Manual TiltUp

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FOREWORD
This publication was produced by the Reinforced Concrete Council (RCC). It was jointly funded by the
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) and the RCC under the Partners in
Technology Programme.
The Reinforced Concrete Council promotes better knowledge and understanding of reinforced concrete design
and building technology. Its members are Co-Steel Sheerness plc and Allied Steel & Wire, representing the
major suppliers of reinforcing steel in the UK; and the British Cement Association, representing the major
manufacturers of Portland cement in the UK.
The principal authors are: Martin Southcott, BSc, MBA, MICE. Project Director of the RCC.
Alan Tovey, CEng, FIStructE, ACIArb, MIFS. Formally an Associate Director with the
British Cement Association, and who now runs an independent consultancy,
Tecnicom. Production of the manual was managed by Tecnicom.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their thanks to the many organisations and individuals around the world who have
generously given both time and expertise in helping with the background material and contents of this
publication. The list is long and we apologise for any error or omission.
UK – Jacqueline Glass and Ray Ogden, Oxford Brookes University; Jonathan Harrison, Tilt-Up Consulting
Services; Freddy Chalcroft, Chalcroft Construction Ltd; David Leach, Gatehouse Leach Training and
Development; Chris Ainge, International Bible Students Association; Mike Fuller, BRC-Square Grip; Surendra
Arora and Richard Moss, Building Research Establishment; Pal Chana, Sunday Popo-Ola and Naysan Khoylou,
Concrete Research and Innovation Centre (Imperial College); Tony Threlfall, Concrete Design and Detailing.
Republic of Ireland – Kevin McLouglin and Andrew Dixon, KML Carl Bro.
USA – Ed Sauter, Tilt-up Concrete Association (TCA); David Moses, Clayco; Bob Foley and Kimberley Kayler
Izenson, CON-STEEL Tilt-up Systems; Dan Doran, Composite Technologies Corporation; Joe Steinbicker,
Steinbicker & Associates.
Australia – Bob Potter, Cement & Concrete Association (C&CA) of Australia; Mark Turner, Steel Reinforcing
Institute of Australia.
New Zealand – David Barnard, Cement & Concrete Association (C&CA) of New Zealand.
Particular thanks go to the TCA, C&CA Australia and C&CA New Zealand for permission to make
comprehensive use of the technical material contained in their tilt-up guides and to Jacqueline Glass for the
material used in the historical overview and for cost details in Chapter 2. Also to Gillian Bond of Words &
Pages for production editing.
Note on diagrams
Throughout this publication the diagrams are illustrative only, and do not show all the detail of construction.
Many construction activities are potentially dangerous, so care is needed at all times. Current legislation requires all persons to consider the
effects of their actions or lack of action on the health and safety of themselves and others. Advice on safety legislation may be obtained from
any of the area offices of the Health and Safety Executive.
97.366 Published by British Cement Association on behalf of the

First published June 1998, version 1.1 Industry Sponsors of the Reinforced Concrete Council
ISBN 0 7210 1533 6
Price Group J British Cement Association
 British Cement Association Century House, Telford Avenue
Crowthorne, Berks RG45 6YS
Telephone (01344) 762676 Fax (01344) 761214
All advice or information from the British Cement Association is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its
contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such
advice or information is accepted. Readers should note that all BCA publications are subject to revision from time to time and should
therefore ensure that they are in possession of the latest version.
Tilt-up design and construction
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
The tilt-up technique 1-1
About this publication 1-1
2. OVERVIEW
Applications 2-1
The advantages of tilt-up 2-1
Costs 2-2
Cost modelling exercise
Building models
Results
The tilt-up method 2-4
Architectural considerations 2-5
Structural considerations 2-5
Construction considerations 2-6
Factory-cast panels 2-6
History and development 2-6
Project examples 2-7 to 2-26
References 2-7
3. PLANNING FOR TILT-UP

The design and construction team 3-1
Optimising tilt-up benefits 3-1
Layout of panels and erection sequence 3-3
Casting position of slabs
Cranage and crane movements
Panel sizes and tolerances 3-7
Sizing and shape
Tolerances
Types of panel joints 3-10
Prediction of strength development 3-10
Programme and speed of construction 3-11
Case study
References 3-13
4. FLOOR SLABS AND FOUNDATIONS

Floor slab design and construction 4-1
Construction method
Tolerances and finish (casting surface)
Weather conditions
Curing, compacting and finishing
Design loadings
Procedure for slab design
Construction programme
Foundation design and construction 4-3
Details
Column footings
Panel seating
Construction
References 4-5
i
5. DESIGN OF PANELS IN SERVICE

Principles of design 5-1
Design loadings 5-1
In-service loading
Construction loading
Structural design 5-3
Typical structural form 5-3
Reinforcement 5-4
Purpose
Design
Detailing
Design of loadbearing panels 5-5
Suggestions for UK in-service design
Simplified design procedure for slender panels
Panels with openings
Design of outer leaf of a sandwich panel 5-11
Sandwich panels and ties
Factors affecting tie design
Load transfer through ties within a sandwich panel
Types of ties and anchors
Stainless steel ties
Composite fibre connectors
Leaf thickness and cover to reinforcement
Allowance for differential movements
Design checks for the outer leaf and its ties
Building stability 5-17
Shear walls
Fire resistance 5-18
Panel thickness and cover to reinforcement
Panel stability
Fire growth and spread
References 5-18
5A. APPENDIX DESIGN EXAMPLES

Example 1: Single-storey factory/warehouse 5A-1
General 5A-1
Expansion joints
Foundations
Erection
Perimeter berm
Building extension
Loadings 5A-2
Design for in-service loads of typical panel without openings 5A-3
Design assumptions
Loading
Eccentricities of loading
Load combinations
First order moments at ultimate limit state
Second order moments at ultimate limit state
Effects of wind suction
Cracking and deflection at serviceability limit state
External leaf reinforcement
Design of panel acting as a shear wall 5A-6
References – Example 1 5A-9
Example 2 - two-storey hybrid structure 5A-10
General 5A-10
Loadings 5A-10
ii
Contents
Design for in-service loads of a typical panel 5A-11

Basis of design
Eccentricities
Effective dimensions
Design ultimate loading at critical section
Bending moment due to first floor load
Reinforcement
Panel between the window openings
Design of panel during erection 5A-12
References - Example 2 5A-12
6. DESIGN OF PANELS FOR LIFTING

General 6-1
Design 6-1
The general principles
Bending moments and flexural stresses
Reinforcement
Strongbacks
Lifting hardware and accessories 6-6
Lifting hardware
Lifting inserts
References 6-8
7. CONSTRUCTION OF PANELS
Formwork 7-1
Casting surface
Edge formwork
Blockouts for windows, doors, etc
Grooves, indents and rebates
Pilasters, columns, set-backs and curved forms
Mitred joints
Bond-breakers 7-4
Effect of surface
Bond-breaker types
Selection
Application
Summary - bond-breakers
Panel finishes 7-6
Procedure
Reinforcement 7-6
Fixing the reinforcement
Checklist
Embedments 7-7
Pick-up points and brace attachments
Weld-plates and other connections
Sandwich insulation 7-7
Installation of insulation and ties
Concreting, finishing and curing the panels 7-7
References 7-8
8. PANEL ERECTION
Panel strength 8-1
Preparations for erection 8-1
Erection sequence 8-1
Cranes 8-1
Rigging the panels 8-2
Strongbacks 8-3
iii
Lifting methods 8-3

Walking a panel
The walk-out panel
The lift 8-4
Lifting sequence 8-4
Safety precautions 8-5
Lifting problems 8-5
Panel sticks to the floor slab
Panel does not hang correctly
Positioning and levelling the panels 8-5
Adjustments and tolerances
Bracing 8-6
Braces - general conditions for use
Release of panel 8-7
Final grouting 8-7
References 8-7
9. NON-STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Thermal design of a building 9-1
Air penetration
Thermal insulation
Thermal performance of sandwich panels
Thermal mass
Sound insulation 9-5
Mass law
Panel finishes 9-5
Surface treatments and finishes
Procedure
Grooves and relief
Exposed aggregate
Surface treatments
Trompe l’oeil
Brick finish
Combinations
Mock-ups and test panels
Examples of panel finishes
Achieving successful finishes
Painting tilt-up panels 9-9
Selection of paints
Paint materials
Achieving a successful paint-job
Application
Service life
Weather resistance of panels and joints 9-11
General
Joints
References 9-12
10. CONNECTION DETAILS

General criteria 10-1
Connection design 10-1
Conceptual design
Types 10-2
Details 10-3
Main roof and floor connections
Roof or floor diaphragm connections
Panel-to-panel connections
iv
Contents
Panel-to-foundation connections
Connections for sandwich panels
Connection details - further information
References 10-14
11. SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

General 11-1
Safety checklist 11-1
1. Prior to construction
2. Prior to erection day
3. At the safety meeting
4. During the lift
5. After the lift
Individual responsibilities 11-3
Structural designer
Main contractor
Tilt-up sub-contractor
References 11-3
12. SPECIFICATIONS
References 12-1
13. SPECIALIST SUPPLIERS AND SERVICES

13-1
v
INTRODUCTION
1
THE TILT-UP TECHNIQUE to provide the necessary information for its wider
adoption in the UK. Where necessary, additional
Tilt-up construction involves site casting the concrete original work has been undertaken to ensure
walls of a building on its floor slab or on a separate compatibility with UK codes and practice.
casting bed and then tilting and lifting them into
position by crane (Figure 1.1). The result is rapid The contents will appeal to all those involved with
construction arising from a well planned process the procurement of new low-rise buildings – from
more akin to a factory production line but retaining clients and their advisors through to contractors.
the flexibility of in-situ concrete work. Tilt-up is In particular, Chapter 2 gives all parties a non-
widely used for one- and two-storey buildings in New technical overview of the technique including
Zealand, Australia and particularly the United States, applications, benefits, costs, architectural
where some 7000 of these are constructed every year. opportunities, historical development and typical
applications examined through real case studies. It
The technique is also increasingly popular for three- also includes a summary of detailed cost modelling
to five-storey structures, in particular for office and showing that tilt-up can be highly competitive in
residential buildings. It is also used for a whole range many sectors in the UK.
of special building types as given in Chapter 2.
Figure 1.2 shows a typical example of a high quality
tilt-up building. In the UK many designers and
developers are seeking an alternative to metal
claddings, and tilt-up opens the opportunity for a
more robust panel at competitive cost.
Because tilt-up acts both as structure and cladding it
offers major benefits compared with other
constructional forms, including competitive costs,
rapid construction, inherent fire resistance, security,
durability, sound insulation, low air-penetration,
easily sealed washable surfaces, high thermal mass
and insulation, and scope for new architectural
expression. These benefits are looked at in more
detail in Chapter 2, which includes the results of
extensive cost modelling work demonstrating the
competitiveness of tilt-up construction.
ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION

This publication brings together worldwide
experience of tilt-up into a single document in a form
suitable for the UK. The examples and details shown Figure 1.2 Example of high quality tilt-up building
are selected to demonstrate the versality of tilt-up and
Tilt-up panel
lifted by crane
External wall line

External face Tilt-up panel in
position to form
Tilt-up wall panel cast structural wall
face down on floor slab
External face
Figure 1.1 The tilt-up technique
1-1
Introduction
The efficiency of tilt-up results from careful planning

and close co-operation between designers and
constructors, who should both carefully study
Chapter 3.
Chapter 4 describes the design and construction of
floor slabs and foundations, and Chapters 5 to 12
provide information on all aspects of the design,
construction and erection of tilt-up panels. These
chapters are intended for both designers and
constructors, to impart a common understanding of
their roles. However, Chapter 5 contains considerable
detailed technical material on the structural analysis
and design of tilt-up panels, mostly of use to the
structural engineer.
Chapter 13 provides additional information on
suppliers of goods and services.
Finally, it is worth emphasising that, although this
publication deals mainly with on-site tilt-up, much
of the material is equally relevant to factory-cast
panels, which may prove more suitable for a
particular project.
1-2
AN OVERVIEW
2
This chapter gives a non-technical overview of tilt-up construction covering applications, benefits, costs,
construction method, architectural opportunities, structural and constructional considerations, and factory-cast
alternatives. Finally, after a brief history of the development of tilt-up, some typical applications are examined
through real case studies. The costs section includes a summary of detailed cost modelling showing that tilt-up
can be highly competitive in many UK markets.
APPLICATIONS types it clearly has significant benefits to offer,

including:
Tilt-up is a construction method that allows great
design flexibility and encourages innovation. Walls • Cost of construction - Extensive cost modelling
can be produced as solid panels for use with added has shown tilt-up to be highly competitive with
insulation or as sandwich panels where insulation is traditional construction over a wide range of
installed during production. The use of concrete building types and sizes (see the ‘Costs’ heading
offers the designer structural capacity, fire resistance, later in this chapter).
sound insulation, thermal capacity, aesthetic qualities • Speed of construction - This is often a major
and durability. Tilt-up panels commonly carry the reason for choosing tilt-up. After the floor slab is
roof load and provide transverse load resistance in placed, the typical elapsed time from starting to
shear, and thus may be used for both loadbearing and form the panels until the building shell is
non-loadbearing walls to a variety of structures (see completed may be only four to five weeks.
Figure 2.1 overleaf). Materials for wall panels are easily procured
with minimal lead times, allowing a fast start to a
The following list illustrates just some of the near-factory assembly line process, which
diversity of applications for which tilt-up has been progresses while any roof steel is fabricated.
successfully used. A number of case studies showing
plans and other details are given later in this chapter • Ease of construction - The uncomplicated
under the heading ‘Project examples’. construction method simplifies and minimises on
site work and reduces labour costs.
Commercial and industrial construction -
• Energy conservation - Tilt-up walls can be
Warehouses, workshops, storage units, offices,
economically insulated to give whatever
distribution centres, factories (including clean rooms,
insulation values are required, from a normal
controlled atmosphere, meat curing and timber
building through to highly insulated cold stores.
preservation), hotels, restaurants, shopping
Sandwich tilt-up panels not only provide all
complexes, auditoria, service buildings and cold
necessary insulation but, by incorporating the
stores.
insulation during panel production, minimise
Recreational construction - Squash courts, indoor follow-on trades and build in useful thermal
cricket facilities, gymnasia and basketball courts. mass to moderate temperature extremes. Air
penetration is also minimised.
Residential construction - Houses, two- to three-
storey flats, town houses and halls of residence. • Durability - The strength of concrete coupled
with the uncomplicated method of construction
Rural construction - Farm sheds, piggeries, dairies,
offers reliable durability, as attested by the
tanks, drainage systems, grain stores and settlement
buildings dating back to the 1940s.
tanks.
• Sound reduction - Buildings in a noisy area,
Other construction - Churches, community halls, such as near an airport or roads, can benefit from
schools, colleges, sound barriers, retaining walls, the sound reduction properties of concrete. The
security walls, reservoirs, water treatment structures, mass absorbs the sound rather than letting it
plant rooms, fuel tanks, prisons, and fire through as can occur with lighter forms of
compartment walls. construction. Alternatively, noisy processes
within buildings are more easily isolated.
THE ADVANTAGES OF TILT-UP • Low maintenance costs – Visual concrete
For a building method to be chosen in the highly (fairfaced, textured, profiled, tooled and exposed
competitive construction market it has to show that aggregate finishes) and cast applied facings
its benefits outweigh those of the alternatives. As tilt- (inlaid stone etc.) require little specific attention
up is so widely used for many different building and modern paint systems have been shown to
have considerable life. The wider panel width
2-1
offered by tilt-up minimises the number of joints and low temperatures including freezers, and
and length of sealant, thus reducing the cost of clean rooms for food, drug and electronics
maintenance. Concrete walls are less subject to manufacture.
mechanical damage, and are easily washed • Architectural attractiveness - Tilt-up offers
down. Sandwich panels are particularly exciting new architectural opportunities that
beneficial in this respect since they offer both complement current building trends. There are
insulation and two hard surfaces. now many stunning examples of this in practice
• Fire resistance - Concrete is an obvious first worldwide.
choice for fire resistance. Tilt-up panels can be • Extendibility - By planning for the possibility of
readily and economically designed for up to four expansion, building and panel connections can
hours fire resistance and are particularly cost be designed so that the panels can be removed,
effective as fire separation and compartment relocated or added to.
walls. A 160 mm thick wall, for example, can
provide up to two hours fire resistance. Concrete • Security - Unlike metal-clad buildings, forced
sandwich panels do not suffer the fire-spread entry through concrete walls is very much more
problems associated with some metal systems. difficult. Tilt-up is frequently used for security
walls and prisons.
• Lower insurance rates - The fire resistance of
tilt-up concrete walls and added security may • Safety - With a tilt-up building, much of the
result in lower premiums. work is on the ground; there is no vertical
formwork, no scaffolding, and since the floor
• Low air penetration and robust, easily sealed slab is poured first, workers have a safer working
surfaces - Tilt-up is easily sealed, making it surface. The short and uncomplicated project
ideal for controlled environments such as fruit cycle presents less opportunity for accidents.
storage, meat curing, timber preservation, high
COSTS
Loadbearing tilt-up Cost modelling exercise
panel supporting roof
This section is based on cost research (1) undertaken
by Jacqueline Glass in the School of Architecture at
Oxford Brookes University, as part of a broader PhD
study of tilt-up construction sponsored by the
Tilt-up Tilt-up Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
panel panel
wall wall (EPSRC) and Reinforced Concrete Council (RCC).
In established markets, tilt-up is often used for low-
rise buildings, and this will probably also be the case
in the UK. Research undertaken at Oxford Brookes
analysed costs for both tilt-up and conventional
construction methods for a generic building with a
Strip footing
storage/production space fronted by two-storey
(a) Tilt-up panel designed as loadbearing wall offices (Figure 2.2 shows a typical building model).
Tilt-up panel attached to

internal perimeter frame
Office 576 m2
Tilt-up Tilt-up
cladding claddng Elevation
panel panel
Office grid 6 x 6 m
Warehouse 24 x 12 m
Warehouse 2304 m2
Internal perimeter frame
Tilt-up panel may span

onto isolated pads
Plan Section
(b) Tilt-up panel designed as cladding panel
Figure 2.1 Tilt-up panels used for loadbearing and Figure 2.2 Cost model building A
non-loadbearing walls
2-2
An overview
Building models within £4/m2 of the cheapest metal cladding option,

and for building C, tilt-up is more economical for
A range of floor sizes from 2,304 m2 to 18,090 m2 both plain and decorated panels. For external walls,
was tested for each of eight wall options. all tilt-up options (see Table 2.2) cost between £39
Loadbearing, decorated loadbearing, and sandwich and £72/m2, which makes them competitive with a
loadbearing tilt-up panels were compared with large range of cladding products. Tilt-up sandwich
varying qualities of conventional construction based panels cost about £15/m2 more than normal panels,
on steel portal frames. In addition, a fourth hybrid which is a modest premium to pay for long-term
system of non-loadbearing tilt-up panels on steel energy and durability benefits. The cost of tilt-up
portals was considered. Building designs and panels typically increases with height due to
specifications were of a basic standard with additional lifting and material costs for taller, heavier
allowances for services and external works, but not panels, but this is offset by using tilt-up as fire-
for fit-out. For buildings C and D, fire compartment protecting internal walls for £36/m2 for tilt-up,
walls were required in addition to a separation wall compared with £72/m2 for proprietary fire partitions.
between the warehouse and offices.
Construction programme – The next paragraph
Results describes the programmes generated and used in the
cost model exercise, see Chapter 3 ‘Programme and
The total building costs/m2 ground floor area
speed of construction’ for more specific discussions
including preliminaries, contingency and fees are
of these matters and actual programmes.
given in Table 2.1.
All cost data includes preliminaries and time-related
Analysis of results – For buildings with an area
charges taken from construction programmes
above 2304 m2, loadbearing tilt-up is consistently
Table 2.1 Total building costs/m2 gross floor area
Type of external wall Building A Building B Building C Building D

2,304 m2 4,500 m2 9,180 m2 18,090 m2
Eaves height Eaves height Eaves height Eaves height
6m 8m 10 m 12 m
Loadbearing tilt-up panels TU £360 £324 £319 £292

Tilt-up insulated sandwich panels TU £374 £338 £329 £299
Decorated tilt-up panels TU £361 £326 £320 £292
Tilt-up cladding panels Hybr £355 £327 £327 £294
Built-up metal cladding system Trad £342 £320 £321 £288
Composite cladding panels Trad £387 £360 £357 £318
Aluminium cladding system Trad £421 £391 £384 £339
Blockwork/built-up cladding Trad £354 £328 £327 £292
Table 2.2 External wall costs/m2 wall area, including plant-based preliminaries
Loadbearing tilt-up panels TU £49 £50 £54 £57

Tilt-up insulated sandwich panels TU £62 £65 £69 £72
Decorated tilt-up panels TU £51 £52 £56 £59
Tilt-up cladding panels Hybr £39 £39 £41 £42
Built-up metal cladding system Trad £36 £36 £36 £36
Composite cladding panels Trad £104 £104 £104 £104
Aluminium cladding system Trad £155 £155 £155 £155
Blockwork/built-up cladding Trad £48 £45 £43 £43
2-3
Table 2.3 Time on site from mobilisation to completion using published lead times (weeks)
Loadbearing tilt-up panels * 17 23 29 33
Tilt-up insulated sandwich panels * 18 24 31 35
Metal cladding panels 13 19 29 33
* Later discussions with contractors experienced in tilt-up revealed reduced lead-in times over those published and used in this study. This
results in possible reductions of at least two weeks in the tilt-up times given above. Examples of faster programmes are given in Chapter 3.
developed for the cost model. Assuming normal site temporary casting bed enables the main building
conditions, published lead times and continuity of ground slab to be cast later following erection of the
work, loadbearing tilt-up is just four weeks behind roof. Thus tilt-up offers more than one method of
conventional construction methods for buildings A construction programming.
and B, but runs exactly in parallel for building C and
A typical construction starts with the levelling of the
D. Insulated sandwich panels incur a little more time,
site before foundations are dug and cast. The ground
but this is more than offset by benefits gained in the
floor sub-base material is then rolled and accurately
long term (Table 2.3).
levelled; a membrane is laid and simple edge
formwork fixed. This is typically laser-levelled for
Conclusions
extreme accuracy. The main floor slab (Figure 2.3 (a))
The results of the cost model show clearly that tilt-up may be laid by the long-strip method, typically 4 m
can out-perform several conventional UK methods, wide by the full length, and finished by power float.
and provides an economical alternative for internal But, increasingly, the slab may be laid in wide pours
fire walls. There is also a definite indication that cost and finished by laser levelling and power float.
competitiveness of the technique could at least rival
When the slab has gained sufficient strength, the tilt-
its performance in countries such as the USA,
up wall panels are constructed upon it. The panels
Australia and New Zealand, although it is not easy to
may be cut to size after long-strip casting, or more
compare UK costs data with that from established
commonly are formed individually. The main floor
tilt-up markets overseas. (All costs are current at
slab or previous panels act as the panel's casting face
January 1998; data does not include landfill tax,
and completing the formwork requires only simple
overheads, profit, variations or VAT.)
perimeter side forms. Climbing forms or full depth
The kind assistance of the following UK companies formwork is used when the panels are stack-cast.
is gratefully acknowledged. Before each is cast, a bond-breaker, form-liner or
Curtins Consulting Engineers other material is placed on the floor slab, or on top of
the previous panel in the case of stack-casting.
Davis Langdon & Everest
Gazeley Properties Finally, the panel reinforcement and fixings for the
roof are placed and the panel is then concreted and
Hanscomb Partnership
finished (Figure 2.3 (b)). Careful attention is given to
Laing Special Projects the casting position of panels on the base slab in
MACE Ltd order to minimise crane movement and achieve the
Slough Estates most efficient construction sequence.
Tilt-up Consulting Services After typically two to seven days, when a panel has
WH Stephens & Sons gained sufficient strength, props and lifting devices
are attached. The panel is then gradually lifted or
and several other leading companies tilted up until it is upright (Figure 2.3 (c)). The
flexural stresses during the lifting reach a maximum
THE TILT-UP METHOD when the panels are at an angle of about 30 degrees.
At this point, the stresses are often greater than when
Tilt-up construction is the on-site precasting of the the panel is in place, which can give the designer
walls of a building. In one method of construction, added assurance in the completed structure.
the perimeter foundations and internal ground slab
are cast first, and then the wall panels are cast Particular economic benefits come from the methods
individually, contiguously or continuously on the slab used to lift the panels. It is common to use a multi-
(see Figure 7.2, Chapter 7). Alternatively, panels may point lifting system so that the bending stresses are
be cast one on top another, as stack-casting. After kept below the flexural tensile strength of the
panels have gained sufficient strength, they are tilted concrete thus minimising and often eliminating the
up and positioned around the perimeter. The internal need to rely on reinforcement during lifting. This not
frame is then constructed and the roof built. If only enables savings in reinforcement to be made but
desired, stack-casting the panels on a separate also allows thinner panels to be erected with
2-4
An overview
consequential savings in concrete and final wall are positioned, the roof trusses and purlins are
thickness. Reinforcement is normally placed in a erected, and the roofing is finally fixed (Figure 2.3 (e)).
single central mat.
This short description demonstrates the uncomplicated
When the panel is in an upright position it is carefully procedure for tilt-up construction that can be used to
swung to the perimeter where it is propped in place create a variety of panel configurations for a wide
(Figure 2.3 (d)). Multi-point lifting can enable larger range of different building types.
panels to be erected, so saving time in construction.
These larger panels require the use of appropriate
cranage but since they are rapidly erected it means
ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
that heavy capacity cranage is often needed for only a Until recently it was contended that tilt-up could not
few days. For example, the entire external walls compete with the quality of precast concrete, and
covering an area of some 3000 m2 to a building can should retain its inherent simplicity rather than
be erected in only a couple of days. Once the panels seeking to become too sophisticated. However, the
advancement of tilt-up techniques is such that it is
now possible to attain consistent high quality
finishes. The improved appearance of tilt-up
buildings stems largely from the sensitive detailing of
External wall line panels and an almost limitless range of colours,
patterns and textures (see Chapter 9). The front cover
(a) Wall foundation and projects examples at the end of this chapter
Floor slab
demonstrate the high quality of architecture now
routinely achieved.
Designers of industrial and low-specification
buildings tend to utilise simple, economical finishes,
whereas more prestigious commercial markets use
External wall line more flamboyant combinations of finishes and
(b) materials. However, the change in manufacturing and
commercial markets from heavy industrial into
Tilt-up wall panel
cast on floor
high-tech industries means that aesthetic
considerations seem to be more important to
designers and developers than in previous years.
Tilt-up construction is ideal to meet this new demand
Tilt-up panel because designers can take full advantage of
lifted by crane available colours, textures, surface finishes, and
(c) architectural embellishments in varying degrees of
complexity to enhance the image of the tilt-up
building.
These additional features included stepped profiles,
trellises, polished stone or ribbon glazing. Thus the
modern tilt-up building is able to provide a quality,
economical, robust and durable structure that,
Tilt-up panel
together with attractive landscaping, can achieve
positioned onto spectacular results.
(d)
foundation
Temporary bracing
The technique of tilt-up construction was developed
especially for on-site use but it has also been extended
to off-site precast work. Many tilt-up projects now
make use of both site and factory components for
optimum design and construction flexibility and this
is likely to be the case within the UK.
(e)
Roof members brace tilt-up walls STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Structural tilt-up The design of panels and stability of tilt-up buildings
panel
is well tested since their reliability has been proved in
the earthquake regions of the world. Tilt-up design
recommendations are fully developed in those
countries where it is widely used, with many having
specific national codes (2) and standards, and other
are braced
Figure 2.3 inTypical
position, the internal
tilt-up columns,
construction if any,
sequence design guides (3) and (4) . There are no specific UK
2-5
tilt-up codes or standards but Chapter 5 of this there are special demands on tolerances, finishes,
publication presents design suggestions compatible quality or concrete mix (such as coloured
with the main British structural code for concrete, concrete or special aggregates).
BS 8110, and contains further references on design.
Finally, it is worth noting that some buildings may
justify installing a temporary ‘factory-casting’
CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS facility on site.
In tilt-up construction, the floor is often cast before
the roof. It has been said that tilt-up may not, because HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
of weather conditions, be as suitable in this part of
the world as it is in other countries. This view is, Tilt-up construction was first introduced in the early
however, misguided since tilt-up has been successfully 1900s in the USA. However it was not until the
used in Scotland, where one project was built to 1950s with the introduction of mobile cranes and
programme during the worst weather conditions for ready-mixed concrete that its use really grew. At this
100 years. Tilt-up is also used in New Zealand, and time the first design and construction guides
in parts of the USA and Canada, where the weather appeared in the USA, paving the way for pioneering
conditions are similar to our own. contractors to capitalise on the increased
sophistication of the technique in the following
In Britain reliable short- and medium-term weather decades.
forecasting services specifically for construction are
readily available from the Meteorological Office and From the late 1970s to the present day, tilt-up’s use
others and are commonly used for programming of has grown substantially, due partly to traditional
weather-dependent processes. Precautions such as skills shortages but mainly to its speed, providing
tented enclosures or temporary edge wind-breaks can more efficient construction to meet growing
be used in the event of driving rain. Weather is not a economic pressures, and an increase in the real and
major factor with tilt-up since the problems are not perceived quality of tilt-up buildings (5).
significantly different from those faced on any other Its established use has spread from the USA market,
construction project involving the placing of concrete. to those of Australia and New Zealand. In each case,
Contractors simply take precautions or adjust work to its development followed a distinct pattern. The
cater for prevailing weather conditions. technique began in low-rise industrial structures
The method of tilt-up is now so well developed and where it developed a quality image. Whilst increasing
proven that full design and construction expertise is its share of the market in these building types, it
readily available. There are consultants, contractors diversified into other commercial, leisure and
and material suppliers with experience of tilt-up in residential sectors.
both the UK and Ireland and throughout the world. The technology, expertise, and reliability of tilt-up
Thus the developer or designer can be assured that there has improved due to improved structural engineering,
is sufficient availability of materials, equipment and availability of products specifically developed to suit
expertise to ensure competitive and reliable tilt-up tilt-up, achievement of better quality finishes, and
construction within the UK and in the rest of Europe. changes in procurement routes. Currently, in the
USA, some 13 million square metres of tilt-up walls
FACTORY-CAST PANELS are built each year, the equivalent of around 7000
low-rise buildings. This increased at a rate of 12%
Most of the material in this guide applies equally to between 1995 and 1996. Of these buildings, around
wall units produced in the factory and delivered to 65% are industrial or warehousing, 25% are offices,
site. However, with factory-cast panels there are and 10% are retail development and other
some obvious differences to be considered. miscellaneous projects.
• Road transportation limits overall sizes to around
In Australia, tilt-up’s use for the industrial market
12 m long by 3 to 4 m wide (depending on
took off in the 1970s because of a dramatic rise in
whether delivered flat or upright on the lorry).
brick prices, and a crisis of confidence in low-rise
There is, therefore, a maximum width of opening
metal-clad structures, often referred to as ‘sheds’ (6).
that can be incorporated into a single panel.
Subsequently, it has also become popular for
• Different economics may apply, as many units speculative house building in the 1990s where it has
will be cast from a single mould, justifying more now been used for terraced houses, luxury
complex shapes and costly formliners. apartments, individual villas and housing association
• Transportation and handling may require extra developments.
reinforcement and lifting fittings. Canada has an established tilt-up market and the
• Construction programmes alter as casting is method has also been used in other countries such as
independent of ground slabs, but lead times will Malaysia, Argentina, Brazil, Hungary, Mexico and
be longer. South Africa.
• Factory precast may be more appropriate where
2-6
An overview
In the UK and Ireland, tilt-up has been mainly used

for industrial and warehousing structures, some 3. Cement and Concrete Association of New
incorporating office space. It is interesting that these Zealand. Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA,
tilt-up structures remain quite distinct, standing out Porirua, New Zealand, 1991. TM 34. 32 pp.
from often very commonplace metal-clad 'sheds'. 4. Brookes, H. The tilt-up design and construction
In addition to advanced factory buildings in Scotland, manual. HBA Publications, Newport Beach,
further buildings have been constructed by the Dayton, Ohio, USA, 1997. 292 pp.
Watchtower organisation in London and in 5. Spears, R, E. Tilt-up construction and design
Co.Wicklow, Ireland. The latter particularly have considerations. Concrete International, Vol. 2,
achieved exceptional quality and appearance. The No. 4, 1980. pp 33 – 38.
Watchtower organisation is highly committed to tilt-
up and has a rolling programme of around 40 new 6. O’Hagan, R. The incredible rise of tilt-up
buildings under construction, throughout the world, construction. Australian Concrete Construction.
utilising tilt-up. Vol. 1, No. 1, 1989.
Recently a contractor specialising in design-build

cold store projects in the UK has adopted tilt-up for
its plant rooms in order to save time and reduce
construction problems.
There is a growing trend worldwide towards the use
of tilt-up concrete sandwich panels. One supplier is
now claiming that about 5 million square metres of
panels have been built using its system alone.
PROJECT EXAMPLES
The examples shown on pages 2-8 to 2-26 have been
selected from the UK and elsewhere to give an
indication of the scope and form of tilt-up
construction. They show tilt-up panels used for
loadbearing walls to carry vertical roof and floor
loads and lateral wind forces, panels used for earth-
retaining structures, and non-loadbearing cladding.
The examples also show panels used to create very
slender walls that provide economy by maximising
the nett-to-gross area of the building. The continuous
run of panels also means there are no intruding
columns as can occur with a portal frame.
The differing panel finishes and shapes provide an
insight to the architectural freedom available with
tilt-up construction. The examples also demonstrate
the ability of tilt-up to be used for both single- and
multi-storey buildings and to be designed to support
both floors and roofs. The opportunities for tilt-up
should become apparent from reviewing just these
few examples.
REFERENCES
1. Glass, J. Evaluation of tilt-up construction in
relation to selected UK building types. Post
Graduate Research School, School of
Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, UK.
(PhD thesis).
2. Standards Australia. Tilt-up concrete and
precast concrete elements for use in buildings.
Part 1: Safety requirements. Part 2: Guide to
design, casting and erection of tilt-up panels.
Standards Australia, North Sydney, NSW, 1990.
AS 3850. 16 pp, 24 pp.
2-7
GLENROTHES 2, SCOTLAND
Glenrothes 2 was the second major loadbearing are decorated with a paint finish applied directly to a
tilt-up panel system constructed in the UK. (The textured surface created by casting against a formwork
first major structure was Glenrothes 1 built in 1984 lining sheet. The structure has a constructed area of
as an advanced factory unit and is constructed with 3743 m2 but is designed to be sub-divided into two
165 mm thick solid panels, typically 7 m wide by 1870 m2 units and is also detailed to allow for
7.5 m high, weighing in the region of 20 tonnes expansion to 7486 m2. The building has a main 5.5 m
each.) The second building was erected in 1986 as clear height single-storey factory facility and a two-
another advanced factory unit and is constructed storey office of 392 m2 occupying one corner. Due to
with a similar internal structure and panel size and delays experienced with the steelwork to the office on
weight. The regulatory thermal standard was Glenrothes I, the office elevation to this building has
achieved by the use of an insulated internal lining double-glazed aluminium curtain walling units
in conjunction with external insulation provided by supported by featured concrete structural tilt-up units.
an earth berm at ground level. The concrete panels
Location - Glenrothes, Scotland

