exhausted soils.
- Specialization and commercialization of agricultural activities to reduce
the effects of high production costs.
- Implementing anti-pollution laws to reduce pollution levels.
- Constructing of dams/embankments and dredging of river beds to
overcome seasonal floods and siltation of river beds.
- Using of recommended chemicals to check on the effects of pests and
diseases.
- Making use of immigrant labour to overcome the problem of labour
shortage.
- Mechanizing of farming activities to overcome the problem of limited
labour force.

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 - Using of green house technology in winter to allow crop production in
winter.
Problems facing land use in the Swiss Alps/Alpine region of
Switzerland;
- The rugged terrain limits land for settlement and agriculture.
- Thin infertile soils on steep slopes limit arable farming.
- Avalanches cause destruction of property, transport, settlement and lives.
- Remoteness of some Alpine areas limits settlement and industries.
- High costs of construction of transport and communication due to rugged
relief.
- The North facing slopes are humid and too cold limiting settlement and
agriculture.
- Long cold winters restrict human activities like farming and
industrialization.
Steps being taken to solve the problems above;
- Establishing of HEP stations to provide electricity for transport and
communication.
- Developing of cable cars and electrified railways to improve on transport
in mountainous areas.
- Establishing of early warning systems against avalanches and accident.
- Reservation/utilization of North slopes for forestry activities.
- Development of infrastructure for winter sports and summer centres.
- Carrying out transhumance/movement of animals to Alpine pastures in
summers and down the valleys in cold winters to be stay fed (indoor).
- Internal heating of houses and cowsheds during winters.
- Using of green house technology to sustain crop growing throughout the
year.
- Diversification of landuse like tourism.
(a) A sketch map of Switzerland showing selected features;
Land use in each of the physical regions of Switzerland;
Jura;
- Dairy farming, - Arable farming, - Mining - Tourism
- Pasture production, - Industrialization, - Transport, - Settlement
- Urbanization
Swiss plateau/Central Plateau;
- Arable farming, - industrialization, - Urbanization, Transport
- Dairy farming, - Settlement, - Fishing, Tourism.
Swiss Alps;
- Tourism, - HEP production, - Forestry, - Settlement,
Mining,
- Industrialization, - Settlement, - Transport, - Dairy farming.
(b) Influence of physical factors on landuse in Switzerland;
Positive influence;
- The Alpine region has rugged terrain/steep slopes encouraging
transhumance.

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 - The flat are ideal/favourable for settlement.
- The mountains (Alps) have beautiful scenery promoting tourism.
- The steep slopes are ideal for winter sports like skiing and skating.
- Waterfalls are suitable sites for generation of HEP.
- Rugged relief/steep slopes encourage the use of cable cars to access the
remote areas.
- Areas of gentle slopes on the Swiss plateau are ideal/ suitable for arable
faming, manufacturing industry, settlement, Urbanization/towns.
- The beautiful clear blue lakes promote tourism activities like sun bathing,
photography, summer sports.
- Low relief of the Jura favours industrialization like watch making,
Craftand Cottage industries.
- The existence of Alpine forests on the mountain slopes leads to
development of forestry industry.
- Infertile soils promote growth of rough pasture for dairy cattle, sheep and
goats.
- Thin skeletal soils of the Alps favour the growth of pasture on the upper
slopes for dairy farming.
- Fertile soils in the valleys favour growth of fodder crops for dairy farming.
- The morrainic sandstones of the Swiss plateau are suitable for arable
farming.
- Rivers and lakes on the Swiss plateau are used for water transport.
- Cold climate of the Alpine region leads to accumulation of snow favouring
tourism like winter sports (skiing and skating).
- Modified temperate/continental climate of the Swiss plateau promote
arable farming and tourism.
- The moist summers of the Jura promotes pasture growth for dairy cattle,
sheep and goats.
- Existence of minerals like salt in Jura at Basel and Rhone Valley has
encouraged mining activities.
Negative influence;
- The steep slopes on the Alps discourage settlement, transport and arable
farming.
- Thin infertile soils of the Alps discourage arable farming.
- Infertile limestone soils on the Jura discourage arable farming.
- Steep slopes in the Alps experience avalanches which are destructive to
farming
Study figure below: Map of Switzerland provided below and answer the
questions that follow;

Page 71 of 238
(a)(i) Physical regions;
A is Swiss plateau/Central plateau,
B is The Jura, C is The Swiss Alps (ii) River 1 is R. Aare,
(iii) Lakes marked; 2 is L. Geneva, 3 is L. Constance,
TOURISM INDUSTRY IN SWITZERLAND
A sketch map of Switzerland showing major tourist resorts for Summer
and winter

Tourist attractions found in both Rhinelands and East Africa;

- Snow capped mountains( mountain Rwenzori and Swiss Alps)
- Wild life inform of Zebras, Lions elephants
- Drainage features e.g. waterfalls, lakes
- Historical sites like Nyero rock paintings, Olduvai Gorge, Kasubi tombs.
- Industries like food processing and tertiary industries.
Identify four tourist attractions found in Switzerland.
- Beautiful scenery based on snow capped mountains, pyramidal peaks and
hanging valleys.
- Historical sites.
- The Swiss Alps.
- Lakes in the Swiss plateau and Jura attracts sun bathing and swimming.

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- Hot air ballooning in summer.
- Variety of industries.
Identify three tourist attractions in Uganda which are not in
Switzerland.
- Block mountains. - Lava dammed lakes
- Wild life. - Diversity of culture.
- Hot Spring. - Volcanic features.
Swiss tourist attraction in summer;
- Clear blue lakes and rivers, - Sun bathing along the beaches.
- Swimming in lakes and rivers, - Hot air ballooning.
- Viewing beautiful scenery like pyramidal peaks, hanging valley,
- Mountaineering, - Boat racing/Sailing - Photography
Swiss tourist attraction in winter;
- Ice skiing and ice skating, - Snow capped mountains for viewing.
- Glaciated landscape for viewing. - Ice fishing.
Tourist centres/Resorts in Switzerland during winter;
- Neuchâtel- Basel, Kandersteg.
- Davo-platz – St. Moritz
Tourist centres/Resorts in Switzerland during summer; (those in Swiss
plateau)
- Geneva, - Zurich - Bern, - Lucerne, -Interlaken,
Factors/conditions which have led to development of tourists industry
in Switzerland;
Physical factors
- Central location of Switzerland in the heart of Europe and thus easy to
access by tourists who come from the European countries like France,
Germany and Italy
- Magnificent scenery of snow capped mountains/Beautiful tourist
attractions like pyramidal peaks, clear blue lakes, hanging valley,
waterfalls.
- Existence of numerous tourist attractions during both winter and
summer e.g. winter sports, beautiful scenery, sunbathing, swimming,
flora and fauna.
- Existence of various climatic seasons enables Switzerland to diversify the
tourism sector.
- Warm sunny summers for sunbathing, clear blue skies attract tourists,
winter sports like mountaineering/skiing on the snow-capped mountains
are a tourist attraction.
Human factors
- Well developed transport network e.g. electrified railways, cable cars,
roads, and water transport for tourists to access the tourist sites
- Industries also act as tourist attractions.
- Huge power that has enabled the electrification of the railway systems
that connect to tourist resorts like St.Moritz favouring tourism.

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- Well developed and comfortable hotels, lodges, holiday apartments and
camping sites that keep pace with tourism demands.
- Well trained personnel in managing the tourism industry./ Abundant
skilled labour to work that is tourist guides, hotel managers.
- Strong advertisement through various ways like international televisions,
brochures, news papers have greatly marketed Swiss tourism.
- The political stability and neutrality of the Switzerland has greatly led to
its development. There are no ravages of wars which attracts many
visitors annually.
- Supportive government policy of neutrality has attracted tourists from
various countries.
- Hospitality of the Swiss people who welcome people from different parts of
the world.
- Modern systems/technology e.g. electronic baking, money transfer, on
line booking for easy access of all services.
- Well developed accommodation facilities e.g. hotels, chalets inns, etc.
- The Country is a home of many international organizations like Red
Cross, World Health Organization. This makes the Country horst so many
people.
- Diversity of international languages like English, French, and Germany
eases communication which favours tourism.
- Development of social travel agencies which organize tour and travel
packages on a very large scale.
- Large sums of capital to invest in the tourist industry.
Factors which have favoured tourism in the Swiss plateau;
- Existence of winter and summer tourist attractions like summer (fishing,
swimming, sunbathing, clear blue lakes), winter (Skating, skiing snow
capped Mtns).
- The Swiss plateau has a relatively flat area allowing establishment of
tourist resorts.
- Moderate climatic conditions with relatively less severe winters than in
the Alpine region and relatively warmer in summer allow sunbathing and
other summer sports.
- Presence of numerous lakes ideal for fishing, swimming and rafting.
- Swiss plateau has efficient transport by roads, railways and water ways.
- Relatively flat/gentle relief thus easily accessible.
- There is ample space/vast land for establishment of tourist centres.
- Adequate capital to invest in tourism activities.
- Existence of modern accommodation facilities like hotels attract many
tourists.
- Diversity of languages for easy communitarian.
- Presence of skilled labour in hotels as tourist guides and managers.
- Relative political stability of Switzerland which encourages tourists.
- Central location of Switzerland which offers it easy access from the rich
European countries.

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 - High degree of advertisement through electronic, print media, internet,
Magazines and brochures.
- Hospitality of the Swiss who welcome people from different parts of the
world.
- Neutrality of the Swiss government has put them in a friendly relation
with other countries.
- Possession of the Headquarters of many international organizations like
Red Cross at Geneva.
Factors/Reasons why the tourism industry in East Africa is less
developed than that of Switzerland;
- Limited skilled man power work in the tourist industry of East Africa.
- Many poachers who have continuously killed animals yet they are the major
tourist attraction of East Africa.
- Political instabilities/terrorism in some parts of East Africa scares aware
tourists from coming to East Africa.
- Underdeveloped accommodation and tourist resorts that don’t match with
international standards.
- Some unfriendly and hostile tribes in East like Karamajongs, Turkana, and
Masai, scare away tourists from coming to East Africa.
- Presence of many dangerous diseases like Malaria, AIDS scare away
tourists from coming to East Africa.
- Under developed transport facilities hinder accessibility to tourist
attractions of East Africa.
- Far location of East Africa from the sources of tourists that is Europe and
America.
- Low level of advertisement which makes potential tourist unaware of what
East Africa can offer in terms of tourism.
Benefits of tourism industry to Switzerland;
- Has earned Switzerland foreign exchange from tourists who pay for the
lodging (hotels) and tour charges.
- Provides employment opportunities to many tourists in Switzerland
employed in hotels, camp sites, tourists attractions, and transport sector.
- Has facilitated the development of infrastructure like roads, communication
networks, and hotels.
- Has promoted the conservation of fauna and flora.
- Provides market for other products like agriculture, industrial and hence
increased incomes.
- Promotes international relations/ cooperation with other countries where
Tourists come.
- Generates revenue through taxation leading to development of other sectors.
- Has led to urbanization/growth of Towns and related benefits like
accommodation at Zurich, Neuchâtel, St.Moritz, and Geneva.
- Has led to productive use of would be wasteland for example the glaciated
Alps in Switzerland and utilization of the winter season.

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- Has stimulated the growth of light industries like watch making and
electronic equipment consumed by the tourists.
- Has led to development of well trained labour in the hotel industry.
- The tourism industry has brought Switzerland to the international fame.
- Has led to economic diversification therefore reducing overreliance on arable
farming.
- Development of infrastructure like cable cars and electrified railways
Challenges/problems facing the tourism industry in Switzerland;
- Accidents especially during winter sports like
skiing/skating/mountaineering leading to death of tourists.
- Avalanches/Moving ice which destroys life and property.
- Stiff Competition with other European countries as tourist destination.
- Global economic recession/decline leading to increased costs of travel and
accommodation thus fewer tourists received.
- Rugged terrain in the Alpine region limits movement to some areas.
- Severe cold winters at times discourage tourist especially in the Swiss Alps.
- Pollution and acidic rains in areas with industrial development.
- Competing land uses especially Jura tourism against Agriculture and
industry.
- Shortage of skilled labour due to a small population in Switzerland.
Benefits of the tourist industry to both the Rhinelands and East Africa;
- Tourism industry earns the Countries foreign exchange. Tourist pay for
lodges (hotels) and tour charges.
- The industry provides employment opportunities to hundreds of thousands
of people in the countries. They are employed in hotels, camp sites tourist
attractions and transportation. They get income from this.
- Tourism has led to growth of towns like Zurich, Lucerne, St. Moritz and
Geneva. Mombasa, Kampala, Dar-es-salaam in East Africa.
- The Sector has stimulated development of infrastructure like roads,
communication networks, Schools and hotels.
- Has led to economic use of regions which would not be viable for any other
economic activity e.g. the mountainous Swiss Alps and utilization of winter
season, Agriculture resources in East Africa.
- Has led to development of well trained labour force in the hotel industry.
- The industry has brought Rhinelands and East Africa to international fame.
- Tourism has stimulated growth of light manufacturing industries producing
items like watches and electronics equipment consumed by tourist, art and
craft industry in East Africa.
- Has facilitated industry development of art and craft industry which produce
drums, baskets, stools brought by tourist.
- Has promoted economic diversification thus ensuring a steady in-flow of
foreign exchange.
- Has promoted international understanding between Rhinelands, East Africa
and the origin of tourist e.g. USA and Britain.

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 What steps has Ugandan government taken to improve the tourist
industry?
- The tourist attractions have been advertised intensively on radios, TVs, News
Papers.
- The government has put up strict laws against poaching.
- New national parks have been gazzetted like Mt. Elgon.
- Many roads have been constructed to improve accessibility.
- Many lodges and hotels have been constructed.
- Political instability in some parts of Uganda has been suppressed.

Study Table 16 below showing Switzerland’s overnight tourist stays in

selected Communes in 2009and answer the questions that follow;
Table 49: Switzerland’s overnight Tourist stays in selected communes (2009)
Region Commune Overnight Stays (‘000s’)

Geneva 1,891
Plateau Bern 682
Zurich 2,469

Jura Basel 1,016

Lugarno 565
Alps St. Moritz 791

Adapted; The Swiss Tourism statistics, FSO (2010), p26.

(a) Draw a bar graph to represent overnight tourist stays in Switzerland by
communes in 2009.
(b) Calculate the total number of tourist stays in the Swiss;
(i) Alps, (ii) Plateau.

(a) A bar graph showing overnight tourist stays in Switzerland by communes

in 2009.
(Use your graph book)
(b) Total number of overnight tourist stays;
(i) Alps= 565,000+791,000 = 1,356,000 tourists.
(ii) Plataea = 1,891,000+682,000+2,469,000
= 5,042,000 tourists.
Study Table50: showing overnight tourist stays in selected communes in
Switzerland and answer the questions that follow;

Region Commune Overnight stays (‘000s)

Alps Lugarno 600

St.Moritz 800

Jura Basel 1,000

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 Plateau Zurich 2,500
Lucerne 980
Geneva 1,900

Total 7,780

Adapted from: Swiss Tourism Statistic, FSO (2010) p26.

(a) Draw a pie chart to show Switzerland’s over night tourism stays by
communes.
Converting values to degrees;
Lugarno = 600,000 × 3600 = 27.76 ≈ 280
7,780,000
St.Moritz = 800,000 × 3600 = 37.02 ≈370
7,780,000
Basel = 1,000,000 × 3600 = 46.27 ≈460
7,780,000
Lucerne =980,000 × 3600 = 45.34 ≈ 450
7,780,000
Geneva = 1,900,000 × 3600 87.71 ≈880
7,780,000
A pie-chart showing Switzerland’s overnight tourist stays by communes.
(Use your graph book)
(b) Percentage of overnight tourist stays for each region in Switzerland;
Alps = 1400,000 × 100 = 17.99 ≈ 18%
7,780,000
Jura = 1,000,000 × 100 = 12.85 ≈ 12.9%
7,780,000
Plateau = 5380,000 × 100 = 69.15 ≈ 69.2%
7,780,000
AGRICULTURE IN SWITZERLAND
ARABLE FARMING
(a) Draw a sketch map of Switzerland and on it mark and name;
(i) Lakes; Geneva and Luzern,
(ii) River; Rhine and Ticino,(iii) Relief regions; Jura, Alps and
Switzerland,
(b) (i) Crops grown on the Swiss plateau;
- Wheat, Maize, Barley,
- Fruits like Vines/grapes, peers, cherries.
(ii) Conditions which have favoured arable farming in the Swiss plateau;
Physical conditions;
- Lower altitude which provides warmer temperatures that allows growth of
crops.
- Generally flat landscape allows the use of machines/mechanization
- Fertile moraine soils which support a variety of crops.
- Warm sunny summers, favour ripening and harvesting of crops.

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- Limited economic activities due absence of minerals.
Human conditions;
- Intensive research into high yielding crops.
- Availability for ready market for agricultural products due to a large
population that is 2/3 of Switzerland in urban centers like Bern, Geneva
and Zurich.
- Availability of large capital to invest in arable farming.
- Supportive government policy of emphasizing arable farming.
- Skilled and semi skilled labour provided by the local people to attend to
crops.
- High/modern technology like use of glass house/use of various machines.
- Efficient transport like the use of electrified trains facilitates distribution of
products to market centers.
(c) Problems/challenges facing arable farming in Switzerland;
- Competition for land between various and use types like urbanization
verses agriculture,
- Limited /small domestic market for vegetables and fruits discourages
framers.
- Pollution of land, air and water due to industrial deposits and effluents,
use of agro-chemicals limits soils productivity.
- Very cold temperatures on the North facing slopes limit crops farming.
- Some areas have infertile sandstones which lead to low yields.
- Shortage of labour due to the small population of Switzerland.
- Winter conditions push production costs higher due to construction of
green houses.
- Soil exhaustion due to intensive use of land leads to low output.
- Landlockedness makes the agricultural produce more expensive due to
high transport costs.
- Pests and diseases lead to low output.
- Rugged terrain limits arable farming.
- Soil erosion due steep landscape leads to low output.
(d) Steps being taken to improve agricultural sector in Switzerland.
- Carrying out large scale production to minimize production costs.
- Using fertilizers to improve on soil fertility.
- Using pesticides/spraying to control pests and diseases.
- Carrying out crop diversification to reduce of over reliance on one crop.
- Adopting scientific methods of crop management to improve on
productivity/research.
- Using of modern technology like green houses/glass houses to regulate the
cold conditions.
- Importing of labour/Using of students on holidays to reduce labour
shortage.
- Carrying out regional cooperation like European Union.
- Terracing/contour ploughing to control soil erosion.
LIVESTOCK FARMING IN SWITZERLAND:
Page 79 of 238
 (a) Draw a sketch map of Switzerland and on it mark and name;
(i) Rivers; Rhone and Aare,
(ii) Lakes; Constance and Neuchâtel, (iii) Relief regions; Swiss Alps,
Plateau and Jura,
(a) A sketch map of Switzerland showing selected features;
(b) (i) Livestock products obtained from the Alpine region;
- Beef, Cheese, Milk, Butter, Cream.
Condition favouring the development of livestock industry in
Switzerland;
(ii)Check on the Conditions which have led to the development of
dairy farming in Switzerland;
Study Table 51 below showing agricultural land use in Switzerland and
answer the questions that follow;
Table 51: Agricultural Landuse in Switzerland
Landuse Percentage

Arable (Vineyards and Orchards 09

Food crops 26
Pasture 35
Forest 30

Total 100

Adapted: Hughes, D. and Randle, T. The Rhine Basin: A study of Development;

Longman p.38.
(a) Draw a pie chart to show the relative importance of the different Landuse
types.
Conversion of percentage to degrees;
09 26
Arable = X 3600 = 32.40≈320 Food crops = X 3600 =
100 100
93.60≈940
35 30
Pasture = 100
X 3600 = 1260 Forest = 100
X 3600 = 1080
A pie Chart showing the relative importance of landuse types in Switzerland;
(Use your graph book)
NB: Should have degrees and percentage values.
(a) (i) Most important is pasture with 35%
(ii) Least important t is arable with 09%

(b) Conditions which have led to the development of dairy farming in

Switzerland;
Physical factors;
- Warm summers allow the growth of pastures thus favouring outdoor
grazing.
- Relatively flat land in the Swiss plateau which allows easy movement of
animals.
- A wide variety of animal breeds that are high yielding,

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- Large quantities of water for drinking by the cattle.
- Moderate rainfall allows proper growth of pasture.
- Cold winters permit indoor grazing.
- Abundant pasture and animal fodder crops on which cattle feeds.
Human factors;
- Well established cooperatives which provide subsidies and also market
animal products.
- The well developed milk processing plants to preserve milk and milk
products.
- Availability of a large market for milk and milk products both internally
and externally (Germany, USA and Canada).
- Availability of large sums of capital to invest in the dairy industry.
- Well development transport system for the delivery of milk and milk
products to markets.
- Supportive government policy that aimed at self sufficiency in dairy
products.
- Political stability of Switzerland has attracted long term investment in the
dairy sector.
- Advanced technology e.g. automated milking machines.
- Skilled labour to work in dairy farms.
(c) Contributions of dairy farming to the development of Switzerland.
- A source of food that is animal proteins from milk and milk products.
- Provision of employment opportunities in animals rearing and related
industries.
- A source of raw materials for agro based / food processing industries.
- Provides market for industrial and arable farm products.
- Development of infrastructure that is roads and railways.
- Growth of urban centres with related advantages like social services.
- Provision of government revenue through taxation leading to development
of infrastructure.
- Provision of foreign exchange through export of dairy products.
- Generation of income to the people leading to improved standard of living.
- Diversification of the economy thus reducing overdependence.
- International relations as a result of trade links/exportation of dairy
products.
- Industrial development that is agro – based.
- Animal wastes are used as manure in the arable farms to increase crop
yields.
- Utilization of the would be wasteland for transhumance.
- Source of bio-gas for domestic use.
Problems faced by the livestock farmers in Switzerland.
- Labour shortage due to shift of labour of labour to better paying jobs.
- Competition for market from other European Countries that practice
livestock farming like Netherlands.
- Steep slopes hinder the development of transport routes.

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 - Climatic problems like frost and fog hinders proper growth of cattle.
- Scarcity of pasture/fodder crops during winter limits productivity.
Measures being taken to improve livestock farming in Switzerland.
- Growing of fodder crops like maize, and alfalfa to supplement natural
pastures.
- Training of livestock farmers through seminars and demonstration ranches
to solve the problem of limited skilled labour.
- Modernizing of transport systems to facilitate distribution of livestock
products.
- Using of pesticides and chemicals to treat livestock and control pests and
diseases.
- Establishing of creameries and milk processors to make use of surplus
milk.
- Exporting of tinned milk, butter and Cheese to widen market.
- Using of specialized machines like milking machines to reduce labour
shortage.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
(a) Draw a sketch map of Switzerland and on it mark and name;
(i) Rivers; Rhine, Rhone,
(ii) Lake Geneva, (iii) Manufacturing industrial centres; Zurich, Basel and
Berne,
(a) A sketch map of Switzerland showing manufacturing centres and other
features:

(b)(i) Types of industries found in each industrial town;

- Zurich: Textiles, Engineering, Food processing, Metallurgical Chemical
industries, optical instruments,
- Basel; Pharmaceutical/chemicals, Metallurgical, Food processing,
Engineering.
- Bern; Food processing, Chemicals, Textiles, Engineering
- Neuchâtel: Watch making, type writer manufacture, Chocolates making,
Cigarettes making.
- Lugarno: Textiles, Food processing, precision industry, Watches,
Calculator, tourism.

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 - Interlaken: Food processing, Textiles and tourism
PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM SWISS;
- Engineering industries;
i. Engine, iii. Transformers
ii. Turbines iv. Type writers, v. Generators
- Chemical industry;
i. Insecticides, iii. Fertilizers
ii. Herbicides iv. Acids
(ii) Factors/Conditions which have favoured the development of
manufacturing industries in Switzerland;
- Abundant and cheap HEP which used to run the industrial machines.
- Availability of vast land especially on the Swiss plateau for establishment
of industries.
- Cheap transport along the Rhine River, its tributaries, canals, and railway
system helps to bring in raw materials and take out fined goods.
- Highly skilled labour that is employed to work in the precision and heavy
engineering industries.
- The strategic location of Switzerland in the heart of Europe enables her to
have access to both external market and large internal markets that exists.
- Specialization and quality control of products.
- Presence of the Swiss plateau that is relatively flat for the establishment
of the manufacturing industries.
- Proximity to productive agricultural region which supplies agricultural raw
materials for the agro based industries like Textiles, Food processing,
others.
- Availability of large capital for investment in the manufacturing sector.
- Presence of political stability has attracted long term investment in the
industrial sector.
- The Swiss policy of neutrality where Switzerland has been neutral
attracting foreigners to come and invest a lot of money in the Country.
- Advanced technology for the production high quality goods.
- The reliable Rhine water way helps in cheap transportation of raw
materials and finished goods.
- Presence of some minerals of great industrial importance.
- Existence of reliable water supply used for processing purposes, cooling
as well as an input in the industries.
- Intensive advertisement to expand the market for Swiss industrial goods.
- Positive government policy for development of industries.
Benefits of manufacturing industries to Switzerland;
- Development of towns like Interlaken, Basel.
- Development of infrastructure like railways, roads and housing.
- Increased incomes hence improved standard of living.
- Industrial exports earn Switzerland foreign exchange.
- Taxes imposed on industrialists earn revenue to the economy.

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 - Has led to diversification of the economy hence reducing over dependence
on agriculture.
- Has promoted international relations through industrial exports and
importation of raw materials.
- Provides employment opportunities to engineers from which they get
salary hence improved standard of living.
- Provides market for agricultural products like dairy, fruits for the agro
based industries.
(c) Problems/Challenges facing the manufacturing sector in Switzerland;
- Limited raw materials used in the manufacturing sector as much of heavy
industrial raw materials are imported.
- Landlockedness with no access to the Sea increases the cost of
transportation of both raw materials and finished goods.
- The relief is rugged and accessibility of some markets in the Swiss Alps is
costly with the use of electrified railway system.
- Competition from other producers of heavy engineering and machinery
products like Japan, Germany, others.
- There exists shortage of land for the expansion of industrial areas.
- Limited domestic market for the industrial goods discourages
production/Competition for market with other industrialized nations like
Germany.
- Small domestic market due to a small population.
- Congestion and delays at the ports during importation and exportation
leads to wastage.
- Winter freezing of River Rhine limits transportation of raw materials and
finished goods.
- High cost of labour that is most of the labour required is skilled but
expensive.
- The precision products are too expensive and complex to manufacture
limiting production.
(d) Steps/Measures being taken to solve the problems above;
- Tense matters so much.
- Producing of quality precision goods which conserve raw materials and
break the bulk.
- Producing of goods on order to reduce wastage arising from competition.
- Importing of raw materials to overcome the problem of scarcity of raw
materials.
- Using raw materials saving technology to reduce the costs.
- Maintaining political neutrality to minimize trade barriers.
- Promoting of regional cooperation such as European Union (EU) and
European Free Trade Area (EFTA).
- Promoting of the cottage industries to produce items for sale/assembling
at main centres during favourable weather conditions.
- Increasing specialization to produce massively and cheaply like watches
in Geneva, Ribbon and Silk industries at Basel.

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- Modernizing of transport by the use of electrified railway system, cable
cars to reduce losses.
- Researching for markets of goods to reduce wastage.
- Human resource training/man power development to reduce the problem
limited skilled labour.
- Diversifying of the economy into Tourism industry to reduce over
dependence on industrial sector.
- Institutionalizing/Setting up of banks to offer credit/loans for industrial
development.
- Using of migrant labour from Germany to work in Swiss industrial sector.
- Automating of the industries to reduce problems of limited skilled labour.
- Recycling of industrial materials to solve the problem of limited raw
materials and reduce pollution.
- Specializing so as to produce high quality goods.
- Organizing of trade fare/Advertisement.

Study the table below showing Switzerland’s foreign trade based on the main
categories of goods in percentages (2006) and answer the questions that
follow
Table 52
Industry Percentage imports Percentage exports

Agriculture 15.5 5.3

Energy 7.0 0.2
Textiles 11.1 9.0
Chemicals 9.7 21.1
Machinery 16.2 31.3
Watches 6.8 18.2
Others 33.7 14.9

Source; The Swiss Industrial Bureau; European Union Report, Annex 3, 2010.
(a) Draw pie chart to show the relative importance of Switzerland’s export
trade in 2006.
(b) Identify the;
(i) Leading export , Least import,

(c) Explain the factors that have favoured export trade in Switzerland.

(d) Outline the;

(i) Problems facing the Swiss industrial sector,
(ii)Steps being taken to overcome the problem of Landlockedness.

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 BELGIUM
MINING INDUSTRY
(a) Draw a sketch map of Belgium and on it mark and name;
(i) North Sea and Albert Canal,
(ii) Rivers; Meuse, Scheldt and Dendre,
(iii) Towns; Brussels, Verviers and Zelzate, (iv) Coal fields.
A sketch map of Belgium showing selected features;

(a) Factors that have favoured Coal mining in Belgium;

- Existence of large quantities of Coal encourages commercial mining.
- Location of coal near the earth earth’s surface reduces the costs of mineral
extraction.
- Huge HEP encourages the running of mining machines.
- Modern technology like the use of bucket conveyors for mining has made
mining easier.
- Large sums of capital to invest in buying mining machines.
- Supportive government policy to develop the mining sector though
providing mining contracts to mining companies and giving loans.
- Political stability since the end of World War II reduced tensions and
attracted long term invested in coal mining.
- Intensive research in mineral exploration has led to efficiency and
extraction.
- Adequate skilled labour to manage, extract, survey, and transport coal.
- Developed transport based on roads, railways and canals facilitate
distribution of Coal.
- Ready market for coal internally and externally allows commercial coal
extractions.
(b) Benefits of mining to Belgium;
- Provides a cheap energy source to run industrial machines.

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- Provides employment opportunities to miners and transporters hence
improving their standard of living.
- Has led to growth of towns like Liege which act as residential centres.
- Provides market to agricultural products like food.
- Has led economic diversification thus reducing over dependence on
manufacturing industry.
- Taxes imposed on mines earn government revenue.
- Export of coal to Netherlands earns Belgium Foreign exchange.
(c) Effects of mining on the physical environment in Belgium;
- Accelerated soil erosion and landslides.
- Increased spread of diseases due to stagnant water in depressions.
- Land degradation through creation of depressions and heaps.
- Air and water pollution by the dust particles emitted.
- Destruction of vegetation in the mining fields.
- Lowing of the water table that distorts surface drainage.
AGRICULTURE IN BELGIUM
ARABLE FARMING
A sketch map of Belgium showing selected rivers, Towns and land use
types

Study the table below showing cereal production in Belgium (‘000 tonnes) in
2013 and answer the questions that follow; Table
53
Cereal crop Production (‘000 tonnes)

Rice 37
Wheat 1,844
Rye 3
Barley 391
Maize 838
Others 43

Total 3,156

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 Adapted: Eurostat; Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Statistics
(Online data code Apro – cpp crop) p83
(a) Draw a pie chart to show the relative importance of each cereal crop in
Belgium.
Conversion into percentage then into degrees;
(‘000’)
37 1,844
Rice = X 100 = 1.17% Wheat = X 100 = 58.4%
3,156 3,156
1.17 58.4
= 100 X 3600 = 4.20 ≈ 40 100
X 3600 =210.20 ≈ 2100

3 391
Rye = 3,156 X 100 = 0.095% Barley =3,156 X 100 = 12.39%
0.095 12.39
= 100
X 3600 =0.340 ≈ 10 = 100
X 3600 =44.6 ≈ 44.60
838 43
Maize X 100 = 26.55% Others = X 100 = 1.36%
3,156 3,156
26.55 1.36
= 100 X 3600 = 95.60 ≈ 960 100
X 3600 = 4.90 ≈ 50
A pie chart should have showing relative importance of each cereal crop in
Belgium (Show degrees and percentages) (Use your graph book)
Already calculated
(b) Calculate the percentage contributed by;
(i) Wheat, (ii) Maize, in the total production in Belgium.
(c) Describe the factors which have favoured the growing of cereals in
Belgium/Factors which have favoured the development of
Agriculture/arable landuse type in Belgium;
Physical factors;
- The generally undulating relief makes it easy for mechanization
agriculture.
- Presence of fertile alluvial soils allows the growth of cereals, vegetables and
sugar beets.
- Extensive land for large scale production of cereals.
- Abundant water from rivers like R. Sambre, facilitate irrigation farming
and navigation.
- Moderate rainfall due to coastal location allows proper growth of crops.
- Presence of skilled labour assists in formation of Polders.
- Water summer temperatures facilitate ripening of crops.
Human factors
- Formation of strong cooperatives of farmers enable them acquire loans and
market jointly their products.
- Advanced technology like the use of green house gases in the growing of
tomatoes, lettuces, grapes, tractors and combine harvesters for cereals.
- Favourable government policy that support cereal growing by extending
subsidies and capital.
- Intensive research into disease resistant and high yielding cereal varieties.
- The ready market for fresh vegetables, flowers fruits. Such market is in
Brussels, Ghent.

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- Developed/efficient transport based on the R. Rhine offers cheap water
transport to the industrialized Europe
Importance/benefits of arable farming (Agriculture) to Belgium;
- Agriculture has helped to diversify the economy of Belgium thus reducing
overdependence on iron ore mining.
- Agriculture is a source of raw material for agro based industries in Belgium
thus promoting industrialization.
- Agricultural has promoted international relationship between Belgium and
countries that import her products.
- Earns revenue to the government of Belgium through taxes imposed on
agro based industries.
- Has stimulated infrastructural development like roads and railways that
connect farmlands to market centres.
- Provides employment opportunities to Belgium population thus improving
the standard of living.
- Agricultural exports to Netherlands earn Belgium foreign exchange.
- Source of food thus improving their diet.
Measures/steps being taken to improve the agricultural sector in
Belgium;
- Reclamation of more land from the sea to increase acreage under crops.
- Spraying with chemicals to control pests and diseases.
- Applying of fertilizers and manure to increase on land productivity.
- Selective breeding to increase productivity in dairy and beef production.
- Extending of subsidies to farmers to increase production.
- Specializing in production of high yielding animals and crops.
- Promoting of on-site processing factories to reduce post harvest losses.
- Using glass houses/green house technology to produce crops all the year
around.
- Constructing dams to solve sea incursions.
- Carrying out continuous research in universities and colleges to get better
varieties.
- Carrying out treatment/recycling of wastes to control pollution of water
bodies and land.
- Forming of trading blocs like European Union to widen the market for
agriculture.
- Removing of landmines after major wars to make land viable for farming.
- Using immigrant land to boost agricultural production.
- Using machines/mechanization to solve labour shortage.
Effects of farming activities on physical environment in Belgium;
- Has led to pollution of air water and soils due heavy use of fertilizers.
- Have led to deformation of the landscape in farming areas.
- Farming activities have led to increased deforestation hence soil erosion.
- Led to soil compaction hence a hard pan.
- Large scale livestock farms produce vast amounts of animal wastes.
- Fertilizers and pesticides have contaminated surface and ground water.

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- Monoculture has led to soil exhaustion.
Study the table below showing land use practices in Belgium and answer
the questions that follow; Table
54
Landuse Land area (‘000Ha)

Arable 939

Permanent pasture 732

Forest 601

Built up/Westland 779

Total 3,051

(a) Calculate the percentage of land area under;

(i) Arable, (iii) Forest,
(ii) Permanent pasture, (iv) Built up/ wasteland,

(b) Draw a pie chart/Divided circle to show the relative importance of

each land use type
(c) Identify the;(i) Most dominant, (ii) Least dominant, land use type in
Belgium.
(d) (i) Describe the factors which have favoured the development of
arable landuse type in Belgium.

(i) Outline the problems facing any one of the following types of
landuse in Belgium; - Arable, - Forest
Problems facing arable farming in Belgium;
- High cost of production due to use of glass houses and application of
fertilizers.
- The infertile soils in the Ardennes discourage crop farming.
- Flooding of water from rivers and the sea destroy crops.
- Pests destroy crops.
- Diseases lead to low output.
- Salination of the soils from the sea waters leads to low output.
- Shortage of labour especially during harvesting season leads to
wastage.
- Shortage of land limits expansion of farmlands.
Problems facing arable farming in Belgium;
- Bush fires destroy valuable timber.
- Less demand for the forest products leads to wastage.
- Competition for market from other forested nations like South Africa
and Canada.

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 - Under developed transport routes limits distribution of forest
products to market centres and processing centres.
(a) Calculating percentages;
939,000
- Arable =3,051,000 X100 = 31%
732,000
- Permanent pasture = X100 = 24%
3,051,000
601,000
- Forest = X100 = 20%
3,051,000
779,000
- Build up/Wasteland = 3,051,000
X100 = 25%

Obtaining degrees;
31 20
- Arable = 100
X3600 = 1120 Forest = 100
X3600 = 720
24 25
- Permanent = 100
X3600 = 860 Wasteland = 100
X3600 =
900
A pie chart showing the relative importance of arable, permanent
pasture, forest and Build up/wasteland (Should have both degrees
and percentages)
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Study the map of Belgium provided and answer the questions that follow

(a) Describe the factors which have favoured the development of

manufacturing industries in Belgium.
(b)Explain the contributions of manufacturing industries to the
development of Belgium.
(c) Outline the effects of industrialization on the physical environment in
Belgium.
(a) Factors which have favoured the development of manufacturing
industries in Belgium;

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 Physical conditions;
- Availability of vast land for the construction of industries.
- Abundant supply of huge coal for the provision of energy or raw material
from Sambre – Neuse Coal field.
- Availability of imported raw materials like Iron Ore from France,
Luxembourg, Sweden, Liberia.
- Strategic location in the heart of Europe close to iron ore mines and
markets of Europe.
- Presence of abundant water for industrial use (cooling machines.)
Human conditions;
- Accessibility of Belgium through the Rhine waterway, River Scheldt and
Sambre linked through canals.
- Modern technology through developed nuclear energy.
- Supportive government policies such as tax exemptions and conducive
conditions for industrial investment.
- Availability of skilled and semi skilled labour to operate industrial
machines.
- Availability of large sums of capital from investments in large scale
manufacturing industries both foreign and domestic investors.
- Efficient transport for the distribution of raw materials and finished
goods.
(b) Contributions of manufacturing industries to the development of
Belgium;
- Provides employment opportunities from which they get money hence
improve standards of living.
- Source of income through sale of industrial goods hence improved
standard of living.
- Source of government revenue through taxes imposed on industries
hence facilitating provision of social services
- Provision of high quality products thus improved standard of living.
- Source of intermediate raw materials for other industries.
- Development of infrastructure like roads, railways, canals, HEP
stations.
- Promotion of international relationship through industrial exports thus
attracting for foreign aid.
- Diversification of the economy thus reducing over dependence of
mining.
- Development of urban centres with large market potentials for
agricultural and industrial products.
Problems facing the Industrial sector of Belgium;
- Shortage of land limits industrial expansion.
- Inadequate energy resources discourage operation of heavy industries.
- Shortage of skilled labour during winter season leads to low production.
- Limited domestic market discourages production and hence low profits.
- Shortage of raw materials limits industrial output.

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 IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES IN BELGIUM
The major iron and steel industrial centres in Belgium are; Zalzate, Charleroi
and Liege
(a) Conditions which have led to the growth of iron and steel
industries in Belgium;
Physical factors;
- Presence of large/adequate iron deposits to feed the industries.
- Abundant water supply from rivers Scheldt and Meuse to cool
machines.
- Presence of huge power supply inform of coal from Sambre-Meuse
Valley.
- Adequate land for the establishment of iron and steel industries in the
Ghent and Liege.
Human factors;
- Availability of a ready market at Brussels, Charleroi, Liege, and
Zalzate.
- Cheap skilled labour to in the industries like technicians and Engineers.
- Adequate capital to buy industrial machines and iron ore from France.
- Supportive government policy by providing tax holidays and attracting
foreign investors.
- Modern technology has led to production of high quality products.
Problems facing the Iron and Steel industry in Belgium;
- Limited land limits industrial expansion.
- Low grade iron ore imported from France limits production.
- Competition for market from the high quality iron and steel products
from other counties limits production.
- High transport costs of iron ore from France limits production.
- Exhaustion of coal from Sambre-Meuse valley discourages the running
of industrial machines.
- Exhaustion of iron ore from Sambre Meuse valley limits production.
- Increasing costs of coal mining increases industrial costs.
Major products from iron and steel industries;
- Iron sheets, Metal bars, Engines, Turbines.
(c) Effects of the industrialization on the physical environment;
- Dumping of industrial solid waste covers the fertile soils.
- Emissions from fumes lead to pollution, poor visibility and acidic
rainfall.
- Destruction of aquatic life affects the ecosystem.
- Mining of coals creates deep hollows.
- Destruction of vegetation during industrial establishment.
Measures being taken to improve the industrial sector in Belgium;
- Treating of exhaust fumes and industrial discharge before emission.
- Improving on the transport system.
- Developing of precision industry which require few raw materials but
produce expensive goods.

