CHRIST KING HR. SEC.

SCHOOL KOHIMA
CLASS - 11
HISTORY
CHAPTER-2
FROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME
I. VERY SHORT ANSWERS TYPE QUESTION:

1. What are the meaning of Hominid and Hominoids?

Answer: Hominids refer to humans and all species more closely related to humans. Hominoids refer to
great apes and human collectively.

2. What do you know about Australopithecus?

Answer: Australopithecus was the first ape man found in East Africa. Australopithecus was also known as
Southern Ape.

3. When the Homo Habilis man exist?

Answer: They existed between 2.4 and 1.5 million years ago.

4. What was the period of Homo erectus man?

Answer: 1, 6000 to about 300,000 B.C.

5. To which region of the world do the Homo erectus men belong?

Answer: Africa.

6. What do you know about Neanderthals?

Answer: Neanderthals are an extinct species or subspecies of early human who lived in Eurasia until about
40,000 Years ago. They are our closest ancient human relatives and they are named after the Neander
Tal Valley.

7. What is the meaning of pre-historic period of history?

Answer: The period before men developed the art of writing.

8. Give the meaning of Historic Period of human progress.

Answer: The period after man developed the art of writing record.

9. What is Archaeology?
Answer: It is the study of history and culture of ancient societies by examining the remains of ancient
artefacts.

10. Who are Archaeologists?

Answer: Archaeologists are people who study the objects which were made and used in the past.

11. Give the name of the book on human evolution written by Charles Darwin.
Answer: Origin of species.

12. Give the views of the church about the origin of man.
Answer: The church believed God as the creator of mankind and the universe.

13. Describe the two kinds of Dinosaurs.

Answer: a) Herbivorous (plant eating beast) and b) Carnivorous (meat eaters)
14. In which period did man became a food producer?
Answer: Neolithic period.
15. What is the meaning of Palaeolithic period of human life?
Answer: It is also called Old Stone Age, ancient cultural stage or level of human development, characterized
by the used of rudimentary chipped stone tools.
16. What is the meaning of Neolithic age?
Answer: Neolithic, also called New Stone Age, final stage of cultural evolution or technological
development among prehistoric humans, marked by development of agriculture, domestication of
animals and the used of polished or grinded stone tools.
17. What is the most important of feature of civilization?
Answer:
II. SHORT ANSWER TYPE OF QUESTIONS:
18. How do the archaeologists make the discoveries of the ancient artefacts?
Answer: The archaeologists dig the ancient sites or places concerned with patience and utmost care with
specific tools. Firstly, they remove the dust from above and around the objects with a knife and then
brush them without disturbing their original form.
19. How do the archaeologists date their Finds?
Answer: a) The coins of the rulers help the archaeologists to find the approximate ruling period of the kings.
b) Through Carbon- 14 Dating, the scientists and archaeologists can tell whether a skeleton is 3 million
years old or a year old. c) The Geologists try to know the history of the earth from the layers of the
rocks.
20. Describe briefly Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.
Answer: The theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Charles Darwin’s book “On the
Origin of Species” in 1859, is the process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes
in heritable physical or behavioural traits. Darwin gave emphasis on growth-dynamic instead of static
factors. Darwin collected the evidence to prove that existing plants and animals-and man himself
evolved from more rudimentary forms. In the struggle for existence which Environment imposes on
living species, nature selects those species most fit or adapted to survive.
21. How far is Darwin’s theory of origin of man acceptable?
Answer: Despite some objections against Darwin’s theory, there is a wide acceptance of the idea based on
Darwin’s findings that the best way to study all things-science, government, sport, the family and so
on- is to find out how they have developed or evolved. Darwinism had profound impact upon Western
Society. The basis reason is that it emphasises on the survival of the fittest and struggle for survival
which fitted admirably with the temper of the times.
22. Write a note on Homo Habilis.
Answer: Homo Habilis known as the Handy Man or tool maker lived between 2.4 and 1.5 million years
ago are credited with creating stone tools to help and protect themselves against the many meat eating
animals of the time. Homo Habilis were taller than their ancestors and followed food sources, and set
up camps as needed and sheltered under cliffs. They made stone tools and weapons but these tools
were still very crude. Their main diet was probably wild fruits, roots, nuts and vegetables. They knew
fire but did not know how to made fire.
23. Describe the way of life of Homo erectus.
Answer: Homo erectus known as the Upright Man travelled over land bridges from Africa and began to
populate the world about one million years ago. Homo erectus man knew how to make fire, this
discovery changed man’s life dramatically. They set up a big camp fire place to protect to the group or
tribe. Control of fire made setting into cold regions possible as fire could provide them warmness now.
It change the way they prepared food, they began to cook their food consistently as it was more secure
from disease and much softer to eat. Besides, providing comfort and safety, the camp fire became a
social gathering place. They made stone axes and knives which they used as weapon to hunt their food.
Homo erectus was probably the first hunter. These early people wandered from Africa to Europe and
Asia and from Asia to America, probably in search of food.
24. Describe briefly the way of life of Neanderthals.
Answer: Homo Neanderthal is derived from the name of the valley called Neander Tal in which the first
skeletal remains were found. They seem to be very advanced for their time. They were marvellous
hunters and they often used caves for their home. They mastered the art of fire making, probably
cooked their food as a routine. They buried their dead with some ceremony and decorate their bodies
with paint. It was either done due to religious belief or perhaps for beauty. They lived in a group and
hunted food for gathering. Neanderthal men used wide varieties of food such as animal meats, plants,
small mammals, birds and aquatic and marine resources.