Contract period – 22 weeks (see Chapter 3 for construction programme)
Total net floor area - 3743 m2 + 390 m2 office
Typical panel size - 7 m wide by 7.5 m high
Typical panel weight - 20 tonnes
External finish – Paint on textured surface
Thermal insulation - Internal insulated lining with external earth berm
Textured panel finish
View showing provision for an office at each end
2-8
An overview
7.5 m
Typical cross section
North elevation
90 m
45 m
Floor plan
Glenrothes 2, Scotland
2-9
OLD NAAS ROAD, DUBLIN

Built in 1990, this development consists of two incorporating translucent sheeting to 15% of the roof
high-spec units in the heart of Ireland's premier area. There are no internal columns as the roof trusses
industrial location at Old Naas Road, Dublin. Both are designed to span 27 metres between the loadbearing
units are designed to accommodate production, tilt-up perimeter walls.
warehouse and office use. The development
Eccentricity of load is minimised by the use of recessed
consists of one 967 m2 unit and one of 816 m2, each
steel connections within the supporting panels.
having a 100 m2 office area over two storeys,
Container access is provided to the 6 metre high
approached by a framed entrance for pedestrian
warehouse production area by steel roller shutter
use. The walls are solid tilt-up panels internally
entrances. The development was promoted as a new
insulated and finished externally with paint
concept of building to image-conscious companies
featuring a distinctive inset band, and incorporating
seeking industrial and office accommodation of high
colour-coated aluminium windows. The roof
quality and finish.
decking is a metal composite insulated system
Location - Old Naas Road, Dublin 12, Irish Republic

Total floor area - 1783 m2 in two units
Contract period - 14 weeks
Typical panel size – 7.88 m wide x 6.75 m high
External finish – Paint with feature painted band
Thermal insulation - Internal insulation with protection boarding at lower levels
Inset band echoing stepped site
2-10
An overview
Typical elevation showing inset band
Floor plan
6.75m
Truss support detail
Cross section 27 m
27 metre clear span
32.5 m
27 m
27 m
15 m
Roof bracing
Old Naas Road, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
2-11
LABORATORY, QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA

This project, built in 1995, shows an example of site- concrete thickness of 150 mm. Externally the panels
cast tilt-up concrete panels, incorporating a have a combination of flat and horizontal ribbed
considerable degree of refinement, used to clad a surfaces and were given a high-build paint finish.
two-storey reinforced concrete frame. Tilt-up panels The colour selection, together with the clean eaves
were selected because of their economy and speed of detail and design of sun screens and entrance awning,
construction. The laboratory facilities are on two combine to make this a stylish industrial building.
floors and have a total area of around 2750 m2. The The roof is of conventional steel purlins with main
panels, which have an internal plasterboard finish, beams.
are typically 6 m wide by up to 7.7 m high with a
Location - Garnet Street, Carole Park, Queensland, Australia

Total floor area - 2750 m2
Contract period - Construction time not known, but tilt-up used for speed
Typical panel size - 6 m wide x 6.9 - 7.7 m high
Interest provided by use of plain and ribbed panels
2-12
An overview
2.70 m
In-situ concrete
slab and edge
beam
0.25 m In-situ
concrete
column
0.85 m
First floor plan
2.70 m
150 mm two
storey tilt-up
cladding panel
25.3 m
Typical wall section

48.5 m
Ground floor plan
New laboratory, Queensland, Australia
2-13
MARY MCKILLOP CATHOLIC CHURCH, QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA

This church was built in 1995. A limited budget and provided with channels discharging onto the roof to
a practical brief provided the ideal opportunity for the reduce staining. The panels are butt jointed and
architects to take advantage of the economies of sealed with a thixotropic joint sealant on a
tilt-up construction, as well as to use the system polyurethane base over a backing rod. Great care has
imaginatively to produce a memorable image for this been taken with the acoustic performance of the
new Roman Catholic church. The panels are only building: the ceiling is treated to absorb sound but no
170 mm thick and weigh up to 18.45 tonnes. The special treatment was required for the walls as the
external panels contain an off-white cement and have reflection of sound provided by the concrete gives
a vigorous ribbed surface, which has been life to the church music, especially to choral works.
grit-blasted to reveal the light-coloured Pine River The designers were recipients of a Concrete Institute
stone aggregate. The tops of the exposed walls are of Australia Excellence in Concrete Award in 1995.
Location - Birkdale, Queensland, Australia
Contract period - Not known, but 22 panels erected in 8 hours
Typical panel size - 6 m wide x 4.0 - 7.5 m high
Typical panel weight - Up to 18.45 tonnes
External finish - Off-white cement, grit-blasted concrete with vigorous ribbed surface
Thermal insulation - Not required
Imaginative use of rugged grit-blasted ribbed panels
2-14
An overview
Section A - A
0 2 4 6 8 10 m
Ground floor plan
Mary McKillop Catholic Church, Queensland, Australia
2-15
COLD STORE PLANT ROOM, WOLVERHAMPTON

This project is the first of several cold store plant insulation and structural capacity as a single
rooms to be constructed in the UK. The plant room constructed element. The two leaves of each panel are
is only about 22 m by 7 m but lies on the critical joined together by composite ties to minimise thermal
path as it is vital to the installation of the complex bridging. The panels were stack cast on a separately
refrigeration plant. The use of tilt-up for this cast slab adjacent to the plant room. This method was
project is estimated by the contractor to have saved adopted as the plant room floor has limited dimensions
up to four weeks over other alternative forms of and is heavily troughed for service pipes. The tilt-up
construction. The panels are typically 7.9 m high panels support lateral wind loads and vertical loads
by 5.8 m wide and weigh in the order of 25 tonnes. from roof and mezzanine floors. Externally the building
The panels are of sandwich construction (60 mm is clad with profiled steel sheets, but consideration is
outer leaf, 50 mm rigid insulation and a 150 mm being given to the use of ribbed-faced concrete tilt-up
loadbearing inner) and thus provide the necessary panels for future projects.
Location - Wolverhampton
Contract period - Panel construction 10 days, erected in 1 day
Typical panel size - 5.8 m wide by 7.9 m high
External finish - Profiled metal cladding on insulated tilt-up panels
Thermal insulation - Sandwiched insulation in tilt-up panels
(Information by courtesy of Chalcroft Construction Ltd and Tilt-up
Profiled steel Alternative ribbed
Construction Services)
cladding concrete finish
Erection of insulated panels Finished building with metal cladding
2-16
An overview
7.9 m
Elevation showing multiple panel openings
22 m
7m
Metal cladding
Ground floor plan of plant room
Plant room
Cold store
Loading dock
General plan of cold store complex
Cold store plant room, Wolverhampton
2-17
IBSA BURIED SERVICES BUILDING, MILL HILL, LONDON
The International Bible Students Association (IBSA) main panels support the main internal concrete roof
has used tilt-up construction techniques for more than beams carrying transverse in-situ floor slabs.
40 projects worldwide. This project, constructed in Thermal performance is achieved by utilising the
1996, is an example of the diversity of this form of insulating properties of the retained soil. A
construction. The tilt-up panels are used for the membrane waterproofing is applied to the perimeter
retaining walls of a buried services building. The panels. A drainage layer is provided at the bottom of
main panels are designed to carry both vertical loads the panels, and discharges to an outfall. The tilt-up
from the buried roof as well as the lateral loads from panels were stack cast on the basement slab which,
the retained backfill. The project uses the structural because of the confined site, was temporarily
and economic benefits of tilt-up to the full. The extended locally to accommodate certain panels.
building is approximately 22 m x 20 m. The solid Only 1 m working space existed beyond the
tilt-up wall panels are typically 200 mm thick and perimeter walls.
vary in size up to 5.2 m wide by 4.8 m high. The
Location - Mill Hill, London

Contract period - Not known but 13 panels
erected in one day
Typical panel size - 5.2 m wide by 4.8 m high
Typical panel weight - 12.8 tonnes
External finish - Plain finished panel with
installed water proofing
Thermal insulation - Provided by lightweight
aggregate and retained soil
(Information by courtesy of IBSA, and
Gatehouse Leach Training and Development)
Arial view showing panel erection on

confined site
Basement construction being roofed
Finished project, buried and laid to lawn
2-18
An overview
Geotextile Top soil

Lightweight agg.
Insulation Subsoil
Membrane
Concrete roof slab
Tilt-up
4.50 m retaining wall
Bentonite
Infill strip membrane
Concrete raft
Gravel
Subsoil
Typical section drain
Elevation (plant room at lower level)
Existing
building
19.73 m
18.12 m
Underground plant room
IBSA, Watchtower House, London
2-19
H DENNERT DISTRIBUTING, OHIO, USA

The H Dennert Distributing complex is a modern requirements by using three different types of wall
white building that incorporates an interesting panels. The panels for the office are of single-leaf
portico, which distinguishes it from other buildings construction with added internal insulation. The walls
nearby. The building is designed as a mixed-use in the staging area are of sandwich construction to
distribution and maintenance centre and has an area provide high strength, high insulation and low
of around 14,285 m2 of varying plan form based on a maintenance. A newly developed, proprietary
15 m grid. In addition, the building is designed to insulated hollow-core panel, competitive with
accommodate a 3800 m2 expansion as business insulated masonry, is used in the drive-through and
grows. This was a design-build project, utilising a catering areas.
local contractor licensed by CON-STEEL Tilt-up
The solid tilt-up wall panels are typically 185 mm
Systems working directly with the owners, H Dennert
thick and vary in size up to 5 m wide by 8.9 m high.
Distributing.
The hollow-core panels are 225 mm thick and
The building comprises seven function areas: office, typically 5.9 m wide by 8.9 m. The sandwich panels
drive-through sales, maintenance shop, interior have a 90 mm outer leaf, 50 mm of insulation and a
staging, ambient case storage, keg draft drive-in 165 mm loadbearing inner leaf. Panel dimensions are
cooler, and special events catering. This project up to 8.0 m wide by 10.2 m high and weigh up to
shows the flexibility of tilt-up to meet varying wall 35 tonnes.
Location - Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

Total floor area - 14,285 m2
Contract period - Unknown but fast-track construction
Typical panel size – Varies, up to 8.0 m wide by 10.2 m high
Typical panel weight - Up to 35 tonnes
External finish - Painted
Thermal insulation - Provided by a combination of internal, sandwich or cored insulation
(Information by courtesy of CON-STEEL Tilt-up Systems)
Featured panels offset the curved portico
2-20
An overview
10.2 m
Project utilises panels of different

shapes and insulation methods
Typical part section
Elevation
52 m 122 m 29 m
34 m
55 m
27 m
30 m 36 m
52 m 30 m 27 m 27 m 29 m 34 m
Plan
H. Dennert Distributing Co, Ohio, USA
2-21
YMCA/YWCA, EASTERN REGIONAL CENTRE, ONTARIO, CANADA

The brick appearance of this building is created by outer leaf and a 165 mm inner leaf designed to carry
using a brick slip system incorporated during the internal loads. The building project was let out to
construction of the tilt-up panels. The brick slips alternative bids and tilt-up produced the best and most
were placed onto a Brick Snap TM grid (Scott committed fast-track schedule. The building has an area
Systems Inc. of Denver, Colorado) placed onto a of some 2860 m2 and was constructed in just 16 weeks.
previously cast slab and backed by 75 mm of
This project demonstrates the flexibility and
concrete. (The use of brick slips is common
adaptability of tilt-up construction enabling rapid
practice for works precast panels and has now been
construction for a building with restricted access on
developed for site use.) Preformed insulation,
two sides due to roadways and steep embankments. To
50 mm thick, was placed on top of this and
aid construction two temporary casting beds were
composite ties inserted to provide a tie between the
needed.
Location - Cumberland, Ontario

Contract period - 16 weeks.
Typical panel size – Varies, up to 4 m wide by 10.2 m high
External finish - Brick surface
Thermal insulation - Provided by sandwich insulation
(Information courtesy of CON-STEEL Tilt-up Systems)
Brick-faced panels enhance the external appearance

(inset shows brick slips laid face down in Grid Snap TM system)
2-22
An overview
10.7 m
3.8 m
North elevation
57 m
18 m
28 m
35 m 22 m
First floor plan
YMCA/YWCA, Cumberland, Ontario, Canada
2-23
DY-4 SYSTEMS INC, KANTA, ONTARIO, CANADA

Speed of construction, energy efficiency and between 18 to 35 tonnes. Pouring and lifting schedules
flexibility for future expansion were the key factors allowed the structural steel to be erected on one wing of
in DY-4's decision to go with the tilt-up design- the building while panels were lifted and positioned on
build proposal for their 6900 m2 building in Ontario. the other wing.
The result is an especially attractive building
The concrete panels are of a high quality and have an
completed in just 21 weeks with all 55 panels being
external exposed white marble aggregate textured
erected in only 4.5 days. The panels are of sandwich
surface created by medium grit-blasting. Additional
construction consisting of a 75 mm outer leaf, 75
site-cast reveals, horizontal accent bands, and unique
mm of preformed insulation and a 150 mm inner
triangular columns on the 10 m high entrance are used
leaf. This provides a U-value of 0.4 W/m2 K in the
to break up the flat linear surface of the building and
panels directly as constructed. The thermal capacity
reinforce the tower's identity as the building's signature
of the concrete inner leaf is also utilised to enhance
piece.
the building's energy efficiency. The panels weigh
Location - Kanata, Ontario

Contract period - 21 weeks
Typical panel size - Sandwich panels typically 6 m wide by 8.8 m high
External finish - Exposed (grit-blasted) white marble aggregate
Thermal insulation - Provided by sandwich insulation
(Information by courtesy of CON-STEEL Tilt-up Systems)
General view of entrance area showing triangular columns
2-24
An overview
8.8 m
South elevation
North elevation
38 m
m
38 38 m
31 m
m
14
m
31
Floor plan
DY- 4 Systems, Kanta, Ontario, Canada
2-25
An overview
BALLARD POWER BUILDING, BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA

This research and development facility for hydrogen area. Each wall panel is the region of 14 m high by
fuel cell technology employs a creative combination 15 m wide and, in order to achieve a finished surface
of concrete tilt-up wall panels, exposed structural on each side of the wall, it is constructed from two
steel and glazing to achieve the high-tech look 190 mm thick panels separated by a 25 mm gap.
required by the client. The building has a ground Connections between the leaves were possible only at
floor area of some 7600 m2 and incorporates a areas hidden by the suspended ceiling space or below
3800 m2 suspended first floor. There is a total of 75 floor slab levels. The connections were achieved by
tilt-up panels that support the roof and floor loads, inserting steel studs through drilled holes and epoxy
and serve as shear walls for both wind and seismic grouting into place. The exposed edges of the walls
loads. are finished with a 420 mm wide steel plate strip to
complete the concrete and steel high-tech image.
Free-standing tilt-up panels dominate the entrance
Location - Burnley, British Columbia

Total floor area - 7600 m2 ground floor, 3800 m2 first floor
Contract period - Unknown
Typical panel size - Up to 14 m high by 15 m wide
Typical panel weight - Up to 96 tonnes per leaf
External finish – Fair-faced concrete
Thermal insulation - Unknown
Ballard Power Station, British Columbia, Canada
2-26
PLANNING FOR TILT-UP

3
This chapter examines the planning process vital to the effective design and construction of tilt-up structures. It
then discusses the need for effective communications between the design and construction functions. This is
followed by consideration of the economics of construction. Casting layout and erection sequence, cranage,
panel sizes and tolerances, and types of panel joints are then presented. Finally, following prediction of strength,
typical programmes and speed of construction are examined using real case studies.
THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION resulting in reduced risk of conflict and in increased
TEAM efficiency.
The simplicity of tilt-up results from thorough Using a franchised or licensed tilt-up contractor
planning for construction during design. Planning for belonging to one of several schemes run from the
tilt-up requires the involvement of every member of United States and operating abroad may attain further
the design/construction team if tilt-up’s advantages benefits. Finally it should be noted that a number of
and versatility are to be fully exploited and its cost individuals and suppliers are able to offer tilt-up
and speed benefits are to be maximised. Co-operation planning and consultancy in the UK through
should begin at the planning stage and continue experience gained both here and abroad (see
through to the completion of the project. Chapter 13).
Typically, the team comprises the architect, building

and panel designers, contractor, specialist sub- OPTIMISING TILT-UP BENEFITS
contractor, lifting contractor and lifting accessories The most suitable configuration for tilt-up is a large
supplier. The lifting operation is vital to any low-rise modest building with few openings,
successful job and the lifting contractor should be allowing a near production-line process of forming
consulted as early as possible in the planning process. and erecting almost identical panels. Buildings such
It is important that each member of the team is aware as warehouses, distribution centres and some
of the constraints of the tilt-up method and of the industrial and retail buildings can come close to this
broad implications of any planning decision. ideal. However, many other forms are also suitable
Compromise will often be necessary; the and the following criteria may be used to help
participation of all members of the team in the identify them.
decision-making process is therefore required if the Wall to floor ratio - Ideally this should not exceed
best solution is to be found, particularly for the 70 to 80% to allow walls to be cast individually on
casting and erection sequences. the floor, with space for the crane to operate.
Circumstances such as project location or tendering However, stack-casting of some panels or the use of
procedures may dictate that the full team is not adjacent temporary casting beds is not uncommon,
known at the design stage. In such cases, the designer permitting a higher ratio, or even removing the need
should make every effort to compensate for missing to use the ground slab. When the slab is used for the
input by soliciting advice from specialists with local construction of the panels it must be designed for
knowledge. These could include equipment suppliers, both in-service loads and for any cranage loads
crane operators and specialist sub-contractors. during erection.
Changes made during construction must be very Configuration – Construction efficiency will be
carefully considered, since many decisions depend on maximised by a building largely composed of walls
or affect other operations. As with other forms of that permit a large number of similar sized wall
construction, reversing one decision may start a chain elements, but more variable building forms are also
reaction that could necessitate the reconsideration of viable.
all subsequent decisions. Panel size - A typical site-cast panel for a low-rise
The above points reveal that tilt-up is ideally suited building can be around 7.5 to 9.0 m high and 7.5 m
to design and build contracts. However, other forms wide and weigh between 25 to 35 tonnes. However,
of procurement are successfully employed. In all between 15 and 25 tonnes is a more typical weight
cases it is important that the ground slab (and ideally for a tilt-up panel in order to make optimum use of
the foundations) are constructed by the same cranage. Economic construction of buildings of three
contractor as the tilt-up panels to avoid problems or more stories is not uncommon. However, these
with finish and tolerance. In this way, tilt-up reduces may require a more sophisticated arrangement of
the number of trade packages and interfaces, lifting rigging than for panels under around 9 m in
3-1
61.5 m
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10
W14 E1
W13 W14 N1 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9
W13 6 7 8 11 12 13 14 15 16 E2
N2 N3
W12 W12 5 17 N10 18 E1 E3
9 10
W11 W11 4 19 E2 20 E3 E4
W10 W10 3 Erection sequence 21 E4 E5 Top of panels

positioned
towards edge
W9 W9 2 22 E5 E6 of building
Edge of initial
W8 W8 1 slab pour 23 E6 E7
86.2 m
W7 ACCESS LANE 24 E7 E8
W6 W5 46 48 W7 Walk-out panel 25 E9
E8
W5 W4 45 47 W6 26 E9 E10
Make-up
strip
W4 W3 44 43 W2 27 E10 E11
35 33 31
W3 W1 42 41 S1 S7 S9 E14 28 E11 E12
W2 40 39 38 37 36 34 32 30 29 E13
S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S8 S10 E13 E12

W1 E14
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Figure 3.1 Panel layout and construction sequence
height, in order to keep lifting tensile stresses and can enable activities to be overlapped, with roof steel
thus thickness low. Equally, weight for cranage can erection concurrent with panel lifting and even
be a restriction. Depending on panel and crane casting elsewhere.
layout, 35 tonnes is a sensible maximum but this is
Looking at the lower limits, consideration of a typical
often exceeded. In the USA, panels up to 28 m high
low-rise wall height, the maximum wall to floor
and up to 130 tonnes in weight have been
ratios, and typical aspect ratios in plan leads to a
successfully lifted, using strongbacks and highly
minimum size of around 2000 m² floor area if stack-
specialised equipment.
casting is to be avoided. However, contractors abroad
Building size - Large buildings conforming to the are reporting economical construction at sizes down
other criteria in this list particularly favour tilt-up, as to 400 m². One UK example in Chapter 2 describes
expensive crane hire and other fixed costs are an ancillary building of only 200 m², where tilt-up
absorbed by the increased areas involved, and tilt- was viable because its speed saved around four
up’s speed advantage becomes most pronounced. weeks on the main building programme.
Additionally, on the largest projects, careful planning
3-2
Planning for tilt-up
Alternatively, one day’s crane usage, with 15 to 30 with pad foundations, when used. A decision must be
panels at 5 m to 7 m width, gives a sensible minimum taken early in the design process, taking into account
enclosed floor area of between 700 and 1400 m². the above factors, and optimising the crane size and
number of crane set-up positions. Some buildings,
Confined sites - Contrary to common belief, tilt-up
otherwise suitable for tilt-up, may have a wall to
can prove ideal for confined sites where access
floor area greater than the economic maximum of 70
around the building is limited. An excellent example
to 80%. There are several methods for overcoming
of this is the basement structure in Chapter 2
this:
(page 2-18) where careful planning and stack-casting
allowed all panels to be cast and erected from the • Stack-casting up to six panels deep releases space
slab with only a metre or so of working space beyond for crane access. The upper faces of box-outs for
this. openings are often set low to contain a thin
sacrificial layer of concrete. This facilitates float
finishing of the whole surface giving a good
LAYOUT OF PANELS AND finish for forming the next layer. Careful planning
ERECTION SEQUENCE and execution is necessary to maintain tolerances
To optimise crane capacity and usage, wall panels are and finishes.
usually cast face down on the floor slab, as close as • Temporary casting beds, typically of 75 mm
possible to their final erected position. Their tops will concrete, can be used outside the building
generally be close to the perimeter slab make-up strip footprint. After the construction of the panels they
with sides touching neighbouring panels. This allows may be broken-out, buried, or incorporated in
the crane driver to have full sight of the lifting permanent works.
rigging whilst proceeding down the line of panels. It • Multi-stage casting and lifting allows the floor to
is essential, therefore, that the layout and casting be used several times.
order should be planned around the proposed erection
• External crane positioning may release sufficient
procedure with access for concreting and finishing in
floor space for casting.
a production-line process. Occasionally the lifting
position is different, resulting in ‘reverse pick’ or
‘blind’ lifting and increased crane capacity for the
Max. panel
longer reach required, eg. from a set-up outside the weight
ius
slab. Rad 9.5 tonne
m
12 11.4
Panels are normally cast face-down to allow easy 1 1 13.5
lifting, with inserts hidden from sight on the inside 10 16.5
9
face. This permits easy formation of an architectural 8
20.0
finish on the outer face, using form-liners or feature 22.6
7
strips placed on the floor slab. 5.4 m
3.7 m
Casting position of slabs

Figure 3.1 shows a typical casting layout of wall
panels before erection on a building with sufficient
floor area to accommodate panels without stack
casting. Panel location is best decided by trial and
error using a physical model of the building and the
wall panels. This might take the form of a plan of the
ground floor slab, including movement joints,
column box-outs, perimeter make-up strip and any
other features affecting the slab surface forming the
casting bed. Wall panels can be formed to scale in
card or even thin plywood and marked up with all
features and inserts relevant to the casting and Figure 3.2 Crane capacities at different lifting radii
erection procedure. A plan of the crane on transparent
film, with its outriggers and capacity at varying radii Several of these options may be combined, but all
(Figure 3.2) completes the model. must be considered carefully as they can affect speed,
economics (especially crane time and capacity), and
Panel sizes and weight, crane capacity and reach, finish quality.
wall and slab configuration, and wall features such as
openings, are all inter-related. Panel size is often To ensure efficient operation and to minimise errors,
determined by the availability and cost of cranage. drawings should clearly present all the necessary
Thickness and height are the next most important information in a form to suit site operations. The
parameters, which affect both in-service and lifting panel layout (Figure 3.1) provides a unique
design as well as cranage. Panel width should also numbering system reflecting the erection sequence,
co-ordinate with doors and architectural features and
3-3
6.14 m
1.30 3.54 1.30

0.76 1.54 1.54 1.54 0.76 Joist seating
embedments
0.2 1.59
1.85 0.19 panel
thickness
Bracing
0.1 inserts 0.1
0.18 panel thickness 2.31
1.23
1.84 2.46 1.84 Lifting inserts

10.36
3.54
6.90
7.28 12 x 90 mm
reveal at door
3.14 head
0.3
1.0
2.92
1.23
12 mm coil inserts
External elevation for reinforcement Internal elevation
connection to slab
Figure 3.3 Drawing showing opening, thickness and position of inserts and fixings
4413 660
1314
2920 2642
4258 2920
2260 9500
9093
6452
6045
3404
305
3099 2642
Figure 3.4 Typical panel setting-out information
and shows both casting and final positions of the Good dimensional control (Figure 3.4) is best
walls in relation to the slab and foundations. achieved using a setting-out drawing with both panel
diagonals and running chainages, making minor
Each panel will have its own drawing (Figure 3.3).
variations self-compensating and providing checks
To suit face-down construction these also show the
for squareness.
view from the inside, with details of all openings,
features, fittings and inserts to allow construction of Cranage and crane movements
the panel. Reinforcement may be shown on a
separate sheet or view. Ideally, planning should involve the crane contractor
and should mock-up all operations including
3-4
bracing. A key objective is to optimise crane hook

time and set-up time with lifting capacity. To
illustrate this point the reader should imagine the
crane locations and reach necessary to erect and
brace the panels illustrated in Figure 3.1, whilst 1 2 3
minimising the crane capacity.
During planning it must be decided whether panels 4
will be contiguous, share side forms, or be spaced
apart. Having chosen an erection sequence and panel
numbering to suit, panel casting positions will
loosely reflect erection, with adjustment to suit 5
corners and bracing (Figures 3.5 and 3.6). Provision Bracing affects casting location
(particularly at corners) see
must be made for crane access and exit. The last alternative solutions below
panel is often set vertically in a temporary position
next to the exit whilst the crane moves outside before 1 2 3
completing the envelope. 6
4
Where floor space dictates that stack-casting is 1 2
necessary, the order (Figure 3.7) and number of 5
panels per stack should reflect the maximum that can 3 6
be handled by the crane without relocating, and the 6
constraints of placing and finishing the concrete to 4
tolerance.
5
(a) All panels cast on floor slab 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
Corner panel can oversail
4 4 4
1 2 1 2
5 5 5
6 6 6
6+5
Panels cast on
+4+3 external slab
Stack-cast panels
(b) Panels cast on floor (c) Panels cast on floor and

and stack-cast on on external casting slab
adjacent panels
Figure 3.6 Influence of bracing on casting layout
The rating of a crane is the maximum load that can

be lifted at its minimum radius. The radius is
measured from the centre of rotation of the crane.
The greater the radius, the lesser the load. For
Erecting towards opening example a crane rated at 40 tonnes will carry 40
permits absorption of tonnes at its shortest reach, but at 6 metres radius will
tolerances lift only about 18 tonnes (Figure 3.8). For this size
crane, the lowest operational radius is around 6
metres but this will increase for larger cranes.
Many factors come into the selection of crane size,
and this should have been determined at the planning
stage along with panel sizes and casting layout. The
crane operator should be involved at this early stage,
and should visit the site before the day of lifting to
Opening
inspect access, restrictions and ground conditions
below the crane and outrigger positions.
When assessing panel working radius, 1.5 metres
should be added to the final panel position to allow
Figure 3.5 Influence of corner detail on casting for the tilt of the panel when on the hook. Also when
layout and erection sequence evaluating crane capacity the weight of rigging gear
3-5
and any strongbacks plus an allowance for suction and move between lifts. Also, a large crane will
(see Chapter 8, ‘The lifting sequence’, item 3) need generally not be able to get as close to a panel, and
to be added to the weight of the panel. rigging of large panels will be more complicated.
Certainly a larger crane required for only a few larger
The use of a larger crane with fewer panels of greater
panels in a contract is an uneconomical solution.
size will not always be economical. The additional
Whatever size crane is used, a check is necessary to
crane costs need to be balanced against the reduced
ensure it can get onto site and can manoeuvre into all
casting costs. A larger crane will take longer to set up
the set-up positions required.
High point loads will be imposed on a slab from the
outriggers of a mobile crane. This load should be
Direction of spread over the slab by using timber bearers to keep
placing bearing stress to a reasonable level (The rule of
thumb sometimes used in the USA is 10 t/m² for a
125 mm thick slab.) Crawler-mounted cranes impose
1
2 lower bearing stresses on the ground and can be
3 useful when erection from outside the building is
4 possible.
5 Crane
position 1 The lifting limitations (height, reach and load
6
7 capacity) of the chosen crane should be carefully
8 1 examined. As a rough rule of thumb, crane capacity
Crane 2 should be two or three times the maximum panel
position 1 3
4 weight, rising to as much as ten times where external
casting beds are used. Dismantling, moving and
Stack-casting
5 setting up in a fresh location takes considerable time
6 sequence
7 and is completely unproductive. Therefore, the more
8 panels that a crane can erect from a given position the
Stack-casting more efficient the operation. It may sometimes be
sequence necessary to move the crane on cast walls still to be
lifted, and this can result in tyre marks that are
difficult to remove. If this is critical, the running
surface should be protected with paper, hardboard or
Figure 3.7 Stack-casting sequence tarpaulins. (Note that some tilt-up advocates will not
contemplate heavy plant running on wall panels.)
Radius for erected panel
True radius whilst placing panel

Minimum of 1.5 m extra to be allowed
when assessing project
Figure 3.8 Practical crane working radius
3-6
Blocked-out for panel

thickness and height of
(a) Examples of use of strongbacks opening
Bolt with
plate-washer
Steel channel
Insert in panel
(b) Detail of heavy-duty steel strongback
Figure 3.9 Example of use of strongbacks
The availability of all rigging, lifting beams, bottom tie is best used to close the opening in the
shackles, etc. should be confirmed from specialist buried portion of wall (Figure 3.30 Separate
hire companies or tilt-up specialists. With modern spandrel/lintel panels are time consuming to set on
quick-release inserts it is common to use only one set columns, tying up the crane. It is worth considering
of rigging/lifting gear and there seems to be no great combining these panels with their supports despite
speed advantage in using multiple sets. the need for more complex reinforcement or even
thickening the inner face. L-shaped panels with
Rate of erection will vary with the size of the panels, narrow legs are best avoided as they may require
layout, complexity of bracing, etc. As a guide, strongbacks for strength at lifting (Figure 3.9). Where
competent contractors aim to erect one panel every used they should be stable laterally.
half hour and frequently achieve a cycle time as low
Weight - 25 to 35 tonnes per panel is a good working
as 15 to 20 minutes.
weight, requiring a crane capacity in the region of 80
or 100 tonnes for a working radius of around 8
PANEL SIZES AND TOLERANCES metres (see previous section). Up to 55 tonnes is
feasible, but will involve more complex rigging and
Sizing and shape the penalty of a larger crane and longer set-up times.
The preceding sections have illustrated how panel However, placing a larger panel usually takes no
size and weight are inter-related with layout and more crane time than placing a smaller one.
erection. The following points are worth considering Thickness - Typical ratios of panel thickness to
when sizing panels: height (slenderness ratios) between effective points
Shape - Rectangular panels are most economical and of support in service vary between 1 to 30 and 1 to 50
where openings, such as doors, start at floor level, a or even 60 occasionally. The panel must resist the
3-7
Correct panel Designed joint Designed joint

start position width and position width and position
Variation absorbed Each panel starts on Variation absorbed

in reduced joint designed position in enlarged joint
OPTION 1 (Not preferred)