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- Recycling of waste products like paper to reduce on shortage of raw
materials.
- Forming of cooperative s to raise more capital.
- Reducing taxes to lower the cost of production.
- Importing of raw materials like high quality iron ore from Brazil to solve
the problem of shortage of raw materials.
- Developing of other energy sources like thermal, and HEP to solve to avoid
the exhaustion of coal.
- Producing of high quality goods to reduce competition with imported
goods.
- Improving on port facilities to improve on transport facilities/importation
of raw materials.
- Relocating of some industries to the coast to reduce on the costs of
transport.

URBANISATION IN BELGIUM
Study Figure below: Map of Belgium provided below and answer the questions
that follow;

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 (a) Name the;
(i) Water bodies marked A and B, (iii) Country marked C,
(ii)Canal marked 1, (iv) Urban centres marked 2, 3 and 4

(a) (i) Water bodies; A is The North Sea, 2 is River Scheldt.

(ii) Canal 1 is Albert canal, (iii) Country C is Luxembourg,
(iv) Urban centres; 2 is Brussels, 3 is Antwerp, 4 is
Ghent
(b) Factors/conditions favouring the development of urban centres in
Belgium;
- Positive/favourable government policy like Brussels is the capital city of
Belgium. Each canton (political region) in Belgium has its administrative
centre.
- Presence of a variety of mineral resources e.g. coal fields-favour growth of
mining centres like the Sambre-Meuse region and the Kemperland
regions.
- Presence of many industries has led to growth of towns like
Chemical/engineering at Bruges, Antwerp, Liege, others.
- Well developed communication systems based on roads,
waterways/canals and railways like Bruges-Ghent land canal, others.
- Nearness to water bodies has led to the growth of ports e.g. Antwerp,
Ostend, Zeebruge, Liege, others.
- Historical factors e.g. the world wars restricted settlement and farming to
some areas due to presence of land mines in some areas e.g. Liege was a
Fort.
- Strategic location in Europe with access to the North Sea e.g. Ostend,
Antwerp. Such easy accessibility opened up the Belgian territories to
investors from all over the world.

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 - Availability of large/adequate capital to develop large cities like Brussels,
Antwerp and Ghent.
- High level/modern technology like engineering making. It is easy to
connect canals.
- International trade which brings in raw materials and taking out industrial
goods encouraged port development like Antwerp.
(c) Effects of urbanization in Belgium;
Negative effects;
- Pollution of air, water and land due to poor disposal of wastes.
- Competition for land making it expensive.
- Traffic congestion on canals, roads leading to delays.
- Large population in cities leading to overcrowding which causes easy
spread of diseases.
- Unemployment leading to crime.
- Development of slums due to poor housing conditions.
- Deforestation/loss of vegetation cover for settlement and industrial
development.
- Poor sanitation due to improper disposal of wastes and overcrowding.
 Positive effects;
- Growth of infrastructure like roads, waterways, ports, education centres,
others.
- Provision of employment opportunities leading to high standard of living.
- Provide administrative, recreational, commercial, industrial and
educational functions to people in urban centres like Antwerp, Brussels.
- Provide market to both goods and services leading high standard of living.
- Provide skilled labour which work in industries.
- Promote international relationships leading to increased foreign exchange
earnings.
- They are tourist attractions leading to foreign exchange earnings.
- Provides large tax base leading to high revenue to the government.
(d) Steps/Measures being taken to solve the problems of
urbanization;
- Treatment of industrial wastes to avoid water and land pollution.
- Environmental legislation e.g. “clean air Acts” and standards.
- Building of skyscrapers/vertical expansion to accommodate increasing
population.
- Widening and dredging of canals to accommodate large vessels.
- Expansion of markets through regional economic integrations like
European Union (EU)/European Free Trade area (EFTA).
- Construction of flyovers, tunnels and subways.
- Time tabling of voyages (long journeys of trains and cars) and flights.
- Creation of green belts in urban centres/afforestation.

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 GERMANY
RELIEF OF GERMANY
(a)A sketch map of Rhine rift valley showing some rivers, highlands and
towns;

(b) Describe the processes that led to the formation of the Rhine rift
valley;
- The rift valley was formed due to faulting by either Compressional forces or
tensional forces.
- According to Compressional forces, they acted from either side. They led to
multiple faulting which caused reversed faults.
- These continued forces led to up thrust/over ride of the side blocks leaving the
central block stable thus a rift valley. The up thrown sides formed the edges of
the rift valley.
OR (Diagrammatic representation)
EITHER;

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 - Faulting by tensional force theory. Forces moving in the opposite direction acted
on old rock strata tearing the rocks apart by creating lines of weakness/normal
fault lines in the rock strata.
- With continued tensional forces the middle block was forced to sink/subside
creating a depression hence a rift valley.
OR Diagrammatic description of faulting by tensional theory; (Refer to East
African Rift Valley)
(c) Influence of relief on human activities in the Rhine Rift Valley;
- The Rhine Rift valley forms a narrow gorge running from the north to south
making it cheaper for dam construction hence HEP generation.
- The upper slopes are too steep which discourages settlement and other human
activities like agriculture.
- The upper slopes support forests hence lumbering.
- Mountain formation resulted to the presence of minerals hence leading to mining.
- The valleys formed are filled with water leading to fishing.
- The lower slopes are gentle/undulating, have fertile soils suitable for arable
farming.
- The crops grown include; Sugar beets, maize, tobacco, vines, apricots, plums
cherries, pitches.
- South facing favours ripening/harvesting of fruits/crops due to extra warmth.
- Gentle undulating slopes encourage communication routes.
- The valley/bottom experience frequent fog/frost as a result of temperature
inversion which discourages settlement and agricultures.
- Gentle slopes and flat valley bottoms lead to development of towns and
industries.
- The beautiful scenery has encouraged the development of tourist industry.
- Uplands have pasture which encourages dairy farming/livestock rearing.
(d)Problems affecting human activities in the Rhine Rift valley;
- Pests and diseases affect crops.
- Limited mechanization due to rugged/steep relief/terrain.
- Steep relief hinders transport and communication.
- Pollution of air and acid rains received.
- Crop failure due to frost.
- Most of the crops grown are perishable leading to alt of post harvest losses.
- Limited land for agriculture as upper slopes and the rift valley are eroded.
- The biting frown winds adversely affect human activities.
- The labour used is migrant/limited at peak periods of harvesting.
- Flooding of valleys.
- Soil erosion due to steep slopes plus heavy rainfall.
- Soil exhaustion due to over cultivation
Explain the value/Importance/contribution of the Rhine rift valley to the
people of Germany;
- The Rift valley is a source of HEP from the various dams on river Rhine, for
domestic and industrial use.

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- The hilly sides are valuable /important for livestock rearing due to presence of
abundant pastures.
- The Rift valley has a beautiful scenery that attracts tourists to Germany who
come with foreign exchange.
- There is River Rhine which facilitates water transport thus allowing trade and
commerce.
- The valley contains fertile soils which facilitate arable faming like vine growing.
- Has river Rhine which is a suitable for fishing thus providing employment to the
Germans.
Problems facing people living along the Rhine rift valley;
- The thin stony soils in the upper slopes limit crop cultivation.
- Labour shortage due to low population limits crop faming.
- The cold temperatures especially during winter lead crop failure.
- The steep landscape limits the land available for crop farming.
- Soil erosion along the steep slopes reduces soil fertility.
- The Rugged relief/terrain discourages mechanized agriculture.
CLIMATE & AGRICULTURE IN GERMANY
Study the Table 55: below showing the climatic statistics of Mannheim, in
Rhine Rift valley and answer the questions that follow; Table 55
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D

Temp. (0C) 0.5 1.5 5.7 10.0 14.6 17.9 19.6 18.8 15.2 9.6 5.1 1.

Precipitation 43 35 32 45 55 73 66 73 57 47 41 39

Adapted: David Hughes & Tom Randle (1979) The Rhine Basin: A study of
development; Longman p68.
(a) Draw a suitable graph to represent the climate of the station given in the
table above.
(a) A combined bar and line graph showing the climatic statistics of
Mannheim (T=02, VS=02, HS=01, ACC=04 (Use your graph book)
(b)(i) Annual range of temperature for the station
= Highest temp – Lowest temp (19.60 – 0.50) = 19.10C.
(ii) Rainfall total for the station = sum of monthly rainfall in the year
= 43+ 35+ 32+ 45+ 55+ 73+ 66 +73 + 57+ 47+ 41+ 39
= 606mm.
(c) Influence of climate on the farmer’s calendar in the Rhine Rift
valley;
- Presence of cool dry winter with a lot of snow (December –
March)/Limited sunshine cold temperatures influence pruning of
vines/application of fertilizers.
- During spring (April + may) with warm temperatures and melting snow
activities like planting annual crops like cereals, vegetables/tying vines to
wires suspended on stakes in order for the grapes to get maximum
sunshine for ripening.

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 - During summer (June – August) activities of farmers include spraying
crops, using of insecticides and pesticides/weeding/harvesting of grapes
and other fruits/ hiring of labour.
- Autumn (Sept – November) farmers’ activities include harvesting of
crops/processing of grapes into wine/Hiring of more labour to complete
harvesting/spreading of farm refuse/manure in the garden.
(d) Benefits of the agricultural sector to the people living in the Rhine
Rift valley;
- The agricultural sector has led to provision of employment opportunities.
- It has led to generation of income/improved standard of living for the
people on the Rhine Rift valley.
- The agricultural sector has led to the development of urban
centres/towns.
- Promotion of international relations between the producer and consumers.
- Exported products from the agricultural sector generate the region foreign
exchange.
- The sector has diversified the economy.
- The sector has led to development of infrastructure like roads, railways,
canal, and waterways.
- The government has earned revenue from taxing producers.
- The agricultural sector has provided market for industries/sectors
producing agricultural inputs e.g. fertilizers, pesticides, machinery,
others.
- The sector provides raw materials.
- The sector has led to development of agro-based industries.
- The sector is a source of food and drinks like wines.
- Development of research centres.
(a) Draw a sketch map of the Rhine Rift valley and on it mark and name;
(i) River; Rhine and Neckar, (iv) Towns; Basel and
Frankfurt,
(ii) Rhine Rift valley, (v) Vine growing areas.
(iii) Rhine Gorge,

AGRICULTURE IN THE RHINE RIFT VALLEY:

(a) A sketch map of the Rhine rift valley showing selected highlands vine,
tobacco and vegetable growing areas;

Page 100 of 238

(b) Physical factors/conditions which have favoured the growing of the
crops above (arable farming); /physical factors which have favoured the
growing of vines in Rift valley
- Existence of a wide valley which is allows extensive cultivation. /
Location in a valley protects it from strong winds thus allowing proper
growth of vines.
- Gently sloping/undulating sides of the rift valley which support
agriculture mechanization.
- Presence of well drained fertile soils on the rift valley floor support crop
growth like vines, tobacco, vegetables.
- Moderate rainfall received during summer season thus allows proper
growth of crops.
- Presence of river Rhine provides water for irrigation.
- Sunny summers suitable for ripening crops.
- Presence of river Rhone for irrigating the vines;
For human factors consider the following
- Essay accessibility of the region by Rhine River allows marketing of vine
products.
- Large market for vine products both within and abroad.
- High levels of technology allows planting and wedding of vines.
- Large sums of capital invested in planting and harvesting of vines.
Activities done by the vine growers during;
Spring;
- Pruning of vine trees. - Application of fertilizers.
- Spraying with pesticides and herbicides.
- Vines are tied up to wires, stretched between stakes to get maximum
sunshine.

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- Weeding is also done. - Bottling previous year’s wine.
Summer;
- Harvesting of the vines.
- Collecting, sorting and parking of grapes.
- Transporting to processing centres.
- Processing of grapes starts.
(c) Problems faced by farmers living/vine growers in the Rhine Rift
valley;
- Small plots of land limit effective use of machines.
- Frost/temperature inversion and fog conditions during spring destroy
crops.
- Rugged terrain and steep sides restrict landuse/mechanization.
- Soil erosion especially on the steep slopes limits vine growing.
- Presence of pests like moths and spiders destroy crops.
- Sometimes drought occurs during the growing periods leads to low
output.
- Diseases lead to low crop yields like odium disease.
- Soil exhaustion due to monoculture leads to low output.
- High cost of farming during winter/irrigation leads to losses.
- Perishability of grapes leads to high wastage.
- Pollution of land through artificial fertilizers reduces land productivity.
- Winter frost destroys vine trees.
- Flooding of River Rhine leads to destruction of crops.
- Competition for market with other producing countries like Switzerland,
Netherlands, South Africa
- Labour shortage leads to wastage.
(d) Steps/measures being taken to improve agriculture in the Rhine
Rift Valley;
- Providing loans to farmers to lower their cost of production.
- Modifying land tenure system through consolidation of land to make the
workable plots bigger. / Carrying out land consolidation to increase
workable plots.
- Setting up on-site processing factories to reduce wastage.
- Recruiting seasonal labour during the peak harvesting season.
- Applying fertilizers to increase soil productivity.
- Using modern scientific method of production like herbicides, artificial
insemination, insecticides in spraying./ Spraying with chemicals to
control pests and diseases.
- Hanging of vines to allow reception of maximum sunlight to avoid losses
due to frost.
- Emphasizing high quality production to increase competitiveness of vine
products.
- Introducing of specialized farming like market gardening around cities,
for vegetables, fruits and dairy products.

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- Establishing of roads and railways system and improving on the old
ones/ Constructing of special paths to transport grapes down the steep
slopes.
- Constructing of embankments to control flooding.
- Spraying of warm air to control frost.
- Practicing irrigation farming to reduce negative effects of drought.
- Attracting of part time workers especially women during the busy
harvesting periods.

Products which farmers in the Rhine rift valley obtain from their
crops.
- Manure from the residues of vines.
- Juice for vines, - Animal and chicken feeds manufactured from the
residues.
MINING INDUSTRY IN GERMANY
Mining areas in Germany;
They include; Ruhr, Bremen and Hamburg.
Minerals mined are;
- Majorly Coal from Ruhr and Saar fields.
- Others are; Uranium, steel, Potash, Cobalt, lead.
THE RUHR COAL FIELDS OF GERMANY:
Coal is found in two large areas namely; The exposed coal fields and the
concealed coal fields.
Describe the Conditions favouring mining in Germany;
- Location of minerals like coal and iron ore near the earth’s surface
reduces the cost of mining.
- Abundant energy like HEP and coal for processing minerals.
- Large quantities of coal and iron ore make mining lucrative.
- Modern technology like the drilling rigs, bucket conveyors makes mining
easy.
- Adequate capital to invest in mining equipment.
- Supportive government policy of giving mining contracts to potential
mining companies.
- Intensive research through mineral exploration and surveying has led to
maximum mineral extraction.
- Developed transport based on roads, railways and canals allows
distribution of minerals to refineries.
- Ready local and foreign market for coal and iron ore encourages mining
activities.
Benefits of mining sector to Germany:
- Coal promotes the power and energy sector for domestic and industrial
use.
- Has promoted international cooperation through mineral exports and
granting mining contracts to foreign mining companies.

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- Has reduced expenditure on importation of coal thus facilitating capital
accumulation.
- Has led to acquisition of skills like geo-surveying, mining and grading.
- Earns government revenue through taxes imposed on mining companies.
- Has led to diversification of the economy thus reducing over dependence
on tourism and agriculture.
- Has led to growth of other sectors like agriculture in the Rhine valley and
tourism industry.
- Has led to growth of towns like Bochum and Essen which act as
accommodation centres.
- Provides employment opportunities to mineral surveyors and miners
thus earning them income.
- Has led to growth of mineral based industries like iron and steel
industries.
- Earns German y foreign exchange through mineral exports.
Effect of the mining sector on the environment of Germany;
- Accelerates soil erosion and landslides.
- Too much dust inhaled in by the Miners has led to health hazards.
- Increased spread of diseases due to stagnant water in the depressions
created.
- Land degradation due to creation of heaps and valleys.
- Displacement of people near mining areas.
- Air and water pollution by the dust and wastes.
- Destruction of the agricultural land.
- Destruction of vegetation/Devegetation in the mining areas.
Problems facing the mining sector in Germany;
- Depreciation of the mining equipment limits mining activity.
- Limited market for some minerals like coal due improvement in
technology.
- Labour strikes in the mining fields have limited the mining activity.
- Shortage of skilled labour limits mineral extraction.
- Competition for market and labour from other mining countries like
France discourages mining.
- High transport costs for minerals reduce the profits got.
- Price fluctuations on the world market leads to losses.
- Exhaustion of some minerals has led to closure of some mines.
Problems facing mining in the Ruhr Coal fields;
- Loss of lives due to accidents in the coal fields.
- Competition from other coal producers like UK and USA.
- High cost of mining in the concealed coal fields.
- Competition for clean energy sources like Oil and HEP.
- Exhaustion of coal from the exposed coal fields discourages mining.
Factors/conditions which have led to decline/fall in coal production
in the Ruhr fields/Germany;
- The closure of some coal fields in the exposed coal fields.

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- The rising cost of mining in the concealed coal fields.
- Shortage of labour due to better paying jobs elsewhere.
- Introduction of energy saving technology/modern technology which
requires less coal.
- The discovery of oil substituted coal used in trains, ships and industries.
- Introduction of new clean sources like HEP, Nuclear and natural gas.
Industries that developed after the decline in coal production in
Germany;
- Oil refineries, - Petrol-chemical industries like plastics - Food
processing.
- Iron and steel industry, - Textiles, - Electronics, -
Engineering.
Factors that led to the development of the above industries;
- Availability of large sums of capital to buy raw materials.
- Well developed transport system facilitates distribution of raw materials
and finished goods.
- Abundant raw material like iron ore to feed industries.
- Availability of large skilled labour to operate industrial machines.
- The ready market for industries at Frankfurt, Munich, Stuttgart, Essen
Wolfsburg and Bremen.
- Supportive government policy of encouraging industrialization.
- Abundant water supply from river Rhine to cool industrial machines.
- Availability of other energy sources like nuclear and thermal to run
machines.
Uses of Coal in Germany;
- Bituminous coal is used as a source of energy for domestics and
industrial use.
- Anthracite coal is used in heating boilers.
- Choking coal is used in smelting of iron and steel.
- Choking coal is used in production of tar for road construction.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN GERMANY
A sketch map of Germany showing major industrial towns;

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 (b) Factors for the development of the industrial sector/manufacturing
industries in Germany;
Physical conditions;
- Abundant water supply from river Rhine and its tributaries facilitate cooling of
industrial machines and mixing industrial chemicals
- Availability of a variety of energy sources e.g. coal, HEP, nuclear power and
natural gas for industrial use/run industries.
- A variety of raw materials e.g. agricultural products, minerals for industrial use.
- Presence of large/vast land for industrial establishment
Human conditions;
- Well developed transport and communication based on roads, railways, airways,
canals, others to distribute/transport industrial raw materials and finished
goods.
- Abundant supply of skilled labour to work in the industrial sector/operate
industrial machines.
- Existence of a wide market for industrial goods both in Germany like at Berlin
Essen and abroad.
- High level of specialization in the production of heavy and light precision goods.
- Availability of adequate/wide capital to invest in the industrial sector.
- High level of advanced technology e.g. automation of industrial operations allows
quality production.
- Supportive/favourable government policy of encouraging industrialization
through offering loans and industrial protectionism.

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 - Relative political stability after World War II has favoured long term investment
in manufacturing industry
Benefits of the industrial sector to Germany;
- Provides consumer and capital goods like canned fish, Televisions sets hence
improved standard of living to Germans.
- Has promoted self sufficiency through reduced importation of consumer goods
from USA.
- Has led to economic diversification thus reducing over reliance on agriculture.
- Earns Germany revenue through taxes imposed on industries.
- Has incased capital inflow through increased foreign industrial investment.
- Has led to acquisition of skills by workers like welding, motor mechanic.
- Has promoted international cooperation through export of industrial goods.
- Earns government foreign exchange through industrial exports.
- Provides employment opportunities to the people employment in textiles thus
better living conditions.
- Provides market to mineral and agricultural products like iron ore, milk, skins,
cotton.
- Has led to urbanization/growth of towns which offer education and
accommodation facilities.
- Has led to infrastructural development like roads, water ways and airports thus
facilitating labour mobility.
(d)(i) Environmental problems which have resulted from the
establishment of industries in Germany;
- Pollution of air, water and land causing health problems.
- Congestion/overcrowding in industrial areas leads to delays.
- Destruction of vegetation due to open cast mining/industrial establishment.
- Competition for land in industrial areas. /Limited land for expansion.
- Urban related problems such as slums, theft, and drug abuse.
- Over exploitation of mineral leading to their exhaustion/depletion.
- Creation/growth of ghost towns in former mining areas.
- Creation of open pits/hollows due to over exploitation of minerals.
(ii) Steps being taken to solve the above problems;
- Recycling of industrial wastes to reduce pollution of land and water.
- Strict legislation on waste management has been undertaken.
- Undertaking massive re-afforestation programmes/Green belt creation to reduce
environmental pollution.
- Encouraging raw material saving and labour saving technology.
- Importation of raw materials e.g. irons ore from France and Sweden.
- Diversification of the economy to reduce overdependence on industries/solve
unemployment.
- Use of alternative sources of energy especially oil and natural gas which has less
pollution effects on environment.
- Vertical expansion/building shy scrappers to solve the limited land problem.
- Refilling of old pits/mines to reduce land degradation.
- Using of containers/containerization to reduce congestion.

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- Construction of subways/underground tunnels/flyovers to reduce congestion.
A sketch map of the Ruhr industrial region of Germany showing selected
features;

(b) (i) Name any three industries found in the Ruhr industrial region.
- Textile industry, Iron and steel industry,
- Engineering industry, Chemical industry
(i) Describe the factors which have favoured the development of the
iron and steel industries in Germany;
- Availability of high grade iron ore to feed the industries.
- Well developed transport system facilitates the distribution of iron and steel
products to market centres.
- Modern /high levels of technology facilitate quality production.
- Availability of a large skilled labour force from Germany and immigrant to
operate the industrial machines.
- Availability of large sums of capital from the government and private investors
to boost the industry.
- Variety of energy sources like coal, oil and natural gas to run the industrial
machines.
(c) Explain the problems resulting from the development of large scale
industrial centres in the Ruhr region;
- Exhaustion of minerals due to over exploitation.
- Coal extraction has led to land degradation.
- Traffic congestion during the rush hours leading to accidents.
- Limited land for expansion.
- Competition for high skilled labour force.
- Loss of vegetation cover/Devegetation.
- Pollution of air, land and water due industrial discharge.
- High rates of unemployment due to highly mechanized industrialization and
the used of robots.

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 - Urban related problems like high crime rates.
(d) Outline the measures being taken to solve the problems above;
- Creating of green belts through planting of trees to reduce environmental
degradation.
- Emphasizing containerization at the port to reduce congestion.
- Constructing of subways and underground tunnels and flyovers to reduce
traffic congestion.
- Setting up strict laws/legislation against pollution/Anti –pollution laws.
- Using of pipelines insured of tanks to transport oil.
- Constructing of industries in other areas to reduce congestion/ Relocation of
industries.
- Recycling of industrial wastes to reduce pollution/Industrial waste treatment.
- Using energy saving sources with less polluting effect like natural gas and
nuclear energy.
Study the table below showing Germany exports and Imports (2001) answer the
questions that follow;
Table 56
Type of Commodity Imports (%) Exports (%)

Fuel 08 01

Agricultural raw materials 02 01

Manufactured goods 70 89

Food 07 04

Ores and Metals 03 02

Others 10 03

Total 100 100

Adapted: 2003 World Development Indicators; The World Bank, Washington DC

pp 206.
(a) Draw pie chart to show Germany’s imports in 2001.
(b) Mention the; (i) Largest type of commodity exported from Germany.
(a) Converting values percentages to degrees;
08
- Fuel = 100
X 3600 = 28.80
02
- Agric. Raw materials = 100
X 3600 = 7.20≈70
70
- Manufactured goods = 100
X 3600 = 2520
07
- Food = 100
X 3600 = 25.20≈250
10
- Others = 100 X 3600 = 360
A pie chart showing Germany’s imports in 2001. (Use your graph
book)

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 (b) (i) Largest exports - Manufactured goods with 89%
(ii) Smallest imports - agricultural raw materials with 2%
(c) (i) Manufacturing centres in Germany;
Ruhr Industrial Region
- Duisburg, - Wuppertal - Bochum - Ludwigshafen
- Essen - Stuttgart - Mannheim - Nuremburg
- Dortmund. - Munich - Bremen
(d) Conditions/factors which have influenced the volume of Germany’s
exports;
- A large population consumes most of food produced within leaving only
4% for export.
- A well developed industrial sector which consumes most of the agricultural
raw materials leaving only 1% for export.
- The industrial sector consumes most of the ores and metals leaving only
2% for export.
- Over production of manufactured goods leaves a lot for export that is 89%.
- Less agricultural products are exported due to less land surface for
agriculture.
- High quality products manufactured that has increased competiveness.
- Strategic location in the major market destination of the World.
- Improved communication in market research.
- Improved transport network.
- Improved storage facilities that enable safe storage of high volume of
goods.
Study the table below showing steel production in former West Germany between
1977 and 1983 and answer the questions that follow ;
STEEL PRODUCTION IN FORMER WEST GERMANY (“000 tonnes) (1977-1983)
Table 57
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

39,000 45,000 46,000 44,000 42,000 40,000 26,000

Source: Adapted from Waugh, Europe pg 68.

(a) Draw a bar graph to show the information given in the table.(Use your graph
book)
(b) State the year when steel production was;
(i) Highest (ii) Lowest,
(c) Using the table and the graph drawn, describe the pattern of steel
production.
- Generally steel production increased and then declined.
- Between 1977 and 1978, there was a sharp increase in steel production.
- Between 1978 and 1979, there was a gradual increase in steel production.
- Between 1981 and 1982, there was a gradual decline in steel production.
- Between 1982 and 1983, there a sharp decline in steel production.

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(c) Using your knowledge of Iron and steel industry in former West Germany,
explain the factors responsible for the pattern of steel production between
1977 and 1983.
Factors for a rise in production; (Between 1977 and 1979);
- The positive attitude of the Germany government towards industrialization.
- Increase in capital invested in industries.
- The huge deposits of coal which was used as a source of energy in the iron
and steel industries.
- Availability of huge deposits of iron ore to feed the iron and steel industries.
Factors for the fall in production (Between 1979 – 1983);
- Decline in market due to competition from USA and UK.
- Exhaustion of iron ore deposits.
- Decline in labour supply.
(d) Name ;(i) One industrial Centre for iron and steel production in Germany,
- Hamburg, - Brunswick, - Wolfsburg.
(ii) Two uses of steel and iron in Germany.
- Used in making motor engines.
- Used in making railways locomotives.
- Used in making steel turbines.
Study the table below showing the decline of the Coal industry in Germany
(1955-71) and answer the questions that follow; Table 58
Year Employment in Production of Coal
In the coal industry (metric tons)

1955 400,000 125,000,000

1970 250,000 100,000,000

Adapted from: D Hughes and T. Randle: The Rhine Basin. A study in Development.
(a) Calculate the percentage decline in;
(i) Employment in the Coal industry, (ii) Production of Coal,
𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Percentage decline the formula is 𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
X 100
400,000,000−250,000
(𝑖)
400,000
X 100 = 37.5%
125,000,000−100,000,000
(ii) 125,00,000
X 100 = 20%
Study Table 59: showing energy production in Germany (2005) and answer the
questions that follow;
Table III Germany: Energy Production (2005) Table 59
Type of Energy % of Total Energy

Coal 49.8
Gas 11.3
Oil 1.7
Hydro power 3.2
Nuclear power 26.6
Others 7.4

Page 111 of 238

 Adapted: 2008 World development Indicators. The World Bank, Washington
D.C pp166-168.
(a) Draw a pie-chart to show energy production in Germany.
(b) Identify the type of energy produced in;
(i) Largest, (ii) Smallest, t amount in Germany.
(a) Conversion of percentage to degrees;
49.8 1.7
Coal = 100
x 3600 = 179.30 Oil = 100
x 3600 = 6.10
11.3 7.4
Gas = 100
x 3600 = 40.70 Others = 100 x 3600 = 26.60.

26.6
Nuclear power = x 3600 = 95.80
100
A pie-chart showing energy production in Germany. (Use your graph book)
(b) Type of energy produced in;
(i) Largest amount is coal (ii) Smallest amount is oil

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN THE RHINE RIFT VALLEY

(b) (i) Two industries found in any one town;
Ludwigshafen;
- Food processing, - Textiles
- Chemical industries - Heavy engineering industry
OR
Mainz;
- Engineering – Printing and Publishing
- Chemical industry – Food processing
- Car manufacturing - Textiles – Electronics;
(i) Candidates should select one industrial town but the conditions are
more or less the same;
Conditions which have led to the development of industries
- Availability of a large market both local and external for industrial goods.
- Well developed technology to produce engineering and electronics
equipment.
- Highly developed transport and communication by roads, railways and
water to transport raw materials and finished goods.
- Port location of industries gives easy access to some of the raw materials
and markets.
- Availability of adequate capital to invest in the industrial sector.
- Rich agricultural hinterland. The agricultural lands along the R. Rhine
with specialized activities and also has minerals and forest raw materials.
- Favourable/supportive government policy of seeking financial assistance
from other Countries.
- Regional cooperation of European Union to widen market.
- Plenty of water for use in industries and a coolant or mixing materials.
- Variety of power e.g. HEP, natural gas, nuclear used in industries.
- Adequate skilled and semiskilled labour for setting up industries.
- Relatively flat land for setting up industries.

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 - Intensive research giving rise to precision goods.
(c) Problems faced by the industrial sector in the Rhine rift valley area;
- Pollution as result of wastes from the industries.
- Overdependence on imported raw materials/Shortage of raw materials like
coal, oil, iron ore, limestone makes the cost of production high.
- High cost of labour/labour shortage makes the production costs high.
- Competition for market of the finished industrial goods from mother
industrialized nations like USA.
- Land shortage due to rugged terrain limits the area where industries are
set up.
- Congestion at the ports leads to delays along the Rhine.
(d) Steps being taken to solve the problems above;
- Creating of satellite towns e.g. Ludwigshafen as a means to de-congest
Manheim.
- Adopting of raw material saving technology which produces precision
products.
- Recycling of waste products from industries to reduce shortage of raw
materials.
- Passing of anti-pollution laws to regulate environmental pollution.
- Carrying out regional cooperation to widen market e.g. formation of
European Union.
- Carrying out automation in industries to solve labour shortage.
- Carrying out market research/advertisement to widen market for
industrial products.
- Importing of raw materials to solve the inadequate raw materials.
- Producing of quality products to solve competition for market.
- Carrying out containerization/timetabling to solve congestion and delays.

INLAND WATER TRANPORT IN GERMANY

Study the figure below showing the Rhine Basin and answer the questions
that follow;

Page 113 of 238

 (a) Name the following;
(i) Rivers marked 1 and 2, (ii) Water body 3,
(iii) Country A, (iv) Ports B and C, (v) Canal
D.
(a) (i) Rivers; 1 is R. Mossel 2 is R. Necker
(ii)Water body 3 is North Sea. (iii) Country A is Netherlands
(iv) Ports; B is Basel, C is Duisburg (v) Canal D is Rhine – Mossel
Canal
(b) Conditions/factors which contributed to the development of River
Rhine as an important waterway;
- The presence of River Rhine and its tributaries like Mosel, Ruhr, Lippe and
Mainz. The river is also navigable for significantly long distance from Basel
to the North Sea and can accommodate large ocean going vessels.
- Presence of large rich hinterland. This exposes the river to handling large
exports and imports, a factor that stimulates its development.
- The waterway is ice free throughout the year hence can be used
throughout the year.
- The Rhine flow to the North Sea which is one of the busiest shipping routes
in the World.
- Deep river channel which accommodates large Ocean going vessels.
- Presence of melting glaciers in the Swiss Alps to constantly increase the
volume of the Rhine waters.
- Landlockedness of Switzerland has made her use river Rhine as the only
alternative route hence its development.
- Presence of large capital for modifying the water way by establishing
canals like Rhine-Mossel canal.

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 - Modern technology in form of canals like Rhine-Mossel Canal that by-
passes gorge. /Extension of navigable stretches by construction of Canals
like Dortmund-Ems Canal, Main-Danube Canal and Rhine -Mossel Canal.
- A long navigable route from Basel to North Sea allows sailing of large water
vessels.
- Strong cooperation of the Rhineland Countries to develop water transport.
- Supportive government policy of Switzerland and Germany in form of
dredging.
- Abundant skilled labour needed to construct canals.
- Large sums of capital provided by Germany and Switzerland to buy the
needed machines.
(c) Benefits/Importance of the Rhine waterway to the Rhinelands;
- The Rhine water way has opened up remote areas for trade, leading to
economic development.
- Has led to development of towns such as Mainz and Cologne in Germany,
these offer commercial and administrative services.
- Development of other modes of transport like roads allowing trade and
commerce./ Has helped in transportation of imports and exports in terms
of raw materials for industries and agricultural sector, finished
goods/Provides cheap transport for bulky goods.
- Has led to agricultural development through provision of accessibility to
agricultural regions such as vine growing for wines in the Rhine rift in
Germany.
- Has stimulated international trade by handling exports and imports from
Germany, France, Switzerland and Netherlands.
- Has encouraged settlement along the waterway for example at Cologne and
Mainz in Germany.
- Provides local revenue through taxes imposed on ships along the
waterway.
- Has promoted tourism by facilitating river cruises and the spectacular
drainage features. From this foreign exchange is earned for the Country.
- Has led to acquisition of foreign exchange to Germany by handling exports.
This is used to construct roads and schools in Germany.
- Has led to acquisition of both local revenue through taxation of ships and
boats that use the waterway.
- Has led to technological development such as marine technology and
construction of various locks, canals and various ports.
- Has led to generation of HEP which is used for home and industrial use.
- The Rhine waterway has strengthened cooperation between Germany,
Netherlands and Switzerland and this has led to political and economic
stability.
- Provides employment opportunities to various form of labour like traffic
wardens, marine engineers. This helps them earn incomes thus improving
their standard of living.

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- Development of agriculture through provision of accessibility to
agricultural areas especially for the vines.
- Has facilitated the development the mining sector in the Ruhr region and
Alsace, Lorraine in Germany and France respectively.
- Has facilitated development of other forms of transport like roads and
canals. These facilitate industrialization, trade and commerce.
- Provides water for domestic and industrial use for example the textile and
Brewer industries in Bochum and Mainz.
- Has led to development of industries in Western Europe.

Challenges/problems faced by the Rhine waterway/Problems

hindering the effective use of Rhine water way;
- Some points are narrow hence limiting the use of large water vessels.
- Pollution of the waterway from surrounding coastal industries affects the
users of the waterway./ Pollution of water, land and air leads to poor
health
- Flooding of the River due to heavy rains. / Occasional floods lead to
delays/Sea incursions.
- Poor visibility along the waterway due to smog.
- Traffic congestion on the water waterway leads to delays.
- Accidents due to collision of vessels.
- Silting of the river and coastal lands hinders sailing and anchoring of water
vessels.
- High taxes imposed on the shipment of goods along the waterway.
- Siltation of Canals which discourages sailing of water vessels./ Siltation
which calls for expensive dredging.
- Poor visibility during spring causes accidents.
- Differences in water volumes limit the use of the water way throughout the
year.
- Freezing of the waterway during winter discourages navigation.
- Congestion along the waterway leads to delays.
Steps/measures being taken to solve the above challenges/ Steps being
taken to improve navigation on the Rhine waterway
- Carrying out Containerization to ease loading and avoid congestion.
- Emphasizing among Cooperation amongst the member countries to clean
the waterway.
- Regular dredging to deepen the canals and rivers.
- Using radars system to determine the direction, size and distance of other
vessels when there is fog.
- Building embankments along River Rhine to control flooding.
- Time tabling/scheduling arrival and departure of vessels to reduce
congestion and accidents.
- Construction of other modes of transport to reduce congestion.
- Using traffic police to control congestion.

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- Constructing Canals to avoid waterfalls along the waterway.
- Constructing other transport routes such as roads and railway to reduce
traffic on Rhine waterway.
- Removing of silt from the water way/dredging and widening of the waterway
to allow sailing of large vessels.
- Constructing of artificial levees and dykes to control floods.
State other water routes in Germany;
- Lippesite canal
- Dortmund – Ems Canal.
- Weser – Meuse canal.
Outline the problems resulting from the establishment of Rhine
Waterway in Germany;
- Has resulted to delays caused by single locks along the waterway.
- High cost of water treatment due to polluted water as well as constant
dredging to reduce siltation.
- Destruction of aquatic life due to marine activities along the waterway.
- Led to growth of towns and associated evils like slum development.
- There is congestion due to heavy traffic along the waterway leading to
delays.
- Pollution of the waterway due to oil spills from the vessels.
- Has led to over exploitation of resources like coal from the exposed Ruhr
coal field, deforestation in the Vosges and black forest.
THE NETHERLANDS
AGRICULTURE (ARABLE AND LIVESTOCK REARING)
Study the table below showing land use type in The Netherlands and
answer the questions that follow; Table 60
Landuse type Total land are in hectares
Arable farming 770,000
Horticulture 140,000
Pastures 1,505,000
Wood and wasteland 525,000
Others 560,000
Total 3,500,000
Source: Adapted from Gibbs, C. W The Rhinelands pp 111 -113
(a) Draw a bar graph to show land use types in The Netherlands.
(Use your graph book)
(b) State the type of land use which occupies the;
(i) Largest area, (ii) Smallest are.
(b)(i) Largest is Pasture with 1,505,000 hectares,
(ii) Smallest is Horticulture with 140,000 hectares.
(i) Farmland = Arable + Horticulture + Pasture
𝟕𝟕𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎+𝟏𝟒𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎+𝟏,𝟓𝟎𝟓,𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 𝟑,𝟓𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
X 100 = 69%
(ii) Factors that have influenced the development of agriculture in
The Netherlands.

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 - Generally flat area makes mechanization easy at Yssel polder region.
- Mild temperatures allow proper growth of crops.
- Low incidence of incidence o pests and diseases.
- Adequate land provided by polderisation.
- Abundant skilled manpower to reclaim land.
- Large capital to cultivate polders.
- Modern technology like glass house and machines to cultivate the polders.
- Accessibility to the North Sea by the North Sea – Rhine River allows
distribution of crops.
- The creation of strong cooperative societies and credit banks funded the
buying and selling of agricultural inputs.
- Ready market at Rotterdam for agricultural produce
(i) Problems facing agricultural sector in the Netherlands;
- Loss of agricultural land to other land uses like expansion of land under
woodland.
- Periodic flooding due to sea breaking dykes and flat areas.
- Soil deterioration/exhaustion in the reclaimed areas leads to low output.
- Salination brought about by sea water reduces land productivity.
- Price fluctuation of the agricultural produce limits faming.
- Competition for market with other agricultural national like USA and
Canada.
- Cold conditions limits the growing period in the Polders.
- Pests and diseases limit the crop output.

(ii) Steps being taken to solve the problems above;

- Using glass houses to encourage crop growing throughout the year.
- Importing of feeds by cooperatives societies.
- Constructing of dykes to control.
- Establishing of pumping stations.
- Using of artificial fertilizers to improve soils fertility.
- Specializing in livestock rearing (Poultry, piggery, dairy) in order to
overcome competition.
- Using lime to solve overcome salination/Applying of fresh water on the
polders to reduce soil salinity.
- Growing of fodder crops to supplement natural pastures.
- Establishing agro-processing industries to add value on agricultural
produce.
- Seeking external market for agricultural products/market research.
- Spraying to control pests and diseases.
- Reclaiming of more land to reduce land shortage
LIVESTOCK FARMING
Study figure below showing dairy farming in The Netherlands and answer the
question that follow;

Page 118 of 238

 (a) Name the;
(i) Towns marked 1, 2 and 3, (iii) Dairy farming region
marked C
(ii) Water bodies A and B, (iv) Polder marked D.