25. Describe the main features of life of Neolithic Age men.

Answer: a) Discovery of the better tools: In this period, the man had invented more beautiful, smooth and
polished tools. These tools were more useful as compared to the earlier ones.
b) Beginning of cultivation: During this period, man had become producer instead of food
gatherer. Man developed his farming and the work made him to lead a settle life ultimately.
c) Domestication of animals: Man started domestication of those animals that were useful to
him and used those animals for farming and also for milk and meat for food.
d) Beginning of settled life: Agriculture brought a change in the way of living of the Neolithic
age man. They made the huts of mud and straw near their fields and began to live a village
life.
e) Invention of the wheels: it was a great achievement of this age. The invention made the
carriage and transport easier.
f) Invention of spinning and weaving machines: Through this invention Neolithic man began to
weave cloth to cover his body and to protect him from the bad weather.
g) Development of art and pottery: Neolithic man developed the art of making pots with mud
and began to make beautiful designs on his pots and tools. This was the age of development
of art.
h) Religious beliefs: Neolithic man started believing in the mysterious forces of nature and
certain magical powers. They began to buried bury the dead bodies with some ceremony.

26. Give the main differences between the lives of the Palaeolithic men and Neolithic men.
Answer: a) Palaeolithic Men made and used crude tools made of stone. Tools like hand-axe, choppers and
flake implements were made.
b) Discovery of the fire: Palaeolithic men found that it could protect him from wild animals and
severe cold. Later on, began to roast his food on fire.
a) Neolithic men became food producer instead of food gatherer. He made a rapid progress in the
other walks of life such as living a community life and domestication of animals.
b) Neolithic men made beautiful, smooth, well shaped and polished tools of stone. Making
various tools and articles for daily use was a good achievement.
c) Invention of wheel by the Neolithic people was one of their greatest developments.

27. Explain briefly the Carbon-14 Dating system.

Answer: Through Carbon-14 Dating system, scientists can tell whether a skeleton is 3 million years old or a
year old. When plant and animals are alive, they absorb the same amount of carbon-14 from the
atmosphere as they lose through radioactivity. But when they die they stop absorbing carbon-14 but
continue to lose it. When the archaeologist found the objects of the past, they measure the carbon-14
content in the body to determine the date. This system of finding out the time of an object is called
Carbon-14 Dating System.
III. EASSY TYPE OF QUESTIONS:

28. Describe the life of man in the Neolithic Age.

Answer: The most important result of the transformation of man from the food gatherers to food producer
was the new sedentary way of life. During the Neolithic period, humans had now to settle down in
order to care for their newly domesticated plants and animals. Thus, the Palaeolithic nomadic band
gave way to the Neolithic village as a basis economic and cultural unit.
In the Neolithic Age, everyone, men, women and children had to work hard to produce food and a
few handicraft articles. It also witnessed the used of pottery for the first time. The people of Neolithic
age cultivated ragi, horse gram, cotton, rice, wheat, and barley. They domesticated cattle, sheep and
goats. The people used Microlithic blades in addition to tools made of stone. They used stone hoes and
digging sticks for digging the ground.
The Neolithic men primarily used axes as weapons. The people lived in rectangular or circular
houses which were made of mud and reed. With the advent of agriculture, they also made beautiful
pottery or vessels to store their food grains as well as to do cooking and for other domestic purposes.
They also made used of foot-wheels to make pots.
The Neolithic people had common right over property. They led a settled life. The basic social unit
of the Neolithic village customarily was the household consisting of two or more married couples and
their children. The distinctive feature of the Neolithic village was the social homogeneity. All families
had necessary skills and tools to produce what they needed. All humans were equally important and all
had access to the basic natural resources essential for livelihood.

29. How was the early man transformed from food gatherer to food producer?
Answer: The early men were food collectors but in the Neolithic period, the humans were transformed into
food producers. Though the hunters had knowledge of agriculture thousand years ago, they did not
shift to agriculture because they had a better and dependable food supply than food growing peasants
and also scarcity of plants and animals suitable for domestication. In addition, they had to work less for
their food.
Later on, agriculture became a full time occupation in those regions where there was plants and
animals that could be domesticated. In the process of domestication, the wild plants and animals
became larger and provide more food. Thus the hunters spend more and more of their time as food
producers than food gatherers, until they ended as peasants living in the villages. Gradually, due to this
agricultural revolution, the new way of life spread over most of the globe.

30. Describe the theories regarding the origin of human beings.

Answer: The issue of the place of origin of modern humans has been much debated by the scholars. Two
totally divergent views have been expounded.
a) Regional continuity model (with multiple regions of origin). According to this theory, the Homo
sapiens originated in different regions (continents) and gradually evolved at different rates into
modern humans. This theory is based on the regional differences in the features of present of
present day humans such as colour of skin, height, colour of hair etc. Those who support this view,
these dissimilarities are due to differences between pre-existing Homo erectus and Homo sapiens
populations that occupied the same regions.
b) According to the replacement model human beings first originated in a single region, which is
Africa and migrated to all the other regions or continents. Those who support this view take the
evidence of genetic and anatomical homogeneity of modern humans such as two hands, two legs,
five fingers, two eyes, and one mouth etc. the enormous similarity amongst modern humans is due
to their descent from a population that originated in a single region, which is Africa.
 CHAPTER- 3
EARLY CITIES: FOCUS ON IRAQ, 3RD MILLENIUM B.C, GROWTH OF TOWNS,
NATURE OF EARLY URBAN SOCIETY AND HISTORIANS DEBATES ON
USES OF WRITTING.

I. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE OF QUESTIONS;

1. From which Latin word, does the English word ‘city’ come?
Answer: It comes from the Latin word “Civitas”.

2. Name the country in which the towns first grew?

Answer: Mesopotamia (present day Iraq).

3. Give two important components of civilization.

Answer: Urban development and art of writing.

4. When did the cities first begin to emerge?

Answer: Between 5000-6000 years ago.

5. In which areas first towns emerged?

Answer: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)

6. What factors led to the growth of towns?

Answer: Growth of new professions and increased in trade.

7. When was Mesopotamia city UR discovered by the archaeologists?

Answer: 1830.

8. When did the royal city of Mari flourish?

Answer: Around 2000 BCE the royal city of Mari flourish.

9. Give the names of any two early cities of India.

Answer: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

10. During which period of history, the art of writing began to develop?
Answer: Between 4,000, BC to 3,000, BC.

11. Give the name of the earliest type of system of writing.

Answer: Pictographic form of writing.

12. What type of book was written by Julius Caesar?

Answer: Julius Caesar wrote a history of his war in Gaul (Modern France).

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

13. Explain the meaning of city.
Answer: The English word “city” comes from the Latin word “Civitas”, which describe a highly organized
community like the city state of ancient Greece. The city provided a man with his religion, his
amusement, his education and sought to satisfy his every need.

14. How did the villages come into existence?

Answer: The man in Palaeolithic age was a wanderer. When men became food producers, the life became
more settled and the family unit came into existence. They continued to live in a large group but
functioned more through family units than the groups. The families began to build mud houses with
thatched roofs. Most of these houses were close to one another and were surrounded by a common
fence of prickly bushes or mud walls. A number of families constituted a village. Gradually, some of
the villages grew into large ones.
15. How did the early big villages develop into cities?
Answer: The number of people in the villages gradually increased. As the needs of the villagers increased,
new occupations came into being. These villages became prosperous they were now producing more
food than they required for subsistence. They could now exchange their surplus food for other things
from weavers or carpenters or potters. It was no longer necessary for every family living in the village
to work in the fields and produce its own food. With the growth of new professions and increase in
trade, the craftsmen began to live together and thus big villages grew into cities.

16. Give reasons why the village people migrated to cities?

Answer: People move to the cities for various reasons but the most significant reason is economic. When
city’s economy is prospering, it attracts people from the villages. Droughts, and famines or
exploitation of farmers can cause extreme rural poverty and that “Pushes” people out of the villages
and settle in the towns.

17. How the cities served as the promoters of civilization?

Answer: Urban dwellers have proved to be more receptive to new ideas and change than their rural
neighbours. Townsmen have been more interested in wealth accumulation and the use of wealth for
better living. The towns have been the instigators of freedom since they had “a middle class”, that is, a
class without traditions and the conservatism bred of traditions. Moreover, urban centres have been
market places, areas where goods were exchanged, deposit points for merchant fleets and caravans.
Cities are linked to commerce.

18. Give three basic reasons for the growth of early cities.
Answer: The three basic reasons for the growth of early cities were economic growth, natural increase and
rural urban migration.

19. Write a note on the Mesopotamia city of Mari.

Answer: Mari, the capital city of the Mari kingdom flourished around 2000 BC. It was a trading town in a
pastoral zone. Mari was a good example of an urban centre prospering on trade in wood, copper, tin,
oil and wine. Some of the Mesopotamian nomadic communities of western desert became prosperous
and got settled down and some became so powerful and established their own kingdom such as
Akkadians, Assyrians and Armenians. They also raised a temple at Mari for Dagan god of steppe. King
Zimrilim built a palace in the capital city of Mari with only one entrance on the north.

20. What do you know about the city of Kerkuk?

Answer: Kerkuk city was built by king Nasirbal of Assyria between 884 and 858 BC as a military defence
line. The Sluks built a strong defensive wall with 72 towers around the centre of the city, two entries
and 72 streets. It was a trade and export centre for the surrounding areas. Textiles were also
manufactured in this city.

21. Write a note on Pictographic system of writing.

Answer: Pictographic system of writing is a form of writing which uses representational, pictorial
drawings similar to Cuneiform of writing. Writing was first entirely pictographic-that is, telling a story
by means of a pictures. Pictographic writing is known from the Neolithic period. It is not a true
writing, since it does not record speech itself but reflect speech content. This form of writing was
developed in Mesopotamia.