All variations taken
up at this point
Designed joint width Designed joint width
maintained maintained
OPTION 2 (Preferred)
Oversail corner or opening
Figure 3.10 Absorption of tolerances at joints
stresses not only in service but also at lifting, which Tolerances

is often the most critical case (see Chapter 5 for panel
in-service design and Chapter 6 for lifting design). It is of the utmost importance that the specified panel
Too thin a section will require complex lifting and joint tolerances are realistic. Once established
arrangements, which may make tilt-up uneconomic. they must be maintained. In general, variations in
Too thick will make panels overly heavy and produce size have a tendency to increase overall wall length.
cost penalties in cranage and foundations. For Depending on their size, joint details may be used to
planning purposes, a thickness equal to the panel’s absorb these variations either progressively at each
effective height divided by 50 is often used. Other joint or collectively at one location, eg. at an oversail
factors to consider are cover to double-layer or, more corner or doorway (Figure 3.10). If tilt-up panels are
normally, single-layer reinforcement, and the size being used in conjunction with in-situ construction,
and location of any rebates that reduce the effective then the tolerances for tilt-up panels should not be
section size. used to absorb the construction errors of the in-situ
work (1).
Rebates - Rebates are used architecturally to break
up panels, to hide joints, to demarcate areas for Construction tolerances - There are no British
painting and texturing, or for other aesthetic devices. Standards that deal specifically with tilt-up
They are a powerful way to modify the look of wall construction, although BS 5606 (2) provides guidance
panels but effectively reduce the section thickness on tolerances and deviations for both precast concrete
available for structural use. Where possible, it is best and in-situ concrete which might be used as a guide
to avoid horizontal rebates within the centre third of a to assess suitable tolerances for tilt-up panels.
panel’s effective length for slenderness so as to Alternatively it would perhaps be better to adopt the
prevent the need for increased section thickness or tolerances used in those countries where tilt-up is
reinforcement to compensate. more prevalent. The Australian Standard AS 3850.2-
1990 (3) gives the tolerances shown in Table 3.1.
Rigging - Rigging arrangements should be kept as Those recommended by the Tilt-up Concrete
similar as possible to avoid time lost in changing Association (4) are shown in Table 3.3. If panels are
rigging, even where this means fittings are under- carefully formed, their foundation pads checked
used structurally. thoroughly, and all elements properly checked, it is
Width - This should be decided by considering straightforward to attain these tolerances.
foremost building geometry and roof truss spacing
and then weight, wall height, lifting fittings, and Joint width between panels (tolerance) - The design
architectural requirements. A width of 7.0 m is not joint width between two panels will depend upon the
unusual for wall panels and up to 12.0 m for panels’ width, the specified joint tolerance and on the
spandrel/lintel panels. shape and strain capacity of the sealant to be used.
3-8
Table 3.1 Recommended tolerances (3)
Panel size(m) Tolerances (mm)

Width Height Planeness 1 Squareness 2 Edge Thickness 3
straightness 3
< 3.0 +0, -5 ±5 ±5 ±5 ±5 ±10

> 3.0 < 6.0 +0, - ±10 ±5 ±15 ±7 ±10
10
> 6.0 +0, - ±10 ±5 ±15 ±10 ±10
12
1. Deviation of any point on the face from the intended line.
2. Measured as tolerance in length of diagonal.
3. Provided that in any 3 m, the deviation from the intended line does not exceed 5 mm.
Table 3.2 Panel and erection tolerances (4)
Type of Item and details Tolerance

tolerance (mm)
Casting Height and width of Up to 6 m ±6
basic panel
6 m to 9 m ±8
Each additional 1m ±3
Thickness 1 ±5
Skew of panel Per 1.8 m ±3
or opening 2
Maximum difference ±12
Openings cast into Size of openings ±6
panel
Location of opening ±6
Location/placement of Inserts, bolts, pipe sleeves ±10
embedded items
Lifting and bracing inserts ±12
Weld plate embedments (lateral bracing) ±25
Weld plate embedments (tipping and flushness) ±6
±6
3
Erection Joint width variation Panels up to 6 m tall
Each additional 3 m height ±3
±10
4
Joint taper Maximum for entire length
Panels up to 6 m tall ±6
Each additional 3 m height ±3
Panel alignment Alignment of horizontal and vertical joints ±6
Offset in exterior face of adjacent panels ±6
1. The average variation of panel thickness through any horizontal or vertical cross-section of the panel.
2. Measured difference in length of the two diagonals.
3. Measured between panels at the exterior face of the panels at the joint.
4. The measured differences in joint width indicating panel edges are not parallel.
3-9
This width may be in the order of 12 to 15 mm for a able to accommodate both movement in-service and
narrow panel (3 m wide) with a high transverse tolerances in panels and erection. Alternatively, a
movement sealant or 25 mm or greater for larger one-stage joint can be formed using a preformed
panels (6 to 7 m wide) with a less accommodating gasket (Figure 3.11(b)).
sealant. Joint tolerances are important for the
The multiple-stage joint - (Figure 3.11(c)) one-stage
performance of the joint sealants (most of which have
joint and should be used in severe climate conditions,
movement capabilities of around 25%) and are critical
as may occur in some parts of the UK. Because this
for weatherproofing.
joint makes use of a minimum of two lines of sealant,
Information on the application of joint sealants is a minimum panel thickness of 100 mm is
given in Reference 5. Maintenance of the designed recommended. The interior line of sealant is usually
joint width as shown on Figure 3.10 is the preferred applied from the inside surface of the wall and acts as
option (3), with dimension variations taken out at the continuous air seal between the interior and
doorways and/or oversail corners. Also the joints exterior. The exterior sealant acts as the rain barrier
must allow the panels to move relative to each other and prevents direct entry of most airborne water. A
as the temperature or humidity changes. third inner sealant is sometimes used on panels with a
permeable external layer. Any water that does enter
the joint is drained in the airspace and out through
TYPES OF PANEL JOINTS drainage holes at the bottom of vertical joints.
The joint detailing is very important when considering
Special care should also be taken when designing and
the cost, appearance and performance of a tilt-up
detailing interfaces between different building
building. The detail must be compatible with the:
materials such as window-frames, door-frames,
• Structural design assumptions roofing and flashing. To ensure satisfactory
• Forming and placing methods performance, details must account for differential
movement between materials caused by temperature
• Erection procedure
changes or structural loading. If necessary, special
• Fixing detail grooves, dovetail slots, and embedded items can be
• Construction tolerances cast into the concrete to attach window frame
assemblies or roof flashing.
Proper detailing of vertical and horizontal joints
between panels is important because this is where the The dry baffle joint - (Figure 3.11 (d)) by a
wall is most susceptible to rain penetration. There are continuous sheet of elastomeric material slotted
three basic types of weather-resistant joints used for between rebates in faces of vertical joints. Although
tilt-up panels: the one-stage sealant joint, the it requires a more complex side form to panels, the
multiple-stage sealant joint and the dry-baffle joint. joint has proved effective in some precast panels in
In each case the top of the panels is normally finished the UK with no maintenance over a 20 year span,
with a capping to prevent rain entering the joint at the although it would be prudent to provide access at the
head of the panel. top for replacement. The difficulty of producing such
an edge profile on site should be considered
The one-stage joint - This is economical and the carefully.
most common joint used in North America (Figure
3.11 (a)). It performs satisfactorily in most climates. A variation to joint details shown in Figure 3.11 (a)
Typically, a foam backer rod is placed in the joint to (d) is where the gasket or sealant is substituted by
from the exterior and a field-moulded joint sealant is a precompressed impregnated sealing tape. The
then installed. Because this joint provides only a resulting seal is achieved by a precompressed foam
single line of defence against weather, and is exposed which is less sensitive to joint construction
to the deteriorating effects of weather and ultraviolet tolerances, widths and movements. Chapter 9 -
light, it requires the following: Weather resistance of panels and joints - considers
joints in greater detail.
• A good overall wall design
• Proper site installation
PREDICTION OF STRENGTH
• High quality materials DEVELOPMENT
• Regular maintenance
The speed of construction of tilt-up is affected by the
The sealant must provide a completely airtight and time taken for the cast panels to reach sufficient
water-tight seal. Poor adhesion of the sealant may flexural tensile strength to resist the lifting stresses
allow water penetration. The design of the seal for (this is dealt with in more detail in Chapter 6).
the joint is complex and involves the consideration of Typically this will be achieved in between two to
a number of factors, eg. expected movement, width seven days, depending on weather and concrete grade
of the joint, type of sealant, and width-to-depth ratio used. Insulating blankets can be used to speed up the
of the sealant. In general, for a given width-to-depth curing process if critical. The prediction of the
ratio, wider joints are preferable as they are better strength development of the concrete can be obtained
from Reference 6. Although intended primarily for
3-10
Continuous sealant Neoprene cruciform

and backing gasket
INTERIOR
INTERIOR
Flashing Flashing
(a) One-stage face-sealed joint (b) One-stage gasket joint
Rain drainage zone
Continuous sealant Baffle strip

and backing
Continuous sealant
and backing strip
INTERIOR INTERIOR
15 - 25 mm
Flashing Flashing
(c) Multiple-stage sealed (d) Dry baffle joint

joint (shown two stage)
Figure 3.11 Basic types of weather resisting joints used on tilt-up panels
used on tilt-up panels
concrete in suspended formwork, predictions should Figures 3.12 and 3.13 show two construction
be generally applicable for slabs cast on the ground. programmes for buildings in the USA, and Figure
3.14 shows one for a project built in the UK. Note the
overlap of main activities in Figure 3.13 and that tilt-
PROGRAMME AND SPEED OF up panels are mostly completed during the roof steel
CONSTRUCTION fabrication period. In considering the three sites,
Speed of construction is a key benefit of tilt-up some differences in approach are evident, but by
construction. To make best advantage of this, the combining these with experience of other sites the
design and construction team need to be aware of all following guidelines are obtained:
the major activities, their precedence and the scope • Tilt-up allows a rapid start on site, due to the
for overlaps and parallel processing. In the United short lead-time for reinforced concrete cast on the
States, contractors specialising in tilt-up are able to ground.
strip the site, form foundations and slab, and cast and
erect the tilt-up walls to a 9,300 m² warehouse in • Because wall panels are formed on the ground
only five to six weeks. floor slab, for fast construction the earliest
possible start on the slab is required, consistent
with achieving a casting quality finish.
3-11
APRIL 1996 MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER

1 8 15 22 29 6 13 20 27 3 10 17 24 1 8 15 22 29 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30
Design
coordination with
Grading Ground slab Erect steel Snagging
02 Apr 30 Apr 18 Jun 30 July 24 Sept

Design development Footings and foundations Lay out tilt-up panels Building M & E
09 Apr 21 May 02 Jul 20 Aug

Steel fabrication Project completed 01 Oct
22 May
Permit review Pour tilt-up concrete
07 May 09 Jul
Erect tilt-up panels Roofing
Structural 27 Aug
steel shop External works
07 May 04 June
Exterior doors
and overhead
Figure 3.12 Construction programme for a 19,000 m2 warehouse in the USA
ACTIVITY WEEKS
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Site layout
Substructure and slab
Ground slab cured Procure
reinforcement
Cast tilt-up panels
Crane on site
Tilt and brace panels
Allocate steel Steel fabricated
Erection of steelwork
subcontract off site
Roof surfacing
Caulk joints/remove bracing
Internal finishes
External works
Hand-over to client
Figure 3.13 Construction programme for a 11,000 m2 warehouse in the USA
ACTIVITY WEEKS
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Strip site/cast foundations

Cast floor bays
Cast tilt-up panels
Tilt panels and brace
Services
Steel frame / roofing
Joinery / windows
Wall / floor finishes
Earth berms / landscaping
Panitwork
Cleaning / hand-over
Figure 3.14 Construction programme for Glenrothes 2, Scotland (3743 m2)
3-12
• Panel preparation may start as little as 24 to 48 Slab construction and roof erection followed on in a
hours after sufficient slab is cast. Typical average phased manner. Erection of panels to the workroom
rates for forming and casting vary between three proceeded the rest of the walls to allow early fit-out.
and 15 panels/day, increasing with size of
Further information on tilt-up projects in America is
building. Sandwich panels will add only one to
given Reference 7.
two days to the total panel casting period.
• Typical average panel erection rates vary between Table 3.3 Project data for mail sorting buildings
five and 14 panels/day, but the fastest rates can
apply equally to smaller buildings. Item Building 1 Building 2
• For a large site, tilting-up of panels may be 2
Total building area (m ) 19,881 23,550
scheduled to take several weeks and the first
panels may start to be erected before the final Construction start date Jan 1992 Feb 1992
panels are cast, provided that the panels have
Substantial completion May 1992 Sept. 1992
gained sufficient strength at lifting. This allows
date
an early start on the roof steel, but increases crane
time. Total number of tilt-up 195 156
• For fast construction, roof steelwork fabrication wall panels
may well be a critical activity. However, with tilt- Average/maximum 15/19 12/17
up, erection of the walls is nearly complete number of panels cast
before roof steel is required (unlike with a daily
traditional portal frame), so allowing a shorter
programme. Average/maximum 12/16 14/18
• Roof steel erection is made easier by the firm number of panels
working platform of the floor slab and may be erected daily
started as soon as there are sufficient load-bearing
wall panels in place. Roofing can follow on close
behind. REFERENCES
• As a mature floor slab already exists before 1. Cement and Concrete Association of New
roofing is completed, M&E and other fit-out Zealand. Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA,
activities, such as racking, can start early and Porirua, New Zealand. TM 34, 1990. 32 pp.
proceed unhindered. A fast finish is achievable. 2. British Standards Institution. BS 5606, Guide
• In general, the larger the building, the greater the to accuracy in building. BSI, Milton Keynes,
scope for overlapping sequential activities to 1990. 56 pp.
speed construction. 3. Standards Australia. AS 3850.2, Tilt-up
concrete and precast concrete elements for use in
Case study buildings, Part 2: Guide to design, casting and
erection of tilt-up panels. Standards Australia,
The following case study outlines details of two quite
North Sydney, 1990. 24 pp.
complex buildings in the USA, including reasons for
the choice of tilt-up. 4. Tilt-up Concrete Association. Tolerances for
tilt-up panels. TCA Newsletter, USA, Vol. 3,
Table 3.3 provides details of two large low-rise mail No. 4, December 1995. pp 1-2.
sorting buildings requiring reception, dispatch areas
5. CIRIA. Manual of good practice in sealant
and a workroom for sorting, with special fire rating
application. CIRIA, London. Special
and separation requirements. The roof is metal deck
on a truss and joist system. The application of value publication 80, 1991. 58 pp.
engineering resulted in the choice of tilt-up over 6. Harrison, T, A. Formwork striking times -
concrete masonry, steel frame and metal cladding, criteria, prediction and methods of assessment.
and factory precast options. Criteria considered for CIRIA, London, 1995. Report 136. 71 pp.
this fast-track project included winter working, fire, 7. Tilt-up Concrete Association. Video: Tilt-up
risk of programme slippage, security, ease of concrete construction. Published in the UK by the
modification, architectural scope and cost. Reinforced Concrete Council, Crowthorne, 1996.
Tilt-up was the cheapest alternative and the fastest by
approximately six weeks. Fast construction was
achieved by careful co-ordination of the slab
castings, and the casting and erection schedules for
tilt-up panels. The crew for tilt-up panels was able to
start on preliminary work for panels within 24 to 48
hours of slab casting. As soon as a further slab was
cast the process continued.
3-13
3-14
FLOOR SLABS AND

4 FOUNDATIONS
This chapter presents those aspects of the design and construction of floor slabs and foundations particularly
relevant to tilt-up. For floor slabs, the inter-related issues of construction method, tolerance and finish are
examined, followed by weather, curing, compacting and finishing. Then design loading, design procedure and
the construction programme are discussed. Finally, the chapter covers foundation design and construction
issues, including details, column footings, panel seating and construction.
FLOOR SLAB DESIGN AND developed to predict the effects on the performance
CONSTRUCTION of pallet handling equipment rather than on the visual
quality of the finish or the dimensional accuracy of
The detailed design and construction of ground- components cast in contact with floor slabs.
supported concrete floor slabs are specialised However, inspection of the recommended tolerances
activities beyond the scope of this publication. The in Chapter 3 suggests that tolerances suitable for tilt-
sector has undergone major efficiency changes over up may be achievable with several of the floor
the last few years with trends towards capital classifications given in Reference 1, depending on
intensive mechanisation, fewer joints in the slab, and the relative casting position of adjacent panels on the
the use of steel fibre reinforcement. However, recent slab and the attention paid to the particular
publications by the Concrete Society (1) and the requirements of a casting-bed.
Institution of Civil Engineers (2) are standard works
giving detailed guidance on the subject. The scope of Brookes (3) cites a US tolerance of 6 mm in 3 m,
this Chapter is therefore confined to specific items which loosely translates to FM2 in Reference 1. UK
related to the special requirements of tilt-up industrial floor contractors may consider FM3 more
construction on the ground floor slab realistic for forming slabs in the open. Experienced
US and Australian contractors producing high quality
Construction method tilt-up buildings report that modern slipform pavers
and laser levellers can produce a floor slab with
The intended or predicted final use of the floor will consistently high quality suitable for tilt-up.
give in-service tolerances and joint requirements Finishing is normally by power float, possibly with
suggesting the likely method of construction. This hand finishing at edges (4). It is important that the slab
then needs to be examined for any additional surface finish is free of visible float marks or other
requirements for forming the panels. Reference 1 blemishes likely to affect the chosen panel finish.
outlines a variety of UK floor slab construction
methods generally characterised by increasing bay When openings must be left in the floor for pipes,
width and hence speed and economy of construction, utilities, or the erection of interior columns or walls
balanced by decreasing constructional accuracy in at a later date, a 20 to 40 mm coat of concrete over a
terms of surface flatness. sand fill can be used to close the opening
temporarily. The concrete can be knocked out after
However, experience abroad is that it generally the panels have been tilted. An alternative system is
requires very little extra effort to ensure that the to form up the opening using form-ply or polystyrene
normal floor finish will form a suitable casting and place a 20 mm coat of concrete over the formed
surface for tilt-up. But bay width, joint spacing and surface.
flatness can influence the visual quality of the Formwork to provide recessed areas in the panel face
finished tilt-up panels, and co-ordination of the tilt-up should be robust enough to remain plane under the
panel dimensions to avoid floor joints may influence application of concrete and associated construction
the chosen method of floor slab construction. (See loading.
Reference 1 for typical floor construction details, bay
sizes, surface flatness, etc.) Bay widths and floor Since the panel will reflect imperfections in the
joint spacing will normally co-ordinate with column casting surface, any pre-located floor bracing points
grid lines. Where co-ordination of panels with slab or floor joints in the casting area will need to be
joints is not possible, the joint may be flush filled masked out before the panels are cast. Suitable
with, for example, a silicone sealant, or hidden by a materials for patching and joint filling include
feature rebate designed into the panels. silicone sealants and hot wax.
Tolerances and finish (casting surface) Weather conditions

It is important to note that the commonly used Both the floor slab and the tilt-up panels are normally
measurements of flatness in Reference 1 have been cast in the open, and weather conditions such as
4-1
wind, rain and heat must be taken into account. Tilt- of 6 mm or less) and any bleed-water has
up is popular in the USA, Canada and New Zealand dissipated.
where all weather conditions met in the UK are • The power float operator should ensure that flat-
routinely catered for, especially in New Zealand’s soled footwear is used as treads will cause
climate which is very similar to our own. Whilst indentations that are difficult to remove. Ride-on
respectful of the weather, both designers and operators should avoid sharp turns which reduce
contractors abroad do not consider it to be a flatness.
significant problem (4).
• The first float pass should be at right angles to
In addition, detailed, localised weather reports are screeding ridges and subsequent ones at right
readily available in the UK, allowing contractors to angles to the previous pass.
plan concreting activities around extremes and take • When hand trowelling at edges, use a straight
sensible precautions. Generally, apart from normal edge to ensure that the concrete is flat, as it is
good practice under usual weather conditions (see
easy at this stage to hump it at the edges.
Reference 5), only two conditions require extra care
when not constructing under cover: • Do not use a steel trowel too early; this will slow
the drying, as it seals the surface of the concrete.
Hot windy weather - Ensure that the fresh concrete
does not dry out during finishing and apply the • Where joints are sawn remove slurry before it
curing membrane as soon as possible. ‘Fog’ spraying can dry.
is successfully used in the USA. In the USA, there is a move towards pan floats on
Heavy rain - Avoid concreting in standing water and power trowels, with reports of better tolerances and
protect the surface from excessive water by sheeting increased productivity. (Reference 6 gives detailed
over if necessary. guidance on the use of pan floats and on achieving a
high degree of flatness.)
Curing, compacting and finishing
Ground floor slabs and tilt-up panels require careful
Design loadings
attention to curing. This ensures high quality Slabs on ground are subject to stresses arising from
concrete, without drying shrinkage cracks, which three sources (1)
performs well as a casting bed for panels formed on • Bending stresses due to applied loads.
top. Additionally, panels rely on developing good
tensile strength of concrete at lifting. This requires • Bending due to differential horizontal
strong crack-free concrete and hence good curing. movements due to moisture and thermal
gradients through the slab.
The normal way to ensure good curing is to apply a
• Tension due to moisture and thermal contraction
special spray curing agent immediately after float
being restrained by sub-base friction.
finishing. This will also act as a bond-breaker
between slab and panel (see Chapter 7). General These aspects are covered fully in Reference 1, but
guidance on curing of concrete is given in Reference 5. for tilt-up, the key difference for slab design is the
loading imposed on it during construction. Table
It is essential to review and confirm the compatibility
4.1gives the typical tilt-up constructional loads which
and suitability of chemicals for curing and bond-
may be compared with maximum in-service loads for
breakers, which must also take account of any
a typical warehouse. Whilst the loads are not all
requirement for subsequent paint finishes to panels.
directly comparable due to the differences in loaded
A few general tips on compacting and finishing are area, it can be seen that crane loads for large tilt-up
given below. panels may govern slab design. In many cases,
• Do not wait until all the concrete is placed before however, timber bearers can be used to reduce
starting vibration. construction loads to that for which the main floor
slab is designed in-service. It is essential that the
• Use a poker vibrator at the sides and ends of maturity and hence strength of the slab is taken into
floor. account when considering constructional loadings.
• Start using the vibrating screed as soon as
possible, ensuring that the ‘fat’ does not creep Procedure for slab design
under it where it rests on the form, thus
The typical approach for the design of the main slab
increasing the thickness of the floor.
design is as follows.
• Magnesium floats are best to for bringing up the
• Fix tilt-up panel sizes and weights in accordance
‘fat’ prior to a steel float finish.
with Chapter 3.
• Use the bull float in both directions for the best
• Determine crane size and maximum
finish and use it before the bleed water starts to
outrigger/axle loading in discussion with the
rise.
lifting contractor
• Do not attempt to power float until the concrete
is hard enough to walk on (footprint indentations
4-2
Floor slab and foundations
Table 4.1 Typical loadings on ground slabs

Period Loading type Load onto slab Notes
During tilt-up Concrete mixer truck 2 x 9.5 t axles Full truck
construction
Tilt-up crane capacity Outrigger load 25 t panel @ 10 m radius
140 tonnes 60 tonnes
200 tonnes 70 tonnes 28 t panel @ 16 m radius
Warehouse in-service Forklift wheel (max) 6.6 tonnes Dynamic wheel loads
operations
Mezzanine stanchion 6.5 tonnes
footing
Narrow isle racking Up to 30 tonnes Racking bases are not normally
stanchion footing designed to distribute vertical load
• Determine the maximum in-service loading reinforcement is also minimised. Pad footings may be
applied to the slab. justified where circumstances dictate, such as to
• Choose a suitable slab thickness to suit the worst allow buried services to pass under the panel, or
loading case, allowing for slab maturity. where tilt-up is used for cladding a portal frame and
combined footings are suitable. In poor ground, piles
• After final co-ordination of panel casting layout may be necessary to support footings.
and slab joint positions, design reinforcement to
suit shrinkage requirements.
Tilt-up floor slab experience is summarised by
Brookes (3) who recommends a minimum thickness of
150 mm where the crane loads the floor slab and
125 mm where it is placed outside the slab.
References 7 and 8 give guidance on the design of Floor line
floors that takes into the effect of point loads such as
high bay storage and cranes. Where plastic fibres are
incorporated, temporary casting beds may be as thin Grouted after panels Continuous
as 50 mm. In this case a blowtorch should be used erected foundation
before applying the bond-breaker to burn off any
(a) Continuous strip foundation
protruding fibres which could increase lifting
‘suction’ forces.
Construction programme
The floor slab of a tilt-up building is normally on the
critical path for construction (see Chapter 3). Where Floor line
speed is important, the slab should be laid as early as
is compatible with economic operations and
achievement of the desired quality of finish. Unlike Grout setting pads Pad
foundation
conventional framed low-rise buildings, the slab will
normally be constructed in advance of the structure (b) Isolated pad foundations
unless alternative casting beds are used. However,
one benefit is that this allows earlier unhindered
access for fitting-out and M & E later in the Figure 4.1 Continuous and isolated foundations
programme.
Details
FOUNDATION DESIGN AND Foundation details will vary, depending on the degree
of base fixity required for the tilt-up panel, whether
CONSTRUCTION the panel forms an internal or external wall, relative
Foundations to tilt-up panels are generally of ground and floor levels, and the proximity of any
continuous strip form although isolated pad boundaries. In general, footings will be placed
foundations have been used (Figure 4.1). Continuous symmetrically under the panel except at boundaries.
footings simplify excavation and minimise the Bearing friction should not be considered to carry
encroachment of excavation into the floor slab. This significant horizontal forces.
then reduces the size of slab make-up strip, releasing
space for panel casting and reducing crane lift radii
4-3
Figure 4.2 suggests methods for transfer where

moment fixity is not required. Figure 4.3 gives details
300 Temporary of various forms of cantilevered panels with moment
concrete topping
fixity from the USA (3) and New Zealand (9). It should
be noted that Figure 4.3 (c) provides restraint only
against outward panel rotation. Base restraint may be
400
required to cater for the effects of fire (see
Polystyrene Chapter 5).
300 block cast-in to
form cavity Column footings
600
Piles as necessary Column footings are generally cast before the ground
floor slab. They are set with their upper surface
(a1) Cantilevered party wall below the underside of the slab (Figure 4.4). A
Temporary concrete diagonal box-out in the slab co-ordinates with floor
topping cut away and slab joints and allows later fixing and concreting over
polystyrene removed.
Tilt-up panel positioned the column base bolts. Where tilt-up panels are to be
and gap filled with temporarily cast over the column box-out, a thin
non-shrink grout
layer of sacrificial concrete can be placed on a sand
bed and finished flush with the floor slab for
breaking out later.
Bolts screwed
Shims into cast-in
inserts at 600 crs
(a2) Cantilevered party wall Grouted Grouted

anchor recess
dowel
Cast-in continuity strip
This section of slab

completed after
erection of panels
50 mm
Shims for initial nominal
support and leveling
This part of the
foundation poured
Shims after erection of
panel Figure 4.2 Seating arrangement for simple support
Cast-in continuity strips or bolts
in cast-in anchors at 600 crs
(b) Cantilevered boundary footing
Cast in continuity strip
Floor slab Tilt-up panel with bars

projecting from base
Concrete pad placed each

end before placing panel
and main footing
Shims
Continuous
foundation Footing poured
last
(c) Simple boundary footing (d) Free-standing wall footing
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.3 Footing
Footing for
for cantilevered
cantilevered party,
party, boundary
boundary and free-standing walls
and free-standing walls
4-4
Floor slab and foundations
REFERENCES
Diamond pattern 1. Concrete Society. Concrete industrial ground
opening, filled with floors. A guide to their design and construction,
sand and topped with
thin concrete to form Concrete Society, Slough, Technical Report
casting surface for No. 34, 1994. 148 pp. Plus supplement to TR 34,
Column panel forming.
Removed and filled
Specification and control of surface regularity of
afterwards free movement areas. 1997. 32 pp.
Floor slab 2. Institution of Civil Engineers. Concrete
industrial ground floors, design and practice
guides. ICE, London,1996. 56 pp
3. Brooks, H. The tilt-up design and construction
manual. HBA publications, Newport Beach,
Base plate USA, 1997. 229 pp.
and anchor
bolts 4. Glass, J. Ph.D. Thesis. Evaluation of tilt-up
Foundation
construction in relation to selected UK building
types. Post Graduate Research School, School of
Architecture, Oxford Brooks University, 550 pp.
Figure 4.4 Interior column footing 5. British Cement Association. Concrete on site:
No.6. Curing, No. 11. Winter working. BCA,
Panel seating Wexham Springs (now Crowthorne), 1993.
To speed panel erection, the tops of foundations are 6 Surprenant, B and Simonelli, B. Using pan
set slightly lower than the installed base level of the floats. Concrete Construction, Oct 1997. pp 781-
panels. This allows bearing pads of around 40 mm 787.
depth and 600 mm length to be formed in grout prior 7. Chandler, J. W. E. Design of floors on ground.
to erection. Panel setting out and identifying marks Cement and Concrete Association (now British
are then transferred to the pads, which generally Cement Association), Wexham Springs (now
support the ends of two adjacent panels. High impact Crowthorne), 1982. Technical Report 550. 22 pp.
plastic shims are then used to support the panels as 8. Chandler, J. W. E. and Neal, F.R. The design of
steel shims can result in hard spots, causing diagonal ground-supported concrete industrial floor slabs.
cracking in panel ends due to shrinkage frictional British Cement Association, Wexham Springs
forces (3, 9). Later, the entire length of panel is grouted (now Crowthorne), 1988. Interim Technical Note
underneath to distribute forces evenly. 11. 17 pp
9. Cement & Concrete Association of New
Construction Zealand. Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA New
Placement of foundation concrete to strip footings is Zealand. Porirua. 1991. TM 34. 32 pp.
simple, as mixer trucks can generally place concrete
directly from their chutes. The typical construction
sequence of slab and footings is shown below (see
also Chapter 2).
1. Services under the slab and footings are laid and
backfilled.
2. Column footings are cast.
3. The slab sub-base is placed and compacted.
4. The floor slab is cast, finished and cured.
5. Exterior footings are excavated and cast, and
bearing pads are subsequently formed on them.
6. Tilt-up panels are formed and cast on the floor
slab (possibly in parallel with operation 5).
7. Wall panels are erected and grouted under their
bases.
8. Once the roof structure is sufficiently advanced
to allow removal of panel-bracing, the make-up
strip of the floor slab is cast.
9. Column bases and the boxed-out floor slab are
completed.
4-5
4-6
DESIGN OF PANELS IN SERVICE

5
This chapter provides guidance on the design of tilt-up panels in service. Prior to this it considers overall
structural design, including erection conditions - which are often critical and are covered more fully in Chapter 6.
Typical structural form and the use of a central layer of reinforcement are examined. A method for the design of
loadbearing panels is presented and then illustrated in a design example in Appendix 5A. The design principles
of sandwich panels are presented for information, as this aspect of design will normally be undertaken by the
sandwich tie system manufacturer free of charge. Finally, overall building stability and fire design are
considered.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN In-service loading

This chapter gives information on the design of tilt- The design loading for the erected situation will
up panels that are commonly provided with only a depend on the building type, how the element is used,
single central layer of reinforcement. Tilt-up panels the support and fixings used, and other conditions. In
are used typically in tall single-storey buildings, general the design loading requirements of BS 8110
where vertical loading is limited to roof loads plus Part 1 (3) will be appropriate for tilt-up construction.
self-weight. The panels are normally slender However, BS 8110 does not specifically cover tilt-up
(height/thickness between 30 and 50) and lightly walls and therefore this chapter sets out more specific
loaded. suggestions for design that have been developed
following an assessment of international practice (6).
Design of such highly slender panels is not
specifically covered by BS 8110 but a compatible Vertical loads - By incorporating connections to
approach is suggested later in this chapter under either the top, face or within the panel as shown in
‘Design of loadbearing panels’. These panels are Figure 5.1, tilt-up panels can be designed to carry
analysed for first order and second order moments, roofs, intermediate floors, gantry cranage loads and
resulting from vertical and lateral loads, but typically building services loads (1).
by using a simplified procedure.
More comprehensive construction details are given in
Tilt-up panels may also be used for domestic or Chapter 10, Figures 10.4 to 10.8. In some situations
office buildings where they support intermediate with tilt-up the greatest vertical load can be the
floors in addition to roof loads and self-weight. Thus weight of the panel itself.
they are more heavily loaded, particularly in the Lateral (wind) loads - The wind loads should be
sections between window openings. Since the panels considered as acting laterally to the plane of the
are laterally supported by the floors at a normal panel. It is important that the walls provide a
domestic/office storey height, the slenderness ratio sufficient resistance to the lateral loads applied. For
will usually be less than 30. In this case the normal panels up to approximately 6 m high, loads can be
design procedures for loadbearing walls in BS 8110 taken at ground level by cantilever action alone
will be appropriate. (Figure 5.2 (a)).
However, it is more common to design the panels as
DESIGN LOADINGS propped cantilevers (Figure 5.2 (b)) or simply
Tilt-up wall panels are not only designed for the supported members (Figure 5.2 (c)) with the roof
loading and conditions to be experienced in the final designed to function as a diaphragm to carry the
structure (in-service loading), but also for loads lateral load applied on one set of panels to those at
during erection and when temporarily braced (1,2) right angles (Figure 5.2 (d and e)). The latter can act
(construction loading). Typically, the engineer and as a shear wall to resist the applied load (Figure 5.2 (d)).
contractor respectively will assess these aspects The connections and fixings between any interacting
although the engineer may assume responsibility for units and between the units and the foundation must
both. In many cases the construction loadings are be designed to carry the induced forces. Further
more dominant and actually govern panel design. construction details are shown in Chapter 10.
The effects of concrete shrinkage and temperature Volumetric movements - To avoid cracking due to
should also be taken into account as indicated later in concrete shrinkage and thermal movements, wall
this chapter. The following types of loading are to be panels should not be rigidly fixed together to form a
considered during the design and analysis of tilt-up long wall (1,2). Long walls should be broken up by the
panels. introduction of movement joints and/or connections
5-1
that will permit some movement to occur (see Construction loading

‘Allowance for differential movements’ later in this
In considering the load encountered during the
chapter on page 5-16).
construction stage, both lifting and bracing are
examined. Design for lifting can be the most critical
design state, and in some situations may dictate the
design of the panel. It is normally based on an
Roof truss bearing onto uncracked section using the concrete’s tensile
plate cast into panel capacity to develop flexural strength, whereas design
for in-service loadings uses normal reinforced
concrete concepts.
Lifting - The loading experienced by a panel during
the lifting process is influenced by a number of
Wind load
Panel
(a) Flush roof Straight cantilever Propped cantilever Simply supported

(a) (b) (c)
Note: Stability in case (a) is by straight cantilever action.