(a)(i) Towns; 1 is Groningen, 2 is Utrecht, 3 is Rotterdam.

(ii) Water bodies; A is Yssel/Ijssel, B is North Sea.
(iii) Dairy farming region C is Holland (North/South)
(iv) Polder market D is South Flevoland.

(b) Describe the conditions that have favoured the development of dairy
farming in the Netherlands;
Physical factors;
- Fresh water for animals provided by Lake Yssel and other Rivers for
animals to drink.
- Gently sloping relief allows easy movement of animals without staggering
to break their legs.
- High quality of animal breeds like Friesians, Red and White Meuse that
are more productive.
- Nutritious pasture for the animals to feed on.
- Low lying altitude has promoted mild climatic conditions for proper of
dairy cattle.
- Expansive land for establishment of dairy farms.
- Fairly fertile clay and peat soils promoted growth of fodder crops.
- Warm summer temperatures led to outdoor grazing.
- Moderate cool temperate conditions ideal for rearing of dairy cattle.
- Moderate rainfall promotes growth of abundant pasture for dairy cattle.
Human factors;

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 -
Modern/high level of technology to support dairy farming e.g. use of
milling machines, use of wind mills to pump water, etc simplifying work
on the farms.
- Wide/large market for dairy products both at home and abroad.
- Presence of adequate/sufficient capital to invest in the dairy industry.
- Well developed/efficient transport system e.g. by air, water, road, railway
etc, for east transportation of dairy products to the market.
- Intensive research in dairy farming by universities and other agricultural
institutions on market, New breeds,
- Supportive/positive government policy through provision of capital/loans
to the farmers and creating good investment climate.
- Skilled labour to work on the farms.
- Presence of well developed cooperative societies/movement for easy
marketing of processing loans, transporting of dairy products.
- Political stability giving peace and a conducive climate for dairy farming.
(c) Explain the contributions/Benefits of dairy farming to the
development of Netherlands:
- Provision of employment opportunities thus improving standards of living.
- Provision of market for industrial products e.g. machines, sprays.
- Development of infrastructure like roads, railways for easy transport of
dairy products to market.
- Revenue for the government through taxation.
- International relationship/regional cooperation through trade and
exports.
- Development of industries making cheese, butter, yoghurt, powdered and
condensed milk.
- Increased income for the households thus improving standards of living.
- Growth of urban area/urbanization in the rich agro-processing zones e.g.
Rotterdam./ Has led to growth of urban centres and ports e.g. Rotterdam,
Amsterdam with associated advantages.
- Diversification of the economy thus reduction overdependence on one
economic activity
- Has promoted economic diversification thus reducing over reliance on one
sector.
- Source of valuable animal protein/food e.g. milk products leading to
improved nutrition./ Source of rich animal proteins from milk and milk
products leading to improved health
- Source of foreign exchange for the government from exportation of
animal products.
- It’s a source of power/biogas used for domestic purpose.
- It is a source of manure from animal wastes.
- Has increased incomes leading to better standard of living.
(d)(i) Dairy products; - Cheese/ghee, Butter, Yogurt, Powered, powered milk.
(ii) Countries where Netherlands products are exported to;
- Belgium, Any African Country, USA, United Kingdom, Any Asian Country.

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4. Draw a sketch map of The Netherlands and on it mark and name;
(i) Towns; Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague,
(ii) The North Sea,
(iii) Any one major arable farming area,
(iv) Any one major dairy farming area.
Arable farming is the cultivation of land to grow crops like cereals, fodders,
potatoes. While
Dairy farming is the rearing of animals mainly for milk and milk products.

(b) A sketch map of Netherlands showing Dairy farming, Arable farming

areas, The North Sea and selected Towns;

Study the table below showing different types of farming on the Dutch
Polders and answer the questions that follow; Table 61
Type of farming Percentage of land Area covered

Market gardening 07
Mixed farming 35
Arable farming 53
Orchards 05

Total 100

Adapted: Beddis, R. Place, Resources and People, Book 2 p75.

(a) Identify the type of farming which occupies the;
(i) Largest,
(ii) Least, percentage of land area on the Dutch Polders.
(b)Draw a pie chat to show the relative importance of each type of farming.
(c) (i) Name any two polders in The Netherlands.
(ii) Describe the processes involved in the formation of a Polder.
State two products from each of the following farming practices;
- Products from Mixed farming;

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 - Arable farming; Sugar beets, cereals, Potatoes,
- Animal rearing; Cheese, Butter, milk.
- Products from Orchards;
- Peers, Cherries, Apples.
- Products from Market gardening;
- Lettuce, Cabbages, Tomatoes, Cumber, Onions, Flowers, fruits,
Mushrooms.
(a) (i) Largest type of farming in terms of landuse is arable farming with
53%.
(ii)Least area is occupied by Orchards with 05%.
(b) Calculating degrees from percentages;
07
Market gardening = X 3600 = 25.2 ≈ 250
100
35
Mixed farming = 100
X 3600 = 1260
53
Arable farming = 100 X 3600 = 190.8 ≈ 1910
05
Orchards = 100
X 3600 = 180 (Cal 04 marks)
A pie chart showing the relative importance of each type of farming on
the Dutch polders. (Use your graph book)
(Only percentages to be portrayed in the Pie Chart) (ACC =04marks)
HORTICULTURE IN NETHERLANDS:
(a) Draw a sketch map of The Netherlands and on it mark and name;
(i) River Rhine, (iii) Towns; Haarlem, The Hague, and
Amsterdam,
(ii) Lake Ijsselmeer, (iv) Any two areas under horticulture,

(a)A sketch map of The Netherlands showing selected features;

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 (b) (i) Crops grown under horticulture in the areas named in (a)(iv) above.
- Flowers, Cherries, Plums, Apples, Fruits, Pears.
(ii) Factors which have led to the development of horticulture in The
Netherlands.
- The flat landscape allows mechanization.
- The fertile alluvial clay soils facilitate luxuriant growth of horticultural
products.
- Strategic location of Netherlands near densely populated countries of over
200 million people provide a ready market to the Dutch horticultural
products,
- The cool summer temperatures and mild winters of about 100C favour
growth of horticultural products.
- The moderate rainfall of about 750mmpa allows proper growth of
horticultural products.
- Extensive research that has led to high yielding and quick maturing crops.
- Modern technology like the use of green houses where water, temperatures
and moisture are regulated.
- The ready maker for horticultural products both within Netherlands and
abroad.
- Strong farmers’ cooperatives have increased capacity for loans and
collective marketing of horticultural products.
(c) Problems affecting horticultural industry in The Netherlands.
- Salination of soils due to underground seepage of the salty sea water limits
crop growth.
- River flooding which leads to destruction of crops and farmlands.
- The large sums of capital needed to run the business limits its expansion.
- Inadequate rain fall especially during the winter season limits drop growth.

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 - Overdependence of foreign market due to limited home market leads
wastage.
- Shortage of labour during harvesting season leads to wastage.
- River flooding which leads to destruction of crops and farmlands.
- Soil exhaustion due to intensive cultivation leads to low output.
(d) Measures being taken to solve the problems above;
- Exporting excessive production to foreign market to eliminate excessive
harvest.
- Building embankment to control flooding.
- Reclaiming of more land from the sea to reduce land shortage.
- Using green houses to reduce overdependence on natural conditions.
- Acquiring loans from farmers’ cooperative banks to increase capital.
- Using fertilizers to improve soil fertility.
- Growing high quality products to cover-up the high costs.
- Practicing intensive farming which requires less land.
POLDERISATION IN THE NETHERLANDS
Any two polders in The Netherlands;
-Markerwaad, - South Flevoland
-Eastern Flevoland, - Eastern Flevoland
-Wieringermeer, - North East Polder.
The process of land reclamation in the Netherlands; /Polder
formation
- Survey/exploration to establish the nature of rocks/soils dept is done.
- Ring dykes are constructed around the areas to be drained using materials
such as concrete, Blocks, clay and sand.
- The water from the reclaimed area is then pumped out by wind/pump run
by wind energy.
- Trenches/Ditches are then constructed to drain out water from the
enclosed land.
- A major central channel/canal is constructed to take the water from the
drained area.
- Desalination of land using reeds and lime to remove excess salts from the
land is done.
- Irrigation is done using fresh water from the nearby rivers/water sources
to further reduce the saline conditions.
- Deep ploughing/cultivation for further softening of the soils using deep
ploughing equipment.
- Pasture is then planted in the reclaimed land.
- Polders are finally used food production and animal rearing, settlement,
recreation and industrialization.
OR Illustration by a diagram;

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 A sketch map showing the Zuider Zee polders;

(b)Explain the conditions which necessitated the establishment of

the Zuider Zee polders.

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- Need to create fresh water source for domestic and industrial use.
- Advanced technology by invention of wind mills leading to easy
reclamation of land.
- Need to control sea incursions from the North Sea.
- Need to create more land for agriculture.
- Need to create more land for industrial development.
- Need to create more land for forestry.
- Need to create more and for recreation/tourism.
- Need for land for development of transport and communication.
- To desalinate the soils for better crop yields.
Factors which favoured the establishment of Zuider Zee polders;
- Highly developed technology to construct/establish polders.
- The low lying areas that made it possible to block the sea from the land.
- Large capital base to invest in the establishment of polders.
- Abundant skilled labour to construct dykes and to pump water out of the
Polder areas.
- Availability of wind energy due to strong wind to run the wind mills for
further draining of the area.
- Supportive government policy towards land reclamation in Netherlands.
- The large population that needed land for settlement and farming
practices.
- The narrow gap area between Wadden Sea and Lake Ljssel that was easy
to connect with the Great Dyke/Barrier dam.
- The need to have fresh water for both domestic and industrial uses.
Environmental problems which resulted from land reclamation in
Netherlands; /Problems faced by farmers on the Dutch Polders;
/problems which resulted from the establishment of polders in The
Netherlands
- Pollution of land, air, and water sources due to application of agro-
chemicals, fertilizers, herbicides, etc.
- Saline conditions as a result of underground seepage which reduces soil
productivity.
- Rapid growth of weeds discourages crop growth
- Rapid growth of winds which compete with crops and pastures.
- High population density with its associated disadvantages such as slums,
congestion, employment.
- Water logging conditions which lead to water borne diseases and
unhealthy conditions for the people.
- Siltation of the channels leading to constant flooding that needs regular
dredging that is costly.
- Sea incursions/floods leading to destruction of property in the reclaimed
areas.
- Unstable/sinking of land making it unsuitable for human activities like
farming, settlement, industrialization.
- High cost of maintaining the polders.

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- Soil exhaustion leads to low yields/ Infertile sandy soils lead to low yields.
- Sinking of the land threatens farmers.
- High cost of leasing land for agriculture coupled with high taxes which
have increased the prices of agricultural products.
- Soil salination still continues from underground leading to yields.
- Higher cost of agricultural land due to high costs of inputs./ Shortage of
land limits expansion of farmlands.
- High maintenance cost of the polders.
Study the table below showing landuse on a typical polder in The
Netherlands and answer the questions that follow; Table
62
Form of landuse Percentage of land area

Arable land 22
Buildings, roads, and water 18
Grasslands 43
Woodlands, Heath and dunes 13
Horticulture 04

Total 100

Adapted: Gibbs, C.W The Rhinelands, Revised Editions pg112.

(a) Draw a pie chart to show the information contained in the table.
(Use your graph book)
(b)State the form of land use which occupies the;
(i) Least (ii) Largest land area on the polders in The Netherlands.
Study the table below showing land reclamation in the Netherlands and
answer the questions that follow; Table
63
Century Land reclaimed (KM)

1400 – 1500 430

1500 – 1600 730
1600 – 1700 1,150
1700 – 1800 510
1800 – 1900 1,200
1900 – 2000 730

Adapted: Gibbs; C.W The Rhinelands. Revised Editions pg 96.

(a) Draw a line graph to show the trend of land reclamation in the
Netherlands. (Use your graph book)
(a) (i)The century when the largest area of land was reclaimed is 1800 –
1900.
(ii) Factors/Reasons which have led to the increase in the area
reclaimed during the period identified above;

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 - Increased need for reclaimed land due to increase in Dutch
population.
- Improvement in technology that if rapid advancement in
engineering skills.
- Invention of the wind mills in 17th century thus improvement in
technology increased the capacity to develop large tracts of land.
- The establishments of many projects like the Zuider Zee project and
the Delta plan.
- Large capital.
- Skilled and semi skilled labour.
- Supportive government policy.
- Relative political stability.
(b) Benefits of land reclamation to Netherlands;
- Provided adequate land for settlement, agriculture, transport and
industry.
- Dams improved connection by roads. This shortened the
geographical distance travelled especially at the Dutch coastline.
- Led to creation of fresh water bodies like Ijssel Meer hence source of
water for domestic, agricultural and industrial use.
- Led to creation of recreation facilities.
- Led to development of tourism industry based on how the technology
has helped the Dutch to create land out of water.
- Development of large scale agricultural sector with modern farms
and industries.
- Led to controlled floods.
- Promoted research.
- Led to urbanization.
(d) (i) Reclaimed areas in Netherlands;
- Meemster, - Wormer,
- Purmer, - Harlem
- Delta area that the North Holland province and Friesland.
URBANISATION IN NETHERLANDS
Study the figure below showing the site and position of Rotterdam port and
answer the questions that follow;

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 (a) Name the;
(i) Canal marked A, (ii) Water body marked
B,
(ii) Rivers marked C and D, (iv) Country marked 1,
(iii) Towns marked 2 and 3.

(a)(i) Canal A is Rhine Scheldt canal. (ii) Water body B is The North Sea.
(iii) Rivers; C is Maas/Meuse, D is Rhine.

(iv) Country 1 is Germany (v) Towns; 2 is Amsterdam. 3 is

Liege.
(b) Factors which influenced the location of Rotterdam port;
- Proximity to the coast- Its location near the North Sea making it a gateway
to Europe and the rest of the World.
- Its strategic position at the head of navigable rivers like Rhine, Maas and
Waal.
- Rich and productive hinterland both agriculturally and industrially in
Germany, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Belgium and France.
- Advanced technology of establishing modern port facilities such as
dredging of shallow areas, construction of canals, polders, locks, and dock
gates.
- Historical factors- Area of ancient settlement which gained importance
overtime through trade and establishment of agro based industries.
- Existence of a sheltered harbour from strong winds.
- Low tidal range which allows navigation of large Ocean/sea Vessels.
- Generally flat landscape for establishment of port facilities.
- Ice free conditions all the year round due the North Atlantic Drift which
allows the functions of the port throughout.
- Existence of vast land for construction of Rotterdam port.

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 - Large capital provided by the government for construction and
establishment of port facilities.
- Supportive government policy towards construction of port facilities.
- Availability of large population provides a large market.
- Abundant skilled labour like engineers needed in construction of port
facilities.

Exports handled by Rotterdam port;

- Cars, Watches, Engines, Chemicals, Air Crafts, Textiles, Newsprints.
Imports handled by Rotterdam port;
- Tobacco, Sugar, Maize, Tropical hard wood, Minerals like Iron ore.
(c) Functions of Rotterdam Port;
- It serves as an EntrePort that is an international EntrePort for Rhineland.
- Serves as a centre of commerce and trade like banking, trading, others.
- Industrial centre with numerous industrial establishments.
- It is a transport and communication centre with water, air and railways.
- Serves as an administrative centre.
- It is a tourist centre.
- It also serves as a residential centre.
- It’s a cultural centre.
- It is a recreational centre.
Problems facing Rotterdam Port;
- Constant flooding due to situation of the area below sea level.
- Silting of the seaway due to location at the delta of the Rhine.
- Constant dredging makes its costly.
- Congestion at the port. Leads to delays.
- Water and air pollution due to oil spillage, industrial wastes, fumes
emission.
- High crime rates due to unemployment.
- Limited land limits expansion of the port.
- Mashes and water logging limits expansion of the port.
- High spread of pest and water borne diseases.
(d) Steps being taken to improve Rotterdam Port.
- Drawing of time tables to minimize delays and congestion.
- Containerizing of goods for quick loading and off loading.
- Expanding of port facilities to include Europort.
- Constructing of by-pass canals to minimize congestion.
- Establishing of Europort project to shorten the coastline and minimize sea
incursion.
- Forming regional co-operation of Rhineland countries for Joint
development of Rotterdam port and Rhine waterway.
- Using of strong/flood lights to improve on visibility.
- Using of radars to detect the incoming ships.
- Dredging of canals/New water ways to allow large water vessels sail.
- Treating/recycling of wastes to reduce pollution.

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 - Using of roll on and roll off facilities (Vehicles are directly driven on/off the
ship) at the port to reduce congestion.
- Reclaiming of more land around the port to create more room for
expansion

LUXEMBOURG
AGRICULTURE
1. Study figure below: Map of Luxembourg provided below and answer the
questions which follow;

(a) Name the;

(i) Rivers marked A and B, (ii) Physical regions marked C and D,
(ii) Towns marked 1 and 2. (iv) Country marked 3.
(a) (i) Rivers; A is R. Sure, B is R. Mosselle /Mossel
(ii) Physical regions; C is Oesling highland D is Guiterland Lowland
(iii) Towns; 1 is Luxembourg, 2 is Wiltz
(iv) Country 3 is Belgium.
(a) (i) Crops grown in Oesling Highlands;

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 - Oats, - Barley - Rye - Potatoes
Crops grown in Guiterland lowlands;
- Wheat, Rye , Vines/grapes,
(ii) Conditions which have favoured mixed farming in Luxembourg;
- Low land areas/Guiterland which is relatively flat favours mechanization.
- Fertile soils deposited in the lowland (Guiterland) support both the growth
of pastures and crops.
- Relatively warm temperatures favour both crop growing and animal
rearing.
- Availability of adequate capital for investing in mixed farming.
- Availability of a ready markets both internally externally for the
agricultural produce.
- Efficient transport system by road, railway and water to facilitate the
movement of inputs and products.
- Availability of skilled labour to work on the farms.
- Advanced technology employed in arable and dairy industry.
- Favourable government policy that promotes agricultural sector by
providing capital for agricultural development.
- Adequate pasture on which animals feed.
- Availability of adequate water supply for animals to drink.
(b) Contributions of agriculture to the development Luxembourg;
- Source of revenue to the government through taxation leading to the
development of infrastructure.
- Provision of employment opportunities to a large population leading to
improved standard of living.
- Source of food for the population leading to better nutrition and health.
- Development of infrastructure like roads, railways, water canals
facilitating movement of goods, services and people.
- Improved international relations through exportation of agricultural
products/trade links.
- Waste from animals industry acts as manure used to improve crop
productivity.
- Growth of towns/urban centres and their associated advantages like
market and labour.
- Diversification of the economy thus reducing overdependence on other
sectors.
- Provision of income leading to improved standard of living.
- Provision of foreign exchange through export of agricultural products.
- Provides raw a materials for agro-based industries that use agricultural
products like food processing industry.
(c) Countries that import agricultural products from Luxembourg;
- Belgium
- Holland/The Netherlands, Spain
- France. – Switzerland,
- Germany – Britain,

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 POPULATION OF LUXEMBOURG:
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
(a) Conditions which have influenced population density in Luxembourg;
- Nature of soils, areas with fertile soils in the south support agriculture
leading to high population density while areas with infertile soils have
discouraged agriculture leading to low population density.
- Nature of altitude, Areas of low altitude have warmer temperatures
leading to dense population while areas with high altitude have very cold
temperatures thus sparsely populated.
- Nature of relief; Areas with rugged relief are inaccessible hence
discourage settlement leading to low population density while areas with
family flat relief in the South West have attracted transport and
communication hence dense population.
- Nature of economic activities, Areas with agricultural and industrial
activities have attracted high population densities due to high population
due to provision of employment opportunities while areas with limited
economic activities especially agricultural and industrial activities have
low population densities due to low chances of employment and low level
of productivity.
- Nature of drainage especially in the South East has attracted medium
population density because it’s prone to flooding while well drained areas
like the South West have attracted dense settlement.
- Well developed transport and communication attracts dense
population due to easy movement and trade.
- Presence of forest vegetation in the North discourages settlement hence
sparse/low population density.
- The government policy of keeping the North under forest cover
discourages crop farming and hence low population density.
(b) Advantages of a high population density in South West of
Luxembourg;
- The population is a potential source of cheap labour supply where some
people are employed in the industrial and agricultural sector.
- Large population density offers market for goods and services.
- There is better utilization of the available resources and infrastructure.
- It is easy to extend social amenities and services.
- The high population density increases the revenue to the government
because of increased tax base.
- The high population offers security to the country like in form of defense
force.
(c) Disadvantages/problems of a high population density;
- It creates land shortage due to too much pressure on land.
- Traffic congestion leading to delays.
- Overcrowding of people leading to easy spread of diseases.
- Poor housing conditions/ development of slums leads due to low incomes.
- Environmental pollution leads to degradation of land, water and air.

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 - Food shortage leads to poor health.
- High crime rates due to unemployment.
- Over utilization of available resources leading to their degradation.
(d) Measures being taken to solve the problems in High population
density areas;
- Encouraging vertical expansion/constructing storeyed buildings to
maximize the available space.
- Constructing of underground tunnels to decongest surface roads and
railways.
- Emphasizing industrialization to check on unemployment rate.
- Establishing of well planned housing estates to solve the problem of slum
development.
- Carrying out family planning to control population growth.
- Using of strict laws/police to control the problem of high crime rates.
- Importing of food/agricultural modernization.
- Establishing of green belts to control environment degradation.
- Establishing of hospital and health centres to control diseases.
- Rural transformation programmes/peripheral development to minimize
rural to urban migration.
- Establishing of industries in the low population areas.
- Encouraging migration to the areas of low population/setting up
resettlement schemes in areas of low population.
AGRICULTURE IN LUXEMBOURG
2. Study table 64: showing cereal production in Luxembourg (‘000’ tones) in 2013
and answer the questions that follow;
Table 64: Luxembourg: 2013 Cereal Production in ‘000s tones (2013)
Cereal Production

Rice 7
Wheat 91
Rye 5
Barley 42
Maize 2
Others 26

Total 173

Adapted: Eurostat: Agriculture, Forestry fisheries statistics

(a) Draw a pie chart to show the relative importance of each cereal crop in
Luxembourg.
Calculations;
7,000
Rice = × 3600 = 14.60 ≈ 150 (4.04%)
173,000
91,000
Wheat = 173,000 × 3600 = 189.40 ≈ 1890 (52.6%)
5,000
Rye = 173,000 × 3600 = 10.40 ≈ 100 (2.9%)

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 42,000
Barley = 173,000
× 3600 = 87.390 ≈ 870 (24.3%)
2,000
Maize = × 3600 = 4.20 ≈ 40 (1.2%)
173,000
26,000
Others = 173,000 × 3600 = 54.1≈ 540 (15%)
A pie-Chart showing the relative importance of each cereal crop in
Luxembourg; (Use your graph book)
(NB: showing percentage values and degrees in the pie chart)

(b)(i) Percentage contributed by

91,0000
Wheat = 173,000
× 100 = 52.6%

(ii)Percentage contributed by
42,000
Barley = × 100 = 24.3%
173,000
(c) Conditions favouring cereal production in Luxembourg;
- The presence of fertile soils derived from sandstones and limestone favour
cereal production.
- The southern part of Luxembourg is not exposed to extreme winter season.
- The presence of large pieces of land encourages cereal production.
- The gentle landscape in the southern Luxembourg encourages
mechanization of agriculture.
- Abundant supply of labour due to high population density in the Southern
Luxembourg.
- The availability of large capital for purchase of machinery for cereal
production.
- Existence of large market for cereals due to big populations in
neighbouring Southern areas of Luxembourg.
- The positive government policy that supports agricultural production for
self sufficiency.
- Availability of efficient transport system to bring in agricultural inputs and
take away agricultural outputs for exports.
- Advanced technology with intensive use of agricultural inputs for high
production.
- Intensive research encourages high crop production.
(d) Benefits of agricultural sector in Luxembourg;
- A source of food for the population.
- Increased self sufficiency in food and savings on food imports.
- Provision of employment opportunities to the people of Luxembourg.
- It is a source of Government revenue for the development of other sectors.
- A source of raw materials for agro-based industries.
- Increased income and standards of living for the people.
- There is diversification of economy in Luxembourg.
- Leads to development of infrastructure like roads, railways, canals.
- It has generated foreign exchange to the country.
- It has led to growth of urban centres and associated advantages,

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 - There is promotion of international relations.
- Agricultural sector as served as market for industrial goods in
Luxembourg.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN LUXEMBOURG
3. Study figure 4, Showing industrial centres in Luxembourg and answer the
questions that follow;

(a) Name the; (i) Rivers marked A, B and C,

(ii)Neighbouring countries marked 1 and 2,
(iii) Iron and steel industries centres marked 3 and 4.
(a) (i) Rivers; A is R. Alzette, B is R. Moselle, C is R. Sure.
(ii) Neighbouring countries; 1 is Belgium, 2 is Germany
(iii) Iron and Steel industrial centres; 3 is Esch-sur-Alzette, 4 is
Dudelange.
(b) Factors which favoured the development of iron and steel industries
in the above industrial centres; (LUXEMBOURG)
- Presence of a variety of raw materials like locally available iron ore in the
Southern part of Luxembourg at Differdange, Dudelange.
- Essay accessibility to imported coal from Ruhr coal fields of Germany.
- Efficient transport by railway and water to distribute raw material to
industries and finished goods to markets.
- Availability of a large capital base from large companies like A.R.B.E.B to
invest in development of iron and steel industries.
- Availability of a ready market provided by European countries like
Belgium, Germany, Sweden.
- Availability of advanced technology to develop industries like use of
machines.

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 - Availability of skilled labour from Luxembourg and surrounding countries
to work in the iron and steel industries.
- Presence of large volume of water from numerous rivers like Alzette,
Moselle, Sure for cooling machines/industrial use.
- Availability of a stable power for industrial use/to run the industrial
machines.
- Positive government policy that encourages industrial development
through giving incentives to industrialists.
- Relatively stable political climate that is conducive for industrial
establishment.
- Intensive industrial research leading to production of quality iron and steel
products.
(c) Contribution of the industrial sector to the development of
Luxemburg;
- Provides employment opportunities to the people of Luxembourg leading
to better standard of living.
- Has increased incomes for the people leading to better Standard of living.
- Has led to growth of towns/urbanization leading to increased access to
urban facilities like market, accommodation, employment.
- Has led to development of infrastructure like roads, railways, waterways,
leading to economic development.
- Has led to diversification of the economy which reduces overdependence.
- Has encouraged regional cooperation and international relations hence
more trading opportunities.
- Generates government revenue from taxes that is used to provide social
services.
- Provides consumer goods like iron and steel products hence reducing
dependence on imported steel products.
- Provides market for goods from other sectors like mining, agriculture
leading to development of such sectors.
(d) Problems facing the industrial sector in Luxemburg;
- Exhaustion of Local iron ore deposits necessitating importation of
expensive iron ore from Alsace and Lorraine of France.
- Competition for market with other iron and steel producing countries like
Belgium, France, Germany.
- General economic recession in Europe and America affects the market for
iron and steel products.
- Increased cost of transportation of raw materials and finished
good/Landlockedness increases the transport costs.
- Shortage of skilled labor limits industrial operations.
- Competition for land with other forms of landuse/land shortage.
- High cost of reducing pollution of air, land and water/stringent anti –
pollution laws.
- Environmental pollution of air. Land and water.
- High production costs due to use of imported raw materials and power.

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 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN LUXEMBOURG
(a) A sketch map of Luxembourg showing selected physiographic regions,
rivers, towns and neighbouring countries.

(b) Conditions which have led to the development of industries in

Luxembourg;
- Huge power from coal and major rivers like Mossel to run industrial
machines of Iron and Steel, Textiles in Luxembourg City.
- Abundant raw materials like iron ore from the South Western corner of
Luxembourg to feed industries for example Iron and Steel industries in
Luxembourg City and Differdange.
- Abundant skilled labour to work in industries for example chemical
engineers needed in the textile industries found in Luxembourg City.
- Large capital to purchase industrial raw material and equipment like
cotton to feed textile industries in Luxembourg City.
- The wide market from Luxembourg and neighbouring countries to buy the
products from food processing industries in Differdange.
- Efficient transport network based on roads and railways for distributing
Cotton and garments to and from textile industries found in Luxembourg
City.
- Modern technology such as conveyor belts, automatic machines which
increase efficiency in Textile industries of Luxembourg City.
- Influence of foreign investors from USA, Germany and France who have
invested in textile industries in Luxembourg City.
- Supportive government policy such as tax free conditions has favoured
Iron and Steel industries in Differdange and Luxembourg City.

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 (c) Contributions of the industrial sector to the development of
Luxembourg;
- Has stimulated development of roads and railways thus facilitating trade
and commerce in Luxembourg.
- Has created employment opportunities from which people earn income to
improve their standard of living.
- Source of foreign exchange through exportation of manufactured goods to
USA and France.
- Has led to growth of towns like Differdange and Luxembourg City which
provide accommodation and other social services to the people.
- Has promoted economic diversification thus reducing over reliance on
tourism industry and Banking.
- Has promoted international cooperation between Luxembourg and her
trade partners like USA and France.
- Provides consumer and capital goods to people thus leading to improved
standard of living.
(d) Challenges faced by the industrial sector in Luxembourg;
- Limited domestic market due to small population of about 420,400people
discourages production.
- Shortage of skilled labour during busy hours leads to wastage and limited
production.
- Exhaustion of raw materials like iron ore limits production.
- Competition for market with other developed countries.
- Limited land for expansion of industries limits output.
- Pollution form fumes and industrial discharge affects labour efficiency.
(a) Draw a sketch map of Luxembourg and it mark and name;
(i) Rivers; Alzette, Moselle and Sure,
(ii) Neighbouring countries; France and Belgium,
(iii) Iron and Steel industries; Dudelange and Rodange.
(a) A sketch map of Luxembourg showing Iron and Steel Industries;

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(b) Describe the conditions for location of Iron and steel industries;
- Large iron ore alluvial deposits which are located near industries centres
of Dudelange and Rodange.
- Large supply of water for use in iron and steel industries/proximity to
rivers such as Moselle.
- Supportive government policy towards industrial development e.g.
provisions of loans, searching for market, etc.
- Well developed/cheap means of transport by water, railways to link
industrial centres to market centres.
- Strategic location in the most densely populated regions of Luxembourg
for both labour and market.
- Presence of Gazzetted land for establishment of industries.
- Reliable source of HEP from rivers such as sure and Moselle.
- Skilled labour for industrial products due to large production.
- Large sums of capital to invest in the industries.
- Modern/advanced technology leading to quality production.
(c) Explain the effects of industrialization on the environment.
NB: The effects should be both positive and negative;
Negative effects include;
- Pollution of water, land, and air by industrial gases and wastes.
- High cost of land due to competition with other forms of lands use.
- Overcrowding leading to poor sanitation.
- High rates of crimes like gambling, pick pocketing.
- Creation of hollows that destroy soil structures.
- Los s of vegetation/Destruction of wetlands leading to loss of bio-diversity.
- Unemployment due to large population leading to high cost of living
- Displacement of people leading to high cost of resettlement.
- Positive effects; Increased standard of living due to increased income.

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 - Growth of infrastructure such as schools, roads, railways, others.
- Diversification of the economy reducing overdependence on one sector.
- Foreign exchange is earned through exports.
- Promotes tourism which earns foreign exchange.
- Urbanization like Rodange and Dudelange which provide employment.
- Employment which earns people income.
- Provides market for agricultural, mineral and forestry products.
- Has created international relations between Luxembourg and her
importing Countries hence attracting more aid.
(d) Suggest measures that should be taken to improve the industrial
sector in Luxembourg;
- Relocation of industries to less congested areas.
- Diversification of energy resources to supplement HEP and coal.
- Recycling and re-use of industrial materials.
- Creation of industrial linkages forward and backward to raw material and
market respectively.
- International cooperation for the efficient use of shared resources e.g. iron
ore shared with France/Extension of markets in the European Union.
- Human resource development and training.
- Importation of raw materials from countries where raw materials are
abundant.
- Aggressive marketing/extensive marketing strategy through advertising
beyond European Union.
- Employing more skilled labour to work in industries.
- Modernization of transport network for faster movement of raw materials.
HISTORY

THE LUO MIGRATION

Origins
 The Luo are also referred to as the River-lake nilotes.
 They originated from Bahr el- Ghazel in southern Sudan.
 They are known as River –Lake Nilotes because they settled along Rivers and lakes.
 Their migration took place between 1350 - 1500 A.D.
 They entered East Africa through the Northern part of Uganda following the Albert Nile.
 They included tribes like Alur, Langi, Acholi, Japadhola and Ja-luo of Western Kenya.

Causes of the Luo migration

 Search for water and pasture, the Luo migrated from their cradle land because they lacked
enough water sources and pasture for their animals.
 Population pressure: Their cradle land was over crowded and due to over grazing of their
animals in Bahr-el-Ghazel.
 Internal conflicts: Some Luo migrated to E.A because they were constantly included in civil
wars over land and animals.
 External-conflicts: There was a lot of pressure from their neighbors especially the Galla from
Ethiopia which forced the Luo to migrate into E. Africa.

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 The hostile climate of the southern Sudan also led to the Luo migration into E. Africa. i.e.
prolonged drought.
 The Luo also had the desire to export their political culture and organization. E.g. some of
them wanted to exercise their political rights.
 Band Wagon effect: i.e. some of the Luo migrants simply migrated as a result of seeing their
relatives moving.
 Love for adventure: Some Luo migrants especially the youth were interested in knowing what
was happening in other areas.
 Natural calamities: e.g. drought and famine also led to Luo migration into E. Africa.
 The southward movement of the Sahara desert also led to the Luo migration into E. Africa.
 Some historians attribute the Luo migration to over flooding since they lived along the banks
of R Nile.
 Misfortunes and epidemics e.g. sleeping sickness and Nagana led to the Luo migration into E.
Africa.
 The Luo also migrated to look for fertile areas that could support agriculture since some of
them were farmers.
 The Natural aggressive tendencies of the Luo also led to their migration into E.A so as to
conquer the weak people.
 The need to settle around water bodies and rivers since they did some fishing also forced them
to move.

Course/organisation of the Luo migration

 The Luo left Bahr-el-Ghazel around the 15th century.
 They then moved southwards following the River Nile under their leader Olum.
 Around the 16th century, the Luo settled at Pubungu (present day Pakwach).
 Therefore Pubungu became their area of dispersal/separation.
 From Pubungu the Luo split into two groups.
 Each group was under its own ruler and moved into a different direction.
 One group led by Gipir moved westwards, crossed the Nile and settled in the Northern parts
of Lake Albert.
 They intermarried with the Lendu, Okebo and Madi to form the Alur presently found in Nebbi
district.
 Another group under Labongo moved southwards and settled at Pawir (Chope) in Northern
Bunyoro kingdom.
 One group still under Labongo that remained at Chope, moved southwards to come into contact
with the Bachwezi to form the Luo-Babito Dynasty.
 Labongo left Chope and moved East wards to form Acholi people presently found in Gulu and
Lira.
 Another group of the Luo moved eastwards from the Pubungu through Acholi land, Lango,
Teso land up to Eastern Uganda in the Budama area.
 They gave birth to the present Japadhola found in Tororo District.
 However some of the Luo continued into Western Kenya e.g. the Joka—Jok moved directly
from Pubungu and settled in the Lamogi hills of the Nyanza province.
 The Jok—Omollo migrated through Busoga, Samia and Bukedi and finally settled in the
Nyanza region to form the Samia of Western Kenya.
 The Jok-Owiny moved from Pubungu and settled temporarily in Budama before finally settling
in Singoma Alego in the Nyanza province of Western Kenya.

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 The Abasuba were the last group of the Luo to move into Kenya.
 These were refugees from Buganda, Busoga and Ssese Islands and they settled in the southern
Nyanza province.

Effects of the Luo migration

 There were inter-marriages between the Luo and the local people leading to the formation of
new tribes i.e. Alur, Langi Japadhola.
 The coming of the Luo led to the formation of new kingdoms which were all using centralized
system of administration e.g. Buganda, Bunyoro and Ankole.
 The Luo introduced chiefdoms in Northern Uganda and western Kenya e.g. Rwotship in
Northern Uganda was a Luo creation.
 The coming of the Luo led to the final collapse of Bunyoro-Kitara Empire / Chwezi Empire
and led to the formation of the Luo-Bito Dynasty.
 The Luo introduced pet names (Empaako) erg Akiiki Abwoli, Amooti, Apuuli, Atwooki etc
especially in Bunyoro and Toro.
 The Luo introduced new crops in E.A e.g. millet, sorghum, groundnuts which are staple food
for many tribes in Western, Northern and Eastern Uganda.
 The Luo introduced new economic activities in E.A e.g. nomadic pastoralism and also
introduced the short horned cattle.
 *8The population of E.A increased as a result of the Luo influx and this created conflicts over
land.
 The Luo put to use what would have been idle land due to population increase.
 The Luo also developed trade within E.A because they introduced new commodities e.g spears
and arrows.
 The Luo introduced royal burial grounds for the kings e.g. in Bunyoro the jaw bones of the
Omukama have to be removed before burial and buried separately.
 The Luo led to the civil wars increasing in E.A as a result of their contacts with the local people
of E. Africa.
 Many people were displaced from E.A to other regions as a result of the Luo migration into
Tanzania to form Karagwe kingdom.
 In Bunyoro, they introduced new items of the royal regalia e.g. royal crown, royal fire, and
royal drums e.t.c

NGONI MIGRATION (1820—1860)

Origins
 THE Ngoni were close relatives of the Zulu and Ndwandwe people from South Africa.
 They were Bantu who belonged to the negroid race.
 They originally lived in Natal province in the south East of the Drakensburg Mountains.
 The Ngoni were Nguni speaking people.
 They are believed to have left South Africa around 1820.
 They left South Africa because of Shaka Zulu’s expansionist wars.
 This was during the Mfecane period where there was a lot of war and suffering in South Africa.
 The Ngoni were forced to flee and moved northwards.
 They left South Africa under different leaders e.g. Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama.
 They moved through central Africa and finally settled in East Africa (southern Tanganyika).
Causes of Ngoni migrations
 Shaka created a period of wars (Mfecane) that forced many people to migrate including the
Ngoni.

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 Population pressure in their cradle land also led to the Ngoni migration into East Africa.
 Internal conflicts e.g. land and clan conflicts also led to the Ngoni migration.
 The Ngoni were farmers and therefore migrated in search of new lands that were fertile to
support agriculture for example Ufipa plateau.
 The influence of good leaders e.g. Zulugama, Zwangendaba, Maputo etc also led to the
migration of the Ngoni into East Africa.
 Love for adventure also forced the Ngoni to migrate especially the youth who wanted to
explore new areas North of River Limpopo.
 Misfortunes and natural calamities e.g. diseases, floods, e.t.c also led to the Ngoni Migration.
 The ruthless army training of Shaka Zulu also forced some of the Ngoni fighters to escape to
East Africa.
 The Boer invasion of South Eastern Africa from the cape made the Ngoni lose their land which
forced them to move to East Africa.
 The need to export their culture also led to Ngoni migration into East Africa especially by the
youth.
 Band Wagon effect i.e. some of the Ngoni Migrants moved into East Africa after seeing their
relatives and friends moving.
 Search for water and pasture since the Ngoni kept animals they migrated into East Africa in
search of fresh pastures and water for their animals.
Course of the Ngoni migrations
 The Ngoni left South Africa in two (2) distinct groups.
 They left around 1820 and each group took a different direction.
 The first and biggest group was led by chief Zwangendaba.
 They moved through central Africa crossed R. Zambezi, traveled through Malawi and finally
settled around Ufipa were they destroyed the small settlements.
 The second and smaller group was led by chief Maputo.
 It moved through Mozambique, Eastern Malawi and finally settled around Songea among the
Yao.
 This group was known as the Maseko Ngoni.
 Around 1848, Zwangendaba died and his group split into 5 small groups.
 Three of these groups went back to central Africa settling in present day Malawi and Zambia.
 The two remaining groups settled permanently in Tanganyika and these were the Tuta and
Gwangara Ngoni.
 The Tuta Ngoni moved northwards to the lands of the Holoholo where they were defeated.
 They continued up to Nyamwezi land in 1850 where they captured a young Mirambo.
 The Gwangara Ngoni led by Zulugama moved East wards destroying the Hehe.
 By 1860, they had reached Songea where they clashed with the Maseko Ngoni whom they
defeated and forced them to flee.
 The defeated Maseko Ngoni split into two groups.
 One group under chief Maputo moved southwards crossed river Ruvuma and finally settled in
Mozambique.
 The other group fled northwards to Morogoro and these came to be known as the Mbuga
Ngoni.
 During their movements the Ngoni always captured people.
 The boys were absorbed into their army and girls were married off and this swelled their
number.