22. Why do we say that it was not natural fertility and high levels of food productions that were the
cause of early urbanisation?
Answer: Because Cities and towns are not just places with large populations. It is when an economy
develops in spheres other than food production that it becomes an advantage for people to cluster in
towns. Urban economies comprise besides food production, trade, manufactures and services. City
population remains no more self-sufficient. It depends on the products or services of other people
living in the villages or other cities. There is continuous interaction among them. There must be social
organisation in a place to be urbanized. Division of labour is a mark of urban life.
EASSY TYPE QUESTIONS:
23. Describe the development of art of writing.
Answer: One of the essential conditions for the birth of civilisation is a system of writing. Between 4000
BC and 3000 BC, there was a steady progress in the art of writing. A pictograph form of writing was
developed in Mesopotamia. The first Mesopotamian tablets written around 3,200 BC contained
pictures of signs and numbers. There was a list of around 5000 oxen, fish, bread, etc. it is believed that
writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions because in the city life, transaction
were made at different times.
The ordinary writing material was a soft clay tablets. The signs on the clay tablets were impressed
with a stylus having a triangular tip. This gave each stroke the shape of wedge, hence the whole system
is called cuneiform or wedge shaped.
By 2,600 BC, the letters became cuneiform and the language was Sumerian. The Akkadians adopted
Sumerian script to represent their Semitic language, and the Babylonians and the Assyrians followed
their example. The Assyrians added some two hundred new syllabic signs to those already in use. To
learn to read and write the cuneiform script was a considerable achievement, and the script formed an
important class in society.

24. What are the uses of writing?

Answer: The development of art of writing contributed to the development of literature. Most of the people
recognised the value of writing for the preservation of history. Julius Caesar wrote history of his war in
Gaul. Numerous scholars recorded the events of history in the ancient and medieval period. Winston
Churchill wrote a lengthy history on Great Britain’s share of World War II. The great Indian freedom
fighter Nehru, while in prison wrote to his daughter a long series of letters on world history.
The art of writing has preserved the knowledge of every subject. Writing has now used not only for
keeping record but also making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers. Writing was also
used for keeping a historical record of the kings and announcing the changes a king had made in the
customary law of the land. Cuneiform writing in the Akkadian language continued to be used until the
first century BC which roughly means for about 2000 years.
Writing has greatly helped in the spread of literacy mostly in the cities because the people in the
early cities mostly belonged to professional classes and traders. The traders could better record their
transactions in writing than in any other form.

25. Write an easy on the growth of early cities in Iraq.

Answer: Mesopotamia is the land between Euphrates and Tigris. The archaeologists believed that city life
began in Mesopotamia, part of modern Iraq. The Archaeologists hold that civilization appeared earlier
in the southern Mesopotamia than anywhere else because urban settlement s, monumental architectures
and writings were all in existence by 3,500 BC in Iraq. Some of the early cities which emerged in
Mesopotamia were Urik, Amri, Tepe Gawra and Kerkuk.
The cities appeared in Egypt and Indus Valley several centuries after Mesopotamia. In the Sumeria
(Mesopotamia) there were 15 to 20 large cities, each surrounded by a smaller town, Villages and
hamlets. In Egypt, people did not know of any cities of the early period. The Mesopotamia cities were
different from the rigid, almost military looking cities of the Indus Valley cities. In contrast with the
Indus Valley cities, the Mesopotamia cities had winding lanes. They appeared to have grown up as the
circumstances required without the benefit of preconceived town planning.
Towns elsewhere in Western Asia which arose rather later in the 2000 BC were more obviously
based on those of Mesopotamia model. These cities developed around temples and were centres of
long distance trade.
26. Describe briefly the features of early cities.
Answer: a) UR: It is one of the earliest cities of Mesopotamia excavated in 1830’s. Ordinary house of this
city has narrow winding streets and irregular shapes and it indicates that there was no system
of town planning. There was not drainage system. The omen tablets at UR have recorded
many superstitions about the houses of this city. The UR town had a cemetery which consisted
of royal and commoner’s graves.
b) URUK: According to Archaeologists, this city grew to the enormous extent of 250 hectares
around 3000 BC and by 2800 BC the city had extended to 400 hectares. Uruk consisted of
defensive walls. There were technical advances at Uruk and bronze tools began to be use for
various crafts. The architects learnt to construct bricks columns. Hundreds of people were
employed to build the temple and the workers were paid rations. The temple halls had beautiful
paintings. Uruk was a large and beautiful city, a trading centre and had flourishing industries.
c) MARI: This is the capital city of the Mari kingdom flourished around 2000 BC. It was a
trading town in a pastoral zone. Mari was a good example of an urban centre prospering on
trade in wood, copper, tin, oil, and wine. The officers of the town of Mari inspect the cargo and
levied taxes. The Akkadians, Assyrians, and Armenians also established their own kingdoms in
this city and they also built a temple at Mari for Dagan god of steppe. King Zimrilim built a
palace in the capital city of Mari with 260 rooms nad covered an area of 2.4 hectares.
d) TEPE GAWRA: This town was excavated during 1932-1938. This city is situated in northern
Iraq and lies between the Tigris River and the foothills of the Marros Mountains. Gawra was
certainly a link in trade for Lapis lazuli and other exotic goods from the Zagros highlands from
the Upper Tigris. The method of burial of the dead has helped the archaeologists to reconstruct
the growth of the town of Tepe Gawra. The dead were buried either in built tombs made mud
brick, in simple pits, vessels, pits with small walls at their backs and mud plaster lined pits
along with articles or costly things.
d) KERKUK CITY: Kerkuk city was built by king Nasirbal of Assyria between 884 and 858 BC
as a military defence line. King Sluks built a strong rampart with 72 towers, two entries and 72
streets. Textiles were also manufactured here. It was a trade and export centre for the
surrounding area’s agriculture product.