For cases (b) and (c) see below
Anchor plate
cast in panel
Roof designed to transfer

wind load to end panels
Angle seat welded or

bolted to cast-in plate
Wind load acting on
side wall of building
(b) Parapet
End panels act as
Note: A similar detail can
shear walls to
be used to support a floor resist wind loads
(d) Principle
Trusses in roof plane to transfer

lateral loads to end panels (may
Intermediate floor Roof trusses
be in top or bottom chord of roof
slab
Angle seat welded or

bolted to cast-in plate
(c) Floor slab (e) General arrangement
Figure 5.1 Methods of supporting vertical loads on a Figure 5.2 Transverse load resistance
panel
5-2
Design of panels in service
factors that must be allowed for in design. The main

factors are:
• Self-weight of the panel End section of panel
acts as column to
• The suction between the panel and the casting H carry induced
compression.
surface
• The dynamic loading which occurs when the
panel is separated from the casting surface and
lifted by the crane.
The effect of these forces must be considered firstly
on the panel and secondly on the lifting system over a W
range of inclinations for tilt-up lifting operations. The
flexural tensile strength of the concrete itself is used
to resist the load, with reinforcement being utilised
only when absolutely necessary. The stresses
imposed during lifting will depend on the panel
thickness and the lifting configuration. The concrete h
strength and panel thickness are generally chosen so
Area between
that the section remains ‘uncracked’ during lifting. panel and V
The design of panels for lifting is explained in more footing must be
detail in Chapter 6. fully grouted L
Although reinforcement is not generally relied upon V
Shims (not less
for lifting it is provided to control shrinkage and than 300 mm from Shear carried to floor
temperature effects and to resist in-service loads. The end of panel) through bars cast in
size and thickness of typical panels ensure that early panel or to footing
through dowels
thermal cracking does not occur. Hxh W
V= +
- +
In a typical tilt-up panel, such reinforcement is often L 2
placed centrally in the thickness of the panel. This is
different from normal reinforced concrete design,
where the reinforcement is placed near to the outside Figure 5.3 Lateral shear resistance mechanism
surface to carry the tensile force due to bending.
• Construction: the design for erection of the
Bracing - Braces are attached to the panel to provide
temporary support during erection. The temporary element provides for the temporary forces to
bracing loading needs to be determined so that the which the panel is subjected during lifting and
bracing and inserts can be checked for adequacy, thus bracing
ensuring stability of the panel. Also, the braces It is desirable, but not essential, that the structural
themselves may require support to prevent buckling, design of the load panel meets the requirements of
and so knee braces may be required for very tall BS 8110, Structural use of concrete, Parts 1 and 2.
panels. Bracing is covered in more detail in Chapter 8. A rational method of analysis must be used to
determine axial forces, bending moments and shear
STRUCTURAL DESIGN forces in the wall. The effect of lateral deflection
should be considered, with due allowance for
Tilt-up concrete panels are commonly used as cracking and creep. A suitable method is described
loadbearing walls. These can be designed to carry all under ‘Design of loadbearing panels’ later in this
vertical loads, such as roof and floor loads, along chapter.
with lateral loads including wind, earthquake and
earth loads. Because of their inherent in-plane Lateral deflections, resulting from the combined
stiffness, some of the tilt-up panels are normally effects of lateral loading and eccentric vertical
designed to act as shear walls for the overall lateral loading, cause additional bending moments. This is
stability of the building (Figure 5.3). sometimes referred to as the P-∆ (P-delta) effect
where P is the vertical load and ∆ is the lateral
The elimination of external roof supporting columns deflection (Figure 5.4).
and beams around the building’s periphery (4)
increases the nett usable area, with a resulting
reduction in costs. TYPICAL STRUCTURAL FORM
There are two separate design stages. These are: A typical one-storey warehouse building with
• In-service: the in-service design provides for the included offices will often have a floor-to-roof height
performance of the element as part of the of 6.5 to 9.0 m. Tilt-up loadbearing panels for
complete structure. buildings of this type typically have a wall panel
thickness of 140 to 200 mm.
5-3
Reinforcement often
placed centrally in panel
Moment taken as zero when it
is beneficial, ie. when it would
reduce the wind moment
P As
e M = Pe
Outer face Inner face

qlat
lu
Figure 5.5 Typical single-leaf panel section
REINFORCEMENT
The correct quantity of reinforcement, properly
P located and securely tied, is an important ingredient
(a) Wind positive in successful tilt-up structures. Whilst it is rarely
needed to cater for stresses during lifting of a panel,
reinforcement is required to resist the varying
P environmental stresses imposed on a wall in its final
e M = Pe position. The bulk of the reinforcement is normally
placed in the centre of the section. Properly designed,
detailed and fixed, the reinforcement will maintain
structural integrity for the life of the building.
Purpose
qlat Reinforcement is provided in tilt-up wall panels to
lu
resist bending and axial stresses in the panel in
service and to control temperature and shrinkage
cracking.
It is not normally used to resist bending stresses
during lifting of the panel, as these are usually kept
within the tensile capacity of the concrete alone
(however, see Chapter 6). Although not often
P
required for strength at this stage, the reinforcement
(b) Wind negative provided for in-service design will prevent the panel
breaking up if it is accidentally cracked during
handling.
Extra reinforcement should be provided around panel
Figure 5.4 Forces, moments and deflections edges and openings and across re-entrant corners.
This will resist shrinkage stresses and control
The effective height-to-thickness ratio is generally 45 cracking in such vulnerable areas.
to 50 for simply supported panels, though they have
been designed and tested up to a value of 60 (5). Suitably placed reinforcement can also improve shear
Panels of this thickness typically will have one layer capacity around lifting points, but the reinforcement
of reinforcement with vertical reinforcement on the itself should not normally be used as a lifting point.
panel centre line and horizontal reinforcement fixed However, some designers have successfully
to it, towards the outside face (Figure 5.5). In a solid developed reinforcement details to act as end lifting
panel, 6.5 to 9 m high, the vertical reinforcement may points for smaller panels.
be only T10 or T12 bars at 300 to 400 mm centres.
Horizontal reinforcement, which acts as the shrinkage Design
and temperature reinforcement, varies with panel size
The design loading for the erected panel will depend
and location.
on the building type, how the panel is used, the
restraint conditions and the type of fixings adopted.
5-4
While the general design requirements of BS 8110 These can be accommodated easily in most panel
must be satisfied, some specific situations sections and can be cut and bent on site if required.
encountered in tilt-up panels are not covered by the
Some panels may incorporate relatively highly
code. A variety of design approaches from abroad for
stressed elements, such as mullions beside door
these situations are reviewed in Reference 6 and a
openings. These may require extra reinforcement in
panel design method consistent with BS 8110 is
the form of bars and links both for the lifting and
developed later in this chapter, together with a
service conditions. Such areas should be detailed and
worked example.
checked carefully, as congestion of the reinforcement
A minimum area of reinforcement should be can cause difficulties with the placing of concrete.
provided for the control of shrinkage and temperature Adequate cover must be provided over the
cracking, depending on the panel thickness and the reinforcement to meet the requirements of BS 8110
grade of reinforcement used. for durability and for fire resistance. Centrally placed
reinforcement will usually have sufficient cover
Detailing except in very thin panels or when deep rebates are
A single layer of reinforcement placed at the mid- formed in one face. In such cases, cover must be
depth of the panel will usually meet the design measured from the bottom of the rebate and it may be
requirements. Two layers may be necessary in panels necessary to increase the panel thickness.
over 200 mm thick, or to cater for concentrated loads A five-layer system of reinforcement notation may be
from elements such as beams or alongside openings, used to deal with most requirements, with layer three
or to increase shear capacity around lifting inserts. being the central vertical bars most often used and layer
Placing a single layer of reinforcement off-centre to two being the minimum horizontal steel (Figure 5.7).
resist the bending moments during lifting is not This simplifies reinforcement, as it requires chairs to
recommended, as the resulting non-uniform restraint one layer of reinforcement only with other layers
of shrinkage may induce warping of the panel. fixed directly to this layer.
Draping of the reinforcement should also be avoided,
as it is difficult to maintain the draped profile.
Either fabric or bar reinforcement may be used. Bars
give greater flexibility in providing the required Optional layer 5
cross-sectional area, especially in irregularly shaped Optional layer 4
Optional layer 3
panels. On the other hand, fabric costs less to place (Normally central)
and fix and is generally the preferred option.
The extra reinforcement required at edges and
corners to control cracking can most conveniently be
provided typically in the form of T16 bars (Figure 5.6).
Diagonal bars used to

control stresses at
openings and internal Optional layer 2
corners
Optional layer 1
Note: Bars are continuous and reinforcement

chairs normally support layer 2 from the
casting slab
Figure 5.7 Layering of reinforcement
DESIGN OF LOADBEARING PANELS

Tilt-up panels may be used structurally as well as
architecturally in loadbearing and non-loadbearing
(or curtain) walls, both externally and internally.
Perimeter bars used They may also have to be designed to resist earthquake
to control shrinkage
and other natural forces. The loadbearing element
may be either a single leaf or one of the leaves,
typically the inner, of a sandwich panel.
Figure 5.6 Reinforcement at edges and openings
5-5
The following design method, which is used in a dominant and design is controlled primarily by
Design Example in Appendix 5A, has been bending due to lateral wind forces.
developed from consideration and observation of the Also failure could not realistically occur without
various international design methods (6) and test involving the whole of the panel’s reinforced width.
results for tilt-up wall panels, together with Since the distribution of such loads is not specifically
consideration of the current UK design codes of covered by BS 8110, it is suggested that the
practice for concrete. recommendations of BS 5628 (7) for masonry are
adopted, which allow the vertical point loads to be
Suggestions for UK in-service design distributed through an angle of 45o . In most cases
In general a tilt-up panel should be designed to this will mean that the vertical loading at the mid-
follow the recommendation of BS 8110 in respect of height of the panel may be assumed to be fully
materials, specifications and construction, and design distributed.
and detailing (eg. concrete quality, cover etc.). Horizontal load may also be applied at the top of the
However, assessment of the design practices of other wall where the panel acts as a shear wall to resist the
countries where tilt-up has been used for many years, effect of wind load on the building as a whole. This
shows there are areas where some departure is will affect the eccentricity of the vertical load.
necessary. These are discussed below in relation to The distribution of vertical loading in the plane of the
braced walls. wall may generally be assumed to vary linearly along
Slenderness limits - BS 8110 Part 1 imposes the length. If N is the vertical load and M is the in-
slenderness limits for loadbearing walls (30 for plain plane bending moment for all loads above the mid-
walls and 40 to 45 for reinforced walls) that are height of the panel, the maximum and minimum load
unduly restrictive for tilt-up construction. Tilt-up intensities at the ends of the panel are given by (N/L
± 6M/L ) where L is the panel length.
2
panels are commonly elements that are subjected to
small axial thrusts but where the dominant action is
Transverse eccentricity of vertical loads - Vertical
lateral loading.
loads at the top of the wall tend to be applied
Investigations by the ACI-SEAOSC task committee, eccentrically either by design or due to construction
on walls with height/thickness ratios up to 60, have irregularities (3). These eccentricities must be assessed
shown that arbitrary slenderness limits are by the designer and allowed for in design. They may
unnecessary provided that P-∆ effects are properly be considered to reduce linearly to zero at the lateral
assessed and taken into account. support below.
Tilt-up wall test results (5) (further examined in It should be noted that deflections due to lateral loads
Reference 6) show that walls with height to thickness and buckling can act either inwards or outwards. In
ratios up to 60 can continue to sustain combined axial this respect adverse eccentricities must be fully
and lateral loads at stages well beyond cracking and accounted for, but any beneficial eccentricities should
first yield of the reinforcement. normally be taken as zero (Figure 5.8 )
Therefore, a slenderness limit of 60 is proposed for The load due to the weight of the outer leaf of a
tilt-up wall panels, which is the same as that applied sandwich panel may be transferred to the inner leaf
to columns in BS 8110. However, this would require entirely at the mid-point of the panel or distributed
appropriate checks for cracking and deflection at the over the whole area of the panel depending on the
serviceability limit state (SLS), and may require the installation details of the ties used.
use of two layers of reinforcement. The eccentricity of the load due to the weight of the
Such checks are considered generally unnecessary outer layer of a sandwich panel should be taken as
provided that the height-to-thickness ratio does not the distance between the centrelines of the leaves.
exceed 50 (see ‘Cracking and deflection under When the load is concentrated at the mid-height of
service loads’ on page 5-7). the panel, the maximum bending moment is Ne/2 (see
Figure 5.9 (a)) where N is the weight of the outer leaf
Distribution of vertical loads - Vertical loads and e is the distance between the centrelines of the
applied at the top of a panel may be concentrated at leaves. When the load is distributed over the height
the position of a roof truss or effectively distributed of the panel at n equally spaced positions, the
where the panel supports several equally spaced maximum bending moment is Ne/2n (see Figure 5.9
purlins. (b)), and may be ignored as very small.
Concentrated loads are sometimes taken to be spread Panels on isolated footings - The use of isolated
through an angle of 30o to the vertical. This approach footings at each end of the panel rather than
may be necessary in the case of a very heavy load on continuous footings will increase the vertical
a continuous wall in order to cater for the possibility compressive stresses and induce horizontal tensile
of a localised failure. However, in the case of slender stresses in the bottom of the panel. The reinforcement
tilt-up panels, the vertical load is not normally provided should satisfy the requirements of an
appropriate deep beam analysis.
5-6
P Take e = 0 in this case since it would Loads Moments

otherwise reduce the total moment
ep Ne
ep l
N
e
+ Ne
- 2
Wind Buckling Eccentricity Combined
(a) Where eccentricity of load reduces moment Ne

l
P Take e = ep in this case since it will (a) Load concentrated at mid-height of panel
increase the total moment
ep
Ne
ep l
l
N 2n
n
l
n
N
e n l
n
N + Ne
n l - 2n
n
e
N l
n n
N l
Wind Buckling Eccentricity Combined n n
l
(b) Where eccentricity of load increases moment Ne 2n
l
(b) Load distributed over height of panel
Figure 5.8 Applied moments on panel
Figure 5.9 Bending moments due to outer leaf
The design of deep beams in reinforced concrete is
examined in CIRIA Guide 2 ( 8) and stress distributions
If the flexural tensile strength of concrete is taken
are given for various panel geometries and load
conservatively as 2.0 N/mm2, the moment at mid-
arrangements. Using this, effective bandwidths at the
height of a simply supported panel will be less than
mid-height of the panel for a uniformly distributed
the cracking moment if 1.0 (L2/8) < 2.0x103 (h2/6) or
vertical load applied at the top may be derived from
L/h < 51.6. The deflection at mid-height =
Figure 5.10.
(5/384)1.0(12L4/Eh3) which gives = L/1250, when
Cracking and deflection under service loads – It E = 27 kN/mm2.
may be assumed that visible cracking is unlikely if
Thus, it is reasonable to assume that neither cracking
the flexural tensile stress in the concrete is no greater
nor deflection need be checked where the nett
than is allowed for a Class 2 prestressed member in
pressure due to wind does not exceed 1.0 kN/m2 and
BS 8110. In this case, no special measures are needed
L/h ≤ 50, which is the basis of the suggested
for crack control and the properties of the uncracked
simplified design procedure below.
section may be used in deflection calculations. The
limiting flexural tensile stress given in clause 4.3.4.3 In other cases, the nett flexural tensile stress in the
of BS 8110 is 0.36√fcu for post-tensioned members. concrete due to both lateral and vertical loads should
be determined. If the maximum stress exceeds
The maximum bending moment at the mid-height of
0.36√fcu, the crack width and deflection should be
a wall is almost entirely due to the wind load, and the
calculated. The calculated values should be limited to
cracking criterion may be conservatively checked by
0.3 mm and panel height/250 respectively.
ignoring the vertical load. Apart from panels at
corners of buildings, the nett pressure due to wind, The BS 8110 calculation methods are inappropriate
inwards or outwards, is typically ≤ 1.0 kN/m2. for centrally reinforced sections, and the methods
5-7
Uniformly distributed load
Centre of
horizontal
0.3Ha compression
Compression
0.3Ha
band
0.2Ha
0.2Ha
Effective support
width C1 or 0.2Lo Tension band
whichever is the
lesser
C1 Lo C2
Figure 5.10 Idealised stress pattern in walls on isolated footings with UDL at top
given in EC 2: Part 1 (9), 4.4.2.4 and Appendix 4, are adequately tied to a ground slab, the effective height
recommended. In these calculations ß2 = 1 is used for may be taken as the distance between the ground slab
a single short-term loading and 0.5 for sustained and the lowest effective connection with the roof.
loads or many cycles of repeated loading. The duration
or frequency of the maximum design wind loading Simplified design procedure for slender
would be likely to lie between these two conditions panels
and a coefficient ß2= 0.75 might reasonably be taken
when assessing wind dominated deflections The following suggested design procedure is based on
the slenderness limits and other factors as given above.
Minimum percentage of reinforcement - The
values given in Table 3.25 of BS 8110 for sections 1. Determine height of wall panel between lateral
subjected to flexure were derived for a section with a supports at top (roof) and bottom (footing or
lever arm of (5/6) h on the basis that flexural ground slab). Select a panel thickness not less
cracking is likely at a tensile stress in the concrete of than height /60 in general, or height/50 where the
3.0 N/mm2. This leads to the relationship l00 As/bh > serviceability checks in 8 opposite are omitted.
60/fy for a rectangular section. Where a single layer 2. Determine characteristic values of dead, imposed
of reinforcement is placed centrally in the section, the and wind loads in accordance with BS 6399: Parts
lever arm is nearer to (5/12) h and the minimum 1, 2 and 3 (10). When determining wind loads, the
percentage should be doubled to 120/fy giving worst possible combinations of external and internal
0.26% for grade 460 steel. pressure coefficients should be considered, taking
due account of funnelling between buildings and
Effective height of panel - Panels should normally the effects of openings in the walls. Panels at the
be considered as pinned at the lateral supports corners of buildings may need special consideration.
provided by a roof or a footing. Where a panel is
5-8
Determine, where necessary, either representative Analysis to determine second order moments at
or mobilised values of earth pressures in ULS - The following analysis is valid where the
accordance with BS 8002 (11). strain at the outermost compression fibre, due to the
Sandwich panels should be designed as non- application of the ultimate loads, does not exceed the
composite with either all loads supported by the value at the end of the parabolic portion of the stress-
inner leaf or with the vertical loads supported by strain relationship given in BS 8110 or EC2. If this
the inner leaf and lateral loads proportioned condition is satisfied at the stage when the tension
between the leaves according to their stiffness. reinforcement reaches yield, compression-type
Allowance should be made for any increase of buckling is not a consideration. In this respect the BS
axial load intensity resulting from the distribution 8110 relationship imposes a more conservative limit
of vertical loads and where the wall is supported than EC2.
on isolated footings. The eccentricity of loads 1. The strain and stress in the tension reinforcement
applied at the top of the wall may be considered are taken as the values at the end of the inclined
to reduce linearly to zero at the bottom. portion of the bilinear stress-strain curve in BS
3. Determine the ultimate limit state (ULS) design 8110 with γ m= 1.05 or EC 2 with γ m = 1.15. The
loads for all necessary load combinations in BS 8110 values are εs = 0.0022 and fs = 438 N/mm2
accordance with BS 8110: Part 1, except that the for grade 460 steel.
value of γf to be applied to mobilised earth 2. The strain distribution in the concrete in
pressures may be taken from BS 8110: Part 2. compression is derived from the assumption that
4. Determine the maximum co-existent values of plane sections remain plane.
axial load and bending moment for all necessary 3. The stresses in the concrete in compression may
load arrangements. For a simply supported panel be derived from the parabolic portion of the
this would normally be determined at mid-height stress-strain curves in BS 8110 or EC 2, with γm
of the wall. Walls will generally be required to resist = 1.5. The parabolic relationships and simplified
lateral loads due to wind acting inwards or outwards. linear relationships for both Codes of Practice
Care should be taken over the relative directions are shown in Figures 5.11 (a) and (b). The
of the bending moments when combining the simplified linear relationships are obtained by
effects of lateral loads and eccentric vertical loads. putting Ec,1 = (2/3) Eo, where Eo is the initial
5. Determine reinforcement to resist the bending tangent modulus to the parabola, so that when εc
moments only, in accordance with BS 8110: Part = εo the triangular area is the same as the
1, clause 3.4.4. Walls may be provided with parabolic area.
reinforcement at each face or with a single layer 4. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored
placed centrally in the section. The minimum area
of reinforcement to be provided for a grade 460
steel as a proportion of the concrete section is Relationships derived from
0.13% at each face or 0.26% at the centre. Figure 2.1 of BS 8110: Part 1
6. Analyse the section in accordance with one of the
procedures given under ‘Analysis to determine ε o = 0.0002 f cu
second order moments at ULS’ which follows, to
determine the resulting moment of resistance and E o = 4.5 f cu kN/mm2
the second order moments due to the vertical
loads, for all necessary combinations of axial load E c,1 = 3.0 f cu kN/mm2
and first order bending moment.
Parabolic f c = 0.45 f cu ( ε c / ε o )( 2 − ε c / ε o )
7. Combine the first and second order moments and
compare with the moment of resistance. Where Linear f c = 3000 f cu ε c
necessary, modify the reinforcement and repeat
the analysis of the section until the moment of
resistance is adequate. 0.60 fcu
8. Where the height to thickness ratio has been Eo

chosen to be between 50 and 60, check cracking 0.45 fcu
and deflection under service loads in accordance
with the procedures in EC 2: Part 1 (9), Clause
4.4.2.4 and Appendix 4, with β2 taken as 0.75, Ec
say, for infrequent applications of the maximum

wind load. The cracking moment should be based
on a concrete flexural tensile stress of 0.36√fcu
and where this is exceeded the calculated crack εo
width and deflection should be limited to 0.3 mm
and panel height/250 respectively.
Figure 5.11 (a) Stress-strain relationship, BS 8110
5-9
Fc
Relationships derived from N
Figure 4.2 of EC 2: Part 1
ε o = 0.002
As fy / g m
E o = 0.567 f ck kN/mm 2 h /2
E c,1 = 0.375 f ck ε c (1 − 250ε c )
d
Parabolic f c = 567 f ck ε c (1 − 250 ε c )
Linear f c = 375 f ck ε c
ec
es
0.75 fck dc
Eo
0.567 fck Figure 5.12 Strains and forces acting on section
(b) Linear stress-strain relationship

Ec
f c = 3000 fcu ε c
{
Fc = 1500 f cu bdc2ε s /(d − dc ) } (2b)
εo Equating (1) and (2b) simultaneously provides a

quadratic equation in dc giving:
d c = d  α 2 + 2α − α
Figure 5.11(b) Stress-strain relationship, EC 2
 
Equilibrium of the forces acting on the section, as
shown in Figure 5.12 provides the following where
equation:
dc α = ( N + As f y / γ m ) /(3000 f cu bdε s )
Fc = ∫ 0
bfcdx
The moment of resistance is given by:
εc
= ∫ {bfc (d − d c )/εs }dε
0 M u = Fc (d − d c /3) − N (d − h/2) (3b)
= N + As f y /γ m (1)
In cases where the reinforcement is placed centrally
Where: in the section, the second term in equations (3a) and
(3b) becomes zero.
ε c = d c ε s /(d − d c )
The lateral deflection at mid-height of the wall may
be calculated as KL2 times the curvature, where K
The following equations are based on the stress-strain may be conservatively taken as 5/48 for a wall with
relationships derived from the curves in BS 8110. pinned ends. In this case the second order moment at
Similar equations may be derived for EC 2. the mid-height of the wall is given approximately by:
(a) Parabolic stress-strain relationship M = (5/48){ε s /(d − d c )}( N 1 + N 2 /3)L2 (4)
f c = 0.45 f cu (εc / ε o )(2 − εc / εo ) Where:

Fc = 0.45 f cu bd c {d cεs /(d − dc )εo } N1 is the design load applied at the top of the wall
× {1 − d cεs / 3(d − dc )εo } (2a ) N2 is due to the self-weight of the wall between the
top and the mid-height
Equating (1) and (2a) simultaneously provides a
cubic equation in dc that requires a trial and error L is the height of the wall between lateral supports
solution. The moment of resistance is given The foregoing analysis is valid for values of:
ε c ≤ ε o or d c ≤ { ε o /(ε o + ε s )}d
approximately by:
M u = Fc (d − 0.375d c ) − N (d − h / 2) (3a )
which for a grade 30 concrete and grade 460 steel
gives d c ≤ 0.33 d
5-10
Panels with openings

Openings in panels impose secondary loads and
concentration of stresses. Full account would involve Roof line
the use of finite element methods or other complex
calculations which are rarely justified. Indications are
that a simplified analysis as proposed by Brooks (12)
gives results that are sufficiently accurate for most A B C
designs.
By this method, such panels are subdivided into
vertical strips, spanning between the lateral supports Door
(Figure 5.13). The width of each strip is limited to 12
times the panel thickness. The strips are then
designed to support all the lateral and vertical loads
transferred to them. Due to the increased loading on
the strip, reinforcement will generally be required at
each face to provide adequate strength and stiffness. 600 3000 600 1000 2040
In exceptional cases, the panel thickness could be
increased adjacent to the opening to provide
stiffening piers.
Figure 5.13 Panels with openings - division of panel
An example of a panel with openings is shown in into strips
Figure 5.13 where the strips are designated A, B and
C. It is usual to assume that doors span horizontally
so that the wind load on the vertical strip may be
taken as uniform over the height of the opening. For
example, the characteristic wind load on strip B Insulation Reinforcement often
placed centrally in panel
could be taken as (3.0/2 + 0.6 + 1.0/2)wk = 2.6 wk per
unit length over the full height of the panel.
The distribution of vertical loading may be derived
on the assumption that the stress pattern above the
opening is similar to that on a wall on isolated
Panel tie
footings as discussed earlier in this section.
Further detailing reinforcement may be used to
control stresses around openings (Figure 5.6).
DESIGN OF THE OUTER LEAF OF A Outer face Inner face

SANDWICH PANEL
Sandwich panels and ties
Sandwich panels are tilt-up panels cast in two leaves Figure 5.14 Typical sandwich (double-leaf) panel
with rigid or semi-rigid insulation between them
(Figure 5.14). This makes concrete buildings energy
efficient while retaining the economy and structural restrained and supported by the inner leaf. However,
advantages of tilt-up. the outer leaf may be designed to carry a proportion
of the lateral wind load. Freedom of movement of the
Sandwich panels are generally classified as either inner and outer leaves is important, so as to avoid
composite, where both leaves act compositely to induced stresses due to creep, shrinkage and
contribute to the structural resistance of the panel; or temperature effects that would otherwise occur.
non-composite, where the inner leaf carries the
vertical loads and where the lateral loads are The ties, which connect the two layers, can be made
distributed to each leaf in proportion to their stiffness of the following:
or where all loads are carried only by the inner leaf. • Stainless steel
Generally non-composite action, rather than • Composite fibre rods
composite, is assumed because of the unequal
• Other non-corrodible materials.
thermal movements between the two leaves that can
occur on large panels (13). These ties transfer the loads from the outer leaf onto
Thus tilt-up sandwich panels usually consist of an the structural leaf whilst allowing the outer supported
inner layer that is the primary loadbearing leaf, a leaf to move independently in response to
layer of insulation and the outer leaf which is temperature and moisture changes.
5-11
Factors affecting tie design Tensile forces - Tensile forces acting at right angles
to the panel are caused by:
Most manufacturers are able to provide a free design
• Wind
and advisory service in respect to sandwich panel ties
(see Chapter 13), but it is worth noting the factors • Temperature gradient within the facing layer
affecting tie design and performance. The static • Lifting the sandwich panel from the casting bed.
checks required in a typical sandwich panel design,
Negative pressure or suction forces at right angles to
are as follows.
the panel plane are transferred solely via the connector
• Tensile and compression loading within the anchors from the facing layer to the loadbearing layer.
panel plane caused by different temperatures in
the facing and loadbearing layers and the mutual Shear forces - Shear forces occurring within the
restraint to movement. panel plane are caused by:
• Bending loading of the facing layer from wind • Permanent loading, and temporary forces during
load and temperature gradient. lifting, from the facing layer
• Different mean temperatures of the facing layer
Hence spacing, depth, and position of ties within the
and the loadbearing layer.
panel typically need to take account of the following
factors: The distribution of the shear forces onto the anchors
• Self-weight of the panel and the insulation layer is time and load dependent. It
• Adhesion to mould is considered in manufacturers’ catalogues, and needs
to be taken into account in the design of the outer leaf.
• Wind pressure and suction
• Eccentricities for asymmetrical elements Types of ties and anchors
• Temperature gradient within the facing layer
The connectors used for sandwich panels may be
• Temperature difference between the middle stainless steel ties, glass fibre rods or other non-
layers of the facing and the loadbearing layer corrodible materials (Table 5.1). This part describes
• Transport and erection some of the sandwich ties and their claimed
• Shrinkage advantages in use.
• Stiffness and orientation. Stainless steel ties
Load transfer through ties within a High strength sandwich panel tie/anchor – The
sandwich panel Frimeda/Burke panel ties (14) are used to hold the two
layers of a sandwich panel firmly together during
As mentioned earlier, connections are made within a lifting and placement of the panel. The highly
sandwich panel that ensure transfer of loads from the effective insulating layer is encased and protected on
outer leaf onto the inner structural leaf. These include: both sides by strong, low-maintenance concrete.
Compressive forces - Compressive forces acting at Burke sandwich panel anchors (Figure 5.15) tie all
right angles to the panel are caused by: three components into an integrated unit that is as
safe and easy to lift and effectively behaves as a
• Wind monolithic concrete panel during construction.
• Temperature gradient within the facing layer Round or sleeve connector anchor - The anchor is a
• Live loads at right angles to the panel. round metal tube fabricated from grade 304 or 316
These compressive forces are transferred, via the stainless steel. This material provides the long-term
connecting anchors and the thermal insulation, corrosion resistance required for the anchor. Both
according to their compressive strength. ends of the anchor are provided with round and oval
holes (Figure 5.16). The round holes are for inserting
Table 5.1 Sandwich panel ties
Material type Manufacturer/supplier Types of ties/anchors

Stainless steel ties, grade Frimeda /Burke High-strength sandwich panel tie/anchor
304/316
DEHA/Dayton Superior Round anchor or sleeve connector anchor
Flat anchor
Retaining ties such as: L-type connector pin,
clip-on pin, clip-on stirrup
Torsion anchor such as crossed connector pin
Composite fibre connectors Thermomass Thermomass PC connector
5-12
layer. The diameter is determined by the weight of

the external leaf.
Sandwich panel
anchor 4700 Sizing is carried out quite easily using the tables
provided by the manufacturer. Sleeve connector
Used to stiffen narrow
areas and to cater for anchors are generally positioned on the centroidal
eccenticity in the axis of the external leaf.
loading of the outer
leaf during panel
handling The circular connector has uniform loadbearing
properties in all directions. Out of balance forces or
extra overloads are transferred to the inner leaf by
non-rigid connections (see below). This ensures that
not only are static equilibrium conditions retained,
but also constraining forces induced by the bending
stiffness of the ties are minimised.
Flat anchor - The flat anchor (Figure 5.17) is a 1.5, 2
or 3 mm thick plate fabricated from grade 304 or 316
stainless steel. Holes are provided along each long
end for use as described above for the sleeve (round)
anchor. The anchor is used in conjunction with the
Sandwich panel round anchor to carry the load from the outer panel.
anchor 4710
Sandwich panel
It can also be used as a torsion anchor to resist
connector tie Used singly or in eccentric loads between the round anchor and the
multiples close to
4000, 4600, 4610
centre of gravity to outer leaf of a sandwich panel. The anchor offers
Used to prevent
support the vertical load carrying capacity along its length, but
deadweight of the
curvature of outer leaf
and to resist wind
outer leaf when correctly positioned and orientated, its thin
forces whilst allowing section does not restrain the outer layer from
lateral movement
horizontal movement caused by environmental
changes.
DEHA’s design manual (15) gives information for
Figure 5.15 Burke sandwich panel anchors and ties determining the anchor’s minimum embedding depth,
its dimensions, permissible load, maximum spacing
and installation method.
Sleeve anchor
Internal
loadbearing
leaf
Insulation
Outer
Flat anchor facing leaf
Figure 5.16 DEHA sleeve connector anchor Figure 5.17 Flat anchor
special rods which tie the anchor into each layer of Retaining tie - Retaining ties such as connector pins,
reinforcing mesh, while the oval holes are provided clip-on pins and clip-on stirrups (15) (Figure 5.18) are
to assist in bonding the anchor with the concrete (15). used to tie the two concrete layers of a sandwich panel
The depth and diameter of the sleeve connector together, and prevent bowing and separation of the
anchors are determined by the particular construction layers. The pins work both in tension and compression
requirement. The element depth is selected according to resist wind pressure or suction. They are fabricated
to the thickness of the thermal insulation or from grade 304 or 316 stainless steel and are available
additional air layer and the thickness of the external in bar diameters of 2.8, 4.0 and 5.0 mm. The ties are
5-13
flexible due to their small diameter, and do not offer

significant resistance to movement from thermal
stresses or shrinkage that may build up in the tilt-up
panel. Connector pins, with a maximum spacing
between of 1200 mm, are arranged in a square, or
rectangular grid typically with a side ratio of 3:4.
DEHA’s design manual (15) gives information for
determining pin size and loading capacity, etc.
Figure 5.19 Crossed connector pins