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Reasons why the Ngoni were successful against the people of E.Africa
 They had a strong army e.g. they always recruited captured boys into their army which
strengthened their army.
 The Ngoni had superior military organization which they had copied from Shaka.
 Their army was divided into battalions or regiments called Impis for effectiveness in battle.
 The Ngoni always used Guerilla tactics and this would scare other societies which easily gave
up.
 The Ngoni had superior weapons e.g. the short stabbing spear (Assegai) and they had shields.
 They had superior tactics of fighting e.g. they surrounded the enemy using the cow-horn
method.
 Ngoni fighters were professionals who had received a lot of military training and were always
free from duties at home.
 The Ngoni were determined to remain in East Africa because they feared to go back to South
Africa in case of defeat.
 The Ngoni invaders were fully united under their leaders and this helped them to defeat the
East African societies with a lot of ease.
 The Ngoni fighters had a lot of experience in warfare because they had participated in large
scale wars during their stay in South Africa.
 The Ngoni always used surprise attacks e.g. at night and on market days hence always caught
their enemies unaware.
 The East African societies were disunited and couldn’t offer any support to their neighbours
against the Ngoni.
 E.African societies had already been weakened by slave trade which had claimed all the strong
men.
 East Africa had also been weakened by attacks from Segeju and Zimba man eaters who also
reduced on the population.
 Ngoni fighters were never affected by famine because they always looted for food wherever
they passed.
 Ngoni also used the scorched Earth policy on those that tried to resist them e.g. Burning
villages, food stores, and huts and scared others who simply gave in without a fight.
 Most of the Ngoni enemies were weak and small societies that were disorganized and therefore
could not challenge the Ngoni military might.
 The East African societies had poor economies that could not sustain the fights against the
Ngoni.
 The East Africans had inferior weapons that could not compete with those of the Ngoni.

Effects of the Ngoni Migration

 Their migration created a period of wars in areas that were previously peaceful e.g. the Ufipa
communities were destroyed and devastated.
 The Ngoni migration resulted into the spread of epidemic diseases in the southern and central
Tanganyika e.g. smallpox and Malaria.
 Their migration created a new generation of war lords and leaders e.g. Nyungu ya mawe and
Mirambo.
 There was increase in slave trade because of the Ngoni confusion, Chaos and disorganizations.
 The Ngoni spread their culture e.g. most people who were captured and absorbed by the Ngoni
copied their Nguni language.
 The Ngoni invasion also disrupted the long distance trade caravans especially along the
Southern route which was dominated by the Yao.

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 The Ngoni invasion led to the formation of warrior groups e.g. The Maviti and Ruga Ruga
.These were bandits who terrorized southern and central Tanganyika.
 The Ngoni invasion led to the people of southern Tanganyika losing their land to the Ngoni.
 There was population increase in Southern Tanganyika were they settled e.g. among the Yao.
 Famine broke out in many societies since no farming and harvesting could take place because
of the Ngoni raids.
 Many people copied the Military tactics i.e. cow horn method and adopted their weapons e.g.
Assegai (short stabbing spear) for defense.
 Their migration led to the decline of some states e.g. Bena and Sangu because they never had
the capacity to resist the Ngoni aggression.
 The Ngoni raids led to heavy loss of lives especially those that tried to resist their movement
e.g. the Yao.
 There was deculturalisation and detribalisation e.g. the Ngoni displaced people from their
original homelands making them lose their culture.

Revision questions
1. a) Who were the Bantu? OR Describe the origins of the Bantu speaking people?
b) What were the causes of the Bantu migrations into East Africa?

2. a) Describe the course of their migration in East Africa before 1800 A.D.
b) What were the effects of their migration and settlement in East Africa?

3. a) Describe the movement and settlement of the Eastern Bantu into East Africa. OR Describe
the movement and settlement of the Western Bantu into East Africa.
b) What were the effects of their invasion on the people of East Africa?

4. a) Describe the organization of the migration of the Bantu speaking people into East Africa.
b) How were the people of East Africa affected by their coming?

5. a) Who were the River-Lake Nilotics? OR Describe the origins of the Luo speaking people.
b) Why did they leave their cradle land? OR What were the reasons for their migrations into
East Africa?

6. a) Describe the course of the migrations of the Luo (River - Lake Nilotics) into East Africa.
b) What were the effects of their migration and settlement on the peoples of East Africa?

7. a) Who were the Ngoni? OR Describe the origins of the Nguni speaking people.
b) Why did they leave their cradle land for East Africa in the mid 19th century?

8. a) Describe the migration and distribution of the Ngoni peoples into East Africa in the mid 19th
century.
b) What were the consequences of this invasion on Tanganyika by 1860?

9. a) Why was the Ngoni invasion of East Africa in the mid 19th century successful?
b) What were the results/impacts/outcomes of their migration into East Africa by 1860?

10. a) Why did East African resistance against the Ngoni fail in the mid 19th century?
b) How did this migration affect mainland Tanganyika by 1860?

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11. a) Who were the Plain/Highland Nilotes? OR Describe the origins of the Plain/Highland
Nilotes.
b) Why did they migrate from their cradle land?

12. a) Describe the course of the migration and settlement of the Plain/Highland Nilotes.
b) What impacts did their migration have on the people among whom they settled?
THE RISE OF THE INTERLACUSTRINE KINGDOMS
 This is the area surrounding Lake Victoria.
 Many Kingdoms flourished in this region and the most important of these were Bunyoro –
Kitara, Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankole, Toro, Karagwe, and Wanga.

ABATEMBUZI
 The Batembuzi were the first to inhabit the interlacustrine region.
 Their origins are not clear and are surrounded in myths and legends.
 Traditions in western Uganda suggest the Tembuzi fell from heaven.
 They were semi gods and were able to perform miracles.
 The Tembuzi couldn’t die but just disappeared and went back to heaven at the end of their
earthly life.
 The Tembuzi dynasty is believed to have been founded by Ruhanga (creator or god) assisted
by his brother Nkya.
 Ruhanga had no sons but Nkya had four, namely Kairu, Kahima, Kakama – Twale and Kintu.
 Kairu became the ancestor of cultivators, Kahima the ancestor of herders and Kakama – Twale
the ancestor of rulers.
 Local traditions claim that Ruhanga and Kintu went back to heaven.
 Upon Ruhanga’s ascending to heaven, Kakama – Twale took over the kingdom.
 Kakama – Twale later disappeared to heaven and was succeeded by his son Baba who was
later succeeded by Ngonzaki.
 Ngonzaki was succeeded by Isaza who was recorded as the last ruler of the Tembuzi.
 When Isaza disappeared, his gate keeper - Bukuku imposed himself as the ruler but people
refused to recognize him as their leader.
 The Tembuzi were farmers growing mainly cereals and also kept animals.
 They also slept in grass thatched huts.
 This Kingdom lasted for 4 to 5 generations between 1200 – 1350 A.D.
 The Tembuzi divided their Kingdom into Ssazas each under a chief.
 They introduced the succession system in Bunyoro-Kitara.
 After the collapse of the Tembuzi dynasty, the Chwezi took over the interlacustrine region.

THE CHWEZI RULE (1350 – 1500 A.D)

Origins
 Their origin is not clear.
 Most of what is known about them is derived from myths and oral traditions.
 The Bachwezi were the successors to the Batembuzi.
 They were also semi gods and wandering pastoralists.
 Some historians believe that they were Galla or Cushitic people from Ethiopia.
 Others suggested that they must have been Greeks, Portuguese or possibly Egyptians.
 Others claim that they were probably Bantu speaking people.

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 They were believed to have entered Uganda through the North or North East.
 Unlike the Tembuzi, they were true human beings.
 They were tall and light skinned people.
 They were demi-gods who possessed super natural powers and performed miracles.
 They were pastoralists and mainly kept the long horned cattle.
 They were known by various names e.g. Chwezi, Tutsi, Hinda and Hima.
 The Bachwezi formed the Bunyoro-Kitara Empire.
 The first ruler of the Bachwezi was Ndahura and their last ruler was Wamara.

ORGANISATION OF BUNYORO KITARA EMPIRE

Political organization
 The Bachwezi were organized under one central authority i.e. they had a centralized monarch.
 The overall leader of the Bachwezi had the title Omukama.
 Omukama had absolute powers to life and death.
 The empire was divided into small states or provinces, districts and counties each under a chief.
 The chiefs were close relatives of the Omukama and formed a council of representatives.
 Bigobyamugyenyi was the capital of Bunyoro-Kitara Empire.
 The rulers lived in reed palaces with palace officials, Women and Slave artisans
 The Chwezi palaces were protected by enclosures called Ebirembo.
 The Chwezi Empire had a large standing army that fought using spears, bows and arrows.
 The Chwezi army also dug ditches around their capital and cattle kraals for purposes of
protection.
 The Chwezi had a Royal Regalia which included the royal crown, royal drum and spears.
 These were symbols of power respected by everyone.

Social Organisation
 The Bachwezi had two classes of people in society i.e. the Bahima and Bairu.
 Bairu were cultivators while Bahima were pastoralists and rulers.
 They built grass thatched huts smeared with cow dung and decorated inside with a variety of
hand crafts.
 They were great sportsmen who spent their free time playing games e.g. Omweso and
wrestling.
 They were great hunters who used long spears.
 They built reed palaces for the Omukama to stay in.
 Religiously, they believed in many gods.
 They had many strange and super natural powers and could even disappear when annoyed.

Economic Organisation
 They were a pastoral group who mainly kept the long horned cattle.
 The Chwezi were also farmers who grew coffee, beans and millet.
 The Chwezi also carried out Iron working and made implements like hoes, pangas and spears.
 They were also involved in pottery and made round bowls; Jars and shallow basins.
 Basket weaving also came with them.
 The bark cloth industry also formed part of their economy.
 They also made cow-hide sandals.
 They involved themselves in barter trade with their neighbors exchanging Iron implements and
salt for food.

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 THE DECLINE OF CHWEZI EMPIRE
 The empire had grown too big to be effectively administered.
 The empire lacked strong and capable rulers especially after the death of Omukama Wamara.
 Misfortunes e.g. death of the darling cow Bihogo scared the Bachwezi who were forced to
migrate.
 Wide spread internal rebellions especially from the Bantu also led to the decline of the Chwezi
empire.
 Epidemics like Small pox and Malaria claimed many of their animals since they were a pastoral
community and they ended up migrating to other areas
 Famine also broke out in the region forcing many people to leave the area in search of new
areas that could provide them with food.
 The Chwezi rulers were greedy and oppressive which annoyed their subjects hence creating
rebellions within the empire.
 The Chwezi also lost their popularity especially after people had realized that they were
ordinary human beings not semi-gods which undermined their power.
 Conflicts among the various princes over power also weakened their hold on power and
influence.
 Several communities broke away from the Chwezi empire for example Buganda, Bunyoro,
Ankole leading to the decline of their power and influence.
 The Luo invasion is what finally broke the backbone of the Chwezi Empire i.e. the Luo set up
the Luo-Bito Dynasty and forced the Chwezi to flee in different directions.

The importance of the Bachwezi in the History of E.Africa

 They introduced the centralized system of governance which was later adopted in many societies.
 They introduced hierarchical system of administration whereby administration was broken down
into smaller units.
 The Chwezi are also remembered for introducing the idea of a standing army in the kingdom.
 The Chwezi also introduced the system of having a royal regalia comprising of the symbols of
power in a community e.g. drums, spear e.t.c
 The Bachwezi were the founders of ancient Bunyoro- Kitara Kingdom which spread from Western
Uganda to Western Kenya and Northern Tanganyika.
 They introduced games which are still popular in Uganda today e.g. local wrestling and Omweso.
 The Bachwezi also introduced coffee and banana growing in E.Africa which are still cash crops.
 The Chwezi introduced the idea of palace officials, royal women and slave artisans who were
trained in administration.
 The Chwezi are also remembered for their super natural powers i.e. they were a strange group of
people who performed miracles and could disappear when annoyed.
 They introduced a religion called Abashomi which is still evident up to today in Western Uganda
particularly in Bunyoro.
 They built their capital at Bigobyamugenyi which is still a tourist attraction for Uganda today.
 The Bachwezi introduced the idea of royal enclosures (Ebirembo) in palaces such as Bigo,
Mubende, Ntusi and kibengo. These were mainly for protecting cattle.
 The Chwezi also introduced the idea of grass thatched houses smeared with cow-dung and
decorated with a variety of handcrafts inside.
 The Chwezi also introduced social classes in society especially in Western Uganda where the Bairu
are the cultivators and subjects while the Bahima are the cattle keepers and ruling class.
 They introduced iron working and they made implements such as spears, Pangas, Hoes e.t.c.
 Discovered hot springs e.g. Kitagata in Western Uganda.

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 They also developed the art and craft industry e.g. they introduced basket weaving.
 They also introduced bark cloth manufacture.

1. BUNYORO KINGDOM
ORIGINS
 Bunyoro was under Bito rulers and sprung up after the collapse of the Chwezi Empire.
 Local traditions state that Isingoma Rukidi Mpuga was the founder of Bunyoro kingdom.
 Bunyoro was a loose confederation of provinces or Ssazas ruled by the chiefs.
 The growth and expansion of Bunyoro greatly depended on its rulers i.e. Abakama e.g. Omukama
Kamurasi (1852- 1869) and Omukama Kabalega (1870 – 1897).
 The Kingdom stretched as far as Buganda, Toro and Ankole in the west to Busoga in the East and
West Nile in the North.

Factors for the growth and expansion of Bunyoro

 Presence of able leadership i.e. Bunyoro was gifted with strong, active and ambitious leaders for
example Omukama Kamurasi and Omukama Kabalega who expanded the Kingdom.
 The Kingdom had a highly developed centralized system of administration which ensured easy
administration.
 The strong army of Abarusula built by Kabalega also contributed to the growth of Bunyoro. It was
armed with guns got through trade with the Khartoumers and Coastal Arabs.
 Bunyoro was also gifted with fertile soils which ensured constant supply of Bananas, Yams and
millet to sustain the population.
 Her good climate with heavy rainfall also supported agriculture to sustain the population.
 Bunyoro also expanded because it constantly raided her weak neighbours for example Ankole,
Toro and Busoga.
 Bunyoro also participated in trade with her neighbours and also participated in the long distance
trade (L.D.T) with the Arabs and Khartoumers where she got guns.
 Bunyoro had Iron deposits and through Iron working she was able to make spears and arrows for
defense.
 Bunyoro also had plenty of salt deposits which she used to exchange with her neighbours.
 The decline of the Chwezi dynasty also favoured the growth and expansion of Bunyoro Kingdom.
This gave a chance to Rukidi Mpuga to start up his own empire i.e. Bunyoro.

THE STRUCTURE/ORGANISATION OF BUNYORO KINGDOM

Politically
 The kingdom had a centralized system of administration with the Omukama as the political head.
 Omukama had absolute powers i.e. to appoint, promote and dismiss any of his chiefs.
 The Kingdom was divided into provinces, districts and counties each under a chief for effective
administration.
 Most of the chiefs came from distinguished Families and they ruled on behalf of the Omukama.
 Most of the chiefs resided at the Omukama‘s palace to ensure their loyalty to him.
 The Chiefs had to provide the Omukama with gifts such as cattle, beer, grains and men to serve in
the army and at the palace.
 Chiefs were also responsible for tax collection and ensuring law and order within the kingdom.
 Initially, Bunyoro had no standing army and therefore all able bodied men would be called upon
to form an army and the General would be appointed by the Omukama.
 The army had the duty of defending the Kingdom against external threats, expanding the kingdom,
carrying out raids and spying on the Omukama’s enemies.

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 Social Organisation
 The Banyoro had classes in their society with the Bahima as the rulers and the Bairu as the Subject
class.
 Religiously the Banyoro believed in a supreme being called Ruhanga (God) who was believed to
be the creator of all things.
 Apart from Ruhanga, the Banyoro had many other small gods and each clan and family had its
own favourite god.
 The Banyoro had national gods like Wamara god of plenty, Mugizi –god of Lake Albert and
Muhigo the god of war.
 Sacrifices were always offered to these gods to please them.
 The Banyoro also had royal regalia which included drums, spears, animal skins, the throne, royal
crown and these were highly respected as symbols of power.
 The Banyoro were always united by a similar culture, language and way of dressing.

Economic Organisation
 Cattle rearing were the main economic activity of the Bahima and the herdsmen always moved
with their cattle in search of pastures and water.
 Agriculture or crop growing was practiced by the lower class of peasants (Bairu) and they
mainly grew millet.
 Salt mining was another economic activity in Bunyoro got from Lake Katwe.
 Salt was used for feeding animals and the rest was exported to her neighbours like Buganda.
 The Iron working industry was also developed in Bunyoro and they manufactured hoes, spears,
and pangas. e.t.c.
 Trade was another economic activity of Bunyoro e.g. she traded with her neighbours and also
participated in the long distance trade with the coastal Arabs.
 Bark cloth making was also done in Bunyoro to provide clothes to the people.
 Banyoro also involved them in pottery and sold the products outside the Kingdom.
 These who stayed near Lake Albert and rivers carried out fishing.
 Revenue was also collected from vassal states e.g. Buganda and Acholi which were supposed
to pay tribute to the Omukama.
 The Banyoro also engaged in hunting for food, Elephants for Ivory and the Rhino for horns.
 The army of Bunyoro always raided it’s neighbours for slaves and Ivory hence contributing to
the economy.

REIGN OF OMUKAMA KABALEGA

 Kabalega was born in 1830 to Omukama Kamurasi.
 He spent his early years in Bulega where he acquired the name Kabalega meaning son of
Bulega.
 After the death of his father in 1869, Kabalega was involved in a power struggle with his
brother Kabigumire.
 Kabigumire was supported by the royal family and provincial chiefs.
 Kabalega used the support of the commoners, Arab mercenaries and his father’s body guards
to defeat his brother.
 Kabalega ascended to power in 1870.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF KABALEGA

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 He started with the defeat of the opposition from the royal family by killing and exiling
members of the royal Family and chiefs who supported his rival brother Kabigumire.
 Kabalega established a highly centralized administration with him as the political head.
 He had a chain of chiefs in the provinces to ensure stability.
 Kabalega built a strong standing army of the Abarusula well armed with guns acquired from
the L.D.T with Arabs.
 Kabalega destroyed the social system of classes in the society and even appointed commoners
to positions of responsibility.
 Kabalega expanded the Kingdom to occupy areas such as Toro, Bwamba, Bulega, Katwe,
Lango, Buganda e.t.c and many others. This was done with the help of the Abarusula.
 Kabalega encouraged trade with the coastal Arabs and Khartoumers from the North e.g.
Bunyoro supplied Ivory and salt and in return she got guns.
 Kabalega encouraged the Banyoro to grow enough food especially millet to reduce famine.
 He also built enough granaries (food stores) which ensured proper food storage.
 Kabalega encouraged the spirit of nationalism among the Banyoro for example he always
reminded them of the Baganda threat and that if they didn’t unite Buganda would finish them
off.
 However Kabalega’s programme of building Bunyoro was interfered with by the British.
 In 1891, he engaged the British in the guerilla warfare as he resisted colonial rule.
 In 1898, he was captured in Lango with Mwanga and was sent to exile in Seychelles Island.
 Kabalega died later in 1923 in Jinja as he tried to return to Bunyoro from exile.
 Kabalega was buried at Mparo in present day Hoima district.

DECLINE OF BUNYORO
 The Kingdom had grown too big which made it very hard for effective administration.
 Weak leadership especially after Omukama Kabalega also led to the decline of Bunyoro.
 The steady growth of Bunyoro’s neighbours e.g. Buganda, Ankole, Toro also weakened her.
 Internal conflicts within Bunyoro also lead to her decline e.g. vassal states constantly revolted
against Bunyoro.
 The loose confederation of chiefdoms and break away of areas such as Buganda, Toro and
Ankole also meant Lose of revenue for the Kingdom.
 The Iron rich deposits of Kooki were taken away by Buganda which meant that Bunyoro would
not make enough arrows and spears for defense.
 Frequent revolts by the Bunyoro princes also weakened the kingdom for example Omukama
Kasagama established the Kingdom of Toro.
 In the late 19th century Buganda started trading with the Arabs who supplied her with guns to
strengthen her army that managed to defeat Bunyoro.
 The arrival of the British increased Buganda’s power and supported her campaigns that led to
the final defeat of Bunyoro.
 Famine and hunger also led to massive loss of lives which reduced the population of the
kingdom.
 Diseases and natural calamities like floods also led to the decline of the kingdom.

2. BUGANDA KINGDOM
Origins
 Buganda is one of the numerous Kingdoms that sprung up after the collapse of the Chwezi
dynasty.
 A number of theories have been put forward to explain the origins of Buganda.

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  According to oral traditions in Buganda, Kintu was the first Muganda believed to have come
from the direction of Mt. Elgon (Kintu came from the East).
 He is said to have come with 13 or 14 of the present day clans in Buganda.
 According to traditions in Bunyoro, the founder of Buganda was Prince Kato Kimera who was
a twin brother to Prince Isingoma Rukidi Mpuga the founder of the Bito dynasty in Bunyoro.
 He is said to have come with 5 or 6 of the present day clans in Buganda.
 Other traditions claim that Buganda originated from the Bantu clans that migrated from Congo
basin.
 Buganda sprung up after the collapse of the Chwezi Empire with only three countries i.e.
Kyadondo, Mawokota and Busiro.
 In the 17th century, Kabaka Kateregga began her systematic expansion by annexing Gomba,
Singo, Butambala and Kyaggwe.
 Around the 18th century (1750) many immigrants arrived from Bunyoro, Mt.Elgon area and
Ssese Islands to increase her population.
 Between 1780 – 1789 (18th century), Kabaka Jjunju waged war against Bunyoro and managed
to annex Buddu and Kooki which were rich in Iron.
 Between 1814 and 1881 Kabaka Ssekamanya annexed Buwekula and Bwera and added them
to Buganda.
 Between 1831 – 1851, Kabaka Ssuna finally attacked Bunyoro and crashed it.
 Still in the same period, Kabaka Mawanda tried to annex Busoga but failed in his attempt not
until Kabaka Kyabaggu’s reign that Busoga was finally crashed.
 In the late 19th century Buruuli, Mawogola, Bulemezi and Bugerere were annexed to Buganda
as Bunyoro was declining.
 In the 1900 Buganda agreement, Buganda was given the two lost counties of Buyaga and
Bugangaizi.
 This stretched her territory from Lake Albert in the west to River Nile in the East up to Northern
Tanzania in the South.

FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH AND EXPANSION OF BUGANDA

 Buganda started as a very small state which made it easy to defend and administer effectively.
 Buganda was gifted with fertile soils and good climate which ensured production of Matooke
to feed her big population.
 Buganda established trade links with the coastal Arabs and was able to obtain guns that helped
her to expand.
 Buganda had well developed roads that connected the whole Kingdom which eased the
movements of people and their goods.
 Buganda had a highly centralized system of administration which ensured stability in the
Kingdom.
 Buganda had strong and capable leaders, e.g. Kabaka Ssuna, Kabaka Jjunju, Kabaka
Ssekamanya .e.t.c who expanded the Kingdom to greater heights.
 The Kabaka married from all the major tribes of Buganda which created unity and loyalty of
the people.
 Buganda took advantage of her weak neighbours to expand e.g. Bunyoro lost a lot of land to
Buganda.
 The Kiganda society had division of Labour where by women engaged in agriculture while the
men concentrated on trading, fishing and fighting to defend the empire.

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 The geographical location of Buganda also gave her a security advantage e.g. Lake Victoria in
the south, river Nile in the East and Lake Kyoga in the North provided natural defense barriers
against enemies.
 Buganda also absorbed / conquered small communities which led to increase of her population.
 The coming of the British also led to the expansion of Buganda because they offered her enough
support in defeating Bunyoro.
 The constant supply of tributes from conquered states also strengthened Buganda’s economy
e.g from Busoga.
 Buganda had a royal guard where by all able bodied men were supposed to go for compulsory
military training so that they could defend the Kingdom.

STRUCTURE OF BUGANDA KINGDOM

Political organisation
 Buganda had a highly centralized system of administration.
 The Kabaka was the head of the Kingdom with absolute powers e.g. Kabaka could appoint,
promote, demote and dismiss his chiefs.
 The Kabaka’s powers were hereditary and leadership was passed on to his elder son.
 The Kabaka was assisted by 3 prominent chiefs i.e. Chief Justice (Omulamuzi), Treasurer
(Omuwanika) and the Prime minister (Katikiro).
 The Kingdom was subdivided into counties (Ssazas), sub-counties (Gombolola), parish
(Muluka), sub-parish (Ekitongole) and village (Kyalo).
 Each of these was led by a chief for effective administration.
 The Chiefs were supposed to mobilize people for public works e.g. construction of roads.
 Buganda had a legislative council called Lukiiko (parliament) which was to formulate laws
and advise the Kabaka.
 The Kabaka had royal body guards called Abambowa and these were charged with protecting
the Kabaka at his palace and on journeys and functions.
 The Kabaka received gifts from his subjects and chiefs as a sign of loyalty and in return they
would be rewarded with large chunks of land.

Social Organization
 Socially, Buganda was organized on clan basis.
 Every Muganda belonged to a particular clan e.g. Lion (Mpologoma) Monkey (Enkima)
Buffalo (Mbogo).
 Marriage in Buganda was Polygamous.
 Members of the same clan were not allowed to get married.
 Each of the clans had a clan head (Omukulu we Kiika) and a special area of origin (Obutaka).
 Kabaka was the head of all clans (Ssabataka) and belonged to the clan of his mother.
 The Baganda were divided into classes i.e. royal class for men (Abalangira) Women
(Abambejja), Nobles (Abakungu), Peasants/ Commoners (Abakopi) and slaves (Abaddu).
 The Kabaka was the spiritual leader of Buganda and was considered semi-divine.
 The Baganda believed in small gods (Lubaale) whom they consulted on various occasions e.g.
Ddungu (hunting), Musoke (rain), Mukasa (fishing), and Walumbe (death) e.t.c
 The Baganda also believed in witchcraft and sorcerers (Abalogo) who were consulted by those
who wanted to harm others.
 The Baganda had a royal regalia which included, drums, backcloth, spears which were highly
respected.

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 Virginity was highly respected in Buganda because it was a sign of good upbringing and
respect.

Economic organisation
 The Baganda carried out agriculture as the major activity and grew crops like Matooke,
Cassava, Yams and beans.
 They also domesticated / kept animals like, cows, sheep, goats, chicken, and rabbits e.t.c
 Fishing was also carried out on the shores of Lake Victoria.
 Iron working was also practiced and they made implements such as knives, pangas and spears.
 The back cloth making industry was also developed in Buganda.
 The Buganda also participated in the long distance trade with the coastal Arabs mainly
acquiring guns in exchange for slaves and Ivory.
 Buganda also received tributes from her vessel states to supplement on her revenue e.g. from
Busoga and Toro.
 Taxation was another source of revenue and it was the duty of chiefs to collect taxes.
 Raids were also important in Buganda’s economy e.g. she raided Bunyoro, Busoga for cattle,
slaves, Ivory e.t.c.

Reasons for Buganda’s decline

 The Kingdom was too big to be effectively administered.
 Lack of able leadership especially after the death of Kabaka Muteesa 1 in 1884.
 Attacks from vassal states e.g. Busoga greatly weakened the kingdom.
 Land conflicts with Bunyoro also increased hostilities with her neighbours.
 Internal conflicts especially power struggles led to disunity in the kingdom.
 Disunity because of social classes also weakened her military strength.
 Natural calamities e.g. floods and diseases especially sleeping sickness which killed many
people.
 The coming of Missionaries also led to disunity within the kingdom hence her decline.
 The coming of colonialists who effectively led to the loss of her independence.

3. ANKOLE KINGDOM
ORIGINS
 Ankole was one of the Kingdoms that made up after the decline of Bunyoro- Kitara.
 Traditions in Western Uganda claim that Rukidi Mpuga a son to Wamara was the founder of
Ankole Kingdom.
 The Kingdom was established in the South Western part of Buganda around the 15th century.
 Initially, Ankole was called “Karo Karungi” meaning peaceful land or ‘Land of Milk’.
 Ankole remained a small Kingdom around the 18th century and Ankole produced a number of
ambitious Kings who extended her boundaries.

Political organisation
 Ankole had a centralized system of administration.
 Omugabe was the political head of the kingdom.
 The Omugabe’s position was hereditary with absolute powers.
 The Omugabe, Queen mother, Princes and princesses formed the royal family and resided in
the royal palace.
 The Omugabe was assisted by the Nganzi (Prime minister) who was the most important of all
chiefs.

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 Ankole was divided into 10 districts each headed by Omukungu (chief).
 Some of the districts included Mbarara, Ibanda, Nyabushozi, Bunyaruguru and Kashari.
 The Omugabe and Nganzi came from the upper class of the Hima and always kept large herds
of cattle and estates.
 The Abakungu also kept cattle and were in charge of keeping peace and sending beer and millet
to the royal palace.
 Ankole had royal regalia that included spears, a crown and the royal drum. (Bagyendanwa).
 Ankole also had a “royal fire” that was never allowed to go out until the reigning Omugabe
died.
 Ankole had no standing army but in case of war, all able bodied men were supposed to gather
at the Omugabe’s palace with spears, bows, arrows and shields.

Social organisation
 Ankole society was divided into two distinct classes i.e. Hima and Iru.
 Bahima who were the rulers and pastoralists and Bairu who were the peasants and subject
class.
 Marriage between the Bairu and the Bahima was considered a social disgrace and was highly
discouraged.
 Religiously, the Banyankole believed in a supreme being called Ruhanga who was thought to
be the creator of the world.
 No prayer and sacrifices were offered to Ruhanga because they believe there was no need of
bothering him after bringing them into the world.
 Below Ruhanga were other lesser gods e.g. kagoro, kazoba, Omusisi e.t.c to whom prayers and
sacrifices were offered.
 The Banyankole highly respected spirits of the dead and sacrifices e.g. beer and milk were
offered to them at family shrines.
 Owning cattle was a sign of prestige and those with few cows were always despised.
 The Banyankole were united by a similar culture, Runyankole language and same way of
dressing e.g. Omushanana.

Economic organisation
 Pastoralism was the main occupation of the Banyankole and they kept long horned cattle
mainly dominated by the Bahima.
 The Bairu also carried out cultivation and mainly grew millet.
 Blacksmithing was another activity of the Banyankole and they made spears, hoes and arrows.
 Trade was also carried out and they exchanged commodities like ivory with their neighbours
and with coastal Arabs.
 Carpentry was also carried out by the Banyankole and they made very beautiful wooden pots,
dishes and other items.

4. KARAGWE KINGDOM
Origins
 Karagwe kingdom extended between Rwanda and Burundi, Lake Victoria and the North
western part of Tanganyika.
 The settlers in this area were Bantu who carried out farming and grew crops like millet,
sorghum.
 They had come from the south west around the 15th and 16th century.

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 However the Bantu are said to have stayed in this region for 43 centuries before migrating
north East to Bunyoro and Toro.
 Later a section of these returned to Karagwe after the Luo invasion.
 By the time of their return, they had combined with the Chwezi.
 They reached Karagwe around the 16th century and set up the Hinda dynasty.

ESTABLISHMENT OF RUHINDA’S RULE IN KARAGWE

 After the Luo invasion, Ruhinda led his Chwezi immigrants from Bunyoro - Kitara to
Karagwe.
 He deposed over the local leader known as Nano and he set up the Hinda dynasty.
 He established his rule in Karagwe and built his capital at Bwehangwe.
 He then sent his sons with royal regalia like spears to establish Hinda dynasty in all the
surrounding areas.
 This gave rise to small sub dynasties under his sons.
 These sub dynasties included: Gisaka, Kyamtwara, Ihangiro, Buzinza, Busubi, Ukerewe and
Nasa.
 The creation of several independent Hinda sub dynasties by Ruhinda’s sons created rivalries
and these weakened the Hinda rule in Karagwe.
 These small Kingdoms were not directly under the authority of Ruhinda.
 When he died they became independent.

Political organisation
 Ruhinda introduced a centralized system of government.
 The centralized system replaced the clan system headed clan leaders called Muharambwa.
 Upon the death of Ruhinda; many areas that made up his Kingdom declared themselves
independent.
 Ruhinda used the clans for efficient administration. These clans were not destroyed by the
Chwezi immigrants.
 The clan leaders (Muharambwa) were charged with a collection of taxes, tribute and were also
in charge of religious rights.
 The clans were grouped into eight bigger units for easy administration.
 The units included Kianja, Bukara, Kyamtwara, Kiziba, Ihangiro, Misenyi, Bugabo and
Karagwe.
 Each of these chiefdoms became a nation called Ihanga and chiefs would dismiss a clan head
if his people appealed.
 The clan heads had political, religious and judicial powers. These were supposed to head clan
courts that settled disputes.
 Age sets were encouraged among the Banyambo and young boys of the same age were called
at the chief’s residence where they would be trained in military art.
 After military training, they would be sent home and only recalled in times of military
emergency.
 The few, who were outstanding and very skillful, were sent to the king’s court where they
learnt correct court manners and language.

ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 They were mainly agriculturalists and they grew crops like sorghum, millet and bananas.
 They also kept the long horned cattle.

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 Iron working was another economic activity and tools which were made included hoes, spears
and arrows which were used in agriculture and defense.
 The people of Karagwe also carried out trade.
 They exchanged trade items like Ivory, and iron products with Buganda and coastal traders.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
 The people of Karagwe believed in ancestral spirits.
 The Muharambwa was supposed to lead over religious functions.
 A Caste system (class systems) existed in Karagwe Kingdom with the pastoralists as rulers and
farmers as the subjects.
 Settlement of conflicts was entrusted to the clan leader (Muharambwa) but the head of the
chiefdom (Ihanga) was the final man in everything.

Revision questions
1. a) Who were the Chwezi/Bachwezi? OR What were the origins of the Bachwezi/Chwezi?
b) Explain their importance in the history of East Africa. OR Why are they still remembered in
the history of East Africa?
2. a) What were the origins of Bunyoro-Kitara Empire/kingdom?
b) How was the empire organized by 1350 A.D? OR Describe the political, social and economic
organization of Bunyoro-Kitara Empire by 1350.

3. a) What is the importance of the Bachwezi/Chwezi in the history of East Africa?

b) Why did their empire collapse/decline? OR What led to the eventual collapse/downfall of
their empire?

4. a) What were the origins of Bunyoro Kingdom?

b) Describe the organization of Bunyoro kingdom before the coming of Europeans.

5. a) Describe the political, social and economic organization of Bunyoro kingdom before 1850.
b) How did Kabalega try to rebuild Bunyoro kingdom?

6. a) Describe the career and achievements of Kabalega for the kingdom of Bunyoro.
b) What led to the decline of his empire after 1890? OR What led to the eventual
collapse/downfall of Bunyoro kingdom?

7. a) Describe the origins of Buganda kingdom.

b) What factors led to her growth and expansion up to 1850?

8. a) Describe the rise and expansion of Buganda kingdom up to 1850.

b) Why did it become so powerful during this period?

9. a) Describe the political, social and economic organization of Buganda kingdom before 1850.
b) Why did the kingdom start collapsing after 1850?

10. a) How did Ruhinda establish his rule over Karagwe? OR How was the Hinda dynasty
established?
b) What changes did Ruhinda introduce?

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11. a) Describe the origins of Ankole kingdom.
b) Describe the political, social and economic organization of Ankole by 1850.

PRE – COLONIAL SOCIETIES IN EAST AFRICA

NYAMWEZI
ORIGINS
 The Nyamwezi are Bantu speaking who belong to the central and Northern Tanzania Bantu.
 They are closely related to other tribes such as Sukuma.
 They are an example of a de-centralized society.
 They had fairly organized political, social and economic features.
 They first settled in central Tanzania around Tabora between 1000—1500 AD.
 They migrated from the Congo basin and entered Tanganyika through the western part.
 They used the route between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Edward.
 The name Nyamwezi means people from the moon.
 It was given to them by the coastal traders who saw them coming from the direction of the new
moon (west).
 Originally, they lived in small chiefdoms bound together by ethnic association.
 During the 19th century, they developed centralized administration during the reigns of
Mirambo and Nyungu Ya Mawe.

The structure of the Nyamwezi

Political organisation
 The Nyamwezi lived in small independent chiefdoms of about 1,000 people.
 They were united together by ethnic clan ties.
 The Nyamwezi had a decentralized system of administration.
 Each chiefdom headed by a chief with the title Ntemi.
 The position of the Ntemi was hereditary i.e. his son / close relative succeeded him upon his
death.
 The Ntemi had political powers and was in charge of law and order in his chiefdom.
 In case of population explosion in one chiefdom or succession disputes, splits were done and
a new chiefdom would be created.
 The Ntemi was assisted by a council of elders called Wanyampala.
 Wanyampala comprised of old, experienced and knowledgeable elders.
 Chiefdoms were further split into small political units headed by clan heads called Gunguli.
 Other important chiefs among the Nyamwezi included ritual officer (Mgawe), Army
commander (Mtwale) information officer (Kikoma) Tax /revenue officer (Minule).
 All these took orders from the Ntemi.
 Each chiefdom had an army with a commander appointed by the Ntemi.
 Before going for any battle, the Ntemi had to bless the army.
 The Nyamwezi copied the royal regalia from neighbouring societies such as Bunyoro.

Social Organization
 The Ntemi was the religious leader of his people and linked them to their ancestors.
 The Ntemi was the fountain of the society and received a lot of respect from his people.
 The Ntemi could marry as many wives as he wanted.
 Upon the death of the Ntemi, his body would be buried upright with beer, food and weapons.
 The Nyamwezi also believed in life after death and the spirits of the dead.

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 Ntemi would always preside over sacrifices to ancestors on behalf of his people.
 The Ntemi was supposed to stop any calamity that would hit his people, their fields and
animals.

Economic Organisation
 The Nyamwezi were farmers and mainly grew cereals e.g. millet and sorghum.
 The Ntemi always mobilized his people to grow enough food, settle land disputes and guard
against misuse of land.
 The Nyamwezi also kept animals for example goats and cattle.
 The Ntemi and his chiefs always kept large herds of animals.
 Tax collection was also part of their economy and the Nyamwezi always collected food as tax.
 The Nyamwezi had established food granaries which were directly under the Ntemi.
 These were used to feed his body guards, members of his palace and other people in case of
hunger and famine.
 The Nyamwezi also carried out some fishing to supplement their diet.
 The Nyamwezi locally traded with their neighbours e.g. the Vinza for salt and Zinza for Iron.
 The Nyamwezi also participated in the long distance trade with the coastal Arabs.
 They controlled the central trade route and provided slaves, bee wax, Ivory.
 In return they got guns , beads and clothes .
 Raiding on their neighbours was also a major economic activity carried out by the Nyamwezi.
Mirambo’s Empire
 Mirambo was born around the 1830s in Nyamwezi land to one Ntemi chief.
 He spent his early years in Bugomba where he had been captured by the Ngoni.
 He mastered the Ngoni tactics of warfare and used them to build a strong army of the Ruga
Ruga.
 It was this army that helped Mirambo to build a big empire.
 Mirambo attacked the Vinza, Sukuma and Iramba to extend his influence.
 By 1876, Mirambo established his capital at Urambo.
 His empire extended Northwards and Eastwards to control the central caravan trade route from
Tabora to Karagwe, Ujiji, Buganda and Bunyoro.