CHAPTER- 5
AN EMPIRE ACROSS THREE CONTINENTS: THE ROMAN EMPIRE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. Who were Remulus and Remus brothers?
Answer: Remulus and Remus were twin brothers who founded the city of Rome in the middle of eight
century BC.

2. When did Rome establish a Republic?

Answer: 509 BC.

3. Who was the first Roman monarch in 27 BC?

Answer: Emperor Augustus.

4. What was the original name of Augustus?

Answer: Octavian.

5. Give the name of any three monuments built by Augustus in the city of Rome.
Answer: The Ara Pacis Augustus, the Stagnum and Euripus, then Pantheon and the Saepta Julia.

6. Give the name of any four unworthy successors of Augustus.

Answer: Tiberius, Calogula, Claudius, and Nero.
7. Who was Nero?
Answer: Nero was one of the unworthy Roman Emperors and the last ruler of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

8. What were the names of two Roman Emperors during AD 248-337 who checked the decay of the
Roman Empire?
Answer: Emperor Diocletian and Emperor Constantine.

9. Who transferred the capital of Roman Empire to Constantinople?

Answer: Emperor Constantine.

10. Which barbarians were the causes of fall of the Roman Empire?
Answer: Germanic barbaric tribes under the leader of Odoacer.

11. Give the name of the last West Roman Empire who was forced to abdicate?
Answer: Romulus Augustus.

12. What is the meaning of Pax Romana?

Answer: The peace which existed between nationalities within the Roman Empire bought by roman rule or
Roman Peace.

13. What do you know about the Emperor Justinian?

Answer: Emperor Justinian was also known as Justinian the Great, was the Eastern Roman emperor from
527to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized or restoration of the Empire.

14. When did the Byzantine Empire come to an end?

Answer: 1453.

15. Give the names of scholars who justified slaves?

Answer: Plato, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Thomas Aquinas.

16. Which philosophical ideas contributed to the end of the system of slavery?
Answer: Liberal, humanitarian and socialist ideas.

17. Who was Spartacus?

Answer: Spartacus was a Thracian gladiator, one of the escaped slaves of Roman Empire, who led a slave
revolt against the Roman forces.

18. When did Christianity become state religion in the Roman Empire?
Answer: During the reign of Emperor Theodosius (379-395)

19. Give the names of three classes in which the roman society was divided?
Answer: Patricians, Plebeians and Slaves.

20. Who were Patricians?

Answer: The Patricians were Rome’s earliest descendent and they were highest and wealthiest of the Social
classes.

21. What technique of architecture influenced most of the Roman architecture?

Answer: Greek technique of architecture.

22. What was the official language of the Roman Empire?

Answer: Latin language.

23. Give the name of famous Roman thinkers and Scholars.

Answer: Cicero, Vigil, Julius Caesar, Horace.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
24. Describe the economic reforms of Augustus.
Ans: Augustus imposed a regular census to provide a fair assessment of the tax burden, resulting in a fairer
collection of tax revenue. Augustus provided for complete reforms of financial structure. The central
treasury was linked to the treasuries of all the provinces. Together with the expansion and
improvement of Roman coinage, a poll tax and a land tax were created which completely funded the
imperial system. These new system provided a stimulus to trade throughout the empire, leading to
stability, security and prosperity.

25. Describe the progress of art and culture during the rule of Augustus.
Ans: Emperor Augustus became the pre-eminent patron of arts and architecture. During his reigns, he built
the Ara Pacis Augustae, The Stagnum and Euripus, the Pantheon and the Saepta Julia. Throughout, the
Augustus style is a mixture of conservatism and Innovations and often strives for Greek look.
Augustus reign was an era of Rome’s most famous and influential writers including Vergil, Horace,
Ovid Properties and Tibullus in poetry and Livy in prose. Fergil, in particular, wrote a national epic for
the Romans in the “ Aeneid ‘. The most famous literary, artistic patron of his day was C. Maccenas- A
close associate of Augustus. The Augustian literary scene was also exceptionally bright.

26. How Diocletian and Constantine checked the decay of the fall of Roman Empire?
Ans: Emperors Diocletian and Constantine made desperate attempts to strengthen the empire to avoid civil
wars; law regulated the succession to the throne. The government was made full –fledge despotism.
The emperor had to be worshipped like a god by his subject and a great army of spies and secret agents
was organised to check the secret activities of the people. They also adopted the policies of controlling
prices, interest rates and export prohibition on strategic products such as iron, bronze, weapons, army
equipments and horse. Constantine required every soldier’s son to be a soldier unless unfit for service.
Agricultural labourers were tied to the land on a permanent and hereditary basis. Despotism was also
applied to the economic system. Regulation of lives of the people was as extreme as totalitarian system
was set up. The measures of Diocletian and Constantine halted to some extent the civil war and the
economic deterioration.

27. How far were the German barbarians responsible for the fall of the West Roman Empire?
Ans: Rome had tangled with Germanic tribes for centuries, but by the 300s “barbarians” group like Goths
had encroached beyond the Empire’s borders. The Roman weathered a Germanic uprising in the late
4th century, but in 410 the Visigoth king Alaric successfully sacked the city of Rome. The empire spent
next several decades under constant threat before the eternal city was raided again in 455, this time by
the Vandals. Finally, in 476, the Germanic leader Odoacer staged a revolt and deposed the emperor
Romulus Augustus.