(a) Connector pin
rotation and other likely movements. Figure 5.20 (b)
and Figure 5.20 (c) are similar but use is made of
supplementary anchor plates to cater for out-of-
balance forces due to asymmetry of the panel. The
anchor plates are positioned with their flexible axis
on a plane normal to a radial line through the sleeve
anchor. This minimises restraint against shrinkage
and thermal movements but enables the plates to
carry vertical or rotational forces.
(b) Clip-on pins
Composite fibre connectors
The Thermomass building system uses the unique
properties of composite materials to create an
efficient method of sandwich wall construction (16).
The Thermomass fibre composite connectors
(Figure 5.21) are said to be non-corrodible, extremely
resistant to aggressive chemical exposure, three times
as elastic with twice the tensile strength of mild steel,
and offer minimal heat loss.
(c) Clip-on stirrup
Long angular cut each

Figure 5.18 Sandwich fixing pins Fibre composite
side for retention
Torsion anchor (crossed connector pin) - The

crossed connector pin (15) consists of two connector
pins set at 45o, and inserted crosswise through the
layers of sandwich panels (Figure 5.19). They are Seal Moulded collar
fabricated from grade 304 or 316 stainless steel. The
pins take up forces from the eccentricity and prevent
a rotation of the facing layer around the supporting
anchor. They provide additional protection against
external leaf warping.
Provision of steel ties in panel - The various ties
indicated above are combined to carry the self-weight
and to prevent twisting of the outer leaf, and to cater
for shrinkage and other stresses occurring in the
sandwich panel. In Figure 5.20 (a) the sleeve anchor
is positioned in the centre of the panel and carries the
major vertical load (self-weight) of the outer leaf,
Figure 5.21 Thermomass fibre composite connector
while additional pin ties and torsion anchors cater for
5-14
100
1300
1200
(a) Sandwich panel and sleeve
connector anchor with
2600
hairpin as the torsion anchor
and connector pins in the
outer area
1200
1300
100 1200 1200 1200 1200 100 140
60
2500 2500 50
5000
250
500
1200
1200
(b) Sandwich panel with a
2600
window opening with sleeve
connector, flat anchor and
connector pins
1050
900
3010 1200 600 250

160
70
120 1100 1100 1190 1190 300 60
2320 2680
5000
1000
1200
1200
(c) Sandwich panel with a door

3000
opening with sleeve connector

2000
anchor, flat anchor and

1050
connector pins
1200
250
120 120 120 120

1200 960 1200 140
70
720 2400 720 60
3840
Key Sleeve anchor Flat anchor connector pins torsion anchor
Figure 5.20 Typical usage of sleeves, flat anchors and connector pins
5-15
An indication of the properties of this composite

material is given here as the material is not as well
known as steel. This information is given for 200
guidance only and the manufacturer should be
consulted to confirm or provide precise values for
design. The claimed properties of the connector are
given in Table 5.2
Table 5.2 Properties of Thermomass fibre 400 mm

centres
composite connector
Manufacturer Composite Technology
Corporation
Connector Glass fibre in chemical
material resistant thermal set polymer.
400 mm centres 200
Keyed for maximum
200
retention in concrete.
Effective 47.6 mm2
sectional area Figure 5.22 Typical layout of composite connectors
2
Tensile strength 840 N/mm (minimum)
Flexural strength 840 N/mm2 (minimum)
the drying out of the concrete and becomes more
Coefficient of (8.6 ± 1.7) × 10-6/ oC apparent on large panels of more than 5 m in height
expansion or width. This drying proceeds from the exterior
Thermal 0.1192 W/m2/K inwards and thus creates opposing curvatures strains
conductivity in the two leaves; these are controlled by tension in
the sandwich ties. Rapid drying of the concrete in the
first few days must be prevented by keeping it damp.
Pull-out tests carried out on the fibre composite A low water-cement ratio should be used. The
connector show that, when embedded to the maximum size of the aggregate is chosen according
manufacturer’s requirements, the connectors have a to the workability, reinforcement and dimensions of
capacity of 8.0 kN for a Series 15 connector and the sandwich panel.
11.34 kN for a Series 20 connector. The shear
capacity of each connector is approximately 4.04 kN. American experience suggests that the use of
The ultimate strength of the connector can exceed concrete additives, especially wetting agents, air-
that of other materials commonly used. entraining agents, damp-proofing, permeability
reducing agents and retarders can have a detrimental
Fire tests carried out on a sandwich panel constructed effect on the shrinkage behaviour of the concrete (15).
with fibre composite connectors showed no
degradation after the inside leaf was subjected to However, admixtures have been successfully used
1090 oC for 4 hours (16). with many concrete construction projects in the UK,
and advice should be sought from UK suppliers and
The connectors are typically distributed uniformly designers. The provision of reinforcement and the
over the area of the panel and are strong enough to effect of panel ties will help to control the effects of
cater for vertical loads and out of balance forces shrinkage, particularly in large panels.
(Figure 5.22).
With increasing external temperature, especially with
Leaf thickness and cover to reinforcement direct solar radiation, the external leaf moves more
than the internal leaf.
To satisfy durability requirements, which should
meet the recommendations of BS 8110, the thickness Choice of positioning of the connectors, anchorages,
of the outer layer is generally in the range of 65 to 75 geometrical shape of the panel and, most of all, the
mm in order to provide sufficient cover to the dimensions of the panel, have a great influence on the
centrally placed reinforcement. (See design example applied loads and the effects of moisture and thermal
in Appendix 5A at the end of this chapter.) movements. The connector supplier normally
assesses this.
Allowance for differential movements The outer leaf is normally assumed to be permanently
Differential movements caused by shrinkage and supported by the panel tie system, which is usually
temperature should be allowed for in the design of required to limit vertical displacement to about 2.0 mm
sandwich panels. Shrinkage is mainly dependent on relative to the inner leaf.
5-16
Design checks for the outer leaf The combined stiffness of these walls is usually far
and its ties greater than is needed to provide stability and only
some of the panels are used to carry the wind forces.
The responsibility for the design of the panel, both A couple or so panels at each of corner of a building
inner and outer leaves, rests with the project is often sufficient for this purpose (Figure 5.23) thus
structural engineer, but the supplier usually carries providing scope for removal of sections of the
out the design of the tie system. external walls for future extensions.
The design checks typically carried out for the outer
leaf are given below.
The project engineer determines:
• The concrete grade and thickness from durability B A A B
requirements, assuming reinforcement sizes Corner walls 'A'
resist lateral load
• The required reinforcement size and spacing for X direction
crack control and checks this with the assumed
sizes
• The required insulation thickness
X
• The permitted vertical displacement of the outer
leaf.
The supplier of the tie system determines: Corner walls 'B'
resist lateral load
• The tie/anchor size and spacing Y direction
• Whether the vertical displacement of the outer
leaf is within criteria set by the project engineer B A A B
• That the tie system has sufficient strength to
carry vertical and any asymmetrical loads (leaf Y
dead load) and lateral loads (wind loads and

suction forces during tilting)
• That the tie system can withstand temperature
Figure 5.23 Shear walls
and displacement strains in the outer leaf.
The wind loading carried by each shear wall is
BUILDING STABILITY normally taken to be in proportion to its in-plane
stiffness. The distribution of additional stresses
The general loadings and strategies for ensuring the within the panel can often be determined from a
stability of the tilt-up panels were described earlier in simple elastic analysis of the form:
this chapter. The following design assumptions are
made when designing for overall stability of the N u MY
building (see also ‘In-service loading’ on page 5-1). f = ±
A I
• For most buildings the roof is designed to
As in the design procedure given earlier, the capacity
transfer wind load to end walls
of the wall is then checked for the prevailing
• In such cases the end walls act as shear walls to combination of loads. The walls must also be
resist wind loads checked for overturning.
• Roof trusses (and roof bracing) in the roof plane
These shear walls are thus designed to resist in-plane
are designed as diaphragms to transfer lateral
loads transmitted to them by the floors and roof and,
loads to shear walls
consequently, transfer these forces to the foundations.
• In multi-storey buildings, the floor slabs are The connections between the panels at the floor and
designed to act as diaphragms (plate action) to roof levels must be sufficient to transfer shear forces
transfer lateral loads to shear walls. between panels.
Temporary bracing is also needed during the These shear forces are usually transferred directly
construction stage and this needs to be designed to into the foundations by dowel action or friction.
resist both lateral and accidental or unexpected Alternatively the shear forces can be transferred from
construction loading. The effects of fire on the the panel by dowel action into the floor slab, which is
stability of the panels must also be considered. then used to transfers the forces into the ground by
friction between the slab and the earth.
Shear walls
It may be necessary to tie panels together so that they
The tilt-up panels are used to carry vertical and act as a group to resist the overturning moments.
lateral loads applied to the face of the panels and also Holding-down anchors at the ends may also be
to provide shear walls for building stability. required, for example, on single panels.
5-17
Some shear walls may be isolated, such as those in Research Station, which concludes that spalling is
the interior of the building. In addition to checking unlikely to cause a problem with tilt-up construction
for overturning moment these will require appropriate and that there is no need to provide additional
bracing to transfer lateral forces into them. protection against spalling in cases where the cover
to the reinforcement in a tilt-up panel exceeds
40 mm.
FIRE RESISTANCE
The fire resistance of tilt-up buildings has been
Panel stability
extensively studied and reviewed. Tilt-up panels have A notable paper by Potter (18), of Cement and
been shown to perform well when designed and Concrete Association of Australia, reviews the
detailed to comply with accepted specifications and Australian Code requirements and illustrates a series
practice developed in the major tilt-up-using of details used to meet these requirements. The
countries, notably the USA, Canada, Australia and essence of this review may be considered when
New Zealand. There are some variations, but each developing fire resistance requirements for a tilt-up
country essentially sets out the same principal project in the UK.
requirements.
Fire growth and spread
Panel thickness and cover to reinforcement
There has recently been concern over the possible
The thickness of a panel to provide a given nominal fire spread through certain lightweight metal
fire resistance period may be determined by reference sandwich cladding panels and in particular in those
to basic concrete codes (eg. BS 8110 Parts 1 or 2 (3) in systems that incorporate air gaps between the
the UK). The requirements of BS 8110: Part 2 are insulation and the structural element. Even those
summarised in Table 5.3 for elements with 0.4 to systems that contain no air gaps can create problems
1.0% reinforcement, which would be typical for when fire breaches the outer skin. This has been was
many tilt-up panels. BS 8110: Part 2 also provides highlighted by reported failures in these systems.
alternative recommendations for thickness and cover
in respect to aggregate type and reinforcement Such fire spread is not a problem with tilt-up
percentage. sandwich panels. Consultation with the Fire Research
Station has confirmed that concrete tilt-up panels, in
However, these Code recommendations apply to which the insulation is sandwiched between and in
heavily loaded single-leaf walls and some relaxation close contact with two concrete leaves, pose no
of thickness may be possible to take account of the significant risk either to fire growth or spread of fire.
greater stiffness of sandwich panels, where used, and Care should, however, be taken in detailing if there
because of the relatively light vertical loads carried are services within or penetrating the wall.
by tilt-up panels. The requirements for thickness and
cover differ somewhat in EC 2 (9).
APPENDIX TO THIS CHAPTER
Appendix A - Design examples (see page 5A.1).
Table 5.3 Fire rating requirements
Fire Minimum Minimum cover to REFERENCES
rating panel thickness reinforcement 1. Cement and Concrete Association of Australia.
(hour) (mm) (mm) Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA Australia,
0.5 100 25 Sydney, 1990. 24 pp. (Amended to a series of
data sheets 1997).
1.0 120 25
2. Cement and Concrete Association of New
1.5 140 25 Zealand. Tilt-up technical manual, C&CA New
Zealand, Porirua, 1990. TM34. 32 pp.
2.0 160 25
3. British Standards Institution. BS 8110,
3.0 200 25 Structural use of concrete. Parts 1 and 2. BSI,
Milton Keynes, Part 1, 1997 121 pp. Part 2, 1985,
4.0 240 25 52 pp.
4. Spears, R. E. Tilt-up construction - design
In addition to setting minimum covers, BS 8110 also considerations. - An overview. Concrete
has certain recommendations to cater for the effects International, Vol. 2, No. 4, April 1980. pp 33-
of spalling when the cover to the main reinforcement 38.
exceeds 40 mm. This poses some conflict with tilt-up 5. Azizinamini, A, Glikin, J. D, Oesterle, R. G.
panels that traditionally contain one layer of Tilt-up wall test results. PCA, Skokie, USA,1994.
reinforcement thereby invoking requirements for 16 pp.
supplementary protection. This matter was evaluated
in a report (17) submitted to and accepted by the Fire
5-18
6. Reinforced Concrete Council. A review of

international tilt-up design methods. RCC,
Crowthorne. To be published 1998. C/27.
7 British Standards Institution. BS 5628.
Structural use of masonry. Part 1, Structural use
of unreinforced masonry. British Standards
Institution, Milton Keynes, 1992. 57 pp.
8. CIRIA. The design of deep beams in reinforced
concrete. CIRIA, London, 1977. Guide 2. 131 pp.
9. British Standards Institution. DD ENV 1992-1-
1: 1992. Eurocode 2. Design of concrete
structures. Part 1. General rules and rules for
buildings (together with United Kingdom
National Application Document). British
Standards Institution, Milton Keynes, 1992. xvi,
254 pp.
10. British Standards Institution. BS 6399.
Loadings for buildings. Part 1, Code of Practice
for dead and imposed loads. Part 2, Code of
Practice for wind loads. Part 3, Code of Practice
for imposed roof loads. British Standards
Association, Milton Keynes, BSI, 1992. Part 1,
16 pp, 1997, Part 2, 102 pp, 1988, Part 3, 32 pp.
11. British Standards Institution. BS 8002. Code of
Practice for earth retaining structures. British
Standards Association, Milton Keynes, BSI,
Milton Keynes, 1994. 116 pp.
manual. HBA Publications, Newport Beach,
USA. 4th edition 1997. 360 pp.
13. Portland Cement Association. Tilt-up concrete
building. PCA, Skokie, USA, 1989. 16 pp.
14. The Burke Group. Burke sandwich panel
system. Burke, San Mateo, USA, 1983. 37 pp.
15. DEHA. Connector design manual and catalogue,
DEHA. Square Grip Ltd.
16. Composite Technology Corporation.
Thermomass architectural/engineering manual.
CTC, Ames, USA, undated. Various inclusions.
17. Reinforced Concrete Council. Evaluation report
- Fire resistance of tilt-up panels with one layer
of reinforcement. RCC, Crowthorne,1997. 9 pp.
C/29.
18. Potter, R. J. Behaviour of precast walls in fire.
Constructional review, Feb 1996. pp 50-55.
5-19
5-20
APPENDIX -
5A DESIGN EXAMPLES
This Appendix gives two design examples. The first gives the basic design and analysis of a typical slender
single-storey loadbearing panel for a 3500 m2 high-bay building, with a two-storey office space, designed for
light factory or warehouse use. A fuller version including calculations for wind forces, shear wall analysis and
foundation design may be found in Reference 1. The second example is of a two-storey loadbearing tilt-up panel
suitable for a two-storey hybrid office building with long-span floors.
Example 1: Single-storey factory/warehouse

GENERAL east-west extension of the building without detriment
to the stability of the present structure. The junction
The single-storey structure for this design example between panel and foundations is grouted after panel
consists of steel roof trusses supported on erection and the aggregate was exposed on this
loadbearing tilt-up concrete perimeter walls, with interface so that maximum advantage is taken of
internal steel beams and columns. The tilt-up panels shear friction restraint arising from the weight of the
are typically 7.5 m high × 6.98 m wide, some with panel.
openings (Figure 5A.1). The panels are taken down
onto the foundations and the internal concrete floor Expansion joints
slab abuts the walls on the inside face. An insulated
concrete sandwich panel construction is used (75 mm An expansion joint has been introduced on the
outer concrete leaf, 75 mm - insulation, 150 mm - centreline of the roof and caters for temperature
inner concrete leaf). The panels for this example are effects in the roof steel. A 20 mm joint separates the
designed to retain 1.5 m of soil to emphasise the tilt-up panels and a polysulphide sealant is provided,
structural capability of tilt-up. designed to accommodate the environmental
movements of the panels.
Lateral stability is provided by portal frame action of
the internal steelwork in the E - W direction and by Foundations
the internal office walls where they coincide with the
frame (Figure 5A.2). Internal tilt-up walls are The tilt-up panels are supported on concrete strip
designed as permanent elements of the building. In foundations and the steel columns are supported on
the N - S direction, stability is provided by roof reinforced concrete pads.
bracing spanning onto the tilt-up walls at the corners
of the building, which act as shear walls. These wall Erection
panels have a reduced width of 3.5 m. A system of The sequence of construction assumes casting of the
secondary bracing is provided in the roof on the floor slab followed by panel casting and erection.
perimeter of the building so as to ensure effective The panels will be temporarily braced to resist
lateral restraint to the top of the panels. As requested wind/construction loading. Erection of the steel frame
by the client the walls are thus braced about their starts with the the central portal frames, which are key
minor axis. The use of portal frames allows for future locational and stabilizing elements of the building.
3 4 5
6980 20 6980 20 6980 20 6980 20 6980 20 6980
Parapet Roof soffitt
1000
500 500
1300 1300 7500
6500
Finished floor level
2500
300
PART EAST ELEVATION Top of foundation
Figure 5A.1 Typical part elevation
5A - 1
Perimeter beams and trusses will be erected and a 2. Lateral earth pressure
site-welded connection made to the bearing pockets Perimeter walls are taken as being backfilled to
in the panels. These pockets are designed to a maximum height of 1.5 m above foundation
accommodate the dimensional tolerances required level (Figure 5A.3).
between the concrete and steel-framed systems.
It is assumed that there is free-draining granular
material against the face of the wall panel with a
Perimeter berm
perforated drain at low level. Therefore, assume pore
A 1.5 m earth berm surrounds the building. A filter water pressure is nominal and pressure distribution is
membrane is fixed to the wall to act as a drainage triangular.
zone and is linked to a drainage system at the base of
Maximum lateral pressure (at base of triangle)
the wall which traverses the perimeter of the building.
= 8.1 kN/m2
The filter includes a backing layer of PVC, which
acts as a waterproofing membrane.
Building extension
Provision for extension is included on the rear wall of
the building. End panels (3.5 m wide) will be
1000
retained to act as permanent shear walls. These
particular walls are tied at their ends to the foundation
by a reinforced in-situ connection. Columns will be
erected to support beams on this elevation and
expansion can take place in modules of 42 m x 42 m.
An expansion joint will separate the existing building 6500
from all new structures.
LOADINGS 1500 max

The loadings for the building were calculated as
300
follows.
1. Roof
Gk = 0.65 kN/m2 Qk = 0.75 kN/m2
Figure 5A.3 Panel retaining earth berm
First floor office
Gk = 4.3 kN/m2 Qk = 3.5 kN/m2
Note: Shaded area indicates two-storey office space, all other Trusses at 7 m centres
areas are high-bay production space
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14000 14000 14000 14000 14000 14000
E
A N S
W
14000
Tilt-up wall
panels
B
Portal frames at
14 m centres
14000
C
Purlins at 1.2 m
centres
14000
Shear wall panel
D
Roof bracing carrying lateral
Area for future extension (N-S) forces to shear walls
Figure 5A.2 Plan view of building
5A - 2
Design example 1
Wind loading to BS 6399: Part 2 (standard method) 4. Concrete cover requirements are to BS 8110
Tables 3.2 and 3.3, and are summarised in Table
Typical maximum positive wind pressure:
5A.1 below.
pmax = 0.75 kN/m2 Loading
Typical maximum negative pressure (suction) on a) Roof (N1)
wall panel:
The loadings are as shown on page 5A.2
pmin = 0.86 kN/m2
From rafter: Gk = 0.65 x 14 x 3.5 = 31.9 kN
DESIGN FOR IN-SERVICE LOADS OF Qk = 0.75 x 14 x 3.5 = 36.8 kN
TYPICAL PANEL WITHOUT From purlins: Gk = 0.65 x 3.5 = 2.3 kN/m
OPENINGS
Qk = 0.75 x 3.5 = 2.6 kN/m
A typical sandwich panel has dimensions of 6.98 m
wide by 7.5 m high. For practical reasons and to tie Assume dispersion of rafter reaction into wall panel
in with design for lifting, a panel with an inner leaf produces a uniform stress at mid-height of the panel
thickness of 150 mm will be used. This example Figure 5A.4 (BS 8110, clause 3.9.4.13).
continues with this thickness but further refinement Gk = 31.9 ÷ 6.98 = 4.6 kN/m
could be carried out to determine the optimum
thickness to carry design loads; this is likely to be Qk = 36.8 ÷ 6.98 = 5.3 kN/m
somewhat less than 150 mm.
Therefore total roof load
Therefore, try panel with 75 mm outer leaf, 75 mm (taken as uniformly distributed):
insulation and 150 mm inner leaf.
Gk = 4.6 + 2.3 = 6.9 kN/m
Height of panels above foundation = 7.5 m
Floor slab not taken as propping the panel. Qk = 5.3 + 2.6 = 7.9 kN/m
Roof designed to prop panel 1.0 m from the top of b) Suspended first floor
the panel.
Assume this panel does not support first floor office
Panel taken as being simply supported at foundation units for simplicity. However, such support is likely
and roof. to be cost effective.
Therefore effective height = 7.5 – 1.0 = 6.5 m
Design assumptions
Reaction from portal rafter
Purlin UDL
1. The sandwich panel is assumed to act non-
compositely, with the outer leaf attached to the
inner leaf by a central sleeve anchor. All vertical
and lateral loads are assumed supported by the
0.5 h
inner leaf. (Alternatively, the wind load may be
shared between inner and outer leaves in h = 6500
6980
proportion to stiffness 8:1)
2. Requirements for erection process are considered Portal rafter load uniformly
elsewhere. distributed at mid-height
3. Panels are designed in accordance with BS 8110:

Part 1 and using the recommendations for design
contained in Chapter 5 of this publication,
Figure 5A.4 Distribution of loads on panel
including second order moments.
Table 5A.1 Cover requirements

Panel Environment Cover Concrete
(mm) grade
Outer leaf external face Severe 30 C45
Outer leaf internal face Moderate (possible condensation) 25 C45
Inner leaf external face Moderate (possible condensation) 35 C35
Inner leaf internal face Moderate (contact with soil) 35 C35
5A - 3
c) Wall panel self weight Load combinations

Weight of inner leaf at mid height (N2)
C1 : 1.4Gk+1.6Qk+1.4Ek
G k = 0.15 × 24 × 7.5 ÷ 2 = 13.5 kN/m C2 : 1.0Gk+1.4Wkp+1.4Ek
Weight of outer leaf (full height) (N3) C3 : 1.2Gk+1.2Qk+1.2Wkp +1.2Ek
G k = 0.075 × 24 × 7.5 = 13.5 kN/m (Note: combinations with Wks less onerous
than Wkp when earth pressure is present.)
(Ignore nominal weight of insulation layer)
It should be noted that the concentrated load due to
First order moments at ultimate limit
the outer leaf self weight is assumed to be state (M1)
immediately dispersed and, as such, is applied as a The loadings and first order moments M1 are given
line load over the entire width of the inner panel. in Table 5A.2.
Design of the sleeve anchor is to ensure that stress in
concrete directly under the anchor does not exceed Maximum first order moment
0.6 fcu (BS 8110, clause 3.9.4.13). M1 = 8.6 kNm/m width
d) Wind loading Assume reinforcement is placed centrally within

panel
The wind load has been determined as + 0.75 kN/m2
and – 0.86 kN/m2 and has been applied as shown in d = h ÷ 2 = 75 mm
Figure 5A.5. fcu= 35 N/mm2
e) Earth pressure (Ek) as item 3 on page 5A-2.
8.6 × 10 6
Therefore, K = = 0.0437
Eccentricities of loading (Figure 5A.6) 1000 × 752 × 35
1) Roof loads
z = 0.949d = 71.2 mm
e1 = 75mm (adverse)
8.6 × 106
e1 = 0mm (beneficial, ie. positive wind) ⇒ As = = 276 mm2 per m width
438 × 71.2
2) Outer leaf
e3 = distance between centrelines of leaves 0.26 × 150 × 1000
As, min = = 390 mm 2 per m width
= 187.5 mm 100
Therefore, adopt T10 @ 200c/c or A393 mesh fabric
Panel supported by beam or truss

depending on position
Wkp Wks
= 0.75 kN/m2 = - 0.86 kN/m2
(a) Positive (b) Negative (suction)
Figure 5A.5 Wind load on panel
5A - 4
Design example 1
Table 5A.2 First order effects at ULS (load cases C1, C2 and C3)
Load combination N1 N2 +N3 NT Loading (kN/m) Moments (kNm/m)
Lateral N3 e3 Total
loads 2 M1
22.2
37.8
0.0
C1: 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk + 1.4Ek 22.2 37.8 60.0 2.1 1.8 3.9
11.3
6.9
27.0
1.1
C2: 1.0Gk + 1.4Wkp + 1.4Ek 6.9 27.0 33.9 7.3 1.3 8.6
11.3
17.7
37.8
0.9
C3: 1.2 (Gk + Qk + Wkp + Ek ) 17.7 32.4 50.1 6.1 1.5 7.6
9.7
Notes: 1. Moment due to roof load ignored (beneficial).

2. Critical moment at mid height.
3. Ignore parapet cantilever
e1
Second order moments at ultimate limit
N1 M = N1 e1
state
Using the method given in Chapter 5 (analysis to
determine second order effects).
le = 1.0 × 6500 = 6500 mm
N + As f y γ m
α=
3000 f cu bdεs
d c = d  α 2 + 2α − α
 
(a) Roof loads  d − dc / 3 
M u = 1500 f cu bdc2 εs  
e3  d − dc 
 ε s  N2  2
M 2 = 0.104   N1 +  le
N3 e3  (d − dc )  3 
M=
2 M u ≥ M 1 + M 2 ⇒ panel adequate
N3
The above is valid if, and only if:
 εo 
d c ≤   d
 ε o + εs 
Now ε s = 0.00219
(b) Outer leaf loads via sleeve anchor
εo = 0.0002 f cu = 0.0002 35 = 0.0012
 0.0012 
∴ dc ≤  d ⇒ d c ≤ 0.375d
Figure 5A.6 Eccentricities of load  0 . 0012 + 0 .00219 
5A - 5
For combination C1: Cracking and deflection at serviceability

limit state
60 × 10 3 + 393 × 460 / 1.05
α= = 0.080 Pressure due to wind = +0.75 or –0.86 kN/m2
3000 × 35 × 1000 × 75 × 0.00219
l 6500
Slenderness ratio, = = 43.3
 
d c = 75 0.08 2 + 2(0.08) − 0.08 = 24.6 mm
h 150
  As this is less than 50, and as wind pressure does not
exceed 1.0 kN/m2, cracking and deflection need not
0.375d = 28.1 > d c ⇒ OK be checked (see Chapter 5, ‘Cracking and deflection
under service load’, and ‘Recommended simplified
 0.00219  18.9  3
 10 (6.5)
design procedure’).
M 2 = 0.104   22.2 +
2
 −
75 24.6  3 
External leaf reinforcement
= 5.4 kNm/m
Provide central layer of reinforcement
M u = 1500 × 35 × 1000 × 24.6 2 × 0.00219 0.26 × 75 × 1000

A s, min = = 195 mm 2 /m
100
 24.6 
 75 − 
× 3  10 − 6
 75 − 24.6  Therefore, adopt T6 @ 150 c/c or A193 mesh fabric
 
  Note: With reinforcement placed centrally in panel,
= 15.6 kNm/m internal and external cover is nominally 30 mm.
Using C45 concrete, this complies with
M 1 + M 2 = 3.9 + 5.5 = 9.4 kNm/m ≤ M u durability requirements.
For other loads see Table 5A.3

DESIGN OF PANEL ACTING AS A
Effects of wind suction SHEAR WALL
Lateral stability in N-S direction is achieved by roof
Consider two further load combinations (Tables
bracing spanning onto the tilt-up wall panels at each
5A.4, 5A.5) in the event of removal of retained earth.
corner which act as cantilever shear walls (Figure 5A .7
and Figure 5A.8).
C4: 1.2 (Gk+Qk+Wks)
Note: Cl.3.9.2.1, of BS 8110 allows design of shear
C5: 1.0Gk+1.4Wks wall panel to exclude all forces other than static
reactions due to horizontal forces. However corner
where Wks = wind suction = -0.86 kN/m2 applied to panels should be checked for enhanced wind suction
full height of wall panel as a separate load case.
Table 5A.3 Combination of first and second order effects (load combinations C1, C2 and C3)
Load combinations M1 NT α dc dc < 0.375d M2 M total Mu
C1: 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk + 1.4Ek 3.9 60.0 0.080 24.6 Yes 5.4 9.3 15.6
C2: 1.0Gk + 1.4Wkp + 1.4Ek 8.6 33.9 0.071 23.4 Yes 2.1 10.7 13.9
C3: 1.2 (Gk + Qk + Wkp + Ek ) 7.6 50.1 0.076 24.1 Yes 4.4 12.0 14.9
5A - 6
Design example 1
Table 5A.4 First order effects (load combinations C4 and C5)

Load combinations N1 N2 + N3 NT Moments (kNm)
M lateral N 3 e3 N 1 e1 M1
2 2
C4: 1.2 (Gk+Qk+Wks) 17.7 32.4 50.1 5.5 1.5 0.66 7.7
C5: 1.0Gk+1.4Wks 6.9 27.0 33.9 6.4 1.3 0.26 8.0
Table 5A.5 Combination of first and second order effects (load combinations C4 and C5)
Load combinations M1 NT α dc dc<0.375d M2 Mtotal Mu
C4: 1.2 (Gk+Qk+Wks) 7.7 50.1 0.076 24.1 Yes 4.4 12.1 14.9
C5: 1.0Gk+1.4Wks 8.0 33.9 0.071 23.4 Yes 2.1 10.1 13.9
Corner panels provide

stability in N-S direction 3500 20
N S
Expansion joint
Corner panel
provides stability
E - W stability provided by
portal frame action
7500
Panel reinforcement
lapped with starter
3500 bars
400 In-situ portion of

panel with starter
H 1000
bars lapped with
panel reinforcement
1250
6500
Reinforced concrete base to

shear wall
Panel acting as shear wall
Figure 5A.7 Shear walls to building Figure 5A.8 Shear wall tied to foundation
Loading a) Roof loading (purlins only)

Two critical load combinations Gk = 2.3 kN/m
(i) 1.0 Gk + 1.4 Wk + 1.4 Ek Qk = 2.6 kN/m
(ii) 1.4 (Gk + Wk + Ek) b) Panel self weight (full height)
Gk = (0.15 + 0.075) 24 x 7.5 = 40.5 kN/m
5A - 7
c) Wind load and earth pressure M = 1.4 x 75.6 x 6.5 = 688 kNm
Reactions at roof and base Check compressive stress for C2:

due to Wk and Ek (Figure 5A.9)
210 × 10 3 688 × 10 6
ft = +
* hk1 = 3.6 kN/m 3500 × 150 150 × 3500 2 /6
hk2 = 7.0 kN/m = 2.7 N/mm2 〈 0.35 f cu
* Note: Reaction at roof due to wind suction

load case is also 3.6 kN/m Therefore, OK by inspection.
Check tensile stress for C1:
150 ×10 3 688 × 10 3

ft = −
hk1 3500 × 150 150 × 3500 2 /6
= −2.0 N/mm 2
0.75 kN/m2
Total tensile force = 0.5 ft Lt h
From stress diagram (Figure 5A.10).
T = 0.5 × 2.0 × 1520 × 150 × 10 −3
hk2 = 228 kN
8.1 kN/m2
Figure.5A.9 Lateral loads on panel

2.6
Shear wall supports 42 ÷ 2 metres of elevation N/mm2 C
(See Figure 5A.2).
T 2.0
Therefore reaction at roof due to wind and earth N/mm2
pressure. 1980 1520
42
H k = 3.6 × = 75.6 kN
2
Shear wall acts as a cantilever beam: span/depth = 1.86. Figure 5A.10 Stress diagram
As span/depth ratio exceeds 1.0, the wall may be
designed using simple beam theory. Reinforcement to be placed within 0.5×1520 of end
Alternatively the approach proposed by Section of wall = 760 mm
4.6.4. of the ISE/ICE Manual (2) can be adopted.
L = 3500mm; h = 150mm 228 ×10 3 ×1.05
As,reqd = = 521 mm 2
460
N M
Extreme fibre stress; f t = ± 2 0.45 × 150 × 10 3
hL hL / 6 Tension member As, min =
C1: 1.0Gk + 1.4 Wk + 1.4Ek : 100
N = 1.0 (2.3 + 40.5) 3.5 = 150 kN = 675 mm 2 /m
M= 1.4 x 75.6 x 6.5 = 688 kNm Therefore, provide 2T20 anchorage bars
(As = 628 mm2) centrally within panel at each end
@ 150 c/c and provide B385 structural fabric each
C2: 1.4 (Gk + Wk + Ek) : face (As = 770 mm2) (Figures 5A.11 and 5A.12).
N = 1.4 (2.3 + 40.5) 3.5 = 210 kN
Tension lap with starter bars ≥ 20 x 38 = 760 mm
5A - 8
Design example 1
REFERENCES – EXAMPLE 1
1. Reinforced Concrete Council. Detailed design
example for high-bay tilt-up building. RCC,
Crowthorne, 1998. C/28.
2. Institution of Structural
Engineers/Institution of Civil Engineers.
B385 structural Manual for the design of reinforced concrete
fabric each face building structures. ISE, London, 1985. 88pp.
4 T20 @ 150
Figure 5A.11 Reinforcement in panel

acting as shear wall
75 75 150
B385
T20 bar
from panel
T20 starter bars

alternately positioned
Figure 5A 12 Shear wall starter bars

This completes the design example for a typical tilt-
up panel for the high-bay building. A more detailed
version including calculations for wind forces, shear
wall analysis and foundation design may be found in
Reference 1.
5A - 9
Example 2: Three-storey hybrid structure