Why Mirambo was able to build such a big empire

 Mirambo was a person of boundless courage and energy which he used to build his empire.
 He personally led his army in battle which encouraged and gave morale to his army to fight
on.
 Mirambo spent a lot of years in Bugomba as a captive of the Ngoni which helped him to master
the ngoni military tactics.
 He used the ngoni military tactics to build a strong army called Ruga-Ruga that was very
instrumental in his rise to prominence.
 He absorbed the conquered people, recruited the youth into his army to boost his fighting force.
 Mirambo was a man of high determination who took no nonsense from any one. E.g. he insisted
on homage and tributes from foreigners passing through his territory.
 The acquiring of guns and gun power from the coastal Arabs helped Mirambo to extend his
empire wide.
 Mirambo highly paid the Ruga –Ruga who helped him to build such a big empire.
 Mirambo’s empire was strategically located in central Tanganyika which made it the center of
trade.

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 Mirambo exploited the weaknesses of his neighbours like Vinza, Zinza, Sukuma, Ha and
Samba to acquire territories from them.
 The Nyamwezi lived in small chiefdoms that were weak and disorganized and this made it
easy for Mirambo to conquer them.
 Mirambo was also far –sighted and an ambitious man who knew what he wanted and always
looked for a way of getting it.
 Trade also helped Mirambo extend his power and influence because it brought in revenue or
taxes e.g. He controlled two trade routes, one to Ujiji and the second one to Bunyoro and
Buganda.
 Mirambo also established diplomatic ties with many Europeans, Arabs e.g. He invited
missionaries to come to his area.
 Mirambo also made friendly relations with many African chiefs. He tried to establish
diplomatic ties with Muteesa 1 of Buganda, sultan of Zanzibar and Tippu Tip.
 Mirambo equally respected foreigners/strangers passing through his land. This brought in
many visitors that he benefited from in terms of skills and trade.

The collapse of Mirambo’s empire

 The death of Mirambo led to collapse of the empire because it lacked a strong foundation.
 The empire was built around Mirambo’s personality and without him it was bound to collapse.
 Mirambo’s successor Mpandashalo was too weak and could not keep the empire intact.
 The empire was too big to be ruled effectively by one person.
 Mirambo always found it hard to enforce law and order from his subjects due to the vast size.
 Unity was also lacking i.e. Mirambo had left the various areas he had conquered under their
traditional rulers and upon his death many of them declared themselves independent.
 Mirambo’s neighbours were not happy about his success e.g. the Sukuma and this encouraged
various states under him to rebel.
 Mirambo’s army of the Ruga-Ruga was not dependable and became a menace after his death
e.g. looting and burning people’s property.
 The confusion created by the Ruga Ruga forced the Germans to occupy Tanganyika in 1885.
 The decline of the Long distance trade and abolition of slave trade also led to the collapse of
his empire.
 Mirambo lost contact with the Arabs who used to supply him guns and gunpowder.
 Mirambo’s chiefs were weak since many were appointed just because they belonged to the
ruling class. They did not merit their positions which further weakened Mirambo’s empire.
 Increasing Europeans interests in E.A finally brought Mirambo’s empire to an end in 1885.
 The Germans came under the excuse of abolishing slave trade and stop the Ruga- Ruga and
they stamped their authority in Tanganyika.

NYUNGU YA MAWE’S empire

 Nyungu ya mawe was born in Unyanyembe near Tabora among the Nyamwezi.
 He was a prince from the royal family of Unyanyembe.
 Nyungu ya mawe was a praise name meaning ‘Pot of stone’ (the pot that never breaks).
 Nyungu ya mawe was also able to build a big empire using the services of Ruga Ruga
mercenaries.
 He also employed the Ngoni fighting methods.
 In 1874, he abandoned his people and formed his capital at kiwele.
 He attacked the Kimbu in the East and also captured the trade route between Tabora and Ufipa.
 Nyungu ya mawe was a brave and ruthless military strategist.

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 He could not hesitate to risk the lives of his soldiers and he referred to them as Mapimpiti
meaning Logs, to achieve his targets.
 Nyungu ya mawe also created a centralized system of administration.
 All conquered areas were given new chiefs called Vitwale (plural) or Mtwale (singular).
 He divided his empire into six provinces each under a Mtwale directly appointed by him.
 The Vitwale were directly appointed by Nyungu ya mawe and were his eyes and ears. In most
cases they were his relatives.
 Nyungu ya mawe created a highly disciplined army.
 His army underwent physical and psychological training and didn’t lose morale after his death.
 Nyungu ya mawe did not bother establishing good relations with Europeans.
 He heavily taxed them which displeased them.
 In December 1884, Nyungu ya mawe died as a one eyed man.
 He was succeeded by his daughter Mgalula who ruled successfully until 1893.
 When she died, her daughter took over and ruled until the Germans captured her capital at
Kiwele and conquered it.
 This marked the end of Nyungu ya Mawe’s empire.
 The Germans replaced the Vitwale with new chiefs called Akidas.
 The Germans later introduced direct rule.

THE KIKUYU SOCIETY

Origins
 These were Bantu speaking people under the Eastern Bantu group.
 They are also known as the highland Bantu.
 They first settled in areas around Kenyan highlands near Nyeri, Kiambu and Fort Hall.
 Their origin is based on myths and legends.
 Kikuyu traditions claim that their god (Mumbere) had three sons i.e. Gikuyu, Kamba and
Maasai.
 He asked them to choose between a bow, a digging stick, and a spear.
 Gikuyu fell for a digging stick, Kamba for a bow and Maasai for a spear.
 Gikuyu and his wife Mumbi had nine daughters.
 It’s these nine daughters who gave rise to the present 9 Kikuyu clans.

STRUCTURE OF THE KIKUYU

Political Organization
 The Kikuyu had a decentralized system of administration.
 Their political system was based on clans with each handling its own affairs.
 Each clan was made up of age groups called Riika.
 These were further sub-divided into age sets each having its own name marking a particular
event.
 The Kikuyu had an army and the commander represented them on council of elders called
Kiama.
 This army composed of Junior and senior warriors.
 Junior warriors were supposed to clear gardens for planting, defend the village against attack
and construct houses and fences.
 Families sharing the same terrace made up a territorial unit called Mbari.
 Each Mbari was under a council of elders headed by Muramiti.
 The position of the Muramiti was not hereditary but was entrusted to any experienced elder.
 The Muramiti performed judicial functions.

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 Members of the council of elders must have paid some goats and beer and must have
circumcised the elder son of their houses to qualify.

Social Organization
 Religiously, the Kikuyu believed in a supreme god called Ngai.
 Ngai who manifested himself through the sun, moon, rainbow, thunder and lightning.
 Kirinyaga (Mt Kenya) was believed to be Ngai’s home.
 Shrines were built around the slopes of Mt Kenya.
 Ngai could only be approached by community elders as a group but not as individuals.
 Ngai was consulted at all stages of life e.g. at birth, marriage and death.
 The Kikuyu highly respected the spirits of the ancestors whom they believed to possess powers
to punish and bless.
 Therefore sacrifices were offered to appease the spirits of ancestors.
 The Kikuyu society was also organized on clan basis and each clan was made up of age groups.
 Riika was further sub-divided into age sets and initiation from one age set to another was after
circumcision done on both boys and girls after every five years.
 Inheritance of property always followed the mother’s line (matrilineal).
 Land and children were all owned by the mother.

Economic Organization
 Agriculture was their main activity and they mainly grew cereals like Sorghum, Maize and
Peas.
 Land was highly respected by the Kikuyu.
 A man with no land was not allowed to marry because his wife could not feed the family
without it.
 On top of agriculture, the Kikuyu herded cattle, goats, sheep and kept bees.
 Fishing and rearing of fowls like chicken was a taboo among the Kikuyu i.e. their social laws
did not permit the consumption of fish and fowls.
 Division of labour existed among the Kikuyu.
 Men cleared the land, herded and milked animals as women planted and harvested crops and
looked after the homes.
 The Kikuyu traded with their neighbours like the Masai, Embu, Pokomo, and Kamba for
products like milk and butter.
 With the development of LDT the Kikuyu supplied Ivory, Slaves, Bee wax, and Skins e.t.c to
the coastal Arab traders.
 The Kikuyu also hunted wild animals and gathered fruits from the forests around the Kenyan
highland.
 The Kikuyu also carried out Iron working and made Iron implements like hoes for agriculture
and spears for hunting.

THE ITESO SOCIETY

Origins
 They are a branch of the plain Nilotics called the Jie.
 They migrated from southern Ethiopia.
 They fall under a smaller group of the Ateker.
 They are related to the Turkana, Kumam, Maasai and Karamojong.
 They first settled in Karamoja for some time and lived there for some time.
 In the early 18th century, the Iteso left Karamoja.

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  This was due to cattle rustling, over stocking, over population and lack of water and pasture.
 They then moved southwards and settled along the shores of Lake Bisina.
 It is from here that they acquired the name Itesots.
 Due to more pressure, others moved to Eastern Uganda and Western Kenya.
 They are settled in districts such as Kumi, Soroti, Tororo, Mbale, Kaberamaido and Amuria.

Structure of the Teso Society

Political Organization
 The Itesots had no centralized system of government.
 They were organized in clans called Ateker.
 The clans were the centres of power and it was made up of several extended families.
 Each clan had a common taboo.
 The Emuron was the most important chief among the Itesots.
 He had religious and Political powers, a rain maker and also helped barren women to conceive.
 Other important chiefs included Aruwon (military leader) who was chosen because of his
bravery and Ekaraban (Village ambassador) who settled disputes.
 Clan meetings (Etems) were important among the Iteso because they handled cases like
divorce, adultery and murder.
 Age- Set system (Aturi) existed among the Itesots on which wars and raids were conducted.
 Boys of the same age worked and fought together.

Social Organization
 Social ceremonies were very important e.g. Marriage and birth of twins were marked with
jubilations, dances, food and beer.
 Religiously, the Itesots believed in a supreme being who had lesser gods for example Apa –
the god of peace and Edeke – the god of calamity.
 The Emuron was the religious leader and always offered sacrifices to Edeke on behalf of his
people.
 The Iteso were bound together by strong ties of Kinship and members of the same ancestry
regarded themselves as brothers.
 Itesots had an age-set system (Aturi) which was always formed at a time of Initiations and it
marked a change from child hood to adult hood.
 A man was the head of the family and therefore his sons were supposed to inherit the father’s
property upon his death.
 Status among the Iteso depended on how many cows one had i.e. those who less herds were
always despised and minimized.

Economic Organization
 Initially, the Iteso were pastoralists and they kept cows, sheep and goats.
 They also reared birds e.g. chicken and turkey.
 The Iteso later adopted farming and they grew crops such as millet, sorghum and Groundnuts.
 Hunting was another activity among the Iteso and this promoted unity and socialization.
 The Iteso also carried out some trade and they exchanged hides and skins and Ivory for
backcloth, beads and iron implements from Bunyoro and Busoga.

THE CHAGGA
Origins

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 They are Bantu speaking people who belonged to the Highland and coastal Bantu.
 They comprise of that group of Central and Northern Tanzania Bantu that continued with their
migration from the Congo basin.
 They are closely related to other Bantu tribes like Gweno, Sukuma and Shamba.
 They entered Tanzania through the West using the route between Lake Tanganyika and Lake
Edward.
 Their migration took place between 1000 – 1300 AD
 They settled around Mt. Kilimanjaro in Northern Tanganyika.
 The Chagga decided to settle around Mt. Kilimanjaro permanently and came to be known as
the highland Bantu.

Political organisation
 The Chagga had a decentralized system of administration with chiefs at the centers of authority.
 The chiefs were distinguished elders in society with political and religious powers.
 Chiefs were always encouraged to extend the political frontiers of their chiefdoms.
 Chiefs were also in charge of administering justice in their chiefdoms.
 The Chagga had political rivalries with their neighbours especially the Masai over grazing
lands.
 Below the chiefs were other influential leaders called judicial counselors.
 Judicial counselors were directly appointed by the chiefs.
 Judicial counselors were also charged with tax collection.
 Below the judicial counselors were the clan heads who were prominent and influential.
 Clan heads were also used in maintenance of law and order in their clans.

Social organisation
 The Chagga were organized on clan basis.
 They had several clans with each clan having a clan head.
 Chiefs also served as chief priests and presided over religious ceremonies.
 They believed in a god called Ruwa.
 Ruwa was considered not to have been the creator of the world.
 Ruwa was believed to have freed mankind and provided him with fruits and plants to feed on.
 They believed in the powers of ancestors i.e. life after death.
 Sacrifices were therefore offered to appease the spirits of the ancestors.

Economic organisation
 Agriculture was the important economic activity among the Chagga.
 They grew crops such as bananas, millet and coffee.
 Irrigation was carried out to support agriculture during the dry season.
 They applied manure in their farms and also carried out crop rotation.
 They also kept animals like cattle, goats and sheep.
 They also practiced iron working and made implements like spears, pangas and arrows.
 They carried out trade with their neighbours and exchanged their surplus goods for salt.
 They later participated in the long distance trade with the coastal Arabs.
N.B By the 18th century, they had developed a system of kingship.

THE GALLA
Origins
 The Galla are of Cushitic origin.

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 They are a branch of the plain Nilotics who migrated from southern Ethiopia.
 They are thought to have originated from Ethiopia then moved to Somalia and finally entered
East Africa.
 They are a nomadic pastoral tribe that occupies the Eastern parts of Kenya.

Political organisation
 The Galla traditional structure was connected to the age set system based on ten groups.
 Every male belonged to a single group throughout his life.
 Each age set was headed by a leader called Abba-Boku for 8 years.
 Abba-Boku presided over meetings and formulated laws governing his age set.
 Abba-Boku was seen as a ritual and natural affairs expert.
 Abba-Boku was assisted by 3 other elders all from distinguished families.
 From the age of ten, boys were supposed to train as warriors.
 The Galla thus became a fierce warrior society respected over a wide area.
 They carried spears and shields into the battle fields.
 Each age group came up for promotion every eight years and when this happened, its leader
had to take his people to a new territory.
 This would eventually lead to the expansion of the Galla territory.

Social organisation
 The Galla believed in a supreme being called Waqa.
 Waqa was believed to be the controller of everyone’s destiny.
 He always granted favours and protection especially in times of battle.
 There existed both good and bad spirits living in lakes, rivers, mountains and trees.
 Later on, some became Muslims due to interaction with the Muslims from Ethiopia.
 They had the age set system where every male belonged to a particular group throughout his
life.
 Hunting of animals was carried out as a test of manhood.

Economic organisation
 They were a pastoral society who moved from place to place in search of water and pasture.
 They kept animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, camels and donkeys.
 Their constant movements in search of water and pastures brought them into conflicts with
other tribes like the Masai and Somali.
 They carried out small scale agriculture and grew grains, peas, beans, vegetables and pepper.
 Limited fishing and hunting were also carried out.
 Traded with their neighbours like the Somali, Ethiopians and Swahili Arabs.

THE MASAI
Origins
 They fall under the pastoral group of the plain Nilotics.
 They moved from the area West of Lake Turkana around the 17th century.
 They existed in two groups i.e. the Kwavi and Purko Masai.
 They occupy the area called Machakos in southern Kenya and some are found in Northern
Tanzania.

Political organisation
 They were a decentralized society with no central authority.

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 They were divided into sixteen independent clans.
 The clans were the basis of their political organisation.
 Each clan had its own territory, cattle brand, pasture and water supply.
 Leadership was exercised through the age set system.
 Age sets were linear and their names were unique and never repeated.
 The most active age set was Moran comprised of junior warriors.
 It was led by a military captain called Olaiguanani.
 Once elected, the Olaiguanani was presented with a ceremonial club Oriakha to symbolize his
new status.
 He organized cattle raids and arranged the distribution of the war booty.
 A successful raid was a sign of social success and prestige.
 The elders in society administered the clans and maintained law and order.
 From the mid 19th century, Laibon became the center of political power.
 A young man became a member after circumcision performed at 18 years.
 After initiation, the boys became junior warriors called illmuran.
 The illmuran lived separately in manyattas where they were drilled in military techniques.
 From junior warriors, they progressed to senior warriors and finally senior elders.

Social organisation
 The Masai believed in a supreme creator called Enkai.
 Enkai was the source of life and punished bad people.
 The Laibon prayed to the Enkai on behalf of his people.
 Senior elders helped organize society especially during difficult periods.
 Women and children were the lowest members of the society.
 The junior warriors (Moran) were charged with defending the homesteads.
 They conducted raids and surveyed areas for grazing.
 Women were also initiated every year.
 They built temporary structures called Manyattas because they are always on the move.

Economic organisation
 The Purko Masai were pastoralists who kept cattle, goats and sheep.
 The Kwavi Masai were cultivators who grew crops like finger millet and sorghum.
 They traded with other communities like the Kikuyu and exchanged their hides and skins for
beans, tobacco, sugarcane and millet.
 Women did the marketing of goods.
 There were established markets where goods would be exchanged.
 Iron working was carried out and they made spears, arrows and ornaments.
 They carried out raids and hunting.
 Practiced small scale fishing to supplement their diet.
 Art and craft was also practiced and they made jars and bowls.

THE 19TH CENTURY MASAI CIVIL WARS

 These were a series of wars that were fought between the Kwavi and Purko Masai.
 The Kwavi were agriculturalists while the Purko were predominantly pastoralists.
 The wars were fought in two separate intervals i.e. in 1815 and in 1840.
 The first major war took place in 1815 in the Uasin-Gishu plateau which ended in the defeat
of the Kwavi Masai.

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 In 1840, the Kwavi reorganized themselves with the help of the Laikipia and they drove the
Purko Masai out of the rift valley.
 Between 1870 and 1875, the Purko decisively attacked and defeated the Kwavi killing many
of them.

Causes of the Masai civil wars

 The Purko who were the pastoral Masai always despised the Kwavi who were farmers leading
to the wars.
 The Purko claimed that the Kwavi were finishing their land and that very soon they would not
have enough grazing lands for their animals.
 The Kwavi farmers also claimed that animals of the Purko were destroying their farms during
grazing leading to the wars.
 The Kwavi always expected help from their neighbours the Laikipia and this gave them morale
to fight against the Purko.
 The succession disputes between the leaders of the Masai after the death of Laibon Mbatien
also led to the outbreak of the wars.
 The Kwavi Masai had always defeated the Purko who had for long wanted revenge for their
losses.
 The Purko were always a proud society who took a lot of pride in fighting and when they got
the opportunity, they had to engage the Kwavi in warfare.
 The two groups had participated in long distance trade and had acquired guns which
encouraged them to fight against each other.
 The Purko always believed that the Kwavi had deliberately spread animal diseases which
claiming many their animals’ lives.
 The youths among the Kwavi were always blamed for stealing the animals that belonged to
the Purko which led to the wars.
 The Purko believed that they were the rightful owners of all the Masai land and didn’t want it
to be taken over by the Kwavi.
 The desire to control the trading activities in the area also led to conflicts between the two
groups.

Effects of the Masai civil wars

 Many people died during the course of the wars.
 A lot of property was destroyed during the wars e.g. farms and homesteads.
 The wars created a period of insecurity in Masailand.
 There was depopulation in the area as many people migrated to safer areas.
 The Purko emerged victorious and the Kwavi were greatly weakened.
 The wars greatly weakened Masai supremacy in Kenya and the Nandi emerged as the most
powerful tribe in Western Kenya.
 The wars resulted into famine and suffering in Masailand due to neglect of agriculture.
 The succession struggles ended with the separation of the Masai e.g. Laibon Sendeyo and his
group occupied Tanzania and Laibon Lenana’s group remained in Kenya.
 Natural disasters like small pox and locust invasion further weakened the Masai influence.
 The Masai were easily colonized by the British due to the decline in their power.
 The Masai were tricked into signing treaties with the British which forced them into reserves.
 Masailand was later on taken over by the British colonialists.

THE ACHOLI

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Origins
 They fall under the bigger group of the Luo speaking communities.
 They currently occupy Northern Uganda in districts such as Gulu, Pader and Kitgum.
 They emerged out of intermarriages between the Luo, Ateker and Sudanic Madi.
 They originally lived in Bahr-el-Ghazel in Southern Sudan.
 Their migration took place between 1200 – 1350 AD.
 They entered Uganda through Northern Uganda following the Albert Nile.

Political organisation
 The Acholi had a decentralized system of administration with no central authority.
 Political power was centered around the Rwoth chief.
 Rwoth was the political head and religious leader of his people.
 He ruled on the advice of a council of elders from all major clans.
 Rwoth gave favours according to work done.
 Political affairs were handled by the clans with each having its own rituals and regalia.
 Each family belonged to a particular clan that shared a common ancestry.
 Clan councils upheld traditional, religious and legal customs.
 The family was the basic social unit.
 The man had a lot of power over his wife and children.
 The Rwoth appointed village heads called Jogos.
 The duty of the Jogos was to maintain law and order in their respective villages.
 The Jogos were also charged with tribute and tax collection.
 The Acholi had no standing army but the youth were supposed to defend the chiefdoms incase
of war.
 The youths were also supposed to carry out raids for cattle.
Social organisation
 They believed in a supreme god called Jok-Lubanga as the creator and sustainer of the world.
 The Acholi always prayed to him through the spirits.
 The Rwoth was the religious head of his people.
 He was believed to have direct links with the ancestors.
 Inheritance followed the father’s line.
 Land was communally owned.
 It was the duty of the clan heads to protect it on behalf of his people.

Economic organisation
 Their main economic activity was pastoralism and they kept short horned cattle.
 They also carried out agriculture and grew crops such as millet, peas, beans and sorghum.
 They highly valued cows for prestige, bride wealth and rewards.
 Fishing was also carried out by those who stayed near the rivers.
 They traded with their neighbours like the Langi, Banyoro and Sudanese.

CRE
MAJOR THEME -2: ORDER AND FREEDOM IN SOCIETY

SUB THEME- 1: JUSTICE IN SOCIETY

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The term justice means treating people equally and fairly. It’s about establishing a harmonious
relationship between people and institutions like church and its followers, parents and their children
state and citizens etc.

TYPES OF JUSTICE

Social justice: It’s the respect of one’s rights in a given society regardless of his/ her sex, race, tribe or
social class. It provides equal opportunities for everybody without fear or favor.

Natural justice: This type of justice is one enjoyed by everyone by virtue of being human being. It that
justice which protects one’s right to live, eat food, associate with others, express him/ herself, etc.

Legal or General Justice: This is about the rule of law in a given country. It ensures that the constitution
is highly respected as a supreme law. It also ensures that the judiciary is independent without any state
interference.

Cultural justice: This is justice attained through customs and rituals of a certain community. It is
normally administered by clan leaders, chiefs etc.

Religious justice: This empowers people to decide where to belong in terms of religion. It protects one’s
freedom of worship without being persecuted.

Economic justice: This provides equal opportunities to everybody to participate in any economic activity
in a country without being hindered. It ensures the employment opportunities are free to all. It also
empowers workers to be protected from any exploitation from employers.

Political justice: This involves freedom of individuals to determine their political destiny through voting,
freedom of press, association, contesting for elections etc.

Mob justice: This is where an emotional crowd takes the law in their hands to administer justice without
use of courts of the law.

Consensus Justice: this is justice done by two or more disagreeing parties. They sit at a round table to
reach an agreement over their differences. It uses dialogue to reach a peaceful settlement.

IMPORTANCE OF JUSTICE IN SOCIETY

 It promotes peace and harmony in society especially if different people agree to work together for
the good of their society.
 Where there is full justice, there is less civil war because people will have no reason for going to war
or having riots and demonstrations.
 Where justice prevails, there is respect for human rights like freedom of speech, freedom of
worship, freedom of association etc.
 Justice leads to speedy progress and development of both individuals and the society. Individuals
will invest their money where there is peace thus making the country to develop.
 Where there is justice, people carry out their duties perfectly well. For example the courts of law will
not work under influence of politicians.

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 The existence of justice leads to the respect of government leaders and other leaders at all levels.
 It all promotes social harmony and unity which are important in bringing about stability in any
country.

JUSTICE IN THE PRESENT SITUATION

(The administration of justice in Uganda today)

The following measures have been put in place to see that justice is respected in Uganda and
these include the following;

 Uganda has a constitution which acts as a supreme law of the country. This has ensured the rule
of law in the country.
 There is also a parliament or the legislature which makes laws and observes justice in the
country.
 The courts of in Uganda have made efforts to ensure that justice is respected. They pass on
judgment to the breakers of the law like thieves, rapists, rebels etc.
 There are prisons where wrong doers or offenders of justice are imprisoned. They provide safe
custody to the suspect and criminals and produce them to the courts of law when needed.
 There is also the army which makes sure that people’s life is protected. The army also protects
people’s property and sovereignty of the country.
 There also local councils to preserve laws and order right from the grassroots or local levels.
 Human right commission is in place to promote and respect the human rights of citizens in the
country.
 There are also anti-corruption bodies in place to fight corruption as an injustice. These include
the anti- corruption court, Inspector General of Government, Public accounts committee,
Auditor General etc.
 There is an association of women lawyers called FIDA. Its major concern is to fight and advocate
for women’s rights. It’s the voice of women to fight for their justice.
 The church also stands in as a religious institution to promote justice in the country, e.g.
condemning rebel activities.

SHORTCOMINGS/ PROBLEMS FACED IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN UGANDA

 There is capital punishment or death sentence to crimes like treason or murder. This has a
weakness because the victim is not given chance to reform.
 Many Ugandans end up committing crimes because they do not know the law; so people fail to
see the application of justice when they are sentenced on grounds they do not know.
 There is weakness of the law where wrong doers continue to walk freely because the law does
not arrest them; for example people who misuse public funds.

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 The permissive nature of our society is another problem. Because of this most people do not
respect the law and authorities of justice.
 Mass media has influenced many youth to act contrary to the demand of the law. This has
promoted violence, pornography, gambling etc.
 There is too much political interference which blocks true justice in society. Sometimes
politicians in government interfere with the administration of justice in the country.
 There is poor investigation process by police which leads to failure to get satisfactory evidence.
 Taking bribes by the police and some officials can also affect true justice. The rich criminals use
bribes and they are set free.
 There is a problem of delayed justice where by judgment takes a lot of time even when justice is
urgently needed. It should be noted that delayed justice is justice denied.
 Because of unemployment the jobless youth resort to criminal practices in order to survive; for
example gambling, pick pocketing etc.
 Some cultures are rigid and impose injustices to people; for example female circumcision among
the Sabins.

INJUSTICES IN THE PRESENT SITUATION

The term injustice means the unfair treatment of an individual by another. It is a failure to relate
to other people in a way that respects their dignity. It is the violation of human rights and
freedom. Injustice exists in all spheres of life e.g. among individuals, groups, schools, villages and
nations and the commonest injustices include the following;

1. Mob justice. This is where an individual is judged by a group of disorganized people after doing
a mistake. The individual is normally beaten, burnt or even stoned to death before proved guilty
thus being an injustice.
2. Child abuse. Children are often neglected, starved and burnt especially by people who don’t
have a motherly heart e.g. step-mothers, fathers; for example one father from Kiboga was
shown on Bukedde TV under arrest after selling his four year child to a witch doctor for12
million.
3. Some parents mostly in rural areas deny their children the required benefits e.g. girls are denied
education.
4. Fighting, discrimination and uttering bad words is very common in Uganda. This a common
practice among the football fans who speak obscene words to and from their matches.
5. Terrorism in the country has also proved to a threat in Uganda since it leads to loss of human
life.
6. Oppression of women by men. This is because women naturally being a weak sex, men take this
advantage to oppress, harass and exploit them which is unfair.
7. Bribery is common today. For one to receive any service, he or she has to pay something. This is
common especially in government offices like Police, judiciary and among traffic officers on
roads.

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8. Sectarianism is very common as an injustice; it’s the discrimination of people in respect to their
background. For example one is favored for belonging to a particular tribe or religion to get a
job. This denies justice to others who may be more qualified.
9. Underpayment and overworking of the employees is also rampant.
10. Abortion and rape are common today among many youth especially in schools,
11. Overcharging by businessmen to their customers, doctors to their patients is also common
today.
12. Sex harassment e.g. in homes where a man harasses his wife for sex, bosses to their female
workers.
13. Bullying/teasing in schools by the old students to new students. It’s injustice which makes new
students uncomfortable. For example their books are taken away, beaten etc.
COMMON CAUSES OF INJUSTICES\ WHY INJUSTICES HAVE PERSISTED IN SOCIETY

1. Poverty; In most cases, this has been the main cause of injustice whereby people are forced to
do anything possible so as to make ends meet e.g. some rich people offer money or material
things to the poor so as to win their votes and yet they can’t deliver.
2. Greed. This is manifested in the desire to become rich in the shortest period of time possible
and therefore forces one to demand for bribes from his clients like traffic officer from a driver.
3. Ignorance of the law by most people due to limited civic education for example those who
commit mob justice are always ignorant about the law.
4. Tribalism is also another cause of injustice; fighting and undermining one another on tribal
basis; for example the war in Southern Sudan between the NUER and DINKA
5. Corruption in courts of law leading to poor people not granted fair trial.
6. Selfishness of individuals through the “I don’t care attitude” towards others. It makes them
misbehave towards others in society.
7. Revenge and unjust experiences which may force other people to commit injustices.
8. Envy and hatred especially the poor people hate the rich leading to witch craft which brings
harm in society.
9. Injustices are also brought about by delayed justice in the courts of law yet delayed justice is
denied justice; and this makes people to take law in their hands.
10. There is too much idleness in society and yet an idle mind is the devil’s workshop thus increasing
injustices in society.
11. Little or lack of religious conviction among people also brings about injustices like theft, murder,
prostitution etc.
12. Pornographic literature such as blue movies which influence people into unjust actions like
defilement.
13. Unemployment which forces people into unjust activities such as stealing, corning of people.
14. Pride also has made injustices persist. This contributes to undermining of one another,
discrimination, fights.
15. Lack of constitutionalism where the constitution is constantly manipulated according to the
interests of those in government.
16. Permissiveness where by some people consider themselves free to do what they want according
to their wish thus leading to mob justice, domestic violence etc.

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 17. Disrespect of human rights by some people who claim to be great. These people normally
oppress the rest in terms of free movement, freedom of speech, press
FORMS OF CHILD ABUSE AS AN INJUSTICE TO CHILDREN TODAY

The term child abuse generally refers to the mistreatment of a child by a parent or another adult.
The injustices inflicted on children today include the following;

1. Defilement; many young girls in primary schools experience the danger of being sexually abused
by some male teachers and fellow young boys and they lose their virginity forever.
2. Rape; young girls are forced into sex by lustful boys, drunken men, neighbors, classmates and
strangers. They also end up losing their virginity.
3. Some parents force their adolescent daughters into marriage with favored elderly men. This is
against the girl’s wish and denies her education.
4. Children face a problem of incest for example their cousins, step brothers, uncles and adopting
fathers seduce them into sex. This affects their emotions and mental growth.
5. In some parts of Uganda the girl children are still forced to go under genital mutilation (female
circumcision). This is common among the Sebei of Eastern Uganda. It’s aimed at reducing the
girl’s sensitivity in sex .
6. Some children receive severe punishments for minor cases for example burning them for
stealing sugar, or fifty shillings.
7. Busy parents don’t attend to their children and they deny them parental love and care. They go
to work early in the morning and come back late in the night leaving the children with house
girls.
8. There is child labor where children are made to work to support their unemployed parents, for
example selling pan cakes, polythene papers etc.
9. There is child rejection where a child is denied parental acceptance form the presumed father as
his legitimate son. Some mothers also tend to change the fatherhood of a given child to a
favored man.
10. Some people abuse children by giving them less food for their normal growth. They don’t bring
meat, eggs and milk at home.
11. Children are abducted by witch doctors and they are sacrificed. This is called child sacrifice.
12. Children are exposed to uncontrolled media where there is a lot of immorality on TV and radios.
MEASURES PUT IN PLACE TO PROTECT THE RIGHTS OF CHILDREN

1. The government has set up strong laws against rape or defilement for example if one is guilty of
such, the punishment is imprisonment for seven years.
2. It has also provided Universal Primary Education and Universal Secondary Education so that all
children can be educated to fight ignorance in society.
3. Children are recognized at local council level where they have a person in charge.
4. There is a children desk at every police station responsible for children’s matters.
5. The government has set up immunization policies to ensure good health of children.
6. It has also set up children’s courts to try special cases affecting children.
7. It has set up 18 years as the minimum age for one to get married.
8. It has also heavily punished parents who mistreat children.

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9. The government has set up and supported child based organizations for example Sanyu babies’
home.
10. Children are organized by prominent figures eg parties like on Christmas day parties are made
for the little ones.

BULLYING AS AN INJUSTICE IN SCHOOLS

1. It makes the bullies students lose interest in their studies and start dodging lessons.
2. It makes one lose concentration in academics for fear to be mistreated.
3. A bullied student is humiliated before other students. This makes him uncomfortable.
4. Bullying gives room to those who are envious of particular new students to punish them for
being what they are; for example those who look wealthier, more beautiful, and more fluent in
English etc.
5. It’s inhuman and unkind treatment to fellowman. It makes some students be treated like
animals that have no feelings.
6. The bullied student spends sleepless nights for fear to be attacked at night. This denies them the
right to enjoy relaxation.
7. Bullying was against the values of caring for strangers and the less fortunate ones.
8. Bullying violates the right of equality among all people. No one should be treated unkindly for
unjustified reasons.
9. It makes a student live under fear and is not free to expose his/her talent.
10. Bullied students lose their property and may never recover their items like text books, money
clothes etc.
INJUSTICES FACED BY WOMEN IN UGANDA TODAY

1. There is too much suppression of women in most homes and therefore women are undermined
by men. They don’t enjoy equal treatment at home and thus they are not involved in decision
making at home.
2. Women are looked at as sexual objects; that they are there to satisfy men’s sexual desires.
Moreover, some husbands could even rape their wives instead of preparing them for sex.
3. Some churches like the Roman Catholic Church don’t give to women top posts in church
leadership. Women can best serve as nuns.
4. Two or more women are forced to marry one man under polygamy. This is seen as an abuse of
the woman’s rights to be love alone by the husband.
5. There is female genital mutilation which is seen as an injustice in society. It deprives the woman
of her sexual pleasure because her sensitive body parts are removed. This is common among the
Sabins of Eastern Uganda.
6. Women are physically assaulted daily. They are beaten or man handled by their husbands and
male relatives.
7. Some societies have food taboos against women where they are denied good food stuffs like
chicken, eggs, fish etc
8. In certain family, women are denied education. Priority is first given to boys and then girls come
in as last resort.

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 9. In some societies girls are forced into marriage at a tender age. This is very common among the
Karamojongs and traditional Acholis.
10. There is women discrimination at work. They are denied chance to work, get promotions and
highly placed appointments because of being physically weak.
MOB JUSTICE AS AN INJUSTICE

The term mob justice refers to a situation where an emotional crowd of people takes the law in their
hands to administer justice without following the legal process. It is caused by the factors;

 Ignorance of the law by the promoters of this practice. Such people believe that they have
powers over suspects to the extent of killing them.
 Idleness of the crowd / majority of the people.
 Influence of drugs like marijuana
 Peer group influence.
 Delayed justice from the courts of law
 Permissiveness; this means too much freedom given to people to do what they want.
 Bribery and corruption in public offices like Police.
 Revenge on some people.
 Personal grudges/misunderstandings.
 Envy and jealousy from some people.
 Unavailability of security people in some places.
 Lack of respect of those in authority.

Mob justice is an injustice because of the following;

1. In the bible mob justice was rejected by Jesus when he forgave the adulterous woman who was
about to be stoned by a mob.
2. It can lead to the death of a criminal and this is against the Ten Commandments.
3. It is bad because it violets human rights for example right to life, privacy and right to defense.
4. If a criminal is not killed, he may be deformed and may become disabled forever.
5. Sometimes an innocent person may lose his life as well as his property.
6. It’s against the laws of the country and the people who are involved can be punished in case
they are caught.
7. It creates social conflict in the village and at places of work.
8. It’s irreversible since even when one is proved innocent, nothing can be done since already a
punishment has been given.
9. It’s a form of revenge in the shortest time.
10. Mob justice does not give a victim chance to defend himself. One may therefore be punished
innocently when he/she is simply a suspect.
11. Mob justice humiliates the suspect publically. It makes the suspect lose respect from the public
thus making him a misfit.
COMMON INJUSTICES IN THE CHURCH TODAY

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1. Church leaders don’t practice what they preach. They have therefore contradicted the gospel
and are not exemplary.
2. Some church leaders discriminate their followers; that is favoring the rich and influential
Christians.
3. There is misuse of church funds by some religious leaders for personal interests. This affects the
progress of the church.
4. Some church leaders have turned the pulpit into platforms from where they voice their personal
grudges with their opponents. This is an injustice and not a sign of love.
5. Some church leaders are not faithful to their vows they made to their God; for example the vow
of celibacy, poverty and obedience.
6. There is power struggle among church leaders. They desire leadership for influence, money and
personal interests but not serving God.
7. The church has destroyed African traditional culture in favor of foreign culture. It has labeled
African culture as Satanic.
8. Some church leaders don’t pray for the sick or requiem mass for the deceased especially those
who are not regular for church prayers.
9. Some church leaders abuse Christians. They are too harsh to the extent of beating them.
10. Some church leaders involve themselves in politics to the extent of promoting bad policies like
the 1994 Rwandese genocide in which catholic priests were involved.
WAYS IN WHICH THE CHURCH HAS FOUGHT INJUSTICES IN UGANDA TODAY

1. By preaching the gospel to shape people’s morals especially to the youth. For example, in Bishop
Cipriano Kihangire S.S.S termly retreats are organized to shape morals of students.
2. By preaching for equality among all people. This has reduced all forms of discrimination based
on religion, sex and tribe.
3. By supporting orphans through Christian organizations like KULIKA charitable trust in Nsambya
or EMMAUS FOUNDATION of Fr. JOHN SCARABLINI the Director of Bishop Cipriano Kihangire
S.S.S Luzira.
4. By helping to maintain harmony in many families through settling disputes between parents and
counseling children, fathers and wives.
5. By sensitizing Christians and other people about justice and human rights.
6. Some churches got involved in fighting battles on front line against injustices for example Rev.
Pius Tibanyendera, Rev. Fr. Sseguya who joined NRA in the bush war to over throw bad regimes.
7. The church has supported different projects in the field of health and education in neglected
areas like Karamoja.
8. By praying for justice and peace in the country at the end of the year to welcome new years
with a blessing from God.
9. By advising politicians and asking them to change from injustices; for example, Bishop John
Baptist Odama of Gulu Diocese was active in the peace talks of Joseph Kony’s LRA and the
government of Uganda. By supporting women, protecting their rights and raising their status for
example through mothers’ union and other women organizations.
10. By putting up alternative media to promote justice and moral righteousness for example church
founded stations like Top Radio, Radio Maria, Top TV etc which have shaped the behavior of
their followers.

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 11. The church has preached for equality of all human beings. This is based on the grounds that we
are all created in God’s image and therefore we are equal before God.
12. The church is fighting injustices by preaching to Christians the ideal of Love, forgiveness and
patience to exist among Christians. This can help bring about harmony in society.
13. The church has set up organizations like Uganda; Joint Christian council (UJCC) which fights
injustices in societies like corruption and rigging of elections.
14. The church has also built homes for the disadvantaged people such as the poor, orphans and
disabled. For example, Sanyu Babies’ home in Mengo, the Bakateyamba in Nalukolongo under
Kampala Archdiocese.
QUESTION:

(a) What are the common causes of mob justice today?

(b) Why is mob justice an injustice itself?

(a) With specific examples, examine the different cases of injustice suffered by children and
women in your society.
(b) What the government of Uganda has done to protect the rights of children

FUNCTIONS OF RULES AND REGULATIONS

 They guide and control the behavior of people for example school rules.
 Rules and regulations ensure discipline in the society in which people live.
 When people have rules and regulations to follow, they are in position to carry out their
duties perfectly well
 They help to promote peace and unity among people such as the national constitution of
Uganda.
 They protect people from going astray e.g. school rules.
 Some rules protect people against accidents in along high ways e.g. zebra crossing along
high ways.
 They help to reduce high crime rate and violence in a community.
 They promote justice in a society.
 Rules and regulations help in maintaining political stability.
 They help to protect weaker members of the society against injustices found in society.