28. Describe the legacy of the west Roman Empire.

Ans: Despite its fall, the west Roman Empire has left a rich legacy. More apparent are the materials remains
– the amphitheatres, arenas, temples, roads, bridges and its linguistic in the form of Romanized
language of Europe. The Roman law is very much alive in the legal systems of many countries of
Europe and America. The organisations and the rituals of the Roman Catholic Church owe much to the
Roman imperial structure and religious traditions. Finally, the Pax Romana which had brought two
centuries of relative peace and prosperity left a tradition of Imperial unity.

29. Describe the slave rebellion led by Spartacus?

Ans: In the first century, the position of slaves remained just as miserable as before. Ultimately, this led the
slaves to wage a struggle against the slave owners. In 74 BC, some gladiators hatched a conspiracy in
the city of Capua against the slave owners. But the slave owner came to know about the conspiracy
however, few dozens of the members of the conspiracy escaped and they found refuge at Mt.
Vesuvius.
The escaped slaves elected a Thracian gladiator, Spartacus as their leader. The brave slaves attacked
Roman slave-owners’ estate and caravans and captured weapons. Slave from surrounding areas also
began to join Spartacus. The slaves routed out another three thousands Roman warriors and the news
 spread throughout the country. Many thousand slaves assembled under Spartacus leadership. Spartacus
introduced harsh discipline.
When the Roman slave-owners came to know about the march of the slaves under Spartacus in the
valley of the River Po, Many slave owners went to fight under the commander, Marcus LIcinus
Crassus. Spartacus led his army to the south of Italy because he did not have enough forces to take
Rome but it was blocked by Crassus and the slaves defeated armies standing on the way. Spartacus
reached south western Italy with his troops but failed to reach Sicily. Crassus didn’t attack Spartacus
and occupied only the narrow isthmus. The Roman soldiers dug a moat and erected a mud wall here to
trap the rebels. Spartacus insurgents filled up the moat when they attack the fortification and burst out
of trap. Crassus attacked them by surprise and massacred them all.

30. How were the Christians persecuted by the Roman Emperor?

Ans: Romans followed the principle that all gods are true but the Christian insisted that no god was true
except their own and that worship of Roman gods was pagan and it would lead them to hell. For it
Roman retaliates by persecution. The persecution increased when the Christians criticised the military
service, gladiatorial contests, slavery etc.
The Christians were persecuted during the time of kings Nero, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius. In third
century AD, persecution by the state became more systematic. Decius killed and banished hundred of
Christian who refused to appear before the magistrate and make sacrifice to Roman gods. Valerian
intensified persecutions to prevent many of the upper class Roman from joining the Christian order.
Diocletian in 303 AD purged the army of Christians, burned Christian books, and removed all
Christian from public offices and freeing of Christian slaves.

31. Describe the contributions of the Romans to government and politics.

Ans: Roman political thinkers such as Ceciro contributed the germinal ideas about the theory of
government. They gave the theory of popular of popular sovereignty, the principle of separation of
powers and the concept that law must be the paramount rule in the government.
One of the most important contributions of the Romans to government and politics was the Roman
law. It is the basis of the present law codes in Italy, France, Spain, Scotland, Latin America, Louisiana
and Japan. The Romans gave to civilisation the outstanding progressive idea of human rights when
they established the legal principle that a man accused of crime is innocent until proved guilty. A great
mass of laws were finally officially collected and codified, that is, reduced to simple principles in the
later period of the empire. This proved to be one of the greatest milestones in human progress and
many nations use it as a guide even today.

EASSY TYPE QUESTIONS:

32. Describe the achievements of Emperor Augustus.
Answer: Augustus founded the Roman Empire and was its first Emperor: He defeated the forces of
Cleopatra and Antony. This made Octavian Rome’s undisputed ruler. In 27 BC, he restored back the
power of Roman Senate though in reality he remained the de facto emperor of the Empire. And the
senate conferred him with the new title of Augustus. He is credited with founding Roman Empire.
He was primarily responsible for the two centuries long Pax Romana: Augustus initiated a period of
relative peacefulness and minimal expansion in the Roman Empire which lasted for over two centuries
from 27 BC to 180 AD and is known as PAX ROMANA or Roman peace. He is credited for ensuring
durable peace in the Roman Empire through his administrative genius and reforms which brought
stability and prosperity.
Augustus oversaw the renewal and repair of numerous temples across his empire, and initiated
projects to build many more. He worked towards renewing the trust for people in the traditional gods
to revive the spirit of Rome. Augustus period also saw the return of many of the old, popular festivals.
Augustus established a very effective financial system in his empire. He imposed consistent direct
taxation on the provinces in the Empire such as a poll tax and land tax. It greatly increased Rome’s net
revenue and established a stable relationship between Rome and its provinces.
Augustus abolished private tax farming and replaced it with salaried civil service tax collectors. His
monetary reforms led to expansion in trade. Augustus also transformed the appearance of Rome with
massive building projects such as Forum of Augustus, temple of Mars Ultor, Ara Pacis, temple of
 Apollo Palatinus etc. he secured order and protection of Rome by instituting police and fire-fighting
forces. He built a state run courier services based on relays stations. Emperor Octavian made the
prefect a permanent office to effectively administer Rome.