GENERAL 4. Wind loading to BS 6399
i) Panel in-service
The three-storey structure for this design example
consists of hollow-core floors spanning onto three Worst positive pressure: p = + 0.98 kN/m2
storey tilt-up panels (Figure 5A.13). The roof is of Worst negative pressure: p = - 0.90 kN/m2
steelwork and also spans onto the tilt-up panels. The
inner leaf of the panel is 175 mm thick and the clear
height between floors is 2.8 m; thus the panel is
stocky rather than slender. The hollow-core units are
supported on angles attached to an embedded weld 175 mm inner leaf
plate. Unlike Example 1, the tilt-up panels in this
75 mm outer leaf
example carry significant vertical load and will be incorporating
designed directly in accordance with BS 8110. The 50 mm composite 12 mm brick slips
building is 37.5 m long by 15 m wide and two stories topping
high. The panels are 10.15 m high by 7.5 m wide,
with a 175 mm inner leaf plus 50 mm insulation and a
75 mm outer leaf incorporating 12 mm brick slips
(Figure 5A.14).
LOADINGS 450 mm 50 mm
hollow-core slab insulation
1. Roof
Gk = 1.2 kN/m2 Qk = 1.5 kN/m2 Embedded weld
plate and attached
2. Floors (composite slab) angle
Gk = 8.6 kN/m2 Qk = 5.0 kN/m2

3. Panels Figure 5A.14 Typical section through panel
Gk = 6.0 kN/m2
7.5 m
2.70 0.90 2.70
0.60
0.90 6.3 m
1.50
Brick facing 1.80
10.15 m Continuous glazing 1.50

5.4 m
1.80
1.50
1.15
Panel elevation 6.3 m
450 mm hollow-core units 7.5 m

with 75 mm topping
7.5 m
7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m
Typical structural floor plan
Figure 5A.13 Building plan and typical panel
5A - 10
Design example 2
ii) Panel during erection

0.10
Considered as an open lattice allowing for
window openings.
Net surface pressure (applied to gross area) 3.30
p = 0.77 kN/m2
0.10 wl2
w
DESIGN FOR IN-SERVICE LOADS OF
kN/m 3.30
A TYPICAL PANEL
0.10 wl2 0.50
Basis of design
The panel may be considered as braced by the wall 3.30 2.80
structures surrounding the stairs and lift shafts with
lateral support provided by the floors and roof. These
may be considered initially as props, resisting lateral 0.15 0.15
movement at the level of the support angles welded Loads Moments due Moments due
to the embedded wall plates. The floors and roof may to wind load to vertical load
be considered to be simply supported on the ledger
angles at this stage. After the walls have been tied
into the structural screed, the floors may be considered Figure 5A.15 Loads and moments on panel in-service
to resist both rotation and lateral movement.
Design ultimate loading at critical section
Eccentricities
Roof (1.4 x 1.2 + 1.6 x 1.5) x 7.5 x 3.6 = 110
The eccentricities of the loads applied at roof and
2nd. floor (1.4 x 8.6 + 1.6 x 5.0) x 7.5 x 3.6 = 541
floor levels may be considered to reduce linearly to
zero at the next level below (BS 8110, Clause 3.9.4.12). 1st. floor (As second floor) = 541
If the outer leaf of the wall panel is supported Wall 1.4 x 6.0 x (3.6 x 4.5 + 0.9 x 3.0) = 159
uniformly over the whole area of the inner leaf, no
bending moments are caused in the inner leaf due to N = 1351 kN
the self-weight of the outer leaf. The bending
moments due to the wind load are very small Bending moment due to first floor load
compared with those due to the eccentric vertical Eccentricity of load = 200 mm
loads, so that the critical load combination is dead
and imposed (Figure 5A.15). M = 541 x 0.2 = 108 kNm
Consider the horizontal cross-section between the Reinforcement

window openings where a 3.6 m width of panel is
supported by a 900 mm wide pillar. Assess the Determine reinforcement conservatively using charts
bottom storey, where the total load is greatest, and a in BS 8110:1985: Part 3: Chart 36
position at the top of the window openings, where the d = 175 - (20 + 8 + 20/2) = 137 mm
reduction in the eccentricity of the floor load is
negligible. Take the eccentricity of the floor load to d/h = 137/175 = 0.78
be 200 mm, corresponding to a uniform bearing of N/bh = 1351 x 103 / 900 x 175 = 8.6 N/mm2
75 mm on the ledger angle. M/bh2 = 108 x 106 / 900 x 1752 = 3.9 N/mm2
Effective dimensions 100Asc /bh = 2.0, Asc = 0.02 x 900 x 175 = 3150 mm2
From the ‘Basis of design’ given earlier, the effective Provide 5T20 - 200 (each face) with T8 - 240 as
height of the wall panel may be determined as for a links (panel designed as a column with
plain wall (BS 8110, Clause 3.9.3.2.2). reinforcement in compression on inner face ). (See
Figure 5A.16.)
Clear height between top of ground floor and
underside of first floor l = 2800 mm
Effective height le = 0.75 x 2800 = 2100 mm Consider panel between the window
(BS 8110, Clause 3.9.4.3) openings as a two-span continuous beam
Effective thickness h = 175
(BS 8110, Clause 3.4.1.1(deep beam))
Effective height / thickness
le/h = 2100 / 175 = 12 < 15 Clear span / effective depth
(stocky wall, BS 8110, clause 1.3.4.8)) l/d = 2700 / 1760 = 1.5 < 2.0
5A - 11
Design example 2
Take effective span as 1.2 x clear span

le = 1.2 x 2700 = 3240 mm
and lever arm as 0.5 x overall height
Then
As = M / (0.95fy ) (0.5h)
Dead load 8T8 - 240
1.4 x (6.0 x 1.8 + 8.6 x 7.5) = 105 kN/m (each face)
plus 1T20
(bottom)
Imposed load
[prpoortional
1.6 x (5.0 x 7.5) = 60 kN/m for other
beam strips]
Maximum sagging moment
M = (0.07 x 105 + 0.096 x 60) x 3.242
= 138 kNm 5T20 - 200 (each face)
[proportional for other column strips] T8 - 240 as links
As = 138 x 106 / 0.95 x 460 x 0.5 x 1800
= 351 mm2
Maximum hogging moment Figure 5A.16 Typical main reinforcement for panels
2
M = 0.125 x 165 x 3.24
= 217 kNm
As = 217 x 106 / 0.95 x 460 x 0.5 x 1800
= 552 mm2 1.50
Provide 8T8 - 240 (each face) plus 1T20 (bottom)

(see Figure 5A.16).
w kN/m
8.50
DESIGN OF PANEL DURING 0.085 wl2
ERECTION
The load due to the self-weight of the panel is very
small and may be ignored (BS 8110, Clause 3.4.4.1).
Consider the panel to be propped at a position 8.5 m
above the ground slab (Figure 5A.17). Maximum
vertical moment due to design ultimate wind load on 0.15
a 3.6 m wide panel area is Loads and Moments due

bracing to wind load
M = 0.085 x 1.4 x 0.77 x 3.6 x 8.52 = 24 kNm
This is much less than the moment due the floor load
in the completed building. Therefore in-service load Figure 5A.17 Loads and moments after propping
design governs.
This completes the design example for a typical two-
storey tilt-up panel carrying a dominant vertical load.
A more detailed version including calculations for
wind forces may be found in Reference 1.
REFERENCES – EXAMPLE 2
1. Webster, R, Chang, P, S, and Vollum, R.
Hybrid concrete structures for the UK market:
Outline designs for six hybrid schemes.
Reinforced Concrete Council, Crowthorne. To be
published, 1998. C/25. 58pp.
5A - 12
DESIGN OF PANELS
6 FOR LIFTING
This chapter provides guidance on the design of panels to cover the temporary lifting condition, which often is
the worst load case. Much of the material is presented for information only, as detailed lifting design will be
carried out by lifting specialists using bespoke software. Lifting design principles, the number of lifting points
and their locations are examined, as are their effects on panel concrete stresses at lifting. The need for additional
reinforcement or strongbacks to cater for lifting forces is considered. Finally, lifting hardware and inserts are
discussed with further reference to Chapter 10.
GENERAL etc.). This information is needed in order to enable

the fixing supplier to determine an insert layout. A
In most tilt-up projects, design of the panel lifting, panel that would require only a few inserts, based on
and indeed the bracing, is carried out by the hardware purely the load of the panel, may need more inserts
accessory suppliers in conjunction with the because of its width or height or openings.
contractor. The reason for this is that, although the
contractor could carry out analysis for lifting, it is a The lifting inserts need to be placed symmetrically
complicated process and most accessory suppliers about the centre of gravity in the horizontal direction
have computer programs to analyse the panels for so that the initial panel lift will be level, and above
lifting stresses, enabling them to keep the design the centre of gravity in the vertical direction in order
economical and efficient. They may also offer other to enable the panel to tilt during erection (Figure 6.1).
engineering services (eg. panel bracing) for the tilt-up If the inserts are placed symmetrically about the
contractor. These services deal primarily with safe centre of gravity in the vertical direction, the panel
construction of tilt-up panels and have nothing to do will not tilt but will lift flat.
with the structural integrity of the wall, which is A tentative insert layout is assumed and the panel
normally the responsibility of the design engineer (1). dimensions and insert locations are entered into a
However, engineers are encouraged to evaluate the computer program to carry out an insert loading
expertise of the accessory supplier and, if check and a flexural stress analysis. If the flexural
appropriate, agree that they will bear the tensile stress in the concrete in any part of the panel
responsibility, in conjunction with the contractor, for exceeds its flexural tensile strength, the lifting inserts
safe lifting and bracing during construction. Even if may be repositioned or increased in number, and
such responsibility is delegated, the design engineer again entered into the computer for another analysis.
should be familiar with the lifting process and the If the tensile stress in the concrete is again too high
possible problems (see Chapter 10, Safety and another redesign is not possible, extra reinforcing
requirements). steel or some type of strongback may be used to
Accordingly, this chapter explains the engineering control the flexural stress in the concrete. If extra
principles of lifting tilt-up panels, giving guidance on reinforcing bars are required, the amount needed can
the lifting points and selection of inserts/fixings and be determined by applying normal reinforced
the use of strongbacks. concrete design techniques as given in BS 8110 (2).
Flexural strength of concrete - A permissible
DESIGN flexural strength of concrete of 0.4√fcu (where fcu is
the compressive strength at the time of lifting) is
The general principles typically taken when assessing design for lifting.
As a first step in the lifting design, it is useful to have Determining the number of lift points required -
a sketch of each type of panel involved in the project The number of inserts required depends upon the panel
(see Chapter 3, Figure 3.3). The weight of each type size and the panel’s strength to span between lift points
of panel will need to be computed, taking account of as it is raised. Some panels require only two inserts,
openings and varying panel thickness. Also, the most require four and some eight (four pairs). Very
vertical and horizontal centres of gravity of the panel large panels sometimes use as many as 16. Figure 6.1
should be found by taking the moment about one illustrates the nomenclature for describing the number
corner of the panel. This information is necessary in of lift points. For example, a 2 x 4 arrangement
order to determine the design procedure for lifting means two points per vertical row and four per
(and for bracing, see Chapter 8). horizontal row. Likewise, 4 x 4 means four high and
The contractor would normally provide the fixing four wide. The required number of lifting inserts will
supplier with a set of drawings giving information also depend on their type. A general approach for
about each panel (width, height, thickness, openings, determining the number of lifting points is as follows:
6-1
• The dead weight of the panel is typically

increased by about 40% to make allowance for
sticking or initial suction when the panel is lifted
from the floor. For simplicity, this load is often
taken to apply throughout the lift but sometimes
is reduced to a 20% increase after release, when
only dynamic and impact loads need to be
considered.
• This weight is divided by the supplier’s
EDGE LIFT
0.21
recommended capacity of the pick-up inserts in
tension or shear, as applicable, to determine the
number and type of lifting inserts.
0.58
• The lifting arrangement will generally be
(a) 0.21 determined to have a nearly equal load on each
fixing but, because of the manner in which load
is distributed, the load may vary by about ± 15%.
• The lifting and bracing inserts and systems
0.29
should be designed to provide a factor of safety
0.71
of between 2.0 to 2.5 against failure.
The number of lifting fixings may also be affected by
the limitations on their position.
SINGLE ROW (2 pt) Positioning the pick-up points on the panel - The
0.21
location of the inserts is determined by the need to
control both panel stability and stresses during the
0.58
lifting operation. The main points for determining
(b)
this are:
0.21
• Judgement is initially used to determine the
general pattern of lifting inserts (for example, 2
high by 2 wide Figure 6.1 (d)).
• As indicated earlier, the pick-up points’ centre of
0.29
gravity must coincide with the panel’s horizontal
0.71
centre of gravity (Figure 6.2).
• Also, in the vertical direction, the centre of
gravity of the lifting points is positioned slightly
SINGLE ROW (4 pt)
0.10 higher than the panel’s centre of gravity to allow
0.26
the tilting action about the lower edge to occur
0.28 during lifting (Figure 6.2).
0.26 • When a preferred pick-up point is located in an
(c)
0.10 opening, it will need to be shifted together with
its twin so that their centre of lift remains the
same.
0.18
• The lifting inserts are adjusted to achieve, as far
0.40 as practicable, equal positive and negative
0.42
bending moments in the panel during lifting.
• The flexural stresses caused by the moments are
checked against a specified allowable value
DOUBLE ROW 0.21 (typically about 0.4√fcu).
• Inserts should generally not be positioned closer
0.58
than about 300 mm to the edge of a panel or an
(d) opening.
0.21
• If possible, the contractor will seek to use the
same lift arrangement throughout the job since
switching rigging between, say, a 2 x 4
arrangement and a 4 x 2 arrangement can be
disruptive.
Figure 6.1 Principles of lifting set-up
6-2
Design of panels for lifting
Further guidance on design for lifting and on lifting Forces in rigging cables - Stresses need to be
accessories and equipment can be found in checked at various degrees of rotation with respect to
manufacturers’ catalogues (3, 4, 5). the horizontal (1). The most critical stress during
lifting will normally occur somewhere between 20o
These catalogues will recommend pick-up points for
and 50o rotation (Figure 6.3). The forces in the cables
various lifting configurations that will minimise
change as the panel is rotated.
bending stresses in the panel during lifting.
However, the calculations for determining the
For a simple rectangular panel, the position can be
stresses at varying angles of rotation are extremely
determined from tables obtained from the supplier.
complex due to the cable geometry and the method of
For complicated panels, a computer program can be
structural analysis required, and can best be
used to determine the position of pitch-up points(6).
accomplished by utilising the accuracy and speed of a
When the locations of the lifting points have been computer (6).
finalised they must be fully marked on the panel
production drawings, which should also specify the
position of inserts, braces etc.
Centre line of pick must be

directly in line with the centre
of gravity of panel
A A
200 - 500
B B C C
Figure 6.3 Critical position for maximum bending

moments and stresses
Centre of gravity However, the following example, for a 2 x 2
of panel arrangement (two points per vertical row and two
points per horizontal row (Figure 6.1 (d)), is included
here to show the mathematics involved, which need
Figure 6.2 Lifting gear centralised over panel’s to be solved in order to determine the forces in the
centre of gravity rigging cables.
Bending moments and flexural stresses It will be seen from this why it helps to make use of
a computer program, which is normally available
The bending moments and flexural stresses in a panel through the supplier of the lifting accessories.
are constantly changing as the panel rotates from zero
degrees (horizontal) to approximately 900 (vertical). Figure 6.4 (next page) shows the general lifting
As the cable changes its angle during rotation, the conditions through one vertical set of rigging cables,
force components on the insert will vary. and can be used to illustrate an approach to
determining the forces in the cables and lifting
When the tensile load on one insert increases, the inserts.
tensile load on the other may decrease: this is what
causes the bending moments and flexural stresses to If the equilibrium at the top pulley is considered it
vary throughout rotation of the panel (1). can be seen that the angles α1 and α2 formed between
the cable and the centre of lift must be equal since the
It is this variation in forces that needs to be properly horizontal component of Tα1 and Tα2 are equal and
determined in order to produce the most efficient opposite.
panel design.
6-3
But from properties of triangles

P
B sin β 2
a b c
L1 = L1
sin 2 α
T T
Which rearranged gives
α1 α2 L2
L1 B
L1 =
β2 sin β 2 sin 2α
Y
β1 C Therefore
 B sin β 2 
W b =   sin α
 sin 2α 
B
B sin β 2
=
A P 2 cos α
R Substituting the values of a and b into the expression

T T for T above gives:
α1 α2
 B sin β 2 
T = WY cos φ ÷ ( A cos φ) + 2 cos α
 2 cos α 
= WY cos φ ÷ (2 A cos φ. cos α + B sin β 2 )

Figure 6.4 Lifting conditions through one set of
cables The values of α, β1, β2, T and b can be determined
from the above equations, from which the values of
Considering the panel rotated through an angle φ R, P and the forces on the insert forces, both normal
and parallel to the panel, are readily calculated. The
b = L1 sin α equations for more complicated rigging become
much more complex, hence the advice to use
c = L2 sin α computer programs.
b + c = B cos φ Determining bending stresses - The determination

of stresses during lifting of an uncracked panel section
L1 + L2 = L (length of cable ) is a fairly complex procedure since the analysis is
complicated by the changing reactions at the pick-up
Thus L sin α = B cos φ points as the panel rotates to a vertical position
during lifting (7). Also the number and position of the
B 
Therefore α = sin −1  cos φ  lifting inserts affect the actual distribution of the total
L  bending moment and a rigorous analysis would be even
more complex. However, when determining bending
β1 = 90 0 − (α + φ) moments and stresses, it is usually sufficient to
assume that the panel is divided into vertical and
β 2 = 1800 − (2 α + β1 ) horizontal strips passing through the pick-up points.
WY cos φ = P (a + b) A single central layer of reinforcing, which is often
sufficient for the in-service loads, is not enough to
WY cos φ resist bending stresses for lifting. As a result, the lifting
Therefore P =
(a + b) design is based on the assumption that the panel is
uncracked and therefore the flexural stress controls
the design. During lifting of the tilt-up panel, the
For vertical equilibrium at the pulley allowable flexural tensile stress is limited to about
P = 2T cos α 0.4√ fcu. To avoid cracking of the panel during lifting
and to save time during construction, the contractor’s
T = (WY cos φ) ÷ [(a + b) × (2 cos α )] engineer must specify the concrete strength required
for construction. The bending moments in the panel
a = A cos φ change significantly from those obtained when the panel
is horizontal. The forces and moments outlined above
b = L1 sin α are computed as shown in Figure 6.5 (opposite page).
6-4
Initial analysis procedure (Figure 6.5 (a))

Lift
1. Draw load diagram
C
X 2. Calculate vertical C.G. from panel bottom ( Y )
_ 3. Calculate the panel weight (allowing for
W
Y suction/impact) = W
Cable
4. Select trial lift-point quantity and location
O
5. Calculate X (line of action of force P)
R Pa Pb 6. P=W÷X
C D
h 7. Draw shear diagram
8. Draw moment diagram
J Having determined the moment diagram the stresses
may be computed from f = M ÷1000ht2, where M is
the moment in kNm, and the panel width and t, the
panel thickness, are in metres.
(a) Tilt-up analysis procedure
P Analysis at rotation(Figure 6.5 (b))

a b c
Due to cable movement, the stresses will change as
the panel rotates, and Pa and Pb will not remain equal
so must solve for line of action of P (dimension F).
Lb
a a 1. Assume critical angle from movement diagram
La 2. Assume cable length (2D or greater).
3. Calculate D ′ = D cos φ
_ F
Y 4. Calculate E = D sin φ
E
5. Solve for α in (sin α = D ′ ÷ cable length)
6. Solve for La in (La - Lb = E ÷ cos α ) Note: La +
D Lb = cable length
φ
7. F ′ = La sin α, then F = F ′ ÷ cos φ
F' 8. Using cable = 2D this reduces to
C
D'
Rn  
 
D sin φ 
_
Y Wn F = 2 + 
4  cos 2 φ 
 1 − 
 4 
Rn Pan Pbn
C D Analyse the perpendicular components of loads only,
which means the weight is reduced by cos φ. Lengths
are the same as 0o except centreline of lift = C+F
9. Wn = W cos φ
(b) Analysis at rotation
Wn Y
Pn =
W-R=P
C+F
Rn = Wn − Pn
( C + D − Y )W
P/2 P/2
− ( C + D ) Rn
10. Pan = n
D
Pbn = Pn − Pan
(c) Horizontal analysis
11. Draw shear diagram

12. Draw moment diagram
Figur 6.5 Tilt up stress analysis
6-5
Having determined the moment diagram the vertical

tensile stresses in the concrete may be computed
Lifting insert
from:
M6 Bracing
insert
( panel width ) t (1000)
2
Where M is the moment in kNm, and the panel width

and t, the panel thickness, is in metres.
Assume uniform over full panel length.
Additional
In addition to moments and stresses developing in the reinforcing
bars in bottom
vertical plane they will also occur simultaneously in face
the horizontal plane. These are determined in a
similar manner as shown below.
Horizontal analysis (Figure 6.5 (c))

1. Disregard all panel weight below zero shear (a) Panel with extra reinforcement
between R and Pa (dimension J in 0o analysis)
2. Select trial horizontal lift-point locations
Lifting insert
3. Draw load diagram
Bracing
4. Draw moment diagram insert
Having determined the moment diagram, the

horizontal tensile stresses in the concrete may be
computed from:
Strong-back
M6
( panel height ) t 2 (1000)
Where again M is the moment in kNm, and the panel
height and t, the panel thickness, is in metres.
Stresses are assumed uniform over full panel height.
Reinforcement (b) Panel with strong-backs
When the panel’s uncracked strength is insufficient,

additional reinforcement above that required to Figure 6.6 Tilt-up panels strengthened with
control in-service stresses and to control stresses due reinforcement and strongbacks
to shrinkage and thermal movements might be
necessary. In such circumstances reinforcement can
be provided in one or both faces to control the LIFTING HARDWARE AND
bending stresses (Figure 6.6 (a)). Alternatively the ACCESSORIES
panel may be strengthened for the purpose of lifting
by use of strongbacks.
Lifting hardware
Lifting hardware (3,4,5) includes items embedded in or
Strongbacks attached to the panel to allow connection of lifting
A strengthening element (a strongback, see Figure cables or attachment of braces. Rigging components
6.6 (b) also Figure 3.9 in Chapter 3 and Figure 8.2 in include spreader beams, bars and cables. The crane or
Chapter 8) can be used to resist the forces during tilt-up contractor customarily provides the latter,
lifting in place of the additional reinforcement whereas the hardware supplier provides the lifting
mentioned above, and when the panels are odd- hardware.
shaped or contain large openings. Strongbacks are
generally steel or aluminium channels. The Lifting inserts
strongback must have sufficient stiffness to ensure Lifting inserts are used as indicated earlier to reduce
that the stresses in the concrete section to which they the bending in the panel as it is being lifted because
are attached do not exceed the concrete’s permissible excessive bending could cause cracking or failure of
flexural strength, otherwise the panel may crack. The the panel. The lifting inserts are always paired: one
connections attaching the strongback to the panel cable will be attached to two inserts and looped
must be capable of transferring the stresses set up through a sheave (or pulley) at the top to ensure equal
during lifting. pull on each insert.
6-6
P P
(a) Insert in tension. Full (b) Only partial shear cone

shear cone developed. developed, hence lower
capacity
Plastic cap box-out for P

lifting clutch. Set flush
with surface
T Possible spalling
P
W T
(c) Insert in combination of (d) Lower capacity than face-

tension and shear lifting arrangement. Also
need to consider bending
effects
(a) Examples of anchors
Figure 6.8 Loads on inserts
The embedded hardware for cable attachment has

developed since the time when the standard insert
was a large sleeve nut, filled with paraffin to keep
concrete out of the threaded hole, and with
reinforcement welded to the nut to anchor it into the
concrete. Modern attachments (Figure 6.7) are
designed to minimise the time needed to attach and
detach the cables. A quick release lanyard cable
tugged from ground level eliminates the previous
requirement for workers to climb ladders to detach
cables. Plastic caps on the inserts prevent concrete
DEHA
entering the attachment and plastic antennae indicate
the cable attachment’s location after the concrete
pour.
Attachments for braces can also be embedded in the
panel. These too are supplied by the hardware
supplier, and are generally of the coil or socket type
(see Chapter 10) so that a bolt can be screwed into
them. The critical loading condition for the insert
may occur when the panel is either horizontal or
tilted at some angle. The loading on the insert will be
direct tension, shear or a combination of the two
(Figure 6.8). Any failure may occur in either the steel
anchor or in the concrete base: both should be
checked to ensure adequacy during lifting. The
fixings are also linked or lapped with reinforcing bars
FRIMEDA
so that if failure occurs it will be ductile.
(b) Examples of quick release mechanisims

The factors that will be taken into account when the
supplier of the lifting sockets is determining the
required size and location of sockets are given below.
Figure 6.7 Modern quick-release anchors • Size and weight of panel
• Concrete strength at lift
6-7
Tilt-up design
Design andfor
of panels construction
lifting
• Type of concrete (lightweight, etc.)

• Size and location of openings
• Configuration of preferred rigging
• Panels cast face-up or face-down
• Size of crane
• Presence of architectural treatment such as
exposed aggregate, form-liners, etc.
• Presence of recesses, etc
• Position of panel on the job
• Potential obstructions.
The placing of the lifting inserts is a very important
step in the construction of the tilt-up panel. Although
this small item is used only for the short time of
lifting the panel into the vertical position, its location
is critical. If a lifting insert cannot be placed in its
exact position, the person who designed its location
should be notified so that another location can be
found that will not over-stress the insert or panel.
REFERENCES
1. McKinney, S. A. Certain details of tilt-up wall
panel construction. Concrete International, Vol.
2, No. 4, April 1980. pp 52-57.
2. British Standards Institution. BS 8110 Parts 1
and 2: Structural Use of Concrete, 1985. Milton
Keynes, BSI.
3. The Burke Group. Burke sandwich panel
system. Burke, San Mateo, USA, 1983. 37 pp.
4. Dayton Superior. Tilt-up construction handbook,
1983. TU-5.
5. Conac Ltd (Now Halfen). Frimeda fastening
technology manual. Halfen, Harlow, Essex.
6. Payne, E. H. Computer assisted flexural stress
analysis of site cast reinforced concrete tilt-up
wall panels during erection. Concrete
International, Vol 2, No. 4, April 1980. pp. 64-
70.
7. Cement and Concrete Association of Australia.
Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA Australia,
Sydney, 1990. 24 pp. (Amended to a series of
data sheets 1997).
6-8
CONSTRUCTION OF PANELS
7
This chapter gives practical guidance on the construction of tilt-up panels. It covers formwork - including
architectural features - in some detail, as well as bond-breakers and their specification, selection and application.
The installation of reinforcing steel, embedments (for panel lifting, structural connection and bracing), and
sandwich panel insulation is then presented. Finally, concreting, finishing and curing of the panels are discussed
with further reference to Chapter 4.
FORMWORK Prior to the construction of the panels, the casting

surface must be checked to ensure that any slab
Formwork for tilt-up construction is, at its simplest, joints, and predrilled or cast-in fixings within the
limited to perimeter formimg of the panel. However, casting area are masked out. The method of slab
the extent and sophistication of the formwork and construction will have been selected previously to
any form-lining will depend on the amount of obtain appropriate tolerances.
modelling or texturing of the external surface, the
requirements of panel joints and head and toe details, The finished casting surface must be well cured to
whether panels are cast contiguously, and whether make it sound and impermeable. If the curing agent is
they are stack-cast. The choice of materials for not the same as the bond-breaker to be applied later,
formwork and the accuracy of its construction play a it must be checked for compatibility before use.
vital part in ensuring that the erection process goes When cast directly on the floor slab with the correct
smoothly and efficiently, and that construction attention to detail and quality, the resulting panel
quality is adequate. finish is virtually unrivalled by any other cladding
material (Figure 7.1).
Casting surface
The ground slab normally acts as formwork to the Edge formwork
visible outer surface of the tilt-up panel and therefore Timber formwork robust enough to withstand the
needs to be of a suitable finish (see Chapter 4) rigours of construction is normally used. The size of
Figure 7.1 High quality cast surface
7-1
edge-formwork members and the spacing of the A straight and true bottom edge to a panel may be
supports need to be related to the tolerances of particularly important if this surface is relied upon for
construction, to construction methods, to the thickness the panel to be erected plumb on pre-levelled shims.
required for structural loading and, ideally, to If a gasket type seal is to be used in the panel joints,
standard timber sizes. The type of edge formwork the side forms will need to be more accurate to meet
used for floor casting will depend upon whether the the tighter joint width tolerance required. To facilitate
units are cast individually, contiguously or this, special fixings are available for holding and
continuously (Figure 7.2). positioning divider forms
Where panels are formed contiguously, they can be
formed on their mutual edge by a standard section
timber form fixed in place by round wire nails acting
as dowels into the slab (Figure 7.2 (b)). The latter are
Edge form board simply and accurately located by pre-drilling a tight
Floor slab fit hole in the floor slab. When casting, panel
concrete should be brought-up equally on either side.
Another efficient method of casting a long line of
Edge profiling strip panels is to form up and cast every second panel and
then to cast the panels in between. The sides are
formed by gluing polystyrene, the thickness of the
Bracing panel joint width, to the previously cast panels, and
the end forms are just moved along by one panel
Base board fixed to width.
casting slab
Robust and stiff proprietary aluminium angle forms
(a) Formwork for individually cast panels are available are. They also have the advantage that
they can be fixed at wide spacings. The fixing of
formwork to the floor can be important depending on
the floor’s subsequent serviceability requirements or
if that part of the floor is to be subsequently used for
Floor slab
panel casting. The use of explosive fastenings may
lead to spalling of the floor and should be avoided.
Edge form timber
The use of chamfers on the edges has many benefits.
They reduce spalling on the edges during removal of
the side forms or during lifting, particularly at the
Round wire nail acting
pivot bottom edge of panels. They are more flexible
as a dowel than side forms and thus can be deflected and fixed
during construction to take up variations in flatness
of the slab, so minimising leakage. They also help
(b) Formwork for contiguously cast panels mask visually any variations in joint width and make
installation of joint sealants easier.
Panels cut during
construction For stack-cast panels more sophisticated edge
formwork will be required. The full height formwork
illustrated in Figure 7.3 produces reasonable
dimensional control in plan but accuracy of panel
Floor slab thickness and finishing inevitably suffer. A better
result is achieved with proprietary climbing
Shutter also formwork bolted into the previous panel in the stack
forms edge or supported by steel RHS strongbacks raised by
rebate
plywood boxes (Figure 7.4). This allows positive
thickness control by screeding to the top of the form
Timber base board and unfettered access for float finishing. It allows for
fixed down to casting identical reproduction of panels ensuring parallel
slab formed joints.
(c) With all formwork, great care must be taken at the

Flat formwork for continuously joints. In all cases, a small bead of silicone rubber
cast and cut panels sealant should be applied to joints between forms and
concrete to prevent grout loss and produce clean
edges with no discoloration. Edge forms should be
Figure 7.2 Edge formwork for single casting coated with form release agents to permit easy
stripping.
7-2
Construction of panels
Timber or EPS groove form-strip

Battens at panel thickness stuck down to casting slab.
Panel
Tapered for easy striking
Full height braced

formwork
Casting slab
SECTION
Panel feature grooves
Ground slab Consecutively cast panels
Note: With this formwork system it is more

difficult to accurately control thickness,
finish and flatness of panel
Figure 7.3 Full depth formwork for stack casting
Climbing RHS steel ELEVATION

side form
Figure 7.5 Groove formers
securely fixed to the base slab to avoid displacement

during concreting. However the blockout formwork
may need to be released as early as possible to avoid
shrinkage cracks developing.
Ground slab Initial cast panel
Grooves, indents and rebates