JUSTICE IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

The African tradition society is known for its promotion of justice. Justice in African traditional
society was practiced in the following ways;

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1. There was no individual ownership of resources like land, water, forests etc. these were
communally owned and protected for the benefit of the community. Thus individualism was
discouraged as a way of promoting justice.
2. On the hierarchy of leadership; chiefs, tribal elders and parents were agents of justice in the
society. Tribal elders were also important in reconciling aggressive parties.
3. There were no written rules and regulations but one had to observe the traditions and customs
of the society and failure to uphold them would mean excommunication or other punishments
deemed appropriate.
4. Leaders were expected to serve the community according to the general consensus of the
community.
5. Decision and resolution implementation were taken up by the whole community. This was very
common in stateless societies like Soroti.
6. Compensation was important e.g. incase one’s animals destroyed another’s crops, it was a
condition that the owner of the animals pays compensation in order to promote harmony in
society.
7. Tribalism was discouraged. This was evidenced by the fact that strangers would be allowed to
participate in community celebration. Among the Baganda they could be allowed to join the
known clans.
8. Revenge was discouraged as it promoted the persistent occurrence of injustices instead there
was reconciliation and forgiveness.
9. Respect for one another as well as customs and beliefs was a way of expressing justice in
African tradition.
10. Cultural values, religious customs and taboos were very important in promoting justice in
African tradition.
11. Offenders were required to confess their mistakes in public. They had to promise that they
would never repeat the same mistake.
12. Purification rituals were carried out. This involved cleansing of an offender from his or her sins
aimed at avoiding punishment from the ancestral spirits.
Question:

 (1) How was justice promoted and maintained in African traditional society?
 (2) Explain justice as understood and worked out in traditional Africa.
 (3) Explain the understanding of justice in the African past.

HOW JUSTICE WAS ADMINISTERED IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES

1. In the ATS there were no written laws but decisions on social order were based on customs and
situations surrounding the case.
2. Societies that were centralized like Buganda and Bunyoro had their judicial authority in the
hands of the king.
3. Africans had local courts which were used to reconcile people, settle disputes and penalizing
wrong doers.

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4. In traditional African society justice was maintained by laws, customs and taboos which formed
the moral code of the society.
5. Any one practicing any social evil like witch craft, bad magic and sorcery etc. was
excommunicated from the society because such a person was antisocial.
6. Misunderstandings in the family were settled by the family elders such as grandparents, clan
heads etc.
7. Justice was divine guided. Morals were believed to be God given and anyone who committed
any crime like murder would be punished by God.
8. Wrong doers were always put to task to give public confession before a punishment was served.
9. Compensations were made by criminals to those offended. This was aimed at making justice
prevail in society.
10. Punishments in the ATS were deterrent in nature i.e. aimed at stopping others from doing
similar crimes.
11. There was justice between the living and the dead; for that matter spirits had to be offered
sacrifices.
12. In ATS an injustice committed on an individual was an offence against the whole community
because a society was a corporate body.

INJUSTICES IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

1. There was human sacrifice. In most African societies the children were sacrificed for fear of
wars, drought etc. This was common among the Kamba people in Kenya.
2. Young girls were forced into marriage against their consent. Even the choice of the marriage
partner was made by elders. Therefore such girls only had to accept the choice of the parents.
This was common in Buganda, Busoga etc.
3. There was female genital mutilation a common injustice which denied women chance of
enjoying sex. Here the clitoris was cut off and this killed sexual pleasure of such women. It was
common among the Sabins, Kikuyu and Bakonjo.
4. There were food taboos against women in most African societies. Here women were denied
some food stuffs. For example among the Baganda it was considered a taboo for women to eat
eggs, chicken, pork etc and such food was reserved to only men.
5. There was oppression of women by men in ATS. They were despised and oppressed because
they were seen as weak sex. For example in Tooro a woman could not denied a husband sex,
hence a common saying “Omusaijja tayangwa”
6. There was discrimination and isolation of strangers. The Luo could not intermarry with them.
7. There was exploitation of the minority groups like the insane (mad), strangers and sometimes
children.
8. Suspects were sometimes harshly treated by the society. For example suspects of witchcraft
were beaten, had their property burnt down and sometimes excommunicated from the society.

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9. There was suppression of individual’s rights. For example views from women could not be
accepted by men in most societies and sometimes they could be told to shut up especially while
talking in presence of men.
10. The privileged despised the unprivileged members of the society, i.e. the superior and inferior.
For example in Buganda the Balangira (royals) exploited the Bakopi (serfs).
11. There was mob justice were suspects of murder, theft or witchcraft were badly treated.
Suspects of witchcraft would have their houses burnt down by the people.
12. African women were subjected to a lot of unfairness, for example the Itesots in Eastern Uganda
could not allow women to take part in leadership.
13. Some kings were very harsh to their subjects, for example they could sell them in slavery, take
away their wives, offer them as sacrifices to spirits, spit in their mouth etc.
Question:

(a) With examples, explain how justice was manifested in African traditional society.

(b) What were the common injustices in the Africa traditional societies?

(c) What common injustices were subjected to women in traditional African societies?

JUSTICE IN CHURCH HISTORY

In church history there were two major areas of injustice namely slavery practices and
oppression of the minority groups.

SLAVERY

1. Slavery practices were officially accepted in the church. Emperor Constantine of Roman Empire
found out that most Bishops and priests had slaves. This was an injustice.
2. The bishops and priests benefited greatly from the slaves who made their lives comfortable. No
one wanted to abolish it.
3. The married slaves were not given chance to live as a family with their wives. The husband
would live in isolation of his wife and children for years. This too was an injustice.
4. African slaves were sold to America and Brazil. They were made to work day and night without
any single pay.
5. Slaves were inhumanly treated by their masters. They were beaten during work, denied enough
food, medical care and slept in the open.
6. Slavery had become a business to the European missionaries. They claimed that with slave
business, they were able to build schools, churches and hospitals in Africa.
7. Some missionaries said that slaves were happier in America than if they had remained back in
Africa. These slaves wanted to be freed but the missionaries in America were reluctant.
8. Unlike missionaries, the Quakers were the first group who refused their members to use slaves;
this showed that Quakers had seen the horrible nature of slavery.

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9. St Peter Clever a Spanish priest showed great concern to slaves by feeding them, but he still
faced opposition from the slave owners.
10. William Wilberforce the leader of the Chaplin sect also strongly opposed slavery and advocated
for its abolition and it was finally abolished in 1807.

OPPRESSION OF THE MINORITY GROUPS

1. The Jews were among the minority groups oppressed by Christians that time. They were
mistreated by Christians because they were believed to have been responsible for the death of
Jesus Christ.
2. The church also opposed the Heretic Minority (Idol worshipers) because they considered them
evil.
3. Christians were another minority group that was oppressed and mistreated in the Roman
Empire under Emperor Nero. Christians were blamed for worshiping Jesus Christ as King instead
of Emperor Nero.
4. There was oppression of the pagan minority. This was during the days of Emperor Constantine’s
regime when Christianity was a state religion in AD 311.
5. There was oppression of the protestant minority. In 1571 Pope Pius V expelled Queen Elizabeth
I from the Catholic Church because she had declared Protestantism state religion of Britain.
Protestants were nicknamed as rebels.
6. Christians who lived in communist countries faced severe persecutions and mistreatment for
their faith. Communism does not provide explanation of God’s existence in China, Korea and
Russia.
7. St Augustine from North Africa helped the government to oppress the minority who had broken
away from the church. He wanted to use force to unite the church.
8. Twelve men and women from Seychelles were executed for refusing to sacrifice to the Roman
gods.

WHY WAS SLAVERY CONSIDERED AN INJUSTICE

1. Slavery denied married slaves chance to stay with their family members. It made it hard for a
man to interact with his wife and children. They always lived in isolation.
2. Africans were sold off as trade commodities thereby disrespecting their human dignity.
3. African slaves were subjected to severe punishments by their masters. Many were beaten for
disrespecting their masters.
4. Most slaves worked for long hours with little or no pay. They were also not allowed rest yet their
work was very heavy.
5. Slavery was condemned because it made African slaves forget their identity and sense of
belonging, as a result of over staying other communities.
6. The children of the slaves would automatically belong to the masters not to their biological
parents.

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7. In general slaves lived in very poor conditions yet their masters lived in luxury.
8. Their life was exposed to great risks in mines because many would die without any rescue done.
HOW THE CHURCH HELPED TO ELIMINATE INJUSTICES OF SLAVERY

1. Slaves were freed, trained skills and got important positions in the church.
2. The church actively participated in the abolition of slavery e.g. St. Peter Clever in America as well
as Wilberforce in Africa.
3. The church refused its members from owning slaves especially members of the Quakers. This
was done to promote the rights of the slaves.
4. The church helped in baptizing slaves and converting them into Christianity, thus making other
fight for rights of slaves.
5. Missionaries constructed schools for the freed slaves from where they to read and write and
skills like carpentry.
6. The church encouraged legitimate trade which was a replacement of slave trade.
7. The church missionary society settled freed slaves in West Africa in Sierra Leone and in East
Africa while the Holy Ghost fathers provided them with charity works.
8. The church helped freed slaves to train as church leaders for example Bishop Samuel Crowther
Ajayi in Nigeria who was once a freed slave.

HOW THE CHURCH HELPED TO ELIMINATE THE INJUSTICE OF SLAVERY

1. Slaves were freed, trained new skills and got important positions in the church such Samuel
Crowther Ajayi in Nigeria.
2. The church actively participated in the abolition of slavery. Many of the church members like
William Wilberforce, St. Peter Clavery refused their members to own slaves especially the
Quakers. This was promoting the rights of slaves.
3. The church also helped in baptizing slaves and converting them to Christianity thus creating a
large Christian community among the slaves which discouraged slave owners from acquiring
more slaves.
4. The church missionary society sent all their freed slaves in East Africa to Sierra Leone where
they were assured of their freedom.
5. The church converted freed slaves into anti-slavery force which was used to fight slavery in
different parts of Africa.
6. It helped in training freed slaves as church leaders in different parts of Africa, such as Adrian
Atman and Bishop Crowther Ajayi.
7. Missionaries discouraged African chiefs and kings from participating in slave trade and slavery.
8. They convinced their home governments to make it illegal to participate in slave trade and
slavery.

PERSONALITIES IN CHURCH HISTORY WHO OPPOSED INJUSTICES USING NON VIOLENT MEANS

Different people in different parts of Africa fought tirelessly to put to an end the forms of
injustice that were prevailing in their communities.

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1. DOM-HELDER CAMARA
 Dom Helder Camara was the archbishop of Olinda and Recife in Brazil who died on August 27th
1999 at the age of 90 years.
 He was the 12th of the 13 children and a son of the book keeper and a grade three school
teacher.
 He became one of the most loved but most opposed person in Brazil.
 Dom Helder was internationally acknowledged as a man of God and defender of the poor.
 As bishop he dressed simply in traditional attire which signified his concern for the poor.
 According to him no one is to be a slave. No one seeks to suffer injustices, humiliations and
restrictions.
 He says a human being subjected to inhuman situations is like an animal wallowing (rolling) in
mud.
 According to Helder Camara, violence is not a real answer to violence. There should be peaceful
means of overcoming violence.
 He says that violence makes the world fall into a spiral of violence (continuous violence)
 The only true answer to violence according to Camara is to have the courage to face injustice.
 He says that the privileged and those in authority should choose between bloody and armed
violence on one hand and on the other hand violence of peacefulness.
 He says that opting for non-violence means is to believe strongly in the power of truth, justice
and love instead of thinking in terms of wars, weapons and hatred.
 Camara says that he would prefer a thousand times to be killed than to kill others.
 He argued that it’s much better to be persecuted by those in authority instead of fighting the
government which can cause others to suffer.

MARTIN LUTHER KING JUNIOR.

1. He was a black American pastor.

2. He was born on January 15th 1929 in Atlanta.
3. He was a leader of the civil rights movement in USA in 1950s and 1960s.
4. He had good speaking ability on social justice.
5. He mobilized people to boycott and demonstrate against racism.
6. He delivered a popular speech called "I have a dream speech" after which the civil rights act was
passed.
7. The civil rights act stopped the injustice of racism in all public places like schools, markets and
hospitals.
8. He was awarded a noble prize in 1964.
9. On April 4th 1968 he was shot and killed while campaigning for the equality of the poor people at
Memphis.

NELSON MANDELA

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1. Nelson Madiba Mandela was born on July 18th 1918 at Qunu, Transkei region in South Africa.
2. He fought for justice by organizing South Africans to oppose the injustice of racism or apartheid
policy that had made life very hard for the South African natives.
3. He was determined and gave his life as a living sacrifice.
4. He offered to stay in prison for more than 25 years to show his protest against the apartheid
regime.
5. He was asked on January 31st 1985 to denounce violence and honor apartheid but he instead
gave the following remark "Only free men can negotiate. Prisoners cannot enter into contracts. I
cannot and I will not give any under taking at a time when my people and I are prisoners. Your
freedom and mine cannot be separated".
6. On January 11th 1990, Nelson Mandela walked out of the prisons gate as the most outstanding
moral and political leader who loves justice at all cost.
7. Nelson Mandela died on 5th December 2013.

MOTHER THERESA.

1. Mother Theresa was a Roman Catholic nun.

2. She was a world’s humanitarian missionary.
3. She received a noble prize in 1979 for her hard work for the poor whom she referred to as the
"poorest of the poor".
4. She founded the missionary of charity in 1950.
5. She provided food in schools, hospitals and orphanages.
6. Many people referred to her as the only saint alive.
7. While in Uganda in 1988, she visited the needy in Kisenyi slums.
8. Her mission educated over 400 children.
9. She died on September 5th 1997.

CARDINAL EMMANUEL NSUBUGA.

1. Cardinal Emmanuel is regarded as the father of all Catholics in Uganda.

2. He loved and respected all human beings irrespective of their color, religion and tribe.
3. He spoke openly on the abuse of power and violation of human rights in Uganda most especially
by political leaders.
4. He never feared to visit those who suffered from civil wars.
5. He fed and provided shelter for more than 1000 refugees at Rubaga.
6. He spent his life in the service of the ordinary people.
7. He started projects which helped the poor people e.g. He opened a primary and secondary
schools at Kyankwanzi Ranch.

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8. He built a home for the elderly and the homeless at Nalukolongo.
9. He died on April 20th 1991 and was buried at Nalukolongo among the homeless.

ARCH BISHOP JANAN LUWUM.

1. -Janan Luwum was a Ugandan Anglican archbishop who bravely defended human rights during
Idi Amin's regime.
2. During Amin's regime, life in Uganda was characterized by rape by soldiers, kidnap, and arbitrary
arrest, detention without trial, unexplained killings and denial of freedom of worship.
3. He accepted to act as the voice of the voiceless in 1970s.
4. He openly criticized then President Idi Amin for all injustices he had imposed on Ugandans.
5. He was arrested in 1977 and shot twice on the chest by Idi Amin.
6. Janan Luwum was later put on the list of those who lost their lives through firing squad during
Amin's regime.
7. He identified with the suffering people and that threw him into conflict with the government.
8. A week before his death, bishop Luwum wrote a letter to the president signed by 8 other
bishops criticizing the president of his bad practices.

BIBLICAL UNDERSTANDING OF JUSTICE

1. God wanted justice to prevail among his people and that is why he liberated the children of
Israel from the Egyptian slavery, to give them their liberties and have joy in life.
2. In order to promote justice there were punishments given to the injustices committed for
example Cain was punished and cursed for killing his brother Abel.
3. The book of Exodus 20:1-17 indicates the Ten Commandments which were given by God to
promote justice among the Israelites.
4. God also gave out laws to protect the right of workers in Israel. It was condemned as an injustice
for a worker not to be paid (Leviticus 19:13).
5. God also called upon the Israelites to be honest and just when they are making decisions in
courts of law. He called upon them not to favor the rich against the poor. Leviticus 19:15
6. God often sent his prophets to promote justice by condemning the social injustices like using
wrong weighing scales in businesses and mistreatment of the poor. This was done by prophet
Amos.
7. Sabbath was given as a day of resting from work by every by everyone including foreigners in
Israel. Therefore whoever abused this right committed any injustice against God. Exodus 23:12
8. Injustices like adultery and divorce were condemned in the book of (Deuteronomy 22:13-30).
This protects marriage from injustices.
9. In the Old Testament God calls man to live in good relationship with him and with each other.
10. The Israelites were given laws to help them get united as people of the same God to ensure that
justice prevails in society.

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11. The rich people in Israel were called upon to show love and justice to the poor. They were
supposed to provide for them in times of need.
12. God used to perform miracles as one way of showing justice to his people. For example he saved
Daniel from being eaten up while in a den of lions.
13. The Israelites were called upon to repent for their injustices committed. Those who refused to
repent were punished by God such as Adam and Eve, the two immoral cities of Sodom and
Gomorrah.
14. As a way of promoting justice the Israelites were called upon by prophet Isaiah to obey God’s
laws and show brotherly concern for one another.
THE OLD TESTAMENT TEACHING ON JUSTICE

1. For justice to prevail there should be a good relationship between God and man and between
man and his fellowman as it was originally in Eden.
2. Justice involves equal treatment to all human beings whether male or female, rich or poor
because all were created in the image of God.
3. The Old Testament teaches that Justice means obedience to the covenant law and failure to
obey it brings about injustices in society.
4. It teaches that love and respect for human beings is the key to justice. For example God showed
justice to his people by treating all of them equally.
5. It teaches that God is the source of justice. Therefore all people are invited to be just and fair to
each other.
6. The Old Testament encourages fair treatment of foreigners as it promotes justice in society,
(Exodus 23:9)
7. In bringing about justice, the Old Testament advises that people should not accept bribes in
order to provide fair and just judgment as Prophet Amos teaches.
8. While promoting justice, the Old Testament teaches that people should use the Ten
Commandments because they are the foundation of justice in society.
9. It teaches that the rule of law is Israel was not compromised (the law would not be bent to
carter for particular people). Therefore there was no one above the law.
10. It also teaches that worshiping God alone was a manifestation of justice in society and
worshiping him alongside other gods was an indication of injustice.
11. Justice also involved complete rejection of alliances with pagan communities in terms of
business and friendship, therefore Israel was to be independent on its own.
12. The Old Testament teaches that even slaves are entitled to their freedom. They should be set
free in the seventh year.
13. It teaches that offenders should be given a just and fair punishment, equivalent to the crime
committed Leviticus 24:17-22.

COMMON INJUSTICES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

The following are cases of injustices in the Old Testament;

1. Man’s disobedience in Genesis 3 was an example of injustice because Adam and Eve were
supposed to obey God instead they obeyed Satan.

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2. In Genesis 4 there is an injustice of Cain killing his brother Abel because of jealousy.
3. In the book of Exodus there is enslavement of the Israelites in Egypt for a period of 430 years.
However later God intervened to restore justice for the Israelites.
4. In Israel there was an injustice of discrimination people suffering from Leprosy who were
treated as out casts in society.
5. In 2 Samuel 11 kings David committed an injustice of adultery with Bathsheba the wife of Uriah
yet he had many other wives.
6. King David was also blood thirst. He killed Uriah the husband of Bathsheba in order to cover up
his sin of adultery.
7. King Solomon subjected the Israelites to forced labor, over taxation and exploitation of the poor.
This was another case of injustice in Israel.
8. There was an injustice of persecuting God’s prophets in Israel. For example Amos was abused
and sent away in Israel, while Jeremiah was thrown into the well.
9. Some kings in Israel used force to take over people’s property. For example king Ahab took over
Naboth’s vineyard.
10. Some people committed an injustice of incest, for example David’s son Amnon raped his sister
Tamar (2Samuel13)
11. Traders during Amos’ time used wrong weighing scales while others added sand in salt in order
to get abnormal profits.
12. There was an injustice of denying the just hearing in the courts of law. Judges favored the rich
against the poor.
13. Some kings promoted the worship of other gods in Israel, for example Solomon and Ahab
promoted foreign gods of their wives.

HOW WAS JUSTICE MAINTAINED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

1. God gave out the Ten Commandments to the Israelites which helped to safeguard rights of all
people.
2. God sent his prophets who condemned all forms of injustices in society; for example Amos
condemned exploitation of the poor.
3. Punishments were put in place as a collective measure of fighting against injustices for example
the just and fair punishment (an eye for an eye) Leviticus 24.
4. Adultery was condemned in the Jewish society, for example David’s son of adultery was killed by
God, 2Samuel 12.
5. The Old Testament encouraged respect of foreigners and giving them all their rights.
6. Justice was encouraged by calling upon the Israelites to live righteous lives that recognizes God’s
presence.
7. Justice was encouraged through peaceful settlement of cases like the case of prostitutes fighting
for a child which Solomon settled.
8. Justice was encouraged through mutual understanding between one group and other people.
For example David made an agreement with elders of Israel at Hebron which brought about
peace in the country.
WHAT CAN BE DONE TO PROMOTE JUSTICE IN UGANDA TODAY

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1. By punishing law offenders through courts of law
2. By putting in place the national constitution at the same time respecting it.
3. Through peaceful settlement of conflicts among the conflicting people.
4. By putting in place organs that defend and uphold the rights of the people such as The Uganda
Human Rights Commission, Justice Centre Uganda etc.
5. By condemning all forms of injustice in the country such as mob justice, child sacrifices etc.
6. By recognizing the rights and freedom of children in the country.
7. By promoting the independence of the judiciary (courts of law)
8. By promoting equitable distribution of national resources and jobs to all people in the country.
9. By granting Ugandans freedom of worship, such that people can belong to any faith of their
choice.
10. By ensuring peace to all Ugandans through security organs like Police, UPDF etc.

HOW DAVID TRIED TO ADMINISTER JUSTICE

1. He tried to unite his people by encouraging the Israelites from the North and South to live as
Brothers.
2. He brought peace to Israel by fighting Israel’s enemies lie Philistia, Moab.
3. He settled disputes among his people especially in his own family.
4. He maintained the worship of one God (Monotheism) that he even transferred God’s covenant
box to Israel.
5. David was a forgiving man that he forgave Saul who one time tried to kill him.
6. He was repentant in character. This saved him from the anger of God on several occasions.
7. He established a dynasty through which a savoir was born.
INJUSTICES COMMITTED BY DAVID IN THE STORY OF DAVID AND BATHSHEBA

1. He committed adultery with Bathsheba a wife of Uriah. This was an injustice because adultery
was condemned by God in the Ten Commandments (2Samuel11)
2. He committed murder when he killed Uriah thus breaking the 5th commandment (Don’t kill)
3. He coveted / admired Uriah’s wife yet this was sin against the Ten Commandments.
4. David had sexual intercourse at the time God’s covenant box was at war front. This was
forbidden in Israel.
5. David forced Uriah to get drunk so that he could go home and have intercourse with his wife but
Uriah refused.
6. He influenced Bathsheba into sin when she had sex with David.
7. David was a traitor in that he betrayed Uriah and finally had him killed.
8. He had no love and sympathy for his people like Uriah whose death was caused by David.
INJUSTICES COMMITTED BY AHAB IN THE STORY OF AHAB AND NABOTH (1KING21)

Exercise: 1

State the injustices committed by Ahab in the story between Ahab and Naboth (1king21)

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 THE NEW TESTAMENT UNDERSTANDING /TEACHING OF JUSTICE

1. According to the New Testament justice means love for others as maintained in the story off the
Good Samaritan. Thus Christians should extend love to one another.
2. It teaches that justice calls for reconciliation of the conflicting members before coming to the
temple to offer God a sacrifice, (Mt. 5:21-25)
3. Jesus condemns the law of the Pharisees which hinders the promotion of justice in society. He
teaches that mere observation of the law does not promote justice but love for God and fellow
man.
4. According to the New Testament God is the source of justice and Christians are called upon to
imitate him.
5. Jesus condemns adultery as an injustice in marriage and family life by emphasizing that whoever
divorces commits adultery.
6. Justice can be achieved through the Holy Spirit who gives joy, peace, kindness as St. Paul
teaches (Galatians 5:22-23)
7. The New Testament teaches that women and the children should be respected just as Jesus
welcomed the children and noted that the kingdom of heaven belongs to them.
8. St. James condemned exploitation and opposition and thus calls for justice to prevail in society.
9. In his miracles, Jesus demonstrates God’s justice to those considered outcasts in society. For
example he healed the ten lepers to give justice to them.
10. Jesus advocated for justice to take be implemented by those in authority

HOW JESUS PRACTICED JUSTICE

1. Jesus practiced justice by welcoming everyone equally without discrimination. He associated

with the poor, the sick, thieves and everyone to bring them to the kingdom of God.
2. Jesus practiced justice by condemning hypocrisy.(religious pretense) here the Pharisees and
Scribes kept the law but their behavior towards each other was bad.
3. Jesus corrected the law and put it in its proper place so that people could find freedom. For
example of Sabbath, washing of hands etc. (Mk 7:1-13)
4. Jesus met the needs of the people for example he fed the hungry, healed the sick like lepers and
the blind.
5. He broke some bad cultural barriers for example he associated with the Samaritan woman in
John 4 and yet Jews and gentiles never interacted.
6. He refused the law of revenge and instead encouraged forgiveness.
7. He encouraged the commandment of love for God and one another as a way of ensuring justice.
8. He refused to condemn the woman caught in adultery, instead he told her not to sin again.
9. As a way of maintaining justice, he strongly condemned divorce. To him divorce is a form of
adultery.
10. On the cross at Calvary, Jesus forgave his persecutors because they did not know what they
were doing.
11. He taught his disciples how to pray and urged them to forgive others. This helped to create
harmony among the people.

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 12. He forgave peter after he had denied him three times
How Jesus taught his disciples to work for justice.

1. He encouraged them to practice forgiveness. He forgave the adulterous woman.

2. He called for reconciliation. He never revenged on those who killed him.
3. He advised them to judge with fairness as guided by the Holy Spirit.
4. He stressed love for one another so as to bring about peace and harmony.
5. He asked them to be good examples to others.
6. He encouraged them to preach against injustices without fear.
7. He encouraged them to sacrifice themselves for the kingdom of God.
8. He asked them to have respect for one another.
Violent methods of fighting injustice

This refers to the use of force to remove or do away with problems or injustices. Among the violent
methods, the following ought to be mentioned;

1. Some people carryout mob or group justice to fight the injustice.

2. There are others who resort to guerilla wars in order to remove a dictatorial government.
3. Some people plant bombs as a way of fighting injustice such as Boko Haram fighters in Nigeria.
4. Students who are unsatisfied with the system in their schools; involve in violent strikes.
5. In some societies where one group has oppressed the other e.g. in Rwanda, they carried out
genocides which was the killing of a particular ethnic group.
6. Some others in order to fight injustices resort to throwing of stones, burning building, cars etc.
7. Others commit suicide as one way of showing their dissatisfaction with government.
The various ways in which human rights have been abused

Human rights refer to those natural claims of rights entitled to everyone by virtue of birth and law.

Rights have been abused in the following ways;

1. Military coups and abuse of human rights

Like what happened during Amin’s regime.

2. Terrorist attacks for example the El-Shabab attacks in Uganda at the Kyadondo grounds and
the Ethiopian village where over 70 people were killed.
3. Banning of the press\media services such as newspapers, radio stations which are shut
down because of airing bad information against the government.
4. There has been interference with court ruling by the army hence denying people access to a
fair trial.
5. Many people have been wrongly arrested and detained.
6. Some people have been murdered and the culprits\suspects are left free.
7. Stealing is ever increasing hence no security and respect for other people’s property.
8. There is rampant corruption, oppression and exploitation.
9. People have been denied the freedom of movement due to insecurity.

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 SUBTHEME 2

SERVICE/AUTHORITY IN SOCIETY

Authority refers to the power entrusted in someone to serve others.

On the other hand, service means work done or assistance performed for the good of the society. This
can take the form of activities like teaching, healing, ministering etc.

FORMS /TYPES OF AUTHORITY

1. PARENTAL AUTHORITY: This is natural authority parents have over their children. For example a
father as head of the family exercises authority over those in his control (paternal authority).
However where a mother is the head of the family is called maternal authority.
2. HEREDITARY AUTHORITY: This type of authority is handed over by parents to their children in
their order of lineage. For example in patrilineal societies authority is handed over to the eldest
son likewise matrilineal societies it’s handed over to the girl.
3. DIVINE AUTHORITY: This is spiritual power that is above any other authorities on the earth. It’s
power beyond man’s understanding for example the authority of God, diviners and spirits.
4. PERSONAL AUTHORITY: This is concerned with experts like teachers, lawyers, doctors, writers
etc. they exercise special knowledge in their areas of expertise.
5. SYMBOLIC AUTHORITY: This is derived from particular symbols or objects that are respected for
representing some power e.g. the Bible, Quran, National flag, Court of arm, Royal drum etc.
6. GOVERNMENT AUTHORITY: This is the ruling body that governs the country. The government is
composed of three organs with which it provides services to the people; e.g.
(i) The executive

(ii) The legislature

(iii) The Judiciary

WHY IT IS NECESSARY TO HAVE AUTHORITY IN SOCIETY.(FUNCTIONS OF

LEADERS/AUTHORITY)

1. Authorities are necessary for representing views in society for example members of parliament
have powers to present people’s views and make important decisions for the country.
2. It helps to ensure that rules and regulations are respected for example the traffic police in
Uganda ensures proper use of roads and avoiding of road accidents.
3. Authority helps to create harmony in society. For example the authority of the president of
Uganda His excellence Yoweri Kaguta Museveni is partly to maintain peace and harmony in the
country.

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4. Authority leads to development in society for example the government helps in this endeavor
by setting up schools, hospitals essential for the growth of society.
5. Authority helps to promote morality in society. A council of church leaders (UJCC) strongly
condemned the evil of homosexuality in the country and among its members.
6. Leaders help to uphold cultural values of certain societies. For example among the Bagishu
cultural leaders have to ensure that the annual circumcision ceremony is held.
7. People in authority help in bringing about unity of all people in society. For example president
Museveni is using his authority to unite the Bakiga and Banyoro in Kibaale who were recently
arch rivals.
8. Religious leaders help in leading people towards God as they preach to the people what they
ought to do in order to reach kingdom of God.
9. It contributes to the keeping of law and order in society such as the police, prefects in schools.
10. Authority is also important in terms of promoting justice in society. Justice is maintained in the
society e.g. controlling corruption, defilement and other crimes in the community.
11. It helps to protect the weak members in the society for example children, disabled, aged etc.
12. Authority helps in promoting diplomatic relations between one country and others. That is why
almost all countries send and receive diplomats from other countries.
HOW AUTHORITY HAS BEEN MISUSED TODAY

1. Some leaders have practiced a high level of corruption thus causing endless suffering to the
poor e.g. Police officers often ask for tips before suspects are released from their cells.
2. Some leaders especially employers exploit the poor by not paying in time and sometimes
overwork them.
3. Many use their positions to promote sexual immorality in form of sexual harassment for
example former Head teacher of St. Mary’s Lugazi one Geoffrey Muliika defiled a 15 years old
student and was sentenced for 15 years in jail.
4. Some leaders have great greed for power. This still keep in office even when their time of office
expires.
5. They practice a high level of discrimination based on race, sex and other sectarian tendencies.
6. Many misuse public resources such as vehicles, funds. For example in Uganda corporate vehicles
are often seen carrying sand and items of senior staffs in their offices.
7. Some leaders tend to assume that they are above the law. Even when they are convicted they
are not arrested.
8. Many have practiced dictatorship e.g. like the late Idi Amin Dada.
9. In homes, some husbands practice domestic violence, which takes the form of beating women,
children as well as abusing them.
10. There is lack of patriotism. That is some leaders don’t show love for their country.
QUESTION: Explain the

(i) Advantages

(ii) Disadvantages of authority

HOW PEOPLE ACQUIRE AUTHORITY

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 1. Through national elections where the people are elected/ voted in positions of responsibility as
leaders for example the president, Members of parliament etc.
2. Through military coups where some people overthrow an elected government for example
President Paul Kagame of Rwanda became president after overthrowing Habyarima’s
government.
3. Through political appointment for example the ministers, Resident District Commissioners etc.
4. Some acquire authority through inheritance for example Kabaka Ronald Mutebi of Buganda
who took over power from his father.
5. Through self-appointed; for example some people have imposed themselves onto people as
their chiefs like Ssabaluli in Nakasongola.
6. Through education where people become leaders after receiving academic documents either
as teachers, doctors, and Reverends.
7. Some people have become leaders by going to the bush and fought the existing government to
become leaders for example president Museveni who fought Milton Obote.
8. Through anointments for example the catholic priests.
9. Through traditional appointments, for example, medicine men, rain makers etc.
10. Through performing heroic actions like Nelson Mandela who spent 27 years in prison and after
which he became president of South Africa.
11. Through economic power some people can gain authority, for example the Gordon
Wavamunno who became an ambassador of Hungary.
12. Through marriage some people automatically get authority that enables them to run their
families.
THE PRESENT IDEAS PEOPLE HAVE ABOUT AUTHORITY

Today people have both negative and positive attitude towards authority as seen below;

1. To some people authority means being oppressive and exploitative of the subjects by those
in power (authority) i.e. there is a big gap between those who are ruled and those in power.
2. Authority is also seen as a way of survival where those have it use it to satisfy their endless
needs instead of serving other people.
3. Some people think that authority is also linked to the economic status of a person and so
those with money easily win big positions of leadership compared to the poor.
4. Today leadership is for both for men and women unlike in the past where it was dominated
by only men. For example RDCs can either be men or women depending on the president’s
choice.
5. Some people think that today’s leaders are expected to rule, judge instead of serving since a
leader is supposed to serve.
6. Authority is also linked to one’s academic status. It’s possessed by those with degrees,
masters.
7. To some people authority means having unquestionable powers. For example the power of
the king is unquestionable and have to abide by it.
8. Authority is understood as a source of blessings to the community. That is why everywhere
president Museveni goes he gives out money to the youth in form of initial capital
“Entandikwa”.

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 CAUSES OF BAD LEADERSHIP

1. Pride. Some leaders think that they are the best something that at times leads to dictatorship.
2. Excessive love for power also makes some leaders not to leave their offices.
3. Fear to be imprisoned by the international law keeping bodies also makes some leaders to cling
onto power.
4. Love for wealth has led some leaders to become corrupt.
5. Lack of education has made some leaders to commit untold injustices towards the people for
example Idi Amin Dada former president of Uganda.
6. Lack of religious principles and moral principles in a leader can make him or her immoral.
7. Failure to have leadership skills denies some people chance to make proper judgment of issues.
8. Influence of others e.g. friends, relatives, family members who may encourage them to stay in
power so that they gain favors.
Qualities of a good leader

A leader is anyone entrusted with authority to mobilize, guide, monitor and organize a given group of
people. A good leader must have the following qualities;

1. A good leader must be God fearing. He should be God fearing who acknowledges God as the
source of authority.
2. He must be a good listener ready to listen to people’s problem. For example Samuel listened to
people demand for a king in Israel (1Samuel 8
3. A good leader should be well behaved (exemplary) in order to spearhead the struggle for good
morals in society.
4. He or she should respect the values and principles of democracy in other wards should avoid
dictatorial tendencies
5. He\she should be a man of justice, honesty and integrity.
6. A good leader should be kind, loving; merciful to the people he serves especially the needy, poor
and disabled.
7. A good leader should be sensitive to the needs of his people especially the basic needs.
8. He should be passionate i.e. should have genuine love for his people. This will put him in
position to serve effectively with a sense of feeling for them whenever they are hurt or in need.
9. He\she should be trained well in order to manage the demands of the modern society.
10. He should be courageous such that he can handle problems confidently.
11. He\she should be creative and innovative for the purpose of social progress.
12. A good leader should be progressive and flexible.
13. He\she should be receptive to new ideas and avoid conservatism.
Peoples’ attitudes towards leadership today

(Why people join leadership)

Positive attitudes

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1. Many have an attitude of wanting to serve the less privileged people such as the lame, orphans
etc.
2. Some feel that it is their role to promote the rights of other people.
3. Some people think that they are answerable to people’s needs and so they put in all their effort
to provide people’s needs.
4. Some have the attitude of fostering development and so they work towards development.
5. Others have an idea of promoting peace and harmony among people and so they tirelessly
work towards that.
6. Some take authority as the only avenue to show a good example to others, and so they take up
leadership so as to be role models.
Negative attitudes

1. Many join leadership so as to revenge on others.

2. Some think that leadership is an immediate way of acquiring wealth and when they get into
it, they play unhealthy games such as corruption.
3. Many have an attitude of being above the law and so this makes them harsh and dictatorial
leaders.
4. Others have a view of being adored and so they tend to join leadership such that they are
respected.
Roles of leaders today

i. Leaders promote the fundamental rights of human beings.

ii. Leaders are supposed to provide social services e.g. safe water.
iii. To solve problems of people and promote justice e.g. L.C leaders.
iv. Some leaders are supposed to nourish people spiritually.
v. Some leaders are supposed to provide the basic needs to others e.g. parents provide for
their children.
vi. To advise on important matters such as state matters e.g. religious leaders.
vii. Some play a role of promoting cultural norms and values e.g. clan leaders, elders.
viii. Some leaders provide security and protection to their people e.g. political leaders.
Why some leaders fail to provide good service to their people.

1. Too much greed for wealth where leaders try to swindle people’s money and even participate
in corruption for their selfish ends.
2. The poor working conditions which make leaders fail to serve e.g. delay in payments, little
payments. These force them to do otherwise so as to make ends meet for example traffic
police take bribes because they are poorly paid.
3. Poverty which makes leaders accept bribes; carry out corruption, embezzling of money.
4. The level of permissiveness where leaders are allowed to do what they want at their own will.
5. Diseases/persistent illness which make them to offer inadequate services to their subjects.
6. Lack of commitment to serving the people has also failed leaders today as they prefer to serve
themselves other than the people they head.
7. Too much conflict among the leaders themselves may make leaders fail to deliver good
services.

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 8. Inadequate resources to support the leaders in providing services e.g. funds to run police
which makes police men accept bribes.
9. Religious differences which may cause leaders to fail to serve whole heartedly to a particular
religious group.
AUTHORITY AND SERVICE IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

Traditional African communities were well organized with leaders like kings, chiefs, parents,
clan leaders, diviners, elders etc. Below is how the African tradition understood authority.

1. Authority was for the benefit of the whole community. The elders, youngster and strangers all
benefited from services of leaders.
2. Leaders had a religious duty hence they could bless, heal and even punish.
3. Leaders worked to protect society and defend their subjects against external attacks and other
threats.
4. Authority was linked to age, grey hair and tooth less ness was a symbol of wisdom hence the
young were not given positions of authority.
5. People in authority were mainly men; women had little to offer in leadership.
6. In most cases, authority was acquired at the time of birth especially by people coming from
royal families like kings.
7. Some specialists like medicine men, magicians, commanded a lot of respect because they had
authority to heal certain diseases.
8. Important functions like marriages, initiations, child naming were presided over by those in
authority for example in Buganda naming ritual was done by the family or clan head.
9. Those in authority acted as counselors e.g. parents; chiefs and kings counseled their people.

Qn. Give the similarities and differences found in African and present situation understanding of
authority and service.

HOW AUTHORITY WAS ACQUIRED IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

1. Authority was acquired through heroism. People who performed extra-ordinary things for
example killing a lion, killing an enemy etc. found it easily to become leaders.
2. They acquired authority by rite of birth. If a man belonged to the royal family, he could easily
become a leader e.g. among the Baganda, one would become a king if he was a son of the
existing king.
3. One would be appointed. (Through appointment). The kings had powers to appoint any person
to positions of authority e.g. chiefs.
4. Wealth accumulation. Rich men with a lot of wealth were usually given leadership roles as
compared to the poor.
5. One would become a leader through divine appointment. It was believed that some people
were chosen by the gods/ancestors through dreams e.g. religious leaders.

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 6. Others would be given authority depending on age. Elderly people were believed to be near to
the gods or spiritual world than the young ones. Accordingly, every elderly was a leader.
7. Some societies elected the best candidates for leadership by lining up behind the candidate of
their choice.
8. People with special talents were considered for leadership in African past.
9. They also considered a man who was intelligent.
10. Health was considered for leadership as well.
11. Gender was equally important as people were looking for leaders in African past. In most cases
their leaders were males as females were discouraged from becoming leaders.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

1. He had to be a man of power/authority.

2. He had to be determined and courageous.
3. He had to be slow in decision making.
4. One had to be ready and willing to promote people’s customs.
5. He had to be wise and cunning.
6. He had to be merciful and kind.
7. He had to be hardworking and fairly rich.
8. He had to ensure that social justice prevails.
9. A good leader had to possess both political and religious authority.
10. He had to defend the society against external threats
Question:

(a) From the Christian point of view, describe the qualities of a good leader.