32. How did Christianity spread in the Roman Empire?

Answer: Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, which granted the Christians freedom
of worship, removal of legal disabilities, and the restoration of all confiscated property. Constantine
pro-Christian policy helped conversion among the upper classes of Roman society.
The emperor also took steps to convert the conservative peasantry who worshipped man-made pagan
gods and goddesses. He made observation of Sunday obligatory, build new churches, dedicated the
new city of Constantinople to the Blessed Virgin, granting alms to poorer congregations, exempted
Christian priests from political obligations and compulsory labours participated actively in the church
councils and helped to enforce the decisions of this councils. Under Constantine, it became
increasingly difficult to be anything than Christian. Constantine successors took more direct steps
against paganism. Death penalty was imposed on those who performed pagan sacrifices. Pagan priests
were deprived of exemption and privileges. Non believers in Christianity were driven into exile. They
could not make wills or inherit property. Finally, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the state
religion and Catholicism the only religious faith in the empire.

33. Examine the causes of the fall of the West Roman Empire.
Answer: The causes of the fall of the West Roman Empire were given below:
a) INVASIONS BY BARBARIAN TRIBES: Rome had tangled with Germanic tribes for centuries,
but by 300s, barbarian groups like the Goths had encroached beyond the Empire’s borders. The
Romans crushed a Germanic uprising in the late fourth century, but in 410 the Visigoth King
Alaric successfully sacked the city of Rome. The Roman Empire spent the next several decades
under constant threat before the “the Eternal City” was raided again in 445, by the Vandals.
Finally, in 476, the Germanic leader Odoacer staged a revolt and deposed the Emperor Romulus
Augustuslus which gave a deathblow to the Roman Empire.
b) ECONOMIC TROUBLES AND OVERRELIANCE ON SLAVE LABOR: Constant wars
and over spending had significantly lightened imperial coffers, and oppressive taxation and
inflation had widened the gap between rich and poor. Rome’s economy depend on slaves to tilt its
field and work as craftsmen, but now the Empire faced labour deficit because expansion came to
halt in the second century, Rome’s supply of slaves and other war treasures began to dry up. A
further blow came in the fifth century, when the Vandals claimed North Africa and began
disrupting Roman trade.
c) THE RISE OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE: In the late third century, the Roman Empire was
divided into two halves-the western Empire seated in the city of Milan, and the Eastern Empire in
Byzantine. But over time the two halves drifted apart. East and West failed to work adequately
together to check outside threats and the two often squabbled over resources and military aid.
Most importantly, the strength of the Eastern Empire served to divert Barbarians invasions to the
west. The Eastern was fortified and well guarded, but Italy and the city of Rome were left
vulnerable. The Western political structure would finally disintegrate in the 5 th century.
d) OVER EXPANSION AND MILITARILY OVERSPENDING: The Roman Empire stretched
from the Atlantic Ocean all the way to the Euphrates River in the Middle East, but its grandeur
may have also been its downfall. With such a vast territory to govern, the Empire faced an
administrative and logistical nightmare. Communication became ineffective due to its vast
territory. Roman struggled enough to maintain its huge military to defend its frontiers. As more
and more funds were spent for military upkeep of the Empire, the technological advancement was
slowed and Rome civil structure fell into disrepair.
e) GOVERNMENT CORRUPTION AND POLITICAL INSTABILITRY: Being a Roman
Emperor had always been a particularly a dangerous job. Civil wars thrust the Empire into chaos;
more than 20 men took the throne in the span of only 75 years, usually after the murder of their
predecessor. The emperor-bodyguards assassinated and installed new sovereigns at will, and once
auctioned off to the highest bidder. Even the Roman Senate was full corruption and they were
incompetence. Roman citizens lost trust in their leadership.
 f) THE ARRIVAL OF THE HUNS AND THE MIGRATION OF THE BARBARIAN
TIRBES: Due to the Huns’ invasion of Europe in the late fourth century, they drove many
Germanic tribes to the borders of the Roman Empire. The Roman treated them with extreme
cruelty. When the oppression became too much to bear, the Goths rose up in revolt and killed
eastern Emperor Valens in 378 AD. Again in 410 AD, the Goths king Alaric moved west and
sacked Rome. With the Western Empire weakened, Germanic tribes like the Vandals and the
Saxons cross its borders and occupy Britain, Spain and North Africa.
g) WEAKENING OF THE ROMAN LEGIONS: For most of its history, Rome’s military was the
envy of the ancient world. But the makeup of the once mighty legions began to change. Unable to
recruit soldiers from the Roman citizenry, emperor like Diocletian and Constantine recruited
foreign mercenaries. The ranks of the legions eventually swelled with Germanic Goths and other
barbarians. While these Germanic proved to be fierce warriors, they also had little or no loyalty to
the emperor, and their power-hungry officers often turned against their Roman employers. In fact,
many of the barbarians who sacked the city of Rome and brought down the Western Roman
Empire had earned military stripes while serving in the Roman legions.

CHAPTER-6
CENTRAL ISLAMIC LANDS (FOCUS: 7TH TO 12TH CENTURY)
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUSTIONS:
1. Give the name of the first four Khalifas of Islam.
Answer: Abu Bakr, Umar Bin Khattab, Usman and Alib Abi Talib.