Grooves, indents and rebates are most easily formed
on the face-down surface as mentioned previously.
Plywood packing
Timber strips for forming grooves should be tapered
of exact panel as shown in Figure 7.5 and sealed to prevent
thickness swelling. These can be fixed with double-sided
adhesive tape or with gun- or spray-applied adhesive.
Proprietary extruded polystyrene sections are
successfully used for single casts in the USA; they
allow crisp, accurate detailing to be achieved with
minimum effort. However, care has to be taken with
Consecutively cast panels
these as they are more fragile than timber and can be
easily damaged by reinforcing bars, or by foot traffic
or other heavy loads.
Figure 7.4 Rising steel-backed formwork Large-area shallow rebates, such as those used to
create continuous window lines, are simply formed by
Blockouts for windows, doors, etc detailing in standard thicknesses of ply sheets (single
Blockouts for major openings can be treated in a or multiple layer) with tapered edges to facilitate
similar fashion to edge forms. They should be their removal (Figure 7.6).
7-3
Panel
Pilaster for strengthening
the section
Casting slab
SECTION
Panel recessed to
create continuous False
column/mullion
Dummy window
Window opening
Figure 7.7 Forming architectural features and

increased sections
Normal glazing
Curved external
corner panel
Casting slab
ELEVATION
Figure 7.6 Creating continuous glazing lines
Pilasters, columns, set-backs and curved

forms
Figure 7.8 Forming curved panels
Local increases in thickness of panels can only
sensibly be formed by increasing the depth of section
away from the slab casting face, resulting in
Edge formwork with square
thickening outstands on the inner face. Providing this section or reverse fillet to
rule is respected, many structural and architectural form square edge to mitre
Mitred tilt-up panel
forms are achievable on site (Figure 7.7). One USA
contractor/developer has successfully differentiated
his buildings by economical site casting of curved
corner and bay panels of a high quality Figure 7.8).
Mitred joints SECTION Mitre formed with
Mitred joints are sometimes used to avoid showing square edge
square butted panels at corners of buildings, but they
are more difficult to construct and edges can be more
easily damaged during erection. They are formed by Figure 7.9 Mitre with square edge
braced sloping formwork which is usually over-
angled in order to allow tolerance for erection (see BOND-BREAKERS
Chapter 10, Figure 10.19 – Mitred tolerance joint). It
is much better to create a squared edge to the mitre Tilt up construction involves casting concrete
(Figure 7.9) rather than leave as a sharp edge as this elements on a previously cast concrete slab. The
will ease construction and the resulting detail is less success of the technique depends very largely on
prone to damage. It may be formed by incorporating being able to lift one hardened concrete element off
a square section or reverse fillet into the formwork. another without damaging either of them. To achieve
this clean separation, a bond-breaker is required.
7-4
A bond-breaker is a chemical compound that is of the work, and the consequential risks of imperfect
applied to the hardened casting surface before placing performance of the bond-breaker.
the fresh concrete for a tilt-up panel. The compound
The selection process should take the following
is designed to prevent the fresh concrete from
factors into consideration:
sticking to the hardened concrete and it must be
chosen with care and applied correctly to achieve a • Is the material produced by a reliable
successful panel lift. manufacturer?
• Is it a dependable bond-breaker? Application
Effect of surface should not be so critical that slight errors will
The quality of the casting surface is very important. result in panels sticking.
A sound, dense, smooth concrete surface is essential. • Is it a good curing agent? Poor curing can leave a
This can be achieved only by using quality concrete, surface that is weak, porous and difficult to work
well finished and cured. If there is any doubt about with.
the quality of this surface, advice on bond-breaker • If not, is the bond-breaker compatible with the
type and application rate should be sought from the curing compound used?
manufacturer.
• Can it withstand rain showers? Rain and heat
Proper curing of the casting surface will help to adversely affect the performance of some bond-
achieve a dense surface with low absorption, which breakers.
will enhance the performance of a bond-breaker. • Is it durable enough to survive delays in casting
Many of the bond-breakers currently available will the panels? Some products will oxidise
also act as curing compounds to promote these
sufficiently to require replacement in a few days.
desirable surface characteristics.
• Does the compound dry rapidly? Slow drying
Bond-breaker types materials can cause delays or collect dirt while
still tacky.
Film-forming bond-breakers are compounds that
form a waterproof barrier coat on the concrete • Can the panels be painted? Some compounds
surface. Consequently most of them also function as may be transferred to the panels and must be
removed by mechanical means before painting is
curing compounds if applied to concrete immediately
after finishing. A second bond-breaking coat must possible; others may take a long time to oxidise.
still be applied later. This approach avoids the • Will the panels look clean? Some compounds
potential problems of incompatibility between curing may leave stains that would be unsightly on an
compound and bond-breaker. unpainted surface.
Resin-based film-forming bond-breakers are • Can a floor treatment be applied to the casting
designed so that the film will oxidise and break down surface? Some compounds must be physically
over a period of time, depending on exposure to removed before a floor hardener can be applied;
weather and sunlight. Wax-based film-forming bond- some are incompatible with many floor tile
breakers do not break down in this way and tend to adhesives.
leave a residue which can interfere with applied • Is it economical? This assessment should include
finishes such as paint, floor sealers and adhesives. all the above considerations, not just cost per
litre.
Non-film-forming bond-breakers can be either
reactive or non-reactive types. Reactive bond-
Application
breakers work by combining with alkalis in the
casting surface to produce a soapy layer, which Application of the bond-breaker is one of the most
prevents bonding. Non-reactive bond-breakers important jobs on a tilt-up site. For best results, the
function as waterproofers. They do not react compound must be applied evenly, at the correct rate
chemically with the casting surface, but block its per square metre and must cover the surface totally.
pores and repel fresh concrete paste, thus preventing Whether application is by spray, brush or roller, it is
a bond. Non-film-forming bond-breakers generally a wise precaution to ensure that operatives know
do not function as effective curing compounds. what they are doing, why they are doing it, how
important it is and how to check that they are doing it
Selection correctly. When applying a bond-breaker, it is
essential that the manufacturer’s instructions are
Selection of one of these types of bond-breakers for a
followed carefully. The following points are offered
particular project is an important process and should
as a general guide.
be undertaken with care. It should be noted that cost
per litre is not a good basis for comparison, as the • Make each application of bond-breaker in two
true cost of a bond-breaker must take account of the light coats, applied at right angles to each other.
application rate, relative ease of use, cost of removal Most compounds contain a fugitive dye as a
of any residue, cost of any disruption to other aspects visual check on coverage.
7-5
• If the first application is being used for curing, REINFORCEMENT

apply it immediately after final floating. The
bond-breaker layer will be applied after Fixing the reinforcement
formwork is positioned. Before any panel reinforcement is placed in position,
• Before applying the compound, check that the the bond-breaker must be applied to the casting slab.
surface is clean and free of dust and debris. Edge formwork must also be erected, checked and
fastened in place.
• Apply the compound evenly, paying particular
attention to panel edges. Do not leave bubbles of Reinforcement must be securely fixed within the
bond-breaker on the surface. formwork so that it is not displaced by people
• Do not walk on the casting surface until the walking over it during the placing of the concrete.
bond-breaker coating is dry. Laps between sheets of fabric should be tied and the
reinforcement held in the correct location by purpose-
• If there is a delay before casting, or if some areas made chairs of suitable material such as concrete,
look questionable, check the integrity of the plastic or plastic-coated wire. Care should be taken to
bond-breaker by sprinkling a few drops of water ensure that chairs and cover-blocks are suitable for
on it. If the water does not bead up, recoating the proposed surface finish and treatment for visible
may be required. faces.
• Do not place concrete onto bond-breakers that Extra reinforcement such as edge bars and corner
are wet with rain or heavy dew. The surface bars must be tied into position to ensure that it cannot
should be dried and inspected first. move during concreting. All reinforcement can be
• Exposed wood surfaces for forming may perform pre-assembled into mats and placed in the panels
differently from slab concrete. complete, provided the mats can be lifted. This
technique minimises the likelihood of damage to the
Summary - bond-breakers bond-breaker from people walking on it.
• Ensuring adequate bond-breaking is one of the Finally, the whole panel must be checked to ensure
most important aspects of tilt-up construction. that all reinforcement is of the correct size and in the
right place. Particular attention should be paid to
• Bond-breakers from reputable manufacturers
ensuring that the specified cover is obtained at edges.
will generally perform well if used in accordance
with their instructions. In sandwich panels, the reinforcement for the
• If doubt exists regarding application rate, structural inner leaf is broadly similar to that
compatibility, procedures, etc. the manufacturer described above except that special chairs are needed
should be consulted. to support the reinforcement without punching into
the insulation and hence altering cover and location.
• If no other information is available, In addition, a lightweight mesh is installed in the
compatibility problems and procedures can be outer leaf, the minimum thickness of which is
checked by casting small trial panels and lifting normally determined by the reinforcement sizes and
them. cover requirements for durability at any rebates.
• For best results, site personnel should be aware
It should be noted that a thin layer of tightly adhering
of the function, properties and limitations of the
rust on the reinforcement is not a problem and can
bond-breaker and the importance of applying it
give a better bond to concrete than a clean, bright bar.
correctly.
Further information on bond-breakers and their effect Checklist
on painting may be found in Helpful hints on tilt-up When checking a panel prior to pouring concrete, the
construction, No. 3 (1) from the Tilt-up Concrete following points should be considered:
Association.
• Have the right bar sizes been used?
• Do the bar locations and spacings conform to the
PANEL FINISHES drawings?
Procedure • Are the laps correct?
The whole casting procedure, its location, sequence, • Is the reinforcement properly spaced and tied to
lifting timing requirements, etc. can be influenced by hold it in the correct position?
the choice of finish to be used (see Chapter 9). • Are the bars for each face properly separated
Guidance on methods of production to achieve from each other?
different finishes is outside the scope of this • Are the inserts correctly positioned and securely
publication, and reference should be made to other tied in place and has any necessary extra local
specialist publications (2, 3 , 4 , 5). reinforcement been correctly positioned?
7-6
• Do the lifting inserts have the correct key the dovetail end into the concrete. Installers then
orientation? And has any extra reinforcement at lightly tread the insulation sheets down onto the
the inserts been correctly located? concrete to expell any remaining air. Either
immediately, or more typically for larger tilt-up
• Is the bond-breaker still effective? (Use the
panels, after first set, the reinforcement for the top
water-drop test.)
inner wall is placed and the concrete cast in the usual
• Is the slab surface free of dust, tie-wire and other manner.
debris?
Metal anchor and pins - Various systems are
Only when all the reinforcement and inserts have available in stainless steel. These generally consist of
been properly assembled and checked should the three elements: centrally placed cylindrical anchors;
concrete be placed in the panels. remote anchors which are set at an angle so that they
are flexible in one axis and yet stiff in the other to
EMBEDMENTS carry shear forces; and pins which are flexible in two
axes but rigid along their long axis to accommodate
Pick-up points and brace attachments forces due to temperature and moisture, and to resist
imposed loadings (see Chapter 5).
Fixings for pick-up points and brace attachments
should be accurately and securely positioned as With these systems, the anchors must be attached to
indicated on the panel setting-out drawing for each the reinforcement cage before casting the bottom
panel (see Chapter 3, Figure 3.3). All fixings must be layer of concrete. Reinforcement dowels are inserted
installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s through the fittings to lie in the plane of the wall and
requirements. They should also be properly tied to wired in place. Pins are simply clipped onto the
the reinforcing bars to prevent dislodgement during reinforcement. The system therefore slightly impedes
the concreting of the panels. The reinforcement will concreting and finishing operations. The insulation
also ensure a ductile, rather than brittle, failure due to sheet is generally installed after the concrete has set,
overload. by cutting holes for anchors and by pushing the sheet
over the pins.
A check should be made that all fixings, particularly
those for lifting, are correctly located prior to placing
the concrete. Failure to do so may require additional CONCRETING, FINISHING AND
fixings to be installed at a later stage, which will take CURING THE PANELS
time and can disrupt the erection programme.
Normal good practice (6, 7) should be applied to tilt-up
Weld-plates and other connections panel construction. However some specific points for
tilt-up are worth noting. As craneage is not required
Welded plate connections, steel fixings for beams on site until the panels are erected, placing by skip
and other items should also be accurately and may not be economical. Careful planning may allow
securely positioned. The reinforcement used to tie sufficient access for delivery by mixer truck chute, or
back these fittings can often be used to secure them pumping may be an option for larger sites. To ensure
to main reinforcing bars a consistent colour for visible faces the same mix
should be used for all the panels.
SANDWICH INSULATION Good compaction is essential and use of a vibrating
screed is good practice. Extra care is needed around
Installation of insulation and ties fixings, at corners and edges, and at areas of
Panel ties or anchors connect the two leaves and reinforcement congestion. Poker vibrators may be
allow the outer leaf to be supported off the inner used for thicker sections, taking care not to damage
without restricting movements due to changes in the visible face. To help with this, some contractors
temperature and moisture. Proprietary tie systems have developed waffle pokers or other methods such
normally aim to minimise cold bridging. Chapter 5 as the use of a rope sling to keep the poker axis
considers sandwich panel types and design, while this horizontal. No final finishing should be attempted
section covers installation. until all bleed water has disappeared. Finishing will
vary depending on the required internal surface finish
There are two generic systems generally available specified and the whether stack-casting is to be used.
and installation depends on both the material of the
anchor or pins and their geometry. In hot, dry conditions, the top surface of the concrete
should be protected against rapid drying by shielding
Fibre composite connector pins - These are the surface from winds, shading from the sun and
generally the easiest to install. The system consists timing the placement to avoid the worst conditions.
solely of stubby cylindrical ties which are inserted Spraying curing compounds onto the surface will
into the wet concrete of the bottom (outer) layer also help control evaporation from the surface and
through pre-drilled holes in tightly butted sheets of reduce the risk of plastic cracking, which could cause
insulation previously laid on top. Ties are inserted a significant reduction in the tensile capacity of a tilt-
through the holes into the concrete and twisted 90° to up panel.Tilt-up panels should be cured properly to
7-7
Tilt-up designofand
Construction construction
panels
ensure that the full potential concrete strength is

developed
As with bond-breakers, two further points need to be
stressed. Firstly, to be effective, the curing compound
needs to be properly applied to give uniform and
complete coverage to the concrete surface. This
application should take place just when the sheen of
surface moisture has disappeared but while the
concrete is still damp. Secondly, the compatibility of
the chosen compound with the bond-breaker and its
effect on subsequent surface treatments needs to be
evaluated. Wax emulsion will, for example, impair
the bond of future surface coatings.
There are many parallels between panel and floor
slab construction. Further relevant guidance on
construction is given in Chapter 4 under the heading
‘Floor slab design and construction’.
REFERENCES
1. Tilt-up Concrete Association. Helpful hints on
tilt-up construction, No. 3. Tilt-up Concrete
Association, Iowa, USA, 1993. 2 pp
2 Monks, W. Visual concrete: design and
production. British Cement Association, Wexham
Springs (now Crowthorne), 1988. 47.101. 28 pp.
3 Monks, W. Textured and profiled concrete
finishes. Cement & Concrete Association (now
British Cement Association), Wexham Springs
(now Crowthorne), 1986. 47.107. 12 pp
4 Monks, W. Exposed aggregate concrete finishes.
Cement & Concrete Association (now British
Cement Association), Wexham Springs (now
Crowthorne), 1985. 47.108. 16 pp.
5 Monks, W. Tooled concrete finishes. Cement &
Concrete Association (now British Cement
Association), Wexham Springs (now
Crowthorne), 1985. 47.109. 8 pp.
6. British Cement Association. Concrete on site.
Set of eleven booklets. British Cement
Association, Crowthorne, 1993. 45.200.
7. Ready-mixed Concrete Bureau. The essential
ingredient - Site practice. Ready-mixed Concrete
Bureau, Crowthorne, 1994. 22 pp. 97.341.
7-8
PANEL ERECTION
8
This chapter covers all practical panel erection issues and activities. These are given in chronological order,
from determination of adequate panel concrete strength and preparations for lifting through to actual lifting, and
finally bracing, release and panel base grouting.
PANEL STRENGTH • Preferably attached top fixing of bracing to the

panel before lifting.
Before a panel may be lifted it must be confirmed
that the concrete has reached the required design Missing, damaged or misaligned lifting inserts should
strength. This can be determined by use of be corrected by attaching new, possibly chemical,
temperature-matched cubes cured alongside the fixings. These should be approved by those
panels or assessed, where some previous experience responsible for this aspect of the design. Expansion
exists, from time/temperature records, as indicated in anchors should however, be avoided. Replacement
Reference 6 and 7 in Chapter 3. Evidence of adequate bracing inserts and fixing inserts should be installed
strength avoids premature lifting, which may cause while the panel is still on the casting bed.
cracked panels or actual panel failure, as the concrete
will be less resistant to flexural stresses. Similarly, ERECTION SEQUENCE
failure of the lifting inserts may also occur as the
surrounding concrete also governs their strength. It is important to ensure that the panels are erected in
accordance with the specified sequence (see Chapter 3).
A slightly longer curing period may be required for
Generally, panels should be erected progressively
stack-cast panels, as the last and youngest panel in
from one end of the building. The sequence of
the stack must be lifted first. Speed of construction
erection should, whenever possible, be designed to
may dictate that special curing or a stronger mix may
avoid multiple handling of panels. Generally, because
be justified, but this needs to be addressed at the
of the increased risk of cracking, the designer should
planning stage.
be notified before any lifted panels are lowered back
for storing flat. In such circumstances the designer
PREPARATIONS FOR ERECTION must determine the support system. However, panels
should preferably be stored in the vertical position
Before starting the lifting sequence, full consultation using temporary props, but great care is needed to
between the contractor and the crane driver will ensure their safety in the temporary state. In some
avoid misunderstanding and delays. The following cases where continued activity is required on the
actions need to be carried out before starting to erect panels (for example, cleaning of brick faces), A-frames
the panels: may be needed in place of conventional bracing. In
• Check that the panel levelling pads have been essence, the panels should be stored only in a
correctly located. position approved by the designer.
• Clear the site for crane access and mobility.
• Provide sufficient room for crane outriggers and CRANES
panel bracing. Assuming adequate preparations for lifting, the
• Confirm procedures in respect to overhead capacity of the mobile crane, the experience of the
powerlines. erection gang and safe rigging determine the speed,
• Check that the concrete in the panels has attained efficiency and safety of panel erection. The crane
the specified strength for lifting. should be of adequate size to easily handle the largest
panel on the job. Factors such as the height of the
• Check that the inserts are correctly located, and panel, the amount of movement of the crane, and the
look for any signs of lack of compaction around position of the crane relative to the panel must be
them. considered. The crane should be able to erect panels
• Clean out all lifting, bracing and fixing insert without sliding or jerking them upward and with a
recesses. minimum number of moves.
• Remove any concrete fins caused by grout The lifting position of the crane will vary, depending
seepage before lifting (this is easier and safer on whether the panel is cast inside face up or outside
than when erected). face up, and whether the crane must work from inside
• Preferably fix roof-framing members (running the building or outside. The safest, quickest, and
along panels) to panels before erection. least expensive method is to lift the inside face of the
8-1
Figure 8.1 Rigged panel being lifted
panel from inside the building. But it might be Although the number of lifting inserts cast-in
necessary to cast the panel outside face up to achieve determines the amount of rigging, the actual rigging
a particular finish or shape on the outside. The crane configuration used may vary. It is usual and far better
may have to work outside because of the lack of for the rigging configurations to be designed to be
unobstructed interior space. Stack-casting of panels self-equalising (Figure 8.1). To facilitate this
may overcome the lack of interior space. equalisation, the rigging system often includes the
use of slings running through sheaves (pulleys) on
A crane’s rated maximum capacity refers to its spreader or lifting beams.
capacity at a minimum radius and often bears little
relation to its actual capacity to lift large tilt-up The crane rigging cables must also be of sufficient
panels. The selection of crane size should be made at length. Due to the extra loads imposed by their
the planning stage considering working radius and geometry, short cables may result in cracked panels
boom extension required (see Chapter 3). Before or overloaded inserts. Cable of the largest sensible
erection, a check should be made that the crane’s diameter is recommended to minimise tension
load scale is operating correctly. stretch.
Although thinner cables may be of sufficient
RIGGING THE PANELS strength, their ‘springiness’ may increase impact
loading.
The design for lifting (see Chapter 6) determines the
number and position of lifting fixings. Lifting or Cables should be kept vertical and any side pulls
rigging configurations are then determined so as to should only be executed following prior consultation
minimise the load on the inserts. Most manufacturers/ with the hardware supplier.
suppliers of fixings can provide guidance on rigging To avoid costly delays, rigging changes should be
configurations and may also provide rigging hardware. kept to a minimum. It may be more economical to
However, in most cases a specialist supplier will add a few inexpensive inserts on the lighter panels
supply the rigging hardware. The following comments for consistency than to constantly change rigging.
are adapted from the typical guidance given in Where possible, three rows of inserts should be
manufacturers’ brochures (1,2,). avoided due to the complex rigging configurations
required, but this is a design issue that must be
addressed prior to the erection phase.
8-2
Panel erection
Some variations are possible on site, such as spreader beam to connect each crane hook to a
converting, say, a two-high rigging to four-high common lift point. Although this method is
without removing existing rigging. However, this sometimes used it is preferable to use a single larger
will require consultations with the hardware supplier. capacity crane where available.
Blind lifting - A reverse lift or blind lift is one where
STRONGBACKS the crane operator is unable to see the upper face of
the panel when the panel is lifted. This method is
Panels that are oddly shaped, elongated, or with large
used occasionally but should be avoided whenever
or awkwardly located openings are often strengthened
possible. However, a reverse lift is sometimes
for lifting by adding strongbacks (Figure 8.2). This
necessary, when, for example, the panels are erected
may be in addition to extra reinforcement in the panel.
from outside the building. It may also be unavoidable
The designer will normally have taken into account when erecting the last panel.
the size, shape and weight of the panel and whether
The main danger is that the panel leans towards the
strongbacks are to be used for lifting purposes.
crane and additional precautions may need to be
Potential clashes between strongbacks, roof /floor
taken. If a blind lift is going to occur it is important
support angles, props, and the rigging should be
that this aspect is discussed at an early stage with the
resolved at the planning stage. Any changes to the
prospective crane company.
specified strongback system should be referred to the
designer. Top lift - This method is normally only used for
small panels typically not more than 4.5 m high. In
this case the lift inserts are positioned in the top of
LIFTING METHODS the panel rather than on the face, and the panel will
A single crane generally erects tilt-up panels with the usually require the provision of reinforcement for
panel rigged for a typical multi-point lift. However, lifting, which may be more than is required for in-
there are other methods that can be employed for service loadings.
different panel shapes and erection requirements.
This is not efficient in panel design but leaves an
Tandem lift - Sometimes for very large panels unmarked face and the panel hangs plumb. This
(typically in excess of 60 tonnes) two cranes are used method is also commonly used for factory-produced
in tandem. This will normally require the use of a panels.
Figure 8.2 Panel strengthened by strongbacks for lifting
8-3
True vertical lift - The erection of panels on a braced timber packings can be used at the rotating
boundary against an existing wall can often be edge to prevent such damage.
difficult. Face-lifted panels will always hang slightly
Wedges can be used to overcome suction or a
off vertical by 3º to 5º. Top-lifted panels will hang
chemical bond due to poor bond-breaker application.
vertical. However this lifting configuration is not
The wedges should be hammered in line with the
economical for panels over about 4.5 metres high.
lifting inserts to minimise stress on the panel.
One solution is to use an extra set of inserts in the top
edge for face-lifted panels. The load can be transferred
to these using a second crane or the panel could be LIFTING SEQUENCE
temporarily propped off vertical and re-lifted off the
An experienced lifting crew will usually comprise
top edge. Alternatively, offset lifting brackets can be
two riggers, a foreman, carpenters and labourers
used, so can trigger mechanisms, which lock the
together with a crane operator. The sequence of
lifting ropes against the top of the panel when the
events required to erect a tilt-up, as outlined by
panel is nearly vertical. These operations need to be
Hughes (3) and others (4), is as follows:
planned beforehand and should be carried out only by
an experienced crane operator. 1. The crane operator lowers the spreader bar with
rigging attached, and the riggers connect the
Walking a panel cables to the pick-up inserts.
This is a system used in some countries where the 2. The riggers straighten cable tangles to prevent
crane lifts the panel and carries the panel to within snagging whilst the carpenters or labourers check
setting distance of its position in the wall. This is that the braces will hang loose as the panel is
often referred to as ‘walking’ the panel. This method lifted.
is often used for one of the corner panels, which may 3. At the foreman’s signal, the crane operator lifts,
need to be cast some distance away from the corner, tightening the cables and pulling the panel to
requiring it to be carried (walked) to its final position. break the suction bond. Generally, wedges will
In the UK ‘walking’ of panels is normally carried out be used to free the panel when the lifting force as
only with crawler cranes. shown on the crane’s load indicator reaches a
value of 20% in excess of the calculated value
While travelling, the panel should be tethered in under self-weight. The panel will lift slowly,
place to the crane. Very high loads can be exerted pivoting about the lower edge resting on the floor
onto the slab by this method. slab. Lifting continues until the panel is near
vertical and off the floor. Crane operators should
The walk-out panel apply a smooth and even lifting pressure to allow
The crane may be able to place most of the panels air to penetrate the interface and break the suction
from inside the building, but at least one of the panels force. Water around the perimeter of the panel
must be positioned after the crane exits. This last may seal the edge and prevent penetration of air.
panel is often called the ‘walk-out’ or ‘closure’ panel, If, after heavy rain, water is lying against a panel,
and must be set as a blind lift with the crane outside lifting should not be attempted since suction
the building. It is also not uncommon to mark the top forces will be substantially increased. The water
face of this panel ‘walk out panel’, just to ensure it is should be swept away from panel edges.
not positioned with the crane still inside the building. (Sections of timber can be placed under the panel
It may also be set vertical in a temporary position to support it if it has to be lowered back down to
next to the opening, reducing the crane reach at final the horizontal. This also helps to prevent
erection. scratching of the floor slab if the panel slides
during subsequent lifting. However, horizontal
storing and double handling can cause problems
THE LIFT (see ‘Erection sequence’ on page 8-1)).
When all the checks have been carried out and the 4. The panel is then swung gently into position by
panel is fully rigged it is then ready to be lifted. the crane.
Lifting should be carried out so that the panel rotates 5. The panel is then lowered so that it rests onto pre-
about the bottom edge. Appropriate joint detailing levelled pads with the cables still taut. If
can hide any damage to this edge. Bottom-edge necessary, additional shims, typically of tough
chamfers are normally used to reduce this risk. Care PVC, may be used to level the panel. The erection
should be taken to avoid sliding or dragging panels crew use leverage (pry) bars and wedges to move
across the finished floor because of the risk of the panel into the final position on its grid lines.
damage to panel, casting slab, personnel and To provide spaces for leverage bars, some
equipment. With stack-cast panels, more care is contractors create small formwork notches, say
needed to prevent the panels sliding off the stack and 25 x 100 mm, in the bottom edge of the panels
damaging the face of the panel beneath. Raised and when casting.
8-4
Panel erection
6. When the panel rests securely on the pads, the Panel sticks to the floor slab
braces are extended and holes are drilled in the
floor slab for their attachment. With the crane This may be caused by suction created by water
still holding the panel, the braces are adjusted under the panel and may require the use of wedges as
(using their integral turnbuckles) until the panel is discussed earlier. Failure of the bond-breaker might
approximately plumb. result in some floor slab clinging to the panel (or
vice-versa) when lifted, requiring it to be chipped off
7. After the braces are secure and the panel is
and the floor and panel made good. This problem,
plumb, the crane slackens the cables and the
however, can be eliminated by proper attention to the
lifting hardware is disconnected. If using ‘quick
type and application of the bond-breaker.
release’ fixings, sometimes called ‘ground
release’ fixings, release is achieved by simply
Panel does not hang correctly
tugging a lanyard cable.
8. The crew gathers tools and work proceeds to the This is caused either by miscalculation of the proper
next panel, moving the crane if necessary. location of lift points, or by physical failure to place
them correctly as designed. If the panel cannot be
The elapsed time to lift and position a typical panel is manhandled into position, it can be lowered and
between 15 to 30 minutes, depending on size. Lintel additional bolted-on lift inserts attached to better
panels or L-shaped panels and other panels that balance the panel. In some instances this can be
require strongbacks may take a little longer. It may corrected by using special offset lifting adapters.
be seen from this that about 100 m or so of walling
can be erected in a single day, thus demonstrating the
speed of construction of tilt-up panels.
POSITIONING AND LEVELLING THE
PANELS
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS The rigging arrangements are designed so that as the
panel rises it gradually rotates until it is in a near upright
The general safety precautions to be applied during position at lifting. From here the crane jibs out and
the lift are given in more detail in Chapter 11, but lowers the panel to its required position onto previously
some of the more important items in respect to the levelled pads located under each end of the panel.
actual lift are included here for additional emphasis.
The accurate erection of the first few panels is
• No personnel should pass beneath a non- critical. Extra time spent in plumbing these in both
vertical panel, under any circumstances. directions and establishing the correct line will repay
• All personnel should be at a safe distance from itself in quicker erection of succeeding panels. Extra
the panel when lifting the panel from horizontal time should also be allowed on the first panels for the
to vertical. erection team to become familiar with the procedure.
• When tail ropes are used to control the swing of Panels must be moved smoothly at all times to avoid
the panel, personnel should work clear of the shock loading which may induce cracking or possibly
panel. damage the crane.
• Personnel should work clear of the panel edges
as the panel may slew sideways.
Adjustments and tolerances
• Tail ropes should never be wrapped around the It is of the utmost importance that the specified panel
hands or other parts of the body during the lift. and joint tolerances are realistic. Once established they
must be maintained. In general, panel variations lead
• Whenever possible, panels should be lifted with to a growth in overall wall length. Depending on their
the working gear facing the crane. size, joint details may be used to absorb these variations
• No attempt should be made to lift panels in either progressively at each joint or collectively at
strong winds. one location, eg. at an oversail corner or doorway.
• Braces, including knee braces when specified, If tilt-up panels are being used in conjunction with
should be connected before releasing the lifting in-situ construction, then the tolerances for tilt-up
gear. panels should not be used to absorb the construction
errors of the in-situ work.
LIFTING PROBLEMS The levelling pads should be compressed fibre sheet,
in-situ concrete or PVC shims of adequate strength to
Tilt-up construction has been developed and refined carry the loads. Steel shims should not be used since
over the years and nearly every lifting problem can they can corrode, and can have too much frictional
be avoided by proper planning. The following resistance, which can result in diagonal cracks near
problems can occur, but can be avoided by paying the ends of the panel as the panel shrinks. The tendency
proper attention to them during the design and to crack can also be avoided by providing additional
construction phase. Further details may be found in horizontal reinforcing at the bottom of the panel and
Reference 3. continuous support from grouting under the panels.
8-5
Concrete levelling pads should be the full thickness type being considered. A minimum of two per panel
of the panel and at least 500 mm long. PVC shims should be generally employed. The braces are
should be at least 150 mm long. The length of the attached to the panel normally by fixings
pads is dependent on the panel bearing stresses. The incorporated during its fabrication. The foot of the
PVC shims have a high compressive strength brace is usually attached to the floor by special
(typically 55 N/mm2), sufficient to resist the weight anchor bolts inserted into the holes drilled into the
of even the largest panels. Shims are available in a floor slab (Figure 8.5). Sometimes the braces may
range of thicknesses (typically between 1.5 and 6.5 need to be strengthened by additional knee bracing
mm) and should be limited to a maximum combined (Figure 8.6)
thickness of 25 mm.
BRACING Tilt-up panel (height = h)
Prop fixed to wall panel