(b) Indicate the similarities and differences between qualities of Christian and African leaders.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER IN AFRICAN TRADITION AND THOSE OF
TODAY

Similarities

 Like the present leaders, a good leader in African tradition had power and strong personality.
 In both, a leader has wisdom.
 In both, a leader must be courageous.
 God-fearing is manifested in both African tradition and present situation.
 In both, a leader must show that he is capable of defending his subjects.
 In both, a good leader is one who unites his/her subjects.
 In both, a good leader upholds the society norms and rules.
 In both, a good leader should respect the religious values of the people.
 In both, a leader should be ready to serve.
Differences

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 In many African traditional societies, a good leader was not necessarily appointed by God yet
today leadership comes from God.
 In African tradition, a good leader had to be a good fighter/worker and yet today a good leader
is one who is a good listener from the Christian perspective.
 In African tradition, a leader had many wives and yet today Christian leaders are monogamous.
 In African tradition, elders were the only ones entitled to be leaders; today the even young ones
are appointed to positions of leadership like Hon. Anite minister for the youth.
 Today we have democratically elected leaders, where as in African tradition leadership was
based on lineage.
 In African tradition, a leader was a rich man but today even poor people become leaders.
 In African leaders were always men but in Christianity even women can be made leaders.
How leaders in African tradition exercised their authority. (Roles)

 They settled conflicts among their family members. In Buganda this was done by clan heads.
 They used their authority to defend their subjects against external threats.
 They used their authority to unite the living with the dead. This was done through organizing
ceremonies sacrifices, Naming etc.
 They had a right to punish wrong doers. For example the Kabaka of Buganda punished criminals
from Katereke prison in present day Nsangi- Wakiso district.
 They collected taxes which were aimed at developing the community.
 They used their authority to assign tasks to their subjects.

 Some traditional leaders used their authority to administer healing. This was done diviners.
 They used their authority to appoint chiefs to rule on their behalf for example the Kabaka of
Buganda appointed the sub county chiefs to rule on his behalf.
 They used their authority to bless others. This was done by diviners.

The role of Chiefs in African Traditional Society

 They implemented the consensus or resolutions of the community.
 They were expected to bring honor and blessings to the community.
 They were to act as mediators between the living and the dead. They served as a link between
the living and the dead.
 They had political and religious authority and so they demanded obedience from their subjects.
 They acted as judges and resolved conflicts between the concerned parties.
 They were expected to preserve the traditional community values.
 They were supposed to promote unity in the society.

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 They also acted as religious leaders who would perform religious rituals like sacrificing to the
gods.
 They owned and distributed resources like land and forests to other people.
 They settled disputed in society such as inheritance wrangles, land disputes etc.

MISUSE OF AUTHORITY IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

Question:

(a) Explain the ways in which authority was misused in traditional African society.

1. Some African kings murdered innocent people. With a mere nod of the head, a man’s life could
be removed.
2. They exploited their subjects through over taxation.
3. In Ankore found in Western Uganda, the king could spit in the mouth of Bairu and his spear
would rest in human flesh.
4. The women who visited the Kabaka’s palace were regarded as his wives. The Kabaka was called
Bbaffe meaning our husband.
5. They enslaved some of their subjects through forced labor.
6. African chiefs exercised land grabbing from the poor people.
7. Some African chiefs were extremely war mongers. They led their people into unnecessary wars.
8. African leaders were despotic; they denied others leadership.
9. They organized cattle raiding. Some tribes such as the Karamojongs had a mentality that all
cows were theirs.
10. They practiced tribalism i.e. they were not accommodative to other people especially the
strangers.
11. Some carried out human sacrifice to solve social problems like drought.
12. Some kings were dictatorial and their word was final on most sensitive cases.

AUTHORITY\SERVICE IN CHURCH HISTORY

In the early church, there were disciples who later became apostles. They delivered the following
services.

1. They preached the gospel with boldness especially after receiving the Holy Spirit Acts 2.
2. They taught and promoted baptism of the new converts. Here many people were baptized and
became Christians.
3. The apostles shared their possessions and accepted to live ordinary just like Jesus. Acts 4:32-35.
4. The apostles performed miracles which proved to the listeners that they had the power of the
Holy Spirit. Acts 3:6-7.
5. They carried out fellowships or religious gatherings for prayers and strengthening people’s faith
in God.
6. They encouraged believers to pray for God’s protection, providence and guidance.
7. They sacrificed their life for the sake of the gospel e.g. Luke, St. Stephen Acts 7:54-56.

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 8. Apostles established churches wherever they preached the gospel to different communities; for
example St. Paul Opened churches in Corinth, Galatia, Rome etc.
9. Apostles worshiped God through songs, hymns and prayers and thus encouraged their followers
to adopt them.
10. They provided catechism services. This was the teaching of the Christian basics to the new
converts.
11. Apostles chaired church meetings in the early church.
12. They chose seven men (deacons) to assist them which showed that the apostles were willing to
delegate responsibility to others.
PROBLEMS FACED BY EARLY CHURCH LEADERS IN DELIVERING SERVICE
1. The places where the church had to deliver services were distant and remote. This made it
difficult to regularly visit the converts.
2. There was opposition faced by apostles especially from the Roman Empire during days of
Emperor Nero.
3. There was language barrier because most apostles knew Jewish and Greek language.
4. There was a problem of disunity in the early church. These divisions were based on personalities
like St. Paul, Peter, Apollos and this affected the progress of the Christianity.
5. There was a problem of inadequate funds and so the church lacked money to carry out its
duties.
6. Apostles in the early church were fewer compared to the vast places where they had to preach
the Good News to. This slowed down the services.
7. Most apostles were not educated and so they met a challenge when the met the well-educated
Greek Philosophers who boasted of their knowledge.
8. There was immorality I the newly started churches like in Corinth where some church leaders
practiced incest. This denied them converts.
9. There was a problem of cultural differences. For example the Jewish, Gentiles and some Africans
failed to understand one another.
10. Some religious leaders became too busy to attend to their followers, for example nuns and
Monks.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN THE AFRICA

Question: In what ways did the early missionaries offer service to the people in East Africa?

1. Socially missionaries provided formal education to the people of East Africa through their
schools like Kings’ college Buddo, Gayaza high school etc. these taught people how to read and
write.
2. They provided practical and technical training such as carpentry, building etc. through their
schools like St. Joseph technical school Kisubi where people were trained to be self- reliant.
3. They also provided health services to the people of East Africa. This was done through their
health centers like Mengo hospital which was built by Sir Albert cook.
4. They established seminaries where Africans were taught Christianity and leadership such as
ALOKOLUM seminary in Gulu, BUKALASA in Masaka etc.
5. They introduced modern scientific methods of farming like contour farming, rotational farming
etc.

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6. They brought new crops especially cash crops like coffee, cotton and commercial faming
7. They converted a number of people in East Africa into Christianity in a way of saving their souls
from perishing in hell.
8. They also constructed worshiping centers like Lubaga Cathedral of the Catholics built in 1914
9. Missionaries provided employment to some Africans for example some Africans served as
catechists, priests, teachers etc. this helped the people of East Africa to earn some money for
survival.
10. They developed cash crop agriculture among some African communities like Baganda in central
Uganda from where cotton and coffee were introduced.
11. Missionaries established ex-slave rehabilitation camps like Bagamoyo camps from where African
ex-slaves were resettled and rehabilitated.
12. Missionaries foreign languages to the Africans like French, English, German and Latin.
13. They translated the Bible into some local languages; for example Ludwig Krapf translated the
bible into Kiswahili.
14. Missionaries provided charity services to the needy Africans in form of clothing, shoes, spoons
etc. This improved on their standard of living among the local people.
15. They helped in the civilization of Africa by condemning African backward practices like
witchcraft and cannibalism.
16. Missionaries condemned and engaged in the abolition of slave trade which helped in restoring
peace, stability and human dignity.
LESSONS TODAY’S LEADERS LEARN FROM THE WAY MISSIONARIES PROVIDED SERVICES
1. Leaders should spread the word of God as missionaries did.
2. They should provide medical services to the people as missionaries did.
3. Should sensitize the people about illnesses and teach them how to treat themselves as
missionaries did.
4. They should encourage vocational education
5. They should fight against human trafficking just missionaries fought against slavery in Africa.
6. They should promote harmony in society by preaching the gospel of love.
7. They learn to be exemplary in order to win many followers.
8. They learn to instill good morals in their children just as missionaries helped African become
good people in society.
9. They should show love to their followers by donating to them as missionaries did.
10. They create employment for their people to improve on their welfare just as missionaries did.
11. Religious leaders should translate the gospel into local languages to make it stick in peoples’
minds.
PROBLEMS FACED BY MISSIONARIES IN EAST AFRICA
1. Missionaries faced a problem of language barrier.
2. Tropical diseases like malaria; small pox etc. also weakened and killed some missionaries.
3. The unfavorable climatic conditions of East Africa affected missionary work some times.
4. Geographical barriers such as rivers, mountains and forests were very many and worked against
missionaries.
5. Missionaries faced a problem of inadequate funds to facilitate the various activities.
6. They faced a problem of theft from the porters and robbers especially in Tanzania among Yao.

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 7. They also had a challenge of inadequate supplies in form of medicine, food, clothing etc.
8. Others faced a problem of hostile tribes for example the Nandi and Masai of Kenya who used to
kill missionaries.
9. Some missionaries were home sick because they had left their wives, husbands and children
back in Europe which distance was very far from east Africa.
10. Missionaries faced opposition from some traditional rulers; for example Kabaka Mwanga of
Buganda who ordered for the killing of Bishop James Hannington.
11. It was difficult for the missionaries to implant Christianity in the Africans because of their
attachment to their cultures.
How authority in the church History was misused or abused.

1. The bishops who headed towns became rulers other than servants.
2. Those in authority made the people to give them honor instead of serving people.
3. They started discriminating among people they led, church leaders for instance were always on
the side of the rich other than the side of the poor and oppressed.
4. The bishops, clergy and priests led as princess instead of serving their people.
5. The bishops became very rich and forgot their calling to serve others.
6. The leaders used their authority to serve their endless needs rather than the society.
7. Leaders spent most of their time in politics e.g. in Rome the government was using bishops in
government offices.
8. The bishops were given excessive legal power which was anti-Christian because Christians are
not earthly judges.
9. Church leaders became materialistic by owning very big land and other many material things.
10. Some church leaders started dividing Christians and many sects came up.
11. Many of them lived extravagant lives when their followers were suffering.

PEOPLE WHO OFFERED THEMSELVES TO SERVE THE CHURCH.

Question:

How did the following offer service to their society?

(a) St. Francis of Assisi

(b) Arthur Shearly Cripps of Rhodesia

ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI

He was a great servant who formed a group of followers called the Friars meaning the brothers.

These vowed to live ordinary poor lives and so they imitated Jesus.

This group rendered the following services;

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 1. They spread the good news of Christ in the remote areas of Africa especially to the ordinary
people.
2. They lived exemplary lives of being humble and committed to prayer that led to the fast
expansion of the church in Africa.
3. They endeavored to provide the needs of the poor such as food, shelter, clothing etc.
4. They sold off most of their belongings for the sake of their poor brothers and sisters.
5. The friars provided medical services to the Africans and so they helped to treat tropical diseases
in Africa.
6. They also promoted unity by associating with all kinds of people which led to the expansion of
the church.
7. St. Francis established schools so as to fight ignorance and illiteracy in Africa.
8. They encouraged the spirit of forgiveness and reconciliation as well as sharing among people.
9. They also encouraged repentance of sins which brought about spiritual renewal.
10. He trained medical officers in schools to help people get treated.
11. He also trained many friars to work as teachers in some parts of Africa.
12. He promoted the love for nature among Africans thus conserving their environment.
13. He was from a rich family and thus distributed his father’s wealth to the poor people.
BISHOP SHANAHAN JOSEPH OF SOUTHERN NIGERIA

This was an Irish man who was born in 1870 and arrived in Southern Nigeria in 1902.

Three years later, he was made a bishop in Southern part of Nigeria and so did his work among the Ibo
people.

His work was mainly amongst the children of the Ibo people. He rendered the following services;

1. He encouraged parents to educate their children as this would prepare them for the future.
2. He developed schools for the poverty stricken families thus fighting against ignorance and
illiteracy in Nigeria.
3. In his service to the people, he encouraged love of one another, sharing, forgiveness and
reconciliation.
4. He encouraged moral upbringing of children and responsible parenthood. He asserted that a
well brought up generation of children is the foundation of the church.
5. He preached the gospel of Christ to the Ibo people and converted many from Islam to
Christianity.
6. He uplifted the status of African woman through establishing schools for girls and encouraging
them to compete with boys.
7. He conducted catechetical lessons for Christian instructions to the new converts, besides
conducting baptism.
8. He also encouraged the growing of cash crops among the Ibo people thus increasing people’s
income.
9. He was also helped in organizing communal work that would help people to be empowered
economically e.g. he would walk for miles visiting people so as to know their problems.
10. He appointed chief so as to promote law and order.
REV. EZEKIEL APINDI OF KENYA

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 He was born in 1885 in western Kenya from a wealthy family.

He preached in many parts of Kenya and converted many into Christianity.

He used his authority to establish schools and Christian churches which helped in the following ways.

1.It helped the community members to attain skills of writing and reading.
2.It created employment opportunities and so earning income to the local people.
3.He lived a prayerful life and was energetic enough to work with his people.
4.There was promotion of morality in society through respect for one another, forgiveness and
reconciliation and above all promoting unity.
5. Promoted high standards of living and hygiene as a result of education.
6. He was compassionate to the sick and the old.
7. He was ordained as a rural dean in Kisumu.
8. He died in 1959.
BROTHER TOBY KIZZA OF UGANDA

He was born in 1872 and baptized by the White fathers in 1890.

Two years later he was trained as a brother in Algeria and returned to Uganda in 1896. He never had
special qualifications but trained in carpentry and joinery.

As a good servant, he offered the following services;

1. He lived an exemplary life of self-sacrifice e.g. at the age of 80, he was sent to Lwera on a
mission and traveled at the back of a lorry.
2. He prayed for the sick and out of faith, they healed.
3. He established various evangelistic missions in Uganda that helped in the spreading of the
gospel.
4. He served the poor and the sick with love, tenderness and kindness.
5. He provided vocational training to many Ugandans and this helped them to be self- reliant.
6. He also encouraged forgiveness, sharing, reconciliation and above all love for one another. This
was done through his preaching.
7. He fought against illiteracy and ignorance by establishing schools in many parts of Uganda.
8. He is said to have been always cheerful. This enabled him to associate with all kinds of people.
ARTHUR SHEARLY CRIPPS OF RHODESIA

Cripps was an Anglican missionary in Rhodesia present day -Zimbabwe from 1901 until his death in
1952. He offered the following services;

1. He preached the Gospel to the people of Rhodesia, and converted many to Christianity.
2. He lived a life of sharing among his people and so acted as a great example to the Christians.
3. He helped in writing Christian literature and also explaining the bible to the local people.
4. He had great concern to the Africans and so fought to protect their rights e.g. he refused the
idea of the British to grab their land for the white settlers.

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5. He built churches through his funds that he accumulated from the selling of his Christian
literature.
6. He humbled himself to live a life of poverty which embarrassed his fellow Europeans. For
instance he often travelled on foot.
7. He promoted justice and thus associated with all kinds of people. Because of this even the
poorest man in a village would find him a true friend.
8. He contributed a lot of funds from his literature project to run the activities of his mission.
9. He respected African rights and strongly opposed the move by the British to grab land in
Rhodesia.
10. He served as a parish priest of the church of Five Wounds near Eikeldoom where he offered his
priestly services.

SERVICE IN THE BIBLE

OLD TESTAMENT

Authority in the Old Testament was understood in the following ways;

1. In Genesis 1 and 2; God is seen as one with complete authority over the entire universe. He is
the creator and all the power and life comes from him.
2. In Exodus 3 God uses his authority to liberate his people of Israel from the Egyptian slavery
where they spent 430 years.
3. After liberating the Israelites from slavery, God gave to Joshua authority to destroy all the
people the Israelites found in Canaan. This was to stop them from spoiling God’s people.
4. Samuel was given authority by God to appoint Saul as the first king of Israel. Thus God lends his
authority to other people.
5. When King Saul misbehaved Samuel was still given authority by God to curse him and was
allowed to anoint David as his successor.
6. King David used his authority to bring peace and prosperity in Israel when he killed Goliath and
other enemies of Israel.
7. In Old Testament authority with wisdom were good in delivering services to the people. For
example King Solomon used it to judge the case to the two prostitutes fighting for a child.
8. In the Old Testament God appointed prophets to guide kings while doing their work. For
example prophet Nathan to condemn David’s sin of adultery with Bathsheba.
9. In the Old testament God gave out the Ten Commandments to the Israelites to help them
receive better services in their society.
10. However Isaiah prophesied that perfect leadership would come from the Messiah- son of God.
11. Good leadership was based on true justice and love for one another as members of the church.
HOW DID GOD USE HIS AUTHORITY IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

1. Through Moses, God made a way through the Red sea as the Israelites were heading to the
Promised Land.
2. He provided food and water to the Israelites in the wilderness on their way to the Promised
Land.Ex:16:18.

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3. He liberated the Israelites from slavery in Egypt after showing his authority to Pharaoh through
the ten plagues.
4. He used his authority to bring floods so as to punish people who had disobeyed him Gen: 6:1ff.
5. God used his authority to challenge the human pride manifested through the construction of
the tower of Babel Gen: 11:1-9.
6. He also amended laws that were to be followed by the Israelite community i.e. the Ten
Commandments. He appointed Kings and guided them to do his will e.g. he gave wisdom to King
Solomon so as to judge people wisely.
7. Through Elijah, God demonstrated his mighty power at Mount Carmel where fire consumed the
offerings presented after a short prayer against the false prophets.
8. He saved Daniel from being devoured by the hungry lions Dan: 6:1-28.
9. He also proved his mighty power through the recovery of an axe head by Prophet Elisha from
the waters of Jordan. 2Kgs:6:1-6.
10. God showed his authority through Ezekiel commanding the valley of the dry bones to come back
to life. Ezekiel 37:1-14.
11. He also rescued the Israelites from the threat of the Philistines by enabling David to kill Goliath.
1 Sam 17:41-54.

Qn. Show how Moses demonstrated good leadership in the O.T.

He was a Levite by birth and a key figure in the exodus event and born at a time when the
Hebrew baby boys were being killed by pharaoh.

Services rendered by Moses

 He was courageous and brave enough to accept the responsibility of liberating the Israelites.
 Moses acted as a mediator between God and the Israelites at Mt. Sinai.
 He has trust in God in whatever he did as leader.
 Moses accepted to suffer with his people. e.g. they suffered together from hunger.
 He was a good listener, listened to both God and his followers.
 He was a law giver; he gave out the Ten Commandments to the Israelites.
 He shared power with his Aaron his brother.
 He was humble and approachable in character.
 He was a man of justice; he settled people’s problems with impartiality.
 He defended the rights of his people i.e. slavery as thus serves as their liberator.
Examples of misuse of authority in the Old Testament

SOLOMON:

1. He overtaxed the Israelites during the building of the temple.

2. He used forced labor especially people from the North.
3. Revenged on his enemies e.g. exiled Jeroboam.
4. He killed his brother Adonijah.
5. He made alliances with pagan countries e.g. Tyre.

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6. Married foreign women close to 300 of them.
7. Sold God’s land to a pagan country of Tyre.
8. Showed a bad example to his people by worshiping foreign gods.
9. He sold God’s land to pay the debts.
10. He was discriminative in his administration favoring people from South at expense of the
Northern.
OTHER CASES OF PEOPLE WHO ABUSED AUTHORITY IN ISRAEL
1. King David was lustful and so committed adultery with Bathsheba.
2. David killed Uriah Bathsheba’s husband. 2Sam 11:1-27
3. David influenced his messengers to sin against God by using them to fetch Bathsheba.
4. King Ahab and his wife Jezebel grabbed Naboth’s vineyard and above all killed him.
5. King Ahab allowed the worship of Baal and other gods in Israel.
6. Moses failed to follow God’s instructions e.g. he struck the rock twice and yet God he told him
once.
7. The house of Eli also misused the priestly office by having sex with women at the entrance of
God’s tent.
8. Cain also misused his authority of being the eldest by killing his young brother Abel.
AUTHORITY IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

1. Jesus in the New Testament is seen as a good shepherd as foretold by Ezekiel. He taught his
disciples the true purpose of authority i.e. he did not come to be served but to serve.
2. Mark 10:32-45, Jesus did not come to dominate but to serve. He taught his disciples the true
meaning of authority i.e. dedicating himself to the needs of others.
3. Jesus also gave another sign of what authority should be by washing the feet of his disciples
John 13:1-15.NB. This was done by slaves and so Jesus was acting as a servant.
4. Jesus rejected his own interests so as to serve people. He rejected Satan’s temptations in the
wilderness.
5. Through his death and resurrection, Jesus gave us the Holy Spirit who instills us with the power
and guidance to serve Ephesians 4:11-13.
6. Jesus also teaches that whoever wants to be great should be a servant of others. Luk, 22:24-27.
7. The New Testament also shows that power and authority to serve comes from God.1Peter2:13-
17
8. Jesus demonstrated his mighty authority over Satan’s reign when he rose from death. In this
respect, he broke the chains of death and made man free.
Jesus as an example of a good leader

1. He accepted to die for the sake of his people. John 10:10.

2. He provided the necessary needs of people e.g. fed the hungry Luke 9:10-17, healed the sick.
3. He associated with all sorts of people i.e. the poor, rich, tax collectors, Samaritans, Pharisees.
4. He always consulted God during his work. he did this through prayer e.g. towards his arrest, he
prayed in the garden of Gethsemane.
5. Jesus was merciful to people e.g. he provided wine at a wedding in Cana.
6. He also had compassion for his people e.g. he cried when he was told that Lazarus had died.
John 11:35.

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 7. As a good leader, he delegated work thus encouraging team work. Luke 10:1-12.
8. As a good leader, he had respect for those in authority e.g. he encouraged the paying of taxes
Mk 12:13-17, Luke 20:19-26.
9. As a good leader, he also punished those in wrong e.g. chased away those who were misusing
the temple.
10. He also offered protection to his people to e.g. he counseled his sleep for the sake of saving the
life of his disciples.
11. He challenged those in authority that they should serve and not to wait to be served by washing
the feet of his disciples.

HOW HEAD PREFECT SHOULD USE HIS

AUTHORITY TO SERVE OTHERS

 Communicates important message from administration.

 Provides basic needs to fellow students e.g. ensuring that enough food is served to students.
 By protecting the weak and new students.
 By behaving well so as to change the behavior of other students.
 Attends annual general meetings on behalf of students.
 Encourages love and unity in the school.
 Organizes and addresses assemblies.
 He chairs prefects’ meetings.
 He represents students on occasions like National students workshops.
 He ensures general cleanliness of the school
 He ensures that students are justly treated.
He receives and guides visitors in the school

SUBTHEME 111

LOYALTY IN SOCIETY

I. The term loyalty means making promises and fulfilling them.

II. It may also means being honest and faithful to friends, society and church.
III. On the other hand, loyalty refers to the making of commitments and acting upon them.
IV. You may be committed to something or somebody.
V. In order to be loyal, one must be trustworthy, committed, faithful and obedient.
TYPES OF LOYALTY

Group loyalty: This means being faithful and co-operative with a group one belongs to e.g. scout group,
school etc.

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Individual loyalty: This means being loyal to oneself that is being committed to one’s or your own
principles (a moral rule or a strong belief that influences your actions). This type of loyalty may also be
termed as personal loyalty which refers to being faithful or being committed to a certain individual e.g.
to your teachers, presidents, husband to wife, mother to her baby etc.

Cultural loyalty: This refers to being faithful to the customs, values of one’s tribe and clan. It also
involves respecting one’s clan and tribal leaders as well as clan symbols.

Divine loyalty: This is one’s commitment to one’s God. It involves believing in one God, praying on every
recommended day of prayer, obeying the doctrines of your religion.

Social loyalty: This involves being faithful to one’s activities and responsibilities in his normal/daily life
e.g. being loyal to one’s academic work as a student, one’s leisure activities etc.

Loyalty calls upon obedience either to yourself or others. This means you always think of what ought to
do or what others expect you to do. However we should always try to avoid blind obedience i.e. doing
things just for the sake of doing it.

Loyalty also demands or requires determination to do something. This may lead to self-esteem among
individuals which may also lead to development both mentally, economically, socially and politically.

THE UNDERSTANDING OF LOYALTY TODAY

Today loyalty can be expressed in

the following ways;

1. Personal loyalty whereby we become faithful or committed to special people e.g. lovers,
married people, Christians, kings etc.
2. Today people can also express their loyalty to the national flag, national anthem, and school
anthem. In some tribes, people are loyal to their cultures for example tribes like the Bagishu
normally circumcise their male.
3. Christians express their loyalty to God through prayers, helping the sick, poor and disabled.
4. People today express loyalty to parents and elders whereby they show them respect and listen
to their advice, guidance etc.
5. Most people today are loyal to their work. This is mostly between employees and employers for
example teachers are supposed to pay loyalty to the head teacher and other administrators.
6. Students express loyalty to their studies by attending to all their lessons, tests and doing all the
exercises in class.
7. Soldiers express their loyalty to their senior commanders of the army.
IMPORTANCE OF LOYALTY

Loyalty is very important in our daily lives as seen below.

1. It leads to the development of the society, community and the country at large since people can
understand each other and so come up with developmental ideas meant for the good of the
country.

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2. Loyalty creates and brings about good relationships among people e.g. employers and
employees can work together, understand each other in many issues.
3. In addition, where loyalty prevails, rules and regulations are fully observed by the people e.g.
students at school observe the school rules and regulations because they are loyal to them.
4. Loyalty creates peace and unity amongst people. This brings about togetherness in work for the
good of the society and country at large.
5. In a political manner, civil or tribal wars are dealt with since people are loyal to the government
thus elimination of rebels, terrorism, fighting etc.
6. Loyalty helps to keep cultural norms and values and so cultures develop among people. This is
so if people are loyal to their own tribes and cultures.
7. Being loyal to one’ principles lead to a high self-esteem and above all it leads to respect of one’s
personality by other people.
8. Loyalty leads to elimination of crime rates in a society e.g. if one is loyal to his job, profession,
his or her ethics will hinder him or her to commit crimes like taking bribes, being corrupt. In the
case of a doctor, he or she will avoid making people abort since his/her duty is to save life and
not to terminate it.
9. Socially, loyalty leads to co-operation among people especially the young and elders e.g. in the
family setting; if the wife and husband are loyal to each other, they co-operate easily and
understand each other.
10. Loyalty leads to minimization of conflicts among people e.g. among employees and employers.
This will minimize strikes, demonstrations in the country.
11. Loyalty shows a spirit of nationalism among people of a certain country e.g. if people are
faithful, obedient, honor the national flag, national anthem, they show love for their country.
12. It also leads to success in one’s individual efforts i.e. socially, economically, politically and
religiously.
13. It also leads to development of good morals among people especially the young ones in the
family.
14. In the Christian point of view, Christians are assured of eternal life since their religion demands
one to be loyal to the laws of God.
LOYALTY IN THE PRESENT SITUATION

In the present situation, loyalty means fulfilling a wide range of decisions, meeting challenges
and demands. Therefore loyalty is expressed in the different ways;

1. People today show loyalty to their families by loving one another and living in harmony for
example; husband and wife, parents and children.
2. The choices and decisions we always make to certain things express our loyalties to those
things. So we need to put our choices to things which are more important.
3. Christians today manifest their loyalty to their God through attending church services and other
activities like crusades. This indicates that they are citizens of both heaven and earth.
4. Today most people express their loyalty to their jobs through fulfilling professional demands for
example; doctors ensure that they save lives by giving the right drugs to patients.
5. Some people today are loyal to their business through making numerous commitments such as
improving on the quality of goods.

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6. Today many people have expressed exaggerated loyalty. This means being too submissive and
committed to values and individuals. This has led to blind obedience today which is so
dangerous e.g. a lover may seem so committed to someone but instead, it may be blind loyalty
to the other partner.
7. Today, there is loyalty to institutions e.g. students pay loyalty to institutional rules and
regulations.
8. The army men today respect the army code of conduct and this has led to peace and harmony.
9. People today show loyalty to symbols and objects such as the national flag, anthem and this
shows respect to the country.
10. Culturally, people today show loyalty to their cultures through fulfilling their cultural values,
norms and practices for example the Bagishu, Bakonjo take circumcision very important.

How (Christians) can be loyal to;

a) Family

1. By participating in the daily domestic work at home like washing utensils, respecting each other
at home etc.
2. Through portraying good morals both at home and outside home so as to give a good picture to
other people.
3. Through studying as required in order to uplift the status of the family.
4. By co-operating with the family members in all kinds of activities.
5. Through proper handling of family property e.g. furniture, fragile things like glasses.
6. Through working for the development of the family.
7. By promoting Christian values in a family like understanding God through bible studies etc.
8. By promoting good relationship with their neighbors.
9. By attending social functions together as a family. This can take the form attending concerts
together.
10. By respecting the cultural norms to which that family belongs.
b) How a Christian can be loyal to the society or State (Country)

1. Through paying taxes as demanded by the state/society.

2. Through participating in work that may lead to the development of a country e.g. community
work like cleaning of roads.
3. Christians can show loyalty by respecting and recognizing the state and its authorities e.g.
national anthem, flag, president etc.
4. Through promoting democracy and rule of law i.e. participating in the elections and other
political activities.
5. Through participating in community activities and self-help projects such as road, well
construction and repair.
6. Through promoting the moral wellbeing of the society by being exemplary and imparting
behaviors among children.
7. Through educating children at various levels e.g. primary, secondary, university etc.

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 8. Through participating in the promotion of peace by either joining the army or supporting it in a
different way or another.
9. Through promoting responsible parenthood i.e. caring for the wellbeing of children.
10. Through respecting the fundamental human rights such as a right to life.
11. By avoiding dirty games like corruption, embezzlement of public funds.
How a Christian can be loyal to the School

1. By following the school rules and regulations.

2. By following the school time table.
3. By properly handling of the school property such as furniture etc.
4. Through getting involved in all school activities like mass, sports, manual work, clubs etc.
5. Through observing preps and attending all lessons as required of a student.
6. Through portraying good morals and guiding others who have gone wrong.
7. Through exercising Jesus’ values in life like obedience, love of one another and sharing with
friends.
8. Through working hard for the development of the school i.e. reading hard so as to make the
school perform better.
9. Through putting on the school uniform in proper order.
10. Being obedient to teachers and other administrators.
How a Christian can be loyal to the Church

1. Christians can be loyal by paying church fees such as tithe, offertory which may help in the
development of the church.
2. Through attending church services without exception.
3. By practicing Jesus’ law of love, trust and respecting one another because we are all one family.
4. Through preaching the gospel of the lord and extending his kingdom as instructed by Jesus.
5. By forgiveness and reconciliation with our enemies in order to live as people of God.
6. Through repenting to God so as to be forgiven of their sins and even towards other people.
7. Through remaining loyal to the power of the Holy Spirit and recognizing his role in the church.
8. By participating in Eucharistic celebrations as Christ instructed us because it brings them
together.
9. By participating in prayer, praise and fellowships.
10. They should seek the holy sacraments like marriage.
11. By extending activities of charity to the needy, elderly and poor in church.
Question:

(a) Giving examples show how a Christian can be

loyal to both the church and the State.

(b) How did the Christian martyrs in Uganda

express their loyalty to God?

DISLOYALTY

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This refers to living against one’s commitments and peoples’ promises in societies. Many people
misunderstand loyalty and in the end they turn to being disloyal to their families, jobs, one self, and
institutions etc.

CAUSES OF DISLOYALTY IN SOCIETY

1. Lack of parental care or guidance: Many parents don’t guide their children on how to behave in
society and so children grow up not knowing what to do at different stages of life.
2. Drug abuse such as smoking marijuana, opium, fuel which confuses them mentally thus leading
to disloyalty, for example they can abuse people, rape and fight in public etc.
3. Poverty which may lead to stealing of other people’s property so as to make ends meet.
4. Permissiveness i.e. allowing someone to do what he or she wants. This makes people behave
the way they want irrespective of other people’s feelings.
5. Greed for money which leads to unhealthy behaviors at the place of work like corruption,
embezzlement of public money etc. for example Geoffrey Kazinda the former accountant of
the prime minister’s office is said to have swindled 50 billion shillings.
6. Unemployment which leads some people into selling of property they don’t own, cheating and
practicing sex immorality such as prostitution so as to earn a living.
7. Bad examples from other leaders for example if a wife is disloyal to the husband, the children
too are most likely to be disloyal to their father.
8. Increased cases of income inequality between the rich and the poor that makes the poor steal
and kill the rich.
9. Peer group influence also leads to disloyalty; for example some students in schools break rules
and regulations which may be as a result of friends.
10. Lack of religious commitment by many people today has led to disloyalty to one another for
example the thugs who gunned down Joan Kagezi the state prosecutor 2015.

Qn. 1.With relevant examples, explain the different ways through which people today have become
disloyal.

Qn. Give the different causes of disloyalty in schools today.

DANGERS OF DISLOYALTY

1. It results into expulsion in case of a student and excommunication from the society if one is a
grown up citizen.
2. It results into marriage breakdown. This is brought about by problems like adultery, defilement
etc.
3. Disloyalty results into acquiring diseases such as AIDS and this can come as a result of
prostitution, adultery etc.
4. It leads to imprisonment if one is convicted of an offence by the courts of law.
5. Disloyalty also leads to mob justice if one is involved in theft of property.

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 6. It can lead to hatred and enmity between individuals who were formerly friendly to one
another.
7. It leads to conflicts and disunity among people thus leading to disharmony in society.
8. Being disloyal to the government leads to imprisonment or exile especially if one is involved in
rebel activities.
9. Disloyalty of the workers to their bosses can lead to losses in a company.

HOW CHRISTIANS ARE DISLOYAL TO THE CHURCH TODAY

 They are disloyal to the church by neglecting the spread of the Good News to new and non-
Christians, thus limiting the growth of the church.
 Some Christians express disloyalty by neglecting prayers. This can be rosary or Sunday services.
 Others are disloyal through dodging sacraments like Baptism, Eucharist and Matrimony.
 They show disloyalty to the church through actions of discrimination of the poor, strangers and
children.
 Others show disloyalty by using the church platform to abuse other beliefs instead of preaching
the word of God.
 They express disloyalty by misusing church funds for their personal interests.
 Disloyalty is expressed through acts of personalizing the church which is very common in
Pentecostal churches.
 Others show disloyalty through hatred of fellow Christians instead of preaching love and
reconciliation.
 Disloyalty is shown through lack spirit of forgiveness to our fellow Christians especially those
who have wronged us.
 Failure to extend charity to poor and displaced people like the war victims is another case of
disloyalty.
 Showing too much greed for material things especially by religious leaders also indicates the
aspect of disloyalty.
 The rampant sexual immoralities in the society like prostitution, adultery and incest also indicate
disloyalty to God.

CONFLICTING LOYALTY

This refers to a situation when someone is faced with two or more interesting situations. In this way it is
always difficult to make a decision. Sometimes when there are two things/situations and we may fail to
know which one he /she should be loyal to. This brings about problems of disobedience and blind
obedience for example;

EXAMPLES OF CONFLICTING LOYALTY

1. Either obeying school rules or disobeying friends who might want you to smoke.
2. Either disobeying parents who are against watching a certain film or obeying peer groups who
want you to join them for a video show.

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3. A Christian judge sentencing a murderer to death or obeying the bible which says thou shall not
kill.
4. Either carrying out abortion so as to save the life the mother or respecting the law of God which
forbids.
5. A Luganda teacher punishing a student for speaking Luganda in the school where English is the
only official language or breaking the school rule against speaking vernacular.
6. Being loyal to the African culture like circumcision of the Bagishu from Mbale or taking up a new
European culture.
7. Contributing money for a friend’s wedding function so as not to annoy him or making fees
payments for one’s child.
8. Writing one’s final examination on Sunday or going for Sunday service to praise God.
9. Marrying before age of 18yrs so as enjoy sex or waiting until the right time in order to enjoy sex.
10. Either going for the burial of one’s mother or sitting his S.4 final examinations.
N.B

When one is faced with a conflicting loyalty, he or she should do the following;

1. One should do what he values most. It should be taken as the right choice.
2. One should make choices and develop a priority of loyalties instead of being in mixed
feelings.
3. To be loyal to one self-first considering things which concern him most.
4. Be loyal to others too.
5. Think critically and not just a blind obedience.
6. Seek advice from other people.
7. We should take a decision after considering the consequences of each alternative.
8. We should be able to find happiness and satisfaction with the choice.
9. Generally questions and then disagreements can help us to clarify our loyalties.
LOYALTY IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

In traditional African societies people observed loyalty in the following ways;

How loyalty was shown in African traditional society

1. Loyalty in the African traditional society was shown by giving sacrifices and offerings. This was
one way of expressing loyalty to the living dead and gods.
2. It was done by sharing all obligations and privileges like beer party celebrations were means of
expressing loyalty.
3. By paying bride wealth. Payment dowry in the Africa tradition was a way of expressing loyalty to
the parents and society at large.
4. Special loyalty was given to special people like diviners, rain makers, night dancers etc.
5. In the African traditional society, loyalty was expressed through the act of blood pact which was
an expression of brotherhood and oneness.
6. African traditionalists expressed their loyalty to God through believing in him as well as making
prayers to him.
7. Loyalty was expressed to sacred places like mountains, hills, trees like Nakayima in Mubende.

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 8. They expressed loyalty to their tribes, clans and societies. For example in case of any war, one
had to fight for his tribe against any enemy tribe.
9. Loyalty to leaders and to the society was shown through individuals joining a tribal war willingly
so as to protect their territorial integrity.
10. Disloyalty was seriously punished by excommunication, curses, paying fines and canning. This
limited the causes of disloyalty in the society.
11. Conflicting loyalties in the traditional Africa were very rare as children learnt from their elders
and there was strict discipline imparted to the young.
12. There was special loyalty given to the kings and other leaders. They would be given gifts.
13. Loyalty to a group was more emphasized than personal loyalty. This was evidenced through
communal working and sharing.
Importance of loyalty in African traditional society

1. Loyalty to the living dead helped to strengthen a good relationship between the living and the
living dead.
2. Loyalty also preserved the African traditional culture among people.
3. It also showed respect to parents especially during the payment of dowry.
4. Loyalty helped to create security and trust among people (individuals) e.g. blood pacts.
5. It also promoted faithfulness among individuals.
6. It encouraged mutual understanding among people.
7. It helped in the smooth running of the society by leaders, thus creating peace.
8. It also minimized crimes in the society.
9. Loyalty enabled Africans to live in harmony and great unity.
10. It helped Africans to have a sense of belonging and thus loved their society assets like wells,
grazing land etc.
HOW PEOPLE IN TRADITONAL AFRICA SHOWED LOYALTY TO THEIR ANCESTORS

Africans showed loyalty to their ancestors in the following ways;

1. Through dedicating scared places to ancestors like tops of mountains etc.

2. Through showing faith and trust in the ancestor (swearing by their names)
3. Through molding, curving and designing sacred objects to represent their ancestors.
4. Through constantly calling upon ancestors to bless them, for instance to give them children and
good harvests.
5. Through cleaning up burial places of their ancestors.
6. By not allowing children to play around burial places for fear of disturbing the resting ancestor.
7. By giving names of the ancestors to newly born babies to signify rebirth of the ancestor.
8. By offering sacrifices and libations to ancestors.
9. Ancestors were called upon to guide the living people in case of any challenge in society.
10. They were not left out in family affairs like introduction ceremonies.
11. They were buried with all their property they would need in the next world.
12. Africans lived morally upright lives in order not to annoy their ancestors.
How Africans showed loyalty to leaders, elders and parents

Africans showed loyalty to the above through the following ways.

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 1. By paying of the bride price (dowry) to parents during marriage ceremonies.
2. Special gifts and greetings were given to them for example rolling down among the Baganda.
3. It was expressed through joining tribal wars willingly so as to protect the society and this
showed respect to leaders.
4. Africans would give their leaders women, their daughters because of their status for example
Kabaka in Buganda was believed to be owner all women.
5. Loyalty would be expressed by children to their parents through greeting while kneeling.
6. Loyalty was shown through entertaining leaders. This was done through games like wrestling.
7. It was also showed through giving them energetic young men to do for them some work.
8. It was done by giving to them gifts and tributes as a sigh of respecting and honoring them.
9. Some leaders were named after them children as a sign loyal and respect given to that leader.
10. In some societies like Buganda elders were addressed by titles e.g. Ssebo for men and Nyabo
for women.