2. When did the Hijri Era begin?

Answer: 622 AD

3. Who was Abu Bakr?

Answer: He was the first Caliph after the death of Prophet Muhammad.

4. Who were Umayyad Khalifas?

Answer: Umayyad Khalifas were dynasty of caliphs founded by Mauwiya after the murdered of Caliph Alib
Abi Talib.

5. Who were Abbasids?

Answer: Abbasids were the third Caliphates formed by Abbas ibn Abdal-Muttalib to succeed the Islamic
Prophet Muhammad.

6. Give the name of the territories in which the first four Caliphs spread Islam.
Answer: Arabia.

7. When did the Arabs conquer Spain?

Answer: 711 AD

8. Who was Harun Rashid?

Answer: Harun Al-Rashid was the fifth Abbasid Caliph.

9. When did the Mongols invasions of the Arab Empire?

Answer: 1258 AD.

10. What was the main check on the powers of the Caliphs?
Answer: They could not violate the precepts of the Holy Quran.

11. What was the period of the First Crusade?

Answer: 1096-1099 AD.
12. What was the main aim of the Crusaders?
Answer: To recover the Holy Land-Palestine, Jerusalem from the Muslims and to spread Christianity.

13. Give one important result of the Crusades?

Answer: Great expansion in commercial activities, especially in Italy which had a real trade boom.

14. What is the main source of the Muslim Law?

Answer: Holy Quran.

15. Which business terms were of Arab origin?

Answer: Tariff, bazaar, caravan.

16. Which city was the first great centre of Muslim learning?
Answer: Baghdad.

17. Which Indian books were translated by Arabs into Arabic?

Answer: Brahman Sphuta and Khanda Khayaka of Brahamgupta

18. Give the names of some famous European philosophers whose works were translated into
Arabic?
Answer: Plato, Aristotle, Euclid.

19. What was the contribution of Muslim to the science of astronomy?

Answer: By creating observatories in Baghdad, Cardova and Damascus and also improving astronomical
instruments including the astrolabes and sextant.

20. What was the contribution of Muslim to the science of chemistry?

Answer: The word Alchemy is derived from Arabic language and they applied the knowledge of chemistry
both to the theory and practice of medicines and surgery.

21. Why the art of painting not popular among the Muslims?
Answer: Since Islam prohibited the carving and painting of image.

22. Give the name of four school of Muslim law.

Answer: Maliki, Hanafi, Shafii and Hanabali.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

23. Describe briefly the teaching of Islam.

Answer: Islam demands the believers to believe in One God and Muhammad as his Prophet, the duty of
praying five times daily, giving alms to the poor, fasting in the whole month of Ramzan, making
pilgrimage to Mecca, Not to worship idols and to accept Holy Quran as the sacred book of Islam.
Islam emphasises the principle of equality and opposed to caste and class distinctions.

24. What was the contribution of Caliph Usman to the spread of Islam?
Answer: Some of the contribution of Caliph Usman to the spred of Islam were, he centralized the
administration of the Caliphate and established an official version of the Quran. His reigns marked the
beginning of the humane and just rule of Prophet Mohammad for open Islam religion. Under his
leadership, the Islamic empire expanded into far Iran, Morocco, Afghanistan and Azerbaijan.
25. Describe the conquest of Caliph Muawiya.
Answer: Under the leadership of Caliph Muawiya, the Muslim conquered distant lands in North Africa like
Tunis and Morocco and spread Islam there. Then, they crossed the straits of Gibraltar into Spain in 711
A.D. they defeated Roderick, the last Visigothic king, and advanced to the Pyrenees Mountains and on
into France. In 712 A.D, they conquered the province of Sindh in India. Likewise in 751 A.D the
Muslim defeated the Chinese at Talas in central Asia.
26. Describe the circumstances leading to the crusades.
Answer: Holy land was close to the Christians, around 1095A.D; a new group of Muslims took control of
the Holy lands, including Jerusalem and close it to all Jews and Christian pilgrims. The emperor of the
Byzantine asks Pope Urban II to help in regaining these lands for Christians. Pope Urban II agreed to
help and call for the first crusades. The Pope hoped that the crusades would also give the Roman
Catholic Church power over the Church of the Byzantine Empire. It also hoped that it would reduce
warfare at home and spread Christianity to the conquered regions.

27. Describe the effect of the crusades.

Answer: The effects of the crusades were:
a. Stimulated trade: new products introduced, Cities and towns grew in importance, Ports cities in
Italy became important trading centres.
b. Weakened Feudalism: Nobles and Knights left or sold their fiefs to fight and many serfs were
given freedom.
Moreover, King of Europe became more powerful. The use of money had also increased to
large extent and led to the spread of ideas, cultures and advancements.

28. Write a note on Sufism.

Answer: In the medieval Islam, there emerged a religious minded group known as the Sufis. The term
‘Sufis” is derived from the word SAFA which means Purity, implying that a Sufi is one of god’s elect
who has being purified of all worldly evils. The basic ideas of Sufis are to be form in the Quran and
the tradition of the Prophet Mohammad. The Sufis accept the Quran as the holy word of god. Sufism
has firm faith in non-violence and pacifism. They stressed the importance of a religious guide
(Murshid) through him one can communicate with god. Singing and dancing were regarded by the
Sufis as the method of stimulating emotions of love and passion.

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