HOW LOYALTY BROUGHT ABOUT PEACE AND HARMONY IN AFRICAN SOCIETY

Loyalty brought about peace and harmony in the following ways;

1. It promoted unity and a strong sense of belonging to all members of the society.
2. It discouraged individualism because all resources were owned communally to benefit all.
3. Loyalty instilled a sense of being responsible among Africans which guarded them against
breaking of laws.
4. Loyalty helped people to respect and preserve their customs and norms of the society. This
helped them to behave well.
5. Loyalty ensured that they Africans participated in their society demands like joining the army to
defend the society.
6. Loyalty compelled elders to discipline the young ones in order promote social order.
7. Loyalty helped to promote justice in which all people were fairly treated in society.
8. It helped to fight sexual immoralities of all kinds like adultery, prostitution etc.
9. It also reduced unnecessary competition among Africans. His helped them to share all basics of
life and lived as a group.
10. Loyalty also helped them to co-exist with strangers without fighting or killing them.

TYPES OF LOYALTY IS TRADITIONAL AFRICA

There were three types of loyalties in the African traditional society

i. Personal loyalty.
(a)This involved loyalty of the husband to wife in a family.

(b) Loyalty of children to parents,

(c) Loyalty between the blind to the guides,

(d) Loyalty of mother to her baby,

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 (e) Loyalty between friends (blood pact) blood pacts.

ii. Group loyalty.

(a) This involved being loyal to one’s group like family,
(b) Loyalty to clan,
(c) Loyalty to one’s sex and age group
N.B This meant acting together as one.
iii. Cultural loyalty:
(a) This means being loyal to the African traditional religion,
(b) Loyalty to deities, spirits, and ancestors
(c) Loyalty to one’s language and customs and cultural practices like Bagishu are loyal to
circumcision.
(d) Loyalty to the society symbols, objects

N.B: Disloyalty was considered the worst crime as it was a threat to the community solidarity and
oneness. Thus those disloyal were excommunicated from the society.

DISLOYALTY IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

In the African traditional society, disloyalty was rare or unheard of since right from childhood, puberty
change, adulthood; people were taught how to be loyal.

Very few cases of disloyalty were heard of and below some ought to be mentioned;

1. Abominable acts such as people killing their children, elders, leaders etc.
2. Traditional doctors turning into witch doctors i.e. Africans bewitching each other.
3. Some Africans running away from some traditional rituals such as circumcision, death rituals.
4. Some men committed adultery with other peoples’ wives.
5. Some people broke their agreements such as breaking the vows of blood pact.
6. Leaders could become dictators on their subjects e.g. kings having a right over the lives of their
subjects.
7. Some men refused to marry and yet one was supposed to marry.
8. There were cases of incest in the African traditional societies.
9. Some children disrespected their parents.
10. Some people were disloyal to the ancestors when they refused to do what ancestors called for.
E.g. not giving to them sacrifices.
SOLUTION TO DISLOYALTY IN SOCIETY

1. Those who became disloyal could be ex-communicated from the society for example witches.
2. Children who failed to respect their parents would be cursed terribly by their parents and such
curses could affect their lives in future.
3. Some people who became disloyal could be denied a decent burial by the whole society e.g. if
one committed suicide.
4. In some cases, many were being fined through forcing them to pay in form of material things.

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 5. Some would be punished through canning by their different clans.
6. Those who were disloyal could also be ear-marked so as for the whole society to know that he is
a victim of disloyalty.
7. Africans who were disloyal could be denied respect in society. Some were even chased away
from their own tribes, clans.
8. Children who failed to be loyal sometimes were disowned by their parents.

LOYALTY IN THE CHURCH HISTORY

The early church

The early church expressed their loyalty to God through accepting baptism and other Christian
doctrines e.g. the sign of the cross in the Roman Catholic Church, belief in the trinity.

In the early church, there were cases of conflicting loyalty between the heavenly kingdom and earthly
kingdom. Some Christians refused the idea of heaven because no one has ever come back to tell us what
it is like. Besides, there were earthly demands

which were contradicting with Christian doctrines.

One was demanded to uphold Christian doctrines (be loyal) so as to enter heaven. So the early
Christians considered themselves as being on a pilgrimage here on earth as their rightful place was in
heaven.

In their teaching, the early Christians/believers were called upon to love, share and offer service to one
another as a way of expressing loyalty to one another as well as God.

Christians in the early church remained loyal to the government of the Roman Empire as well as God.

In spite of being law abiding, they were persecuted (killed) and hated by the Roman Empire especially
when they refused to worship the Emperor and offer sacrifices to him.

The Early Christians expressed their loyalty in the following ways.

1. They remained loyal / believed in one God even though the Roman Emperors wanted them to
worship their gods.

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 2. They were loyal to Christ i.e. continued to preach the message of Christ as well as praising him
through prayers, songs and hymns.
3. They preached the gospel and even baptized many even if they were being stopped.
4. They loyal to the scriptures and lived by it. (Their faith became strong).
5. They committed themselves to prayer as consolation to their persecutors.
6. They did charitable works like looking after the needy, sick, poor, widows, orphans and slaves.
7. They paid taxes to the Roman government as well as paying tithe in the church.
8. They remained loyal to the state laws, respected and obeyed leaders.
9. They guided many people, counseled them, gave people food etc.
10. They showed loyalty to missionary journeys, and thus travelled to different places transmitting
the word of God.
11. They were loyal to building of churches to enable Christians gather together for fellowships.
How Uganda martyrs expressed their loyalty to God

1. They showed their loyalty by remaining faithful to God despite of being tortured by Kabaka’s
men.
2. By not fearing to express their faith in action. They continued to pray even gave praise to God
through hymns even on their way to their execution.
3. By accepting to die than to betraying God through denouncing him as it had been demanded by
the Kabaka.
4. By refusing to participate in sexual immorality such as homosexuality as it was demanded by
Kabaka Mwanga.
5. By constantly praying to God in times of difficulties as well as in good times.
6. By refusing to use violence to solve their problems thus they followed their master.
7. They also expressed their loyalty to God through being happy even when being tortured.
8. By participating actively in the preaching of the gospel.
9. By doing charitable activities such as visiting the sick and caring for the poor as required by the
Christian teachings.
10. By accepting baptism as the initiation into the Christian faith.
11. They respected and attended church services especially Sunday services and as a way of
expressing their loyalty to God.
12. They also participated in de campaigning against injustices and other forms of immorality as
instructed by Jesus.
13. They expressed their loyalty by offering their physical energy in constructing churches.
How the Uganda Martyrs lived in conflicting loyalty.

The Uganda martyrs lived in great conflicting loyalty because were in great pressure from the king
against God. Below are the following situations which show how they lived in conflicting loyalty.

1. They were expected to obey the Kabaka and at the same time obey God.
2. Whether to respect their culture or to respect the new religion.
3. Whether to stay with their wives or to embrace monogamy for example Matia Mulumba.
4. Whether to listen to the Kabaka or his hangman Mukajjanga or the missionaries.

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 5. Whether to accept homosexuality as Kabaka Mwanga often did or to denounce it as Christianity
teaches.
6. Whether to denounce Christ or obey the King and lose eternal life.
7. Either to attend catechetical instructions or to remain with their parents or the King in the
palace.
8. Whether to believe in the traditional gods or in the new God.
9. Whether to read the bible or practice witchcraft.
Conflicting loyalties in the early church period;
1. There was a challenge either to be loyal to Jesus’ teachings or to be loyal to the Jewish
authority; e.g. Peter and John.
2. Either to be loyal to the church or to the pagan authorities of the time.
3. Either to be loyal to their faith and face persecution or to deny their faith and live.
4. Either to be loyal to their families or to well come Jesus’ call and become preachers.
5. Either to follow the law of Moses or following that Jesus among the Israelites.
6. Either to continue in marriage with unbelieving partner or to divorce him/her.
7. Widows were faced with a challenge of either remarrying or remain single.
8. Either to marry and form a family or to remain unmarried for the good of the gospel.
LOYALTY IN THE BIBLE

OLD TESTAMENT

In general, the Old Testament loyalty meant being faithful and committed to God, his people
although basically to the covenant laws.

WAYS IN WHICH LOYALTY WAS EXPRESSED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

1. In his creation story, God expressed loyalty by showing love and commitment to his creatures.
2. The Old Testament shows Abraham as a man who expressed his loyalty to Gods call when he
was instructed to leave his homeland, people to go to the unknown land. Abraham responded
positively thus being loyal.
3. God expressed his love and loyalty to Abraham and his people by fulfilling his promises he made
to Abraham such as liberating the Israelites from Egypt.
4. The Israelites also showed loyalty to God’s covenant which was given to them through Moses on
mountain Sinai Ex. 20:24 “All what God has said, we will do”.
5. The Israelites were committed to their traditional customs such as circumcision which acted as
an identity for God’s chosen people.
6. God showed his loyalty to his people by making the covenant and living to it. Thus he will never
destroy the earth again using water. Gen: 9:8-16.
7. The call of prophets and their immediate response also shows their loyalty to God; for example
Isaiah responded “here I am send…” Isaiah 6:8.
8. As a sign of disloyalty Gen 3, Man became unhappy and suffers in the O.T and that effect is
carried on even up to today.
9. God’s prophets like Amos were loyal to God when they condemned the Israelites for the sins
they had committed against God.

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 10. King David was loyal to God when he brought God’s covenant box into the capital of Jerusalem
thus bringing God closer to his people.
11. Solomon showed his loyalty to God by dedicating the temple to God of Israel, thus making it a
house for the worship of God.
HOW GOD SHOWED HIS LOYALTY TO HIS PEOPLE OF ISRAEL

God expressed his divine loyalty to Israel in the following ways;

1. God showed his loyalty by fulfilling the promises he made to his servant Abraham during his call.
2. By making an agreement with Abraham which God himself vowed to fulfill. For example he
protected Abraham as he had promised.
3. He showed his loyalty by calling Moses through whom the Israelites were liberated from the
Egyptian slavery.
4. God showed his mercy to the Israelites during the Passover event. He jumped the houses of the
Israelites and allowed the angel of death kill the first born of the Egyptians.
5. His loyalty was seen when he provided manna and quail to the Israelites while in the desert.
(Exodus 16)
6. By helping the Israelites defeat their enemies as they moved in the land of Canaan for example
they killed the Amorites, Perizzites etc.
7. By making a covenant with his people at Mt. Sinai. This covenant turned Israel into his personal
kingdom.
8. His loyalty was seen by giving gardens to his people they never planted and cities they never
built as they were entering Canaan.
9. By accepting the sacrifices presented to him by the Israelites such as Solomon’s sacrifice during
the dedication of the temple.
10. By sending prophets to the land of Israel like AMOS, HOSEA ELIJAH etc who were useful in
guiding his people.
11. By giving them a king as soon as his people demanded for one. God gave them Saul as their first
king.
12. By giving wisdom to his loyal servants for example he gave wisdom to Solomon.
13. God showed his loyalty to his people by answering their prayers; for example responded to
Elijah’s prayer by sending fire in the contest at Mt. Carmel.
HOW THE ISRAEITES EXPRESSD THEIR LOYALTY TO GOD

1. The Israelites showed their loyalty to God’s command by taking up circumcision which was given
to their ancestor Abraham.
2. By accepting the regulation of the Passover celebration which was to be celebrated every year.
3. By following the Decalogue (Ten Commandments) as they were given to them by God at Mt.
Sinai.
4. They showed their loyalty to God by upholding monotheism i.e. Worshiping only one God
instead of worshiping other gods.
5. By observing the Sabbath as a day of resting and worshiping their God. They were not to do any
piece of work on that day.

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 6. They offered sacrifices to God. For example Solomon made sacrifices as he was dedicating the
temple of Jerusalem to God.
7. They Israelites showed their loyalty by making annual pilgrimages to holy places like temple of
Jerusalem and Mt. Sinai.
8. They also respected their religious days such as Day of Atonement, Passover day etc.
9. They repented for their sins; for example King David repented for his sin of adultery with
Bathsheba and murdering Uriah her husband.
10. They showed their loyalty by building altars from where they met and sacrificed to their God.
DISLOYALTY OF THE ISRAELITES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
1. Gen 3 portrays man as being disloyal to God when he ate the forbidden fruit. This resulted into
suffering, curses not only to man but to also the entire world.
2. Cain was disloyal to God’s instructions when he killed his brother Abel Gen 4:1-6, as a result of
being jealousy.
3. The entire Israelite community showed disloyalty by making a golden calf and worshiping it as
their God; Ex 32:1-33.
4. Kings like David and Solomon were disloyalty to God by getting involved in polygamy. This was
being against the leadership code of Israel Deut: 17:1-7.
5. King Ahab was disloyal when he worshiped Baal the god of his wife Jezebel. This was against the
covenant 1kings: 16:29-33.
6. Some Kings like David were disloyal by organizing the killing of Uriah in order to take his wife
Bathsheba. This was being disloyal to God 2Samuel 11:1-20-27.
7. King Solomon was disloyal by over taxing the poor because he had an intention of constructing
the temple.
8. King Ahab and his wife were disloyal by grabbing Naboth’s land thus showing their disloyalty
1Kgs:21:1-29.
9. Moses was disloyal by striking twice on the rock to search for water of the Israelites yet God told
him to strike once.
10. Kings like Solomon accumulated a lot of wealth yet his people were living in abject poverty.
11. Construction of the tower of Babel i.e. Israelites equating themselves to God thus showing their
disloyalty to God.
12. Eli’s sons ate God sacrifices before they were given to Him thus being disloyal to God.

Question.

How did the Israelites show their loyalty to God in the Old Testament?

LOYALTY IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

1. Jesus expressed total loyalty to the father in a loving, obedience at different times and
indifferent ways even if it meant;
a. Opposing the hypocrisy of the Jewish religious leaders.
b. Suffering Mt 26:39.

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c. Fore go his family people.
d. Death.
e. Thus he remained loyal to his faith.
2. The New Testament shows Jesus as a man who was loyal to the Jewish traditions as well as his
father. He prayed, baptized, circumcised and also observed the Sabbath.
3. Jesus was loyal to the state “give Caesar what belongs to Caesar and God what belongs to
God” Mt 22: 15, mk12:13-17. This implies that he encouraged Christians to pay taxes the Roman
government and God as well.
4. Jesus also showed love and loyalty to all persons regardless of their social status, race, education
and financial status e.g. he associated with non-Jews and healed their sicknesses Mt 8:15-13 e.g.
he spoke with women of bad reputation (Martha who was an adulterous).
5. His disciples showed loyalty to him by leaving their occupations when they were called by Christ.
6. The miracles Jesus performed were a clear indication of his loyalty and obedience to God. The
miracles created faith in Jesus.
7. The betrayal of Jesus by Judas Iscariot and Peter during Jesus’ execution were one clear
indication of disloyalty to their master
8. The New Testament teaches that co-operation with the Holy Spirit encourages Christians to
grow in faith and love and thus be loyal to God.
9. Loyalty was expressed by Jesus when he fed the hungry people thus restoring hope in those who
were desperate in life.
WAYS THROUGH WHICH JESUS EXPRESSED HIS LOYALTY TO THE JEWISH CULTURE.

Jesus showed loyalty by doing the following;

1. He expressed his loyalty to the Jewish culture by accepting circumcision as a sign of the
Abrahamic covenant.
2. By respecting and observing the Sabbath as a holy day of the lord although he condemned the
misuse of it Mk 2:23-28.
3. By accepting baptism by John the Baptist eve if he was sinless Mk 1:9.
4. By going to silent places for prayer so as to ask for God’s guidance.
5. By also respected the Jewish traditions and leaders through payment of taxes Mt 17:24-27.
6. Jesus also fasted as per Jewish customs and traditions Mt 4:1-11, Mk 1:12-13.
7. He helped his earthly parents in domestic work and carpentry besides preaching.
8. He even participated in secular life just like any other Jew e.g. He attended a wedding at Cana.
HOW JESUS WAS LOYAL TO HIS FATHER.

1. By resisting temptations that were put before him by Satan with an aim of diverting him from
his mission of saving man Mk 1:12-13.
2. By giving up his life for the sake of fulfilling God’s plan and salvation of man Mt 26:22.
3. As a result of his loyalty and committed to God, the demons also recognized and feared him.
Mk 1:24.
4. Jesus also went to the extent of forgoing food because of his commitment to God; Mark 3:2
5. By rejecting the misuse of God’s temple as it was a case of disloyalty to God.

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 6. By accepting to be baptized although he was not a sinner himself. Thus he was humble and
joined other sinners Mark 1:9
7. He showed his loyalty to God through prayer and this was his first priority Mark 1:35
8. He chased away those who were abusing the holiness of God’s temple. The love for his father’s
house made him angry. John 2:25
9. By accepting to be arrested although he could easily escape
10. Jesus had private time at the garden of Gethsemane to be close to God mark 4:34
11. He expressed his loyalty to God by crying on cross; He cried “Eloi, Eloi lema sabachthani
meaning my God, my God, why did you abandon me?”
REASONS WHY THE JEWS WERE DISLOYAL TO JESUS\REJECTED HIM

1. He associated with outcasts and sinners e.g. tax collectors like Zachaus, lepers, Samaritans etc.
2. The Jews needed a political messiah but not a spiritual one i.e. one who would liberate them
from the Roman Empire.
3. He never participated fully into fasting together with the disciples and yet it was an important
religious responsibility of every Jew.
4. He originated from a poor family (his father was a carpenter).
5. His act of forgiving sins made those who couldn’t understand him called it blasphemy because
they never understood his divine status.
6. He associated with people of law status (profile) e.g. fishermen.
7. He never abided by the Sabbath rules i.e. he healed on the Sabbath.
8. His way of preaching was authoritative and always contradicted with the Jewish leaders and the
teachers of the law.
9. He used to change names and titles during his teaching. This irritated the teachers of the law.
E.g. son of God, the good shepherd, Lamb of God, vine dresser etc.
10. His method of preaching i.e. use of parables made them misunderstand him.
11. His constant contradiction with the laws of Moses made them disloyal to him.
12. His popularity threatened the Jewish people.

WAYS IN WHICH CHRISTIANS LIVE AS DUAL CITIZENS

Being dual citizens means belonging to two situations/worlds; i.e. secular world and spiritual
world.
 As dual citizens Christians are expected to read the constitution and the bible.
 They pay tax to the government and tithe to church.
 They work on public roads, wells etc. and at the same time work at church.
 They follow state laws and the Ten Commandments.
 They pay dowry and rings for church marriage.
 They undergo customary marriage and church marriage.
 They vote for state leaders and also vote church leaders.
 They can be civil leaders at the same time church leaders.

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Chemistry

1. CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Carbon
This is the element in group IV of the periodic table. It has atomic number 6 and atomic mass 12
Occurrence of carbon
Pure carbon is found in the form of diamond and impure carbon as graphite. Carbon is a constituent
of numerous naturally occurring substances such as coal, mineral oils, carbonates, organic matter
and in air as carbon dioxide.
Allotropes of carbon
Allotropy: is the existence of an element in more than one form, without change in physical state.
These different forms are called allotropes.
An allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of an element. Carbon has three allotropes:
diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon. Others elements that show allotropy are:
1. Oxygen with two allotropes, that is, ordinary oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3).
2. Tin with two allotropes, that is, grey tin and white tin.
3. Sulphur has five allotropes, that is, amorphous sulphur, monoclinic sulphur, rhombic
sulphur, plastic sulphur and colloidal sulphur.
4. Phosphorus with two allotropes, that is white/yellow phosphorus and red phosphorus.
Graphite
Graphite is a black, soft, slippery, hexagonal crystalline substance. Its atoms are joined by strong
covalent bonds.
Structure of graphite
Graphite is a two dimensional layered structure. The carbon atoms within the layers are arranged
in hexagonal rings and each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms.
For each carbon atom, three out of the four valence electrons localized during the formation of the
covalent bonds. The remaining electron is delocalized (mobile) over the whole layer. The mobile
electrons are free to move through the structure and therefore enable graphite to conduct heat and
electricity.
The hexagonal layers lie on top of one another and are joined by weak van der waals’ forces which
enable layers to slide over each other easily. That is why graphite is soft and can be used as a
lubricant.

Properties of graphite
1. It is a black material which feels greasy on touching
2. It is opaque and shiny
3. It has a density of 2.3g/cm3
4. It has hexagonal structures

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 5. It conducts electricity. This because it contains delocalised electrons. When an electric field
is applied, these electrons move freely conducting electric current.
6. Writes well on papers
7. Graphite is soft and slippery because the layers within the structure are held together by
weak van de waals’ forces which makes it possible for the layers to slide over each other
easily.

Uses of graphite
1. Used as protective coating for iron substances to prevent rusting.
2. Used as an electrode in electrolytic cells. Since graphite conducts electricity
3. As a lubricant for dynamos and electric motors.
4. For making pencil leads

Diamond
It is a colourless, transparent and sparkling crystalline substance. It is the hardest substance known.

Structure of diamond
Diamond has a tetrahedral structure in which each carbon atom is joined by covalent bonds to four
other carbon atoms.
The valence electrons are all used in forming covalent bonds and therefore they are localized.
This structure is extended throughout the substance in three dimensions.
Diamond is a poor conductor of heat and electricity because it does not have free and mobile
electrons.

Uses of diamond
1. Used for manufacturing drilling and cutting hard substances such as glass and rock.
2. It is used to make jewelry e.g. necklaces and ear rings because of its high refractive index
giving it a shiny appearance.

Amorphous carbon
Amorphous carbon is black and has the lowest density among all the allotropes of carbon. It is a
fair conductor of electricity. It is a non-crystalline substance. Amorphous carbon exists in several
forms including wood charcoal, animal charcoal and lampblack. Coke and soot are other forms of
impure amorphous carbon. Animal charcoal is made by heating animal bones and remains in a
limited supply of air. Coke is made by heating coal in absence of air. Wood charcoal is formed
by burning in a limited supply of air. It can be used to remove poisonous gases such as ammonia,
sulphur dioxide and chlorine. It is also useful as fuel. Lamp black is made by burning oil in a
limited supply of air e.g. kerosene, petroleum and turpentine. It is used in making printers ink,
shoe polish, carbon paper and car tyres.

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 Uses of amorphous carbon
1. It is found in wood charcoal formed by burning wood with a limited supply of air. Wood
charcoal is used as a source of fuel for cooking. Also coke is used as a source of energy.
2. It is found in animal charcoal, which is used to remove the brown colour from sugar during
its manufacture.
3. Lampblack obtained by burning oils with a limited supply of air, is used in sugar during
its manufacture.
4. Coke is used as a reducing agent in extraction of metals from their ores e.g. iron.

Proof for allotropy of carbon

When equal masses of graphite, diamond and amorphous carbon are separately burnt in excess
pure oxygen, each produces the same quantity of carbon dioxide and no other product. The carbon
dioxide is tested using limewater which turns milky. This proves that graphite, diamond and
amorphous carbon are made up of the same substance, carbon.
C(s) + O2(g)→ CO2(g)
Differences between diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon
Property Diamond Graphite Amorphous carbon
Appearance Colourless and Grey-black, opaque Black, opaque and
transparent and shiny dull
Hardness Hardest Soft, greasy and Soft
soapy
Burning in air Burns at 900oC Burns at 700 oC Burns at 500 oC
Density 3.5g/cm3 2.3g/cm3 1.5g/cm3
Conduction of Poor Good Fair
electricity
Structure Giant molecular Hexagonal Indefinite
Bonding electrons All 4 electrons Uses only three
electrons

Chemical properties of carbon

All allotropes of carbon have similar chemical properties but different physical properties.
a) Reaction with oxygen
When carbon is burnt in excess pure oxygen, carbon dioxide is formed.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
When carbon is burnt in limited supply of oxygen, carbon monoxide is formed.
2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)
Exhaust fumes from cars contain carbon monoxide because of incomplete combustion of petrol or
diesel.

Combustion of charcoal in oxygen

Some powdered wood charcoal is placed in a deflagrating spoon and heated over a Bunsen burner
flame until it glows red-hot. The spoon is immediately transferred into a jar of oxygen
Charcoal continues to burn slowly with a yellow flame without any further heating. The amount
of charcoal gradually decreases and finally only a small amount of ash is left. The presence of ash
implies that wood charcoal is not pure carbon.

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

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 b) Reaction of carbon with metallic oxides
Carbon reduces oxides of metals that are lower than it in the activity series. Such oxides include
copper (II) oxide, zinc oxide, lead(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide. All these are reduced to free
metal while carbon is oxidised to carbon dioxide.
2CuO(s) + C(s) → 2Cu(s) + CO2 (g)
2ZnO(s) + C(s) → 2Zn(s) + CO2 (g)
2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2 (g)
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(s) +3CO2 (g)
This reaction is used in extraction of the metals. Those metals higher in reactivity series than
carbon have a higher affinity for oxygen and will not give it up to carbon.
c) It reduces concentrated nitric acid to nitrogen dioxide
4HNO3 (aq) + C(s) → 2H2O (l) + 4NO2 (g) + CO2 (g)

d) It reduces concentrated sulphuric acid to sulphur dioxide

2H2SO4 (aq) + C(s) → 2H2O (l) + 2SO2 (g) + CO2 (g)

1.1. OXIDES OF CARBON

1.1.1. CARBON DIOXIDE
The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is about 0.03 percent by volume. It is produced
as a waste product during respiration of plants and animals. It is also formed during combustion
of fuels such as wood, petrol etc.
Experiment:
Laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide

Dilute hydrochloric acid from a tap funnel is added to calcium carbonate in a flat-bottomed flask
Effervescence occurs and a colourless gas, which is carbon dioxide, is formed according to the
equation.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O + CO2 (g)
The gas is then passed through a bottle containing water or potassium hydrogen carbonate solution
to absorb any hydrochloric acid fumed.
It is then passed through concentrated sulphuric acid to dry it.
The gas is collected by downward delivery in a gas-jar since the gas is denser than air.
Ionic equation
2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) → H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
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 NB: If the gas is not required dry it can be collected over water. This is possible because carbon
dioxide is only slightly soluble in water.
Dilute sulphuric acid is not used with calcium carbonate because the reaction produces calcium
sulphate which is sparingly soluble and thus forms a coating on the calcium carbonate which stops
further reaction.
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4(s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Lead (II) carbonate is also not used because when it reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid or
sulphuric acid, the reaction soon slows down and then stops. This is due to the formation of lead
(II) chloride or lead (II) sulphate, both of which are insoluble salts.

The insoluble salt coats the carbonate preventing it from reacting with the acid.
PbCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(1)
PbCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(1)
Kipp’s apparatus
A continuous supply of carbon dioxide can be obtained from a Kipp’s apparatus using calcium
carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid.

Industrial preparation of carbon dioxide

In industries, carbon dioxide is obtained as a by-product of fermentation of sugars to alcohol.
C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
It is also obtained from the manufacture of cement. Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium
carbonate) with some sand and silicates to form impure calcium oxide.
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Properties of carbon dioxide
Physical properties
1. It is a colourless gas
2. It has a faint sharp test
3. It has a very faint smell
4. It does not support burning
5. It is slightly soluble in water forming carbonic acid.
H2O(l) + CO2(g) ⇌ H2CO3(aq)
6. It turns litmus pink since it is a weak acidic gas.
7. It is denser than air. When carbon dioxide in a jar is poured into another jar containing a
lighted candle, the candle is extinguished. This shows that carbon dioxide is denser than
air. It displaces air from the jar containing a lighted candle hence “starves” the candle of
oxygen.

Chemical properties
(a) Effect of carbon dioxide on burning magnesium
When a piece of burning magnesium ribbon is lowered into a gas-jar containing carbon dioxide, it
continues to burn for a short time with a spluttering flame. Black particles of carbon are formed
on the sides of the gas-jar and white ash of magnesium oxide is also formed.
2Mg(s) + CO2(g) → 2MgO(s) + C(s)
Magnesium continues to burn in carbon dioxide because of its higher affinity for oxygen than
carbon. The heat from the burning magnesium decomposes carbon dioxide into carbon and
oxygen. The decomposition of carbon dioxide provides more oxygen which supports continued
burning of magnesium oxide.

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 (b) Effect of carbon dioxide on calcium hydroxide solution (lime-water)
When carbon dioxide is bubbled through lime-water, the lime-water turns milky. The white
precipitate is due to the formation of an insoluble substance, calcium carbonate, in water.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
The above test is used to distinguish carbon dioxide from any other gas. However, if excess carbon
dioxide is bubbled through the milky solution, the white precipitate dissolves to form a colourless
solution due to the formation of calcium hydrogen carbonate, which is soluble in water.
CaCO3(s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

(c) Reaction with alkalis

Sodium hydroxide solution readily absorbs carbon dioxide to produce sodium carbonate.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
With excess carbon dioxide, a white precipitate of sodium hydrogen carbonate is formed. The
precipitate is sparingly soluble in cold water.
Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → 2NaHCO3(s)
When a jar of carbon dioxide is placed in a trough containing sodium hydroxide solution, the
solution quickly rises into the jar. This is because the gas is rapidly absorbed into the solution.
Carbon dioxide reacts with sodium hydroxide solution.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

When solid sodium hydroxide is exposed to air, a colourless solution is formed and later a white
crystalline solid is formed. Sodium hydroxide is deliquescent and therefore absorbs water from air
to form a solution. The solution absorbs carbon dioxide from air forming a white crystalline solid
of sodium carbonate decahydrate.
2NaOH(s) + CO2(s) + 9H2O(l) – Na2CO3.10H2O(s)

Uses of carbon dioxide

1. Carbon dioxide is used in the manufacture of carbonated drinks because of its pleasant
taste in water.
2. Carbon dioxide is used as a refrigerating agent for perishable goods
3. Pieces of solid carbon dioxide are sometimes dropped into clouds to cool them to form
rain.
4. Carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers. Carbon dioxide being denser than air forms
a layer around the burning material. It covers the fire and ‘starves’ it of oxygen hence the
fire is put out.
5. It is used during photosynthesis by green plants

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 6. It is used in the manufacture of sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate

1.1.2. CARBON MONOXIDE

Carbon monoxide is a poisonous, colourless gas with practically no smell. It is present in coal gas
and other gaseous fuels. It is formed by the partial combustion of carbon.
2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)
Test for carbon monoxide
It burns with a blue flame forming carbon dioxide
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
Properties of carbon monoxide
1. It is a colourless gas.
2. It has no effect on litmus paper, that is, it is a neutral gas.
3. It burns in air with a blue flame forming carbon dioxide.
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
This reaction also takes place in a charcoal burner when there is a sufficient supply of air.

At A, there is plentiful supply of oxygen and charcoal burns to form carbon dioxide.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
At B, the rising carbon dioxide is reduced by red-hot charcoal to form carbon monoxide.
CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)
At the surface of the burner, the hot carbon monoxide burns in the air with a blue flame to form
carbon dioxide.
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
If the charcoal burner is in a poorly ventilated room with insufficient air, the reaction at the surface
fails to takes place. The poisonous carbon monoxide is released into the room. If someone stays in
such a room, he or she may die within a short while due to carbon monoxide poisoning.
4. It is insoluble in water.
5. It is a reducing agent. It reduces some metallic oxides of copper, lead, zinc and iron, that
is, oxides of metals below carbon in activity series. The porcelain boat is heated strongly
and the excess carbon monoxide is lighted at the jet.
CuO(s) + CO(g) → Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
(red-brown) (grey)
ZnO(s) + CO(g) → Zn(s) + CO2(g)
(white) (grey)
PbO(s) + CO(g) → Pb(s) + CO2(g)

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Lead(II) oxide (yellow) is reduced to a grey solid. Carbon monoxide does not, however, reduce
the oxides of metals higher than carbon in the reactivity series. Such metals have a higher affinity
for oxygen than carbon monoxide.

6. It is a poisonous gas because it forms a fairly stable compound with haemoglobin which
reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.

Uses of carbon monoxide

1. In the manufacture of synthetic petrol.
2. In the reduction of ores and refining of nickel.
3. In the manufacture of methanol used in anti-freezer mixtures in cold countries to prevent
ice from forming in car radiators.
4. Used as fuel in form of producer gas. Producer gas is produced when air is passed over
red-hot coke.
Differences between carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide
Has a faint smell Has no smell
Turns lime water milky Does not
It is not a reducing agent It is a strong reducing agent
Slightly soluble in water and alkalis Insoluble in water and alkalis
Reacts with alkalis forming carbonates Does not
Turns blue litmus paper red Neutral to litmus
Not poisonous Poisonous
Denser than air Less dense than air
Is an acidic gas Is not acidic
Does not burn Burns with a blue flame
No action on oxides Reduces metallic oxides
Reacts with heated charcoal to form carbon No action on charcoal
monoxide

1.2. CARBONATES AND HYDROGEN CARBONATES

Carbonates
Carbonates are salts derived from carbonic acid (H2CO3). Aluminium carbonate does not exist.

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 Summary of properties of carbonates

Potassium Soluble in water

Sodium
Do not decompose on heating
Calcium
Magnesium
Zinc Insoluble in water
Iron
Lead Decompose on heating to form metal oxides and carbon dioxide
Copper
PbCO3(s) → PbO(s) + CO2 (g)

Effects of heat on carbonates

Carbonates of potassium and sodium are not decomposed by heat. It is only lithium carbonate in
group I that decomposes on heating.
Li2CO3(s) → Li2O(s) + CO2(g)
Carbonates of calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, lead and copper are decomposed by heat to an oxide
and carbon dioxide.
When a white solid (powder) of lead (II) carbonate is heated strongly in a test-tube, a colourless
gas which turns lime-water milky is given off and a brown residue of lead (II) oxide when hot
and yellow when cold is formed.
PbCO3(s) → PbO(s) + CO2(g)
Brown residue when hot
Yellow residue on cooling

When a green solid (powder) of copper (II) carbonate is heated, a black residue of copper(II)
oxide is formed.
CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)
Black residue
When a white solid (powder) of zinc carbonate is strongly heated, a yellow residue when hot
and white when cold is formed
ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Yellow residue when hot
White residue on cooling
When a green solid (powder) of iron (II) carbonate is heated, a brown residue of copper(II)
oxide is formed.
FeCO3(s) → FeO(s) + CO2(g)
Brown residue
White solids of magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate decompose to white solids of
magnesium oxide and calcium oxide respectively.
MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + CO2(g)
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Ammonium carbonate sublimes when heated. The cause of this sublimation is that ammonium
carbonate dissociates on heating to ammonia, water and carbon dioxide, which recombine on
cooling.
(NH4)2CO3(s) →2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

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 Solubility of carbonates in water
Carbonates of lithium, potassium, sodium and ammonium are soluble in water. The other
carbonates are insoluble in water.
Testing for carbonate (CO32-)
Add a dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric or nitric acid to the solution or solid to be tested.
Effervescence with liberation of a colourless gas that turns lime-water milky indicates the presence
of a carbonate (CO32-) or a hydrogen carbonate.
2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) → H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
Hydrogen carbonates
These are salts derived from carbonic acid and are formed by partial replacement of hydrogen in
the acid by a metal. Therefore hydrogen carbonates are acidic salts. Common hydrogen carbonates
include sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) and calcium hydrogen carbonate (Ca(HCO3)2)
All hydrogen carbonates are soluble in water
Hydrogen carbonates are decomposed by heat to produce carbonates, carbon dioxide and water
Ca(HCO3)2(s) → CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2KHCO3(s) → K2CO3(s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
What happens when sodium hydroxide is exposed to air?
When sodium hydroxide is exposed to air, it absorbs water forming a solution. The solution then
absorbs carbondioxide from the air and forms a crystalline solid of washing soda (sodium
carbonate decahydrate Na2CO3.10 H2O)
2NaOH(s) + CO2 (g) + 9H2O (l)→ Na2CO3.10 H2O(s)
On further exposure, the hydrated sodium carbonate decahydrate loses its water of crystallisation
forming a white powder of sodium carbonate monohydrate
Na2CO3.10 H2O(s) → Na2CO3.H2O(s) + 9H2O (l)
This white powder later absorbs carbon dioxide to form sodium hydrogen carbonate
Na2CO3.H2O(s) + CO2 (g) → 2NaHCO3(s)
Distinguishing between a carbonate and a hydrogen carbonate
Add magnesium sulphate or magnesium chloride solution to the test solution. A white precipitate
indicates the presence of a carbonate.
Mg2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → MgCO3(s)
Mg2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq) → Mg(HCO3)2(aq)
Hydrogen carbonates gives no precipitate but on heating, the magnesium hydrogen carbonate
decomposes to the insoluble magnesium carbonate (white precipitate).
Mg(HCO3)2(aq) → MgCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

1.3. CALCIUM OXIDE (QUICKLIME)

Manufacture of calcium oxide
Calcium oxide is manufactured mainly from limestone, which is heated to very high temperatures
in a kiln. The limestone is mixed with coke or coal and it is fed into the kiln at the top. Coke or
coal burns and the heat decompose the limestone into the oxide and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The lime sinks to the bottom of the kiln and is removed; carbon dioxide is allowed to escape.
It can also be obtained by strongly heating sea shells. Sea shells contain calcium carbonate which
decomposes into the oxide and carbon dioxide.
Uses of calcium oxide
1. Used in extraction of iron, to remove silica impurities.
2. Used in production of lime-water.

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 1.4. SODIUM CARBONATE (SODA ASH )
Laboratory preparation of sodium carbonate
Dilute hydrochloric acid is poured on to calcium carbonate.
Effervescence occurs and the gas (carbon dioxide) produced is passed through water to remove
traces of acid.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Then carbon dioxide is passed into a moderately concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide for
some time until finally a white precipitate of sodium hydrogen carbonate appears.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) (1st stage)
Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → 2NaHCO3(s) (2nd stage)
The white precipitate is filtered off and washed two or three times with cold water. The solid is
transferred into a dish and heated to a constant mass. Sodium carbonate is obtained as a fine white
powder.
2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Manufacture of soda ash (sodium carbonate) by solvary process

Soda ash is obtained at Lake Magadi in Kenya by the solvary process.
The raw materials in this process are calcium carbonate (limestone) and sodium chloride in form
of brine. The ammonia dissolves in sodium chloride.
The mixture is reacted with carbondioxide down a large tower called the carbonator in which
there is an upwards flow of carbon dioxide (from decomposition of calcium carbonate) under
pressure. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is produced
NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → NH4HCO3(aq)
NH4HCO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
Sodium hydrogen carbonate precipitates in the lower part of the tower in form of a wet sludge,
which is tapped off from the bottom of the tower.
After filtration and washing to remove ammonium compounds, sodium hydrogen carbonate is
heated to produce sodium carbonate.
2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Carbon dioxide is recycled for use. Ammonia is recovered from the ammonium chloride by
reacting ammonium chloride with calcium hydroxide, obtained by adding water to calcium oxide
(from decomposition of calcium carbonate). Ammonia is recycled for use.
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s)
2NH4Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) → 2NH3(g) + CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

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Therefore, the end products of solvary process are calcium chloride and sodium carbonate.
Calcium chloride is used in extraction of sodium.

Uses of sodium carbonate

1. It is used for softening of water for domestic purpose. Calcium ions which are the principal
cause of hardness in water; are precipitated from water as calcium carbonate by the addition
of sodium carbonate.
Ca2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) → Ca CO3 (s)
2. It is used in manufacture of glass. Ordinary glass is made by mixing calcium carbonate,
silicon dioxide (sand) and sodium carbonate together and melting them. The resulting
mixture of sodium and calcium silicates produces glass on cooling.
3. It is used to make dry soap powders.

Washing soda
Washing soda is sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O).When exposed to air, the crystals
lose mass and become coated with a fine white powder. Each molecule of washing soda gives up,
to the atmosphere, nine molecules of water of crystallization forming sodium carbonate
monohydrate (Na2CO3.H2O).
Na2CO3.10H2O(s) → Na2CO3.H2O(s) +9H2O(l)
Such an action, that is, the giving up of water of crystallization to the atmosphere is termed as
efflorescence.
Washing soda is used for softening water by precipitating the calcium ions from solution as
calcium carbonate.
Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s)

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