Because a tilt-up panel is not a completed wall
immediately upon lifting, temporary support in the Fx=0.75Fw
h
form of bracing provides the necessary protection 2
against the forces of wind (Figure 8.3). Bracing gives
the contractor time to turn isolated panels into one
Fw
unified structure.
Wind
A number of variables will effect the amount of force force 2h
3 Prop fixed
each brace each must resist and includes wind h
down to slab
2
velocity, surface area of the panel, the presence or or deadman
4 5
absence of openings, the dimensions of the panel and
the angle of each brace relative to the panel. 3
Figure 8.4 shows a typical example of a brace set-up 0.5h
from which the required propping force may be Prop force
Fb = 1.25Fw
determined.
The number of braces is then found by dividing this Figure 8.4 Typical bracing set-up
force by the safe working load for the particular brace
Figure 8.3 Example of braced panels
8-6
Panel erection
• Whenever possible, affix the bracing to the panel

before lifting.
• During the lifting process, the braces should not
hang freely below the base level of the panel.
This may be achieved by the use of adjustable
brace lengths or by the use of tail-ropes.
• If bracing inserts are on the opposite face of the
panel to the lifting inserts, tilt panel just past
vertical in order to install the bracing.
• When attaching the braces after the panel has
been positioned cannot be avoided, the panels
should be held firmly, safely and just past
vertical by the crane whilst the braces are
installed with the use of a ladder.
• Adjustable braces should have stops on the
threads to prevent over-extension.
• Generally, a minimum of two braces should be
used for each panel.
• Whenever possible, avoid using normal
expansion anchors as the bracing inserts in the
floor. Instead, use special proprietary products.
Figure 8.5 Connecting brace to floor slab
• Bracing bolts should be checked at regular
intervals.
RELEASE OF PANEL
The panel must not be released from the crane until
the braces attached to the panel have been installed
Longitudinal brace (including any knee, end or cross bracing) and the
panel is approximately plumb. Some adjustment of
the braces may be made after release (by turning the
Knee brace
attachment
threaded portion), but the panel should be within
about 100 mm of plumb before release.
Main brace
Knee Before being released from the crane the panel must
brace
also be level so that the vertical joint between panels
will be of a uniform width.
FINAL GROUTING
Figure 8.6 Strengthening main brace with a knee
brace The gap between the bottom of the panel and the
footing should be grouted or dry packed to transfer
On occasions, for example, when there is no floor the load to the footings. This will normally need to be
slab or where it is required to brace the panel done before roof or other members are installed.
externally to the structure, the foot of the brace may
be attached to a deadman cast into the ground,
typically a large auger drilled hole or pit filled with
concrete (see Figure 8.4). The weight of the deadman REFERENCES
is typically required to be at least 80% of the
1. The Burke Group. Burke on tilt-up. Burke, San
maximum applied brace load.
Mateo, USA, 1984. 54 pp.
Braces - general conditions for use (1, 2) 2. Dayton Superior. Tilt-up construction handbook.
Miamisburg, USA, 1985. 55 pp
• Panels must be braced in accordance with the
specification.
manual. HBA Publication, New Port Beach,
• All braces should be marked with their USA, 1994. 370 pp. 4th Edition.
maximum safe working load. In the case of 4. Cement and Concrete Association of New
adjustable braces, the safe working load, both Zealand. Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA New
zero extension and at maximum extension, Zealand, Porirua, 1990. TM 34. 32 pp.
should be marked.
8-7
8-8
NON-STRUCTURAL
9 CONSIDERATIONS
This chapter contains a loose grouping of what are mostly non-structural design issues. Thermal design
considers air penetration, thermal insulation and thermal mass effects and includes the performance of sandwich
panels. Following a brief discussion of sound insulation the main range of finishes available is presented. Paints,
their specification and application are then examined in more detail since they are used on the majority of tilt-
up panels. Finally, the main options for panel joints are considered, together with their advantages and
disadvantages.
THERMAL DESIGN OF A BUILDING insulation values are meaningless where air can flow
through the myriad joints of some systems or even
In contrast to many metal cladding systems, tilt-up between the leaves of built-up systems. On the other
construction provides a high-mass alternative, hand, tilt-up is routinely used for buildings requiring
consisting of monolithic panels that are normally controlled atmospheres because its large monolithic
structural. This offers consequential benefits in air panels and widely spaced accessible joints are ideal
tightness, insulation, and thermal mass. for reducing air penetration. These qualities are
There are basically three aspects requiring readily exploitable for most buildings and may be
consideration in the thermal design of structures: considered in the overall thermal design strategy.
• An evaluation must be made of the desired
indoor environmental conditions. Thermal insulation
• An assumption of the typical weather conditions Thermal options for tilt-up wall panels - Tilt-up
that must be taken into account when developing panels achieve good levels of thermal insulation,
the best design to suit specific requirements. either as solid panels with internally/externally
applied insulation, or as sandwich panels where the
• Design should ensure that the procedures and
insulation is incorporated between the inner and outer
physical properties of different structural
leaves. The advantage of sandwich panels is that the
materials are utilised effectively to ensure the
insulation is enclosed by robust protective concrete
best possible control of living and working
layers during their production and this simplifies site
environment.
construction by reducing second fix work.
The main factors determining the thermal response of
The U-value for these elements can be easily adjusted
a building are: the heat gains or losses through the
to comply with the recommended values given in
various structural elements including the walls,
Approved Document L (2) to the Building Regulations
windows, roofs and floors; the internal heat loads;
or with the more stringent requirements that would be
and the rate of ventilation. The structural heat gains
required, for example, for cold stores. Thus, use of
or losses are dependent on certain properties of the
this type of building element is compatible with
elements concerned.
moves to decrease energy use.
Insulated tilt-up concrete wall panels can provide the
The thermal transmittance of insulated tilt-up panels
level of insulation necessary to meet the Building
is affected by the type of insulation and, to a degree,
Regulations, and give thermal mass and reduced air
by any connectors used in their fabrication. However,
penetration. Thus the physical properties combine to
the calculated difference in the averaged U-value of a
give highly efficient thermal building design. In the
sandwich panel with stainless steel as opposed to
USA, the thermal mass of sandwich tilt-up panels has
composite ties is not more than a few percent when
been successfully exploited in warehouses to reduce
considering a typical building. The exact difference
temperature fluctuations by up to 8°C. Prison
will depend on the extent and thermal efficiency of
authorities in Arizona and California have specified
the installed steel tie system. Indeed, the effect on the
similar construction to maintain temperatures at 19 to
overall energy consumption of the building is likely
21°C – an established factor in reducing prisoner to be minimal as that will be largely influenced by
disturbances (1). heat losses through roof and floor and by air changes.
Air penetration In very critical situations, however, such as cold
stores operating at -20oC or so, the composite ties
In the UK, it is only recently that attention has been may become more beneficial as they virtually
drawn to the need not just for adequate insulation and eliminate thermal bridging.
thermal mass, but also for airtight structures. As with any other building element, moisture
International studies have shown that Britain lags absorption by the insulation can also influence the
behind in achieving the latter, and that theoretical
9-1
thermal behaviour of both insulated solid panels and wall ties. However, the U-value indicated later in this
insulated sandwich panels. Water has a higher chapter for sandwich panels with steel and composite
thermal conductivity than air. Thus, if the insulating ties allows for a typical arrangement of ties and
layer absorbs water, its thermal performance will be connections in order to give an example of their
affected. It normally becomes an issue only in the calculated effect.
cases of external insulation and then only when
In order to obtain an expression for the overall heat
inappropriate insulation is used. Loss of insulation is
flow through the wall generally, it will normally be
not normally a problem with tilt-up since panels are
acceptable to determine an equivalent single
normally internally insulated or are of sandwich
resistance for the parallel configurations.
construction, which is protected by dense concrete.
Likewise, interstitial condensation is not a problem as Insulation materials - The materials should: not be
the concrete, ties and insulation are resistant to the combustible or, in a fire, produce appreciable smoke
effects of water under most normal building or noxious and toxic fumes; be inherently proofed
conditions against rotting, mould, fungal growth and attack by
vermin; not give rise to objectionable odours at
Calculation of thermal transmittance, U-value, for temperatures at which they are to be used; not cause a
a building element - For a solid element composed known hazard to health, either in use or upon
of n different layers in thermal contact with each removal. A low thermal conductivity should also be
other, the U-value can be calculated using the series obtained through the entire working temperature range.
parallel method below:
The forms of insulation used for
1 1 1 tilt-up construction, particularly
U= = × when used in sandwich panels,
ΣR 1 1  d1 d2 dn  A
+ +  + + ... +  commonly meet all the above
hi Ai ho Ao  A1 × λ1 A2 × λ 2 An × λ n  requirements. Also, being
protected by concrete, the panels
retain their insulation and do not
Where 1/hi and 1/ho are respectively the surface present a problem in terms of a fire hazard as can be
resistances of the inner and outer surfaces (ie. Ai and the case with some other forms of construction (see
Ao respectively) to heat flow; λ1 ...λn and d1 .. dn are Chapter 5, ‘Fire growth and spread’ on page 5-18).
respectively the thermal conductivities and Thermal performance of sandwich panels -
thicknesses of n successive layers of the different Thermal resistance of the inner and outer surfaces of
materials comprising the element; A1...... An are the the structure should be calculated, taking into account
cross-sections of elements through which heat flow the conditions of exposure, position of the member
takes place; and A is the total cross section area of the and its emissivity (3).
building element. Other factors being fixed, the heat
flow across an element is proportional to its U-value. The use of internal/external or sandwich insulation
enables tilt-up panels to be easily designed to meet
Thermal bridging - Thermal bridges are formed by the provisions of the Building Regulations.
materials with relatively low resistance to heat flow
such as nails, metallic fasteners and concrete passing Knowing the thermal conductivity of different
through or penetrating an otherwise well-insulated components of the wall, thicknesses of the layers and
element. the surface resistance, an overall U-value can be
calculated using the series parallel method (3) as
In sandwich panel construction, connectors pass described earlier. Generally the insulation layer will
through the layer of thermal insulation that is placed extend to the perimeter of the panel. Where it does
to restrict the heat flow across the element and thus not cover the entire panel and solid concrete is
may conduct heat from one side of the insulator to framed around it, this reduced performance should be
the other. calculated.
The effect on the thermal transmittance (U-value) of
such an element depends on the total area and Tilt-up sandwich panels can be more energy efficient
thermal conductivity of the materials used in the than those types of construction where the interior
fabrication of the connectors. wall is merely covered by insulation or where air
leaks in cavities between thin wall layers reduce the
As indicated under ‘Concrete sandwich panels (steel energy efficiency significantly. There is growing
ties)’, on page 9-3, thermal bridging by large recognition that circulation or loss of air in such
components or connections can be a problem, but the cavities can increase the heat flow through the
bridging caused by the ties used in an insulated tilt- building element and seriously reduce the effective
up panel may not be that significant. thermal insulation.
Approved Document L(2) indicates that account needs Traditional sandwich panels have two layers of
to be taken of the effect of thermal bridging by use of concrete that are connected together by ties (typically
the series parallel method, but this does not extend to
9-2
Non-structural considerations
steel or composite) and separated with a layer of

insulation. Ultimately, the choice between steel and 6500
composite connectors will depend on a combination
Panel ties at 1200 mm over wall
of cost, thermal and mechanical performance, design 250 mm
constraints, and efficiency of construction.
Concrete sandwich panels (steel ties) - Steel ties are
used to connect the two layers while passing through
the insulation (Figures 9.1 and 9.2). Both concrete
and steel have very low thermal resistance in
comparison with building insulation materials (150
mm of concrete has an R-value, thermal resistance, of
0.09 m2 K/W, nearly 1/8 of the thermal resistance of
7500
25 mm of polystyrene foam which is equal to 0.7 m2
K/W). The steel ties will form thermal bridges but
their effect may not be that significant, as shown by
the following example.
The U-value of a typical plain sandwich panel with
stainless steel ties (λ = 16 W/m K) having an 125
mm inner concrete leaf, 75 mm thickness of
insulation (λ = 12.1 W/m K) and a 75 mm outer
concrete leaf is computed to be 0.371 W/m2 K. This 150 mm
Connector pins
value is well within the Building Regulations
Flat anchor
minimum requirement of 0.45 W/m2 K and
Sleeve connector anchor
demonstrates the good insulation achievable with tilt-
up construction.
In the absence of any ties, the U-value for the same Figure 9.1 Typical concrete sandwich panel with
wall and insulation layer would be 0.36 W/m2K. This steel ties
shows that the effect of the ties is small and increases
the heat flow by only a few percent when compared
with a hypothetical panel without ties.
Internal External
It is assumed in this example that the sleeve concrete leaf concrete leaf
connector is not filled with concrete (creating a thermal
bridge) and that there is no perimeter bridging. If such
bridging does occur the effect should be allowed for
as it can be significant
Figure 9.1 shows a typical concrete sandwich panel
with steel ties, and Figure 9.2 shows a typical cross
section of a similar panel. d1 d2 d3
Concrete sandwich panels (composite ties) - A

sandwich panel system (Figures 9.3 and 9.4) using
composite ties is marketed by Thermomass Building
Systems. It is a specific type of concrete sandwich
panel often used in tilt-up construction and provides a
wall with a high degree of thermal performance.
The panels incorporate prefabricated Styrofoam
(EPS) insulation. The thermal conductivity of this Insulation
type of insulation is known to be low and around
0.03 W/m K, and it has a closed cell structure, which
restricts the uptake of moisture. Figure 9.2 Typical cross section of a concrete
This building system also reduces the heat loss and sandwich panel with steel ties
gains through building elements through the thermal
bridging effect as fibre composite materials are used steel ties, the U-value reduces to about 0.361 W/m2,
in the fabrication of connectors (PC-connectors). virtually identical to a panel without ties. From this
These materials have a much lower thermal example, the U-value calculated for a panel with PC-
conductivity than steel connectors. connectors is better than for steel ties, but not
appreciably so. However, since the actual U-value
Taking a sandwich panel of the same dimensions as will depend on the number of ties and connectors and
previously but with composite connectors rather than their installation, it is best assessed individually for
9-3
each panel configuration. The use of composite ties Solid insulated panels - The alternative to insulated
may, however, become more beneficial where there sandwich panels is internally or externally insulated
is a need for extreme insulation as might, for solid panels. These can provide similar levels of
example, be the case with cold stores. Also localised insulation to sandwich panels but normally have the
cold spots due to thermal bridging, which can occur insulation applied after the erection of the panels as
with metal ties, are eliminated. part of the other building works. This insulation can
be positioned part internal and part external (as in the
case of the Glenrothes project shown in Chapter 2).
The position relative to the concrete panel will
6500 radically affect the usable thermal mass. In these
Panel ties at 400 mm over wall
cases the external insulation can be protected by an
250 mm earth berm, which also provides some insulation and
allows the internal insulation to be raised above the
circulation area thus eliminating damage due to
traffic within the building. The amount of insulation
for this form of tilt-up panel can be readily obtained
from Approved Document L (2) to the Building
Regulations.
Thermal mass
7500
Thermal mass is the property that enables building
materials to absorb, store and later release significant
amounts of heat or coolth. Structures constructed
from concrete and masonry have a unique energy-
saving advantage because of their inherent thermal
mass. Smaller peak internal temperatures compared
with those of the exterior environment, stability of
inside temperatures, and the time lag between the
occurrence of peak internal and external temperatures
150 mm
Composite connectors are the favourable thermal characteristics observed in
energy-efficient high mass construction.
By reducing the amplitude of the internal temperature
Figure 9.3 Typical concrete sandwich panel with fluctuations, thermal mass reduces the cooling loads
composite ties and makes the environment more comfortable. Delay
of peak temperatures in the internal environment,
known as thermal lag, shifts the peak cooling loads to
cooler times of the day when any air-conditioning
Internal External equipment installed can work more efficiently.
concrete leaf concrete leaf
A number of energy-efficient commercial
developments in the UK have demonstrated clearly
the effectiveness of concrete’s passive cooling effect
and thermal inertia in controlling the thermal
environment within a building (4).
The calculation of heat and energy balance with
consideration of thermal mass and thermal capacity
d1 d2 d3
are set out in prEN 832 (5) and the CIBS Building
energy code (6).
When the insulation layer is located between the two
concrete layers or externally - allowing a concrete
surface to be in direct contact with the internal space
– significant thermal capacity is presented to release
and store energy, and limit temperature swings in the
interior of the building. The impact of thermal mass
is more significant in reducing the cooling loads than
Insulation
the heating loads.
Tilt-up sandwich walls - Insulated tilt-up sandwich
Figure 9.4 Typical cross section of a concrete panels are designed to meet all the criteria required
sandwich panel with composite ties for energy efficiency as set by the standards. The
9-4
exposed internal concrete leaf (generally the At the frequencies controlled by mass, the Sound
structural leaf) can store and release significant Reduction Index increases at a rate of about 4 dB for
thermal energy due to its thermal capacity. Therefore, each doubling of mass, which for a particular
it can help prevent wide temperature swings in the material means a doubling of thickness. However,
interior of the buildings and produce a more this is a significant change since it relates to a log
comfortable living or working environment. scale, and doubling the mass or thickness effectively
reduces the sound energy level by half.
Since the insulation layer is located in between the
two concrete layers it allows the concrete mass to be Single panel solid concrete wall - The sound
in direct contact with the internal space. Therefore, insulating performance of a plain concrete panel can
this type of construction is more effective in be approximated using the mass law, assuming that it
moderating the indoor temperatures compared with a is well sealed at the joints and edges and that bypass
wall which is lined by an insulation material on its routes are adequately blocked. According to Building
internal surface. Regulations, a 190 mm thick wall of in-situ concrete
(minimum density of 2200 kg/m3) can provide
In the USA, building thermal performance Standard
reasonable sound resistance of 52 dB. The use of a
ASHRAE.90.1 (7) allows designers to recognise the
plaster coating is optional.
beneficial effects of high thermal mass by calculating
an effective U-value incorporating a correction for Sandwich panels - The typical sound resisting
fabric energy storage. A sandwich panel system performance of a double or multi-layer construction
supplier has calculated effective U-values, modified is different from and more complex than that of a
for dynamic effects, for a range of constructions and single wall.
locations in the USA (8). Depending on the local
However, mass law could be applied to estimate the
climate, typical effective U-values are improved by a
sound insulation of tilt-up sandwich panels in
factor of between 1.3 and 3.0 over steady-state
frequency regions where resonance and coincidence
values.
do not occur. It is recommended that only the
combined thickness of the two concrete layers is
SOUND INSULATION considered in the calculation.
The general subject of sound insulation is so complex Ideally ties should not be rigid, and should be kept to
that in-depth study is outside the scope of this design a minimum in sandwich panels to minimise the
manual. It is, however, possible to outline the formation of sound bridges. When sound insulation is
principal objectives of sound insulation and to give critical it is recommended that tests for different
general guidance on the sound performance frequency regions are undertaken to give a better
properties of concrete tilt-up panels. understanding of the sound insulating behaviour of
tilt-up concrete sandwich panels.
There is a need for separating walls between
dwellings, and indeed walls between individual In respect to airborne sound, concrete tilt-up walls
rooms of all types of buildings, to posses adequate can be provide excellent levels of sound insulation,
sound insulation. It can also be beneficial, and in typically in the order of 52 dB or better. This can be
some instances will be necessary, to provide adequate compared with normal metal cladding systems,
sound insulation to external walls in order to reduce which, due to their low mass, often only provide less
sound entering or exiting a room or building. than 30 dB sound reduction without resorting to
specialist designs for which the cost may be
Sound insulation in buildings may be provided to
uneconomic. This is a very significant difference and
resist the transmission of both airborne and structural
is a major benefit offered by tilt-up construction.
or impact sound.
Resistance of a wall to airborne sound transmission
PANEL FINISHES
mainly relies on its weight, stiffness and the degree
of isolation between the leaves in the case of multi- Surface treatments and finishes
layer panels. Concrete can provide such airborne
sound insulation and provide excellent control of A major factor in the acceptance and increased use of
impact sound when used in conjunction with a tilt-up construction in Australia, the USA, and New
floating/resilient surface layer. Zealand in recent years has been the improved
appearance of the structures. A wide variety of
Mass law aesthetic effects has been created using treatments
and finishes, most of which are simple to achieve
One way to assess the performance of an element to (Table 9.1). In addition to the advent of specialised
resist airborne sound is by use of the mass law, which paints and coatings at reasonable cost, much of the
relates the sound reduction index to the mass of the improvement is due to the sensitive detailing of
wall. The mass law should, however, only be used to panels.
give an approximate guide to the insulation
obtainable. In practice the insulation obtained is Thoughtful use of grooves, textures and colour can
always a few dB less than the theoretical maximum. break down the scale of a large flat wall to make it
9-5
more appealing, and can highlight particular areas or Grooves and relief
features. Although several of these finishes can be
achieved on the face-up side of a panel at casting, it The creation of grooves in tilt-up panels at the time
is normal to apply them to the face-down surface in of casting is one of the easiest ways of providing
order to ensure consistent quality finishes, to avoid visual interest to otherwise large flat areas of
lifting fittings in the visible outer face, and to allow concrete. If the width of the groove is chosen to
stack-casting. match a standard paintbrush or roller, it becomes a
simple matter to apply a coloured coating in the
Table 9.1 Types of finishes used for tilt-up panels groove that will contrast with the colour of the panel.
Type Variations Such grooves are easily formed in face-down casting

by fixing strips of sealed timber, or expanded
Coloured concrete Cement/aggregates polystyrene or polyethylene to the casting bed. The
sides of the grooves should be tapered by a minimum
Fairfaced concrete Cement/aggregates
of 15º to permit easy removal of the groove former
Exposed aggregate Cement/aggregates and to avoid sharp corners, which may chip. Groove
/sand bed formers may be stuck to the floor slab using gun-
applied mastic. Close attention to correct setting out
Acid etched
and location is essential to ensure high quality
Formliners Elastomeric 1 finishes.
(Polyurethane, silicone
A similar technique using sheet material such as
rubber)
plywood or expanded polystyrene is possible for
Rigid plastic 2 simulating windows, forming architectural features
(GRP, ABS, PVC) and providing relief on an otherwise flat surface. It is
possible to use shaped formers to produce indented
Coatings Paints letters or logos to give the building a company
Textured identity.
Trompe l’oeil Paint, texture and shape In all cases, the depth of the groove or shape should
be less that 20 mm. Deeper indents could have a
Feature strips Shape and position significant impact on durability and structural
Brick Slips strength, as the reduced section may become the
critical one for design for strength and durability.
Cropped bricks Well thought out detailing can avoid reduced sections
Brick outer leaf at critical locations such as horizontal bands at the
mid-height of panels.
Openings/pierced Size, shape and location
Formliners are an alternative method for producing a
1. Generally multiple factory use only, due to high cost.
series of grooves to give a ribbed finish. They are
2. Typically single-use, lower cost. available in a variety of patterns. They can be made
of rubber, plastics, timber, or metal decking and are
laid on the casting bed to form a profiled or textured
Procedure
surface against which to cast the concrete. In general,
The whole casting procedure, its location, sequence, selective and sensitive use of formlined texture/relief
lifting timing requirements, etc. can be influenced by in relatively small areas is more effective than larger
the choice of finish to be used. Although it is possible areas, depending on the fineness of the relief
to give a special finish to both faces of a tilt-up panel, produced. When using formliners, particular care
this is not recommended. The internal face is must be taken to choose an appropriate bond-breaker.
normally given a plain smooth finish suitable for
painting or leaving as formed. Exposed aggregate
It is important to appreciate the economics and Exposed aggregate finishes may be formed on either
production implications of certain finishes. For face-up or face-down surfaces, but quite different
instance, the use of expensive elastomeric formliners techniques are required. For face-up work, the
for large areas of relief will dictate sequential casting traditional water-washing approach that is used for
involving repeated use of the same formwork, more paving is appropriate.
suited to factory precasting than site casting.
Chemical retarders are often used to create exposed
A similar situation may occur for some brick finishes aggregate finishes on panels cast face-down. Care
that involve jigs for locating the brick units. must then be taken when placing the concrete not to
However, cheaper single-use formliners, especially abrade the retarders. Protect the casting surface
for smaller areas, may be economical for site tilt-up during the initial placement of concrete by deflecting
involving panels cast simultaneously. the pour with shovels, a wood baffle or similar
equipment. Subsequent wet concrete should be
9-6
placed onto previously placed material and then Brick finish

spread with rakes or other hand devices.
A variety of methods is available to provide or
Sand embedment is the normal technique used for simulate brick finishes to tilt-up panels. The Scott
face-down casting. The selected larger aggregate or Brick System from the USA supplies brick slips with
stone is spread in a single layer over a thin bed of dovetail keys on their concealed face, which fit into a
sand and tamped into place. While pouring the snap-together spacing system that simulates both
concrete care must be taken not to displace any stretcher and stack bonds. The sacrificial spacing
aggregate from the sand bed. On lifting the panel, the system replicates a lightly recessed jointing effect
sand is brushed off to leave the embedded aggregate and the visible face of the brick slips is protected by
showing on the surface. wax against grout staining.
This latter technique can also be used to create Another method successfully employed in the UK
patterns or designs, either by using selected coloured uses bricks cropped in half along their long axis,
aggregates or by choosing pieces of flat stone to form through holes formed during normal manufacture.
a mosaic or inlay. It is also common practice to However, the bricks are thicker than slips and require
delineate different areas of exposed aggregate by a spacing system in the mould used for their casting,
means of grooves or recessed plain bands. which must be sequential, so compromising fast tilt-
Using a suitable concrete mix, an effective exposed up construction.
aggregate appearance can also be achieved by A further alternative is for tilt-up to be used as the
sandblasting, grit-blasting or acid-etching the loadbearing inner leaf of the building. This allows a
finished panel. brick outer to be laid later, off the critical path, and
tied to the concrete panel across the cavity formed.
Surface treatments
Surface treatments are one of the easiest and most Combinations
versatile ways of improving the appearance of
The various finishes possible for tilt-up construction
smooth-finished surfaces and can vary from simple
need not be considered in isolation. Some stunning
acrylic paints or high-build elastomeric coating
effects can be achieved by combining two or more
systems to chemically-bonded finishes or stains
finishes on the same panel.
guaranteed for up to 25 years. The wide range of
colours available makes it possible to choose an
attractive colour scheme, whether it is for decoration
Mock-ups and test panels
or to give corporate identity to a building. Surface For many tilt-up buildings it is usual to erect a small
treatments can be applied to the total surface or used test panel for all parties concerned to agree upon
to highlight parts of it; they can be easily reinstated standards, particularly for finishes. Mock-ups such as
after damage and may be changed to give a new these allow alterations before construction and easy
image following a change in ownership or tenancy. reference during construction.
Proprietary high-build surface treatments are The USA-based L. M. Scofield Company suggests
available to produce a wide variety of textured that at least one month prior to placing any concrete
finishes from fine to coarse. They can be sprayed, that will be textured, a sample panel having adequate
brushed, rolled, combed or trowelled onto the horizontal and vertical dimensions should be made
concrete and can be coloured as desired. Such for approval on the job-site using the contemplated
coatings have the advantage of masking minor materials, mix designs, pour rates, and construction
imperfections in the concrete surface, but will not techniques including timing for stripping of the
conceal major blemishes. formwork or liner.
For any surface treatment to be successful, the The TCA also recommend test panels as an effective
surface must be properly prepared to receive it. In means of setting a standard for variations in colour or
tilt-up construction it is also advisable to check what surface finishes. It is thought that a representative test
effect the bond-breaker/curing compound may have tilt-up panel could include:
on any subsequent treatment. Some materials are • Range of aggregate size and colour
incompatible and will impair coating adhesion unless
• Range of admixture/grout colour
physically removed. Pressure washing may be
sufficient to do this once the chemicals have started • Edges and reveals
to break-up with UV exposure. Further information • Formliner joints
on surface treatments is given later in this chapter in • Lifting/bracing component holes
‘Painting tilt-up panels’.
• Degree of abrasive blasting.
Trompe l’oeil
Examples of panel finishes
Careful use of rebates and/or paints can give apparent
Examples of a range of panel finishes are shown in
relief, shading and form to flat panels.
Figure 9.5 on the next page.
9-7
Figure 9.5 Exales of panel finishes
Figure 9.5 Examples of panel finishes
9-8
Achieving successful finishes of the selection process given in the above reference
is shown in Figure 9.6
Although it is a relatively simple matter to achieve a
wide variety of different finishes for tilt-up
construction, attention paid to the following points
will maximise the potential for success:
• Ensure the casting bed is free from physical Main reason
for treatment
blemishes that will be reflected in the panel
surface.
• Use grooves or reveals to break up large panel Service conditions
Application conditions
areas. This reduces scale, provides visual interest Properties Assessment of test
and creates smaller defined areas for easier required data and case histories
coating application. Health and safety
(Cost)
• Select coating textures which are appropriate for Preferred route,
but not possible
the visual effect required and the condition of the
panel concrete at casting. Areas that will be
subject to close scrutiny probably justify more Specific type
of treatment Potentially suitable
elaborate textures. types of treatment
• Ensure that the curing compound and bond-
Preferred route,
breaker will not interfere with the application of but not possible
the final coating. Follow the recommendations of
the coating manufacturer with regard to surface
Proprietary products Proprietary products
preparation and the method of application. Same generic type Different generic types
• Conduct trials to ensure that the chosen finishes
produce the desired effect on the concrete
surfaces produced on the job-site from the
proposed floor slab finish.
Figure 9.6 Outline of the selection process for a
The range of surface treatments appropriate for tilt-up surface treatment
construction is very wide, covering the full spectrum
of cost and appeal. The more expensive techniques Paint materials
are not always applied to a whole project: it is quite
common to use these eye-catching treatments only at Surface treatment classification by generic material
the front of the building, or for small areas, applying type is complex (Figure 9.7, page 9.10) and although
an alternative finish to the remainder. In this way, the certain generic performance characteristics can be
effect on overall cost is small, although the ascribed, the degree to which they are achieved
improvement in appearance is considerable. depends critically on the particular formulation.
Therefore, it is unwise to substitute a specific product
for another of the same generic type for cost or other
PAINTING TILT-UP PANELS reason without careful consideration. A further useful
Painting is the most common method used to finish subdivision of treatments based on film thickness
tilt-up panels, its primary function being to enhance yields the following two categories:
the appearance of the structure, through properties • Coatings which depend on the formation of a
such as colour, texture, cleanability, opacity and continuous surface film to shield the surface.
mould resistance. This section therefore examines
• Materials which impregnate the concrete but do
surface treatments in more detail.
not depend on the formation of a significant
surface film. These may be either:
Selection of paints
i) penetrants which line the concrete pores and
There are many different surface treatments on the prevent ingress of liquids by absorption or
market with differing benefits and weaknesses, which capillary action or
must be appreciated when selecting material
ii) sealers which block the pores with minimal
appropriate to a specific situation. It is beyond the
surface film or affect on appearance.
scope of this publication to give more than brief
pointers to help in the consideration of Table 9.2, on page 9-10, gives a simplified overview
manufacturers’ recommendations for selection of of the common applications of the main types of
appropriate paints, preparation and application surface treatment relating to appearance. It is
methods. presented only as an initial guide to contribute to
informed discussions with suppliers of specific
The Concrete Society’s guide (9) provides more treatments, and should be supplemented by test
detailed guidance on the selection and application of results, case histories and predictions of the service
paints, referred to as ‘surface treatments’. An outline conditions of the actual tilt-up panels.
9-9
Inorganic Organo-metallic Organo-silicon Organic

Siliconates Silanes
Stearates Siloxanes
Silicones
Cementitious Silicates
(usually polymer- Silicofluorides
Thermosetting Miscellaneous Thermoplastics and
modified)
Bituminous synthetic rubbers
Oleo-resinous
and drying oils
Alkyds*
Two-pack One-pack
Moisture-curing
Solvented Water-borne
polyurethanes
Acrylic Acrylic
(may be solvented)
Vinyls Vinyls
Acrylated rubber Acrylated rubber
Chlorinated rubber Styrene-butadiene
Polyurethane
(one-pack)**
Solvented Water-borne Solvent-free
Epoxies Epoxies Epoxies
Polyurethanes Polyurethanes
(Meth)acrylates * Including urethane modified materials which
may be referred to as polyurethanes.
Unsaturated polyesters
Vinyl esters ** Non-reactive - solid or high viscosity
polymers in solution.
Figure 9.7 A classification of surface treatments (Taywood Engineering Ltd)
Table 9.2 Use of generic treatments to enhance or maintain appearance
Inorganic Hybrid Organic

Pore filling sealer
Synthetic rubber
Thermosetting
Thermoplastic
Miscellaneous
Silicate-based
Cementitious
Use Comments
Siliconate
Siloxane
Silicone
Sterate
Silate
Mould, dirt staining 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Uniformity after repair 3 3 3 3 3
Anti-graffiti 3 3 (3) (3) (3) 3 (3) (3) Some products only

Colour, texture, reflectance (3) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
This table is for initial guidance only. It is prescriptive and should not be used directly for the final selection or specification of a surface treatment
Whole life cycle performance of the paint is an Achieving a successful paint-job

important consideration in its selection. Poor
performance is likely if basic procedures necessary to Some of the factors that can influence the quality of a
produce painted panels are ignored. painted finish include: concrete cure, surface dryness,
moisture content, temperature, use of bond-breakers
and curing compounds, paint type, paint application
method, or interaction of more than one of the above
9-10
items. Material from the TCA datasheet on the 4. The concrete should change colour after surface
painting of tilt-up panels (Reference 10) is drying from a mottled grey to a more consistent
summarised below, amended for UK practice. It light grey.
presents some of the basic techniques used by 5. Clean all joints in addition to the panel faces.
successful tilt-up contractors to improve consistency The same factors that prevent paint from
and quality of painted finishes. adhering to the panel will also prevent joint
sealants from adhering.
Bond-breaker - Some of the bond-breaker applied to
the floor slab to prevent sticking can be transferred to 6. In the USA, many sealants are painted over,
the down-side face of the tilt-up panel and must be requiring checks with the sealant manufacturer
removed prior to painting the panel. To aid removal, regarding compatibility, curing time and other
bond-breakers formulated for tilt-up are normally factors affecting paint adhesion. Generally such
designed to degrade under the UV component of joints should cure for at least 10 days prior to
daylight. painting.
It is advisable to check with the manufacturer of the Application

bond-breaker and paint to make sure the materials are
compatible and, if there is any doubt as to the Application methods include spraying, rolling and
compatibility, do a test application. Note that the test brushing, and are specific to the treatment under
paint sample may need to dry for some days before consideration. Advice about methods is given in
adhesion testing. CIRIA Technical Note 139 (11) and BS 6150 (16). The choice of paint system and its
draft European Standard pr EN 1542 (12) give further method of application will be affected by the method
details of testing. of access (eg. mobile platform) and health and safety
issues.
Panel curing and drying - The typical tilt-up panel
is erected between seven and 14 days after pouring. Service life
Leaving the panel in its horizontal position for longer Experience in the USA is of paints typically lasting
periods increases the strength of the concrete but some seven to 12 years before needing repainting,
does not allow excess moisture to escape from the primarily due to fading. During the research of this
face of the panel in contact with the slab. Moisture
publication, several European paint manufacturers
levels in concrete can sometimes give rise to
have come forward with products with claimed special
problems with application and performance. Some
benefits for tilt-up. For instance Andura claim special
paint formulations are more tolerant of application to properties to cope with moisture trapped in new concrete,
damp surfaces and are more vapour permeable and and some Keim products carry guaranteed service lives
thus less likely to suffer bond failure from vapour of up to 25 years (see Chapter 13). It is not feasable
trapped behind the coating. However, even these will to provide a full list of manufacturers and products,
perform better if applied to dry concrete. In view of and specifiers are encouraged to contact a variety of
this, the manufacturers’ recommendations should be sources for comparison of properties, application
sought on applicability to tilt-up panels which, as methods, service lives, and costs.
with all new concrete, will contain some moisture
even when surface-dry.
WEATHER RESISTANCE OF PANELS
Surface preparation - Surface preparation is the key
to a successful paint job. It must be done consistently AND JOINTS
and thoroughly with no exceptions. All bond- General
breakers or form release agents, oils, dust, mould and
mildew must be removed from the panel. TCA tips The high quality concrete used in the production of
include: tilt-up wall panels results in an exterior surface that is
1. Wait a minimum of 30 days after erection before durable, resistant to freeze-thaw effects, and resistant
cleaning the panels. Clean panels prior to any to water penetration.
patching so that the repair will adhere to the Concrete is typically specified to have a minimum
base. Clean again if necessary. compressive strength of 35 N/mm2 and can be air-
2. The most economical and effective method for entrained to give enhanced durability or where
tilt-up panels is the use of a power washer. subject to the effects of de-icing salts. For this
Bond-breaker and paint manufacturers typically reason, special sealers and protective coatings are not
have recommendations regarding the removal of generally needed (17). Further guidance on weathering
bond-breakers, indicating whether power of buildings may be found in Reference 18.
washing, detergent washing, etc. is required.
Further advice is also given in BS 6270 (13), The following section gives guidance on the
ASTM D4258 (14); and ASTM D4259 (15). appearance and weatherproofing of joints and on
joint width and sealants. Further information and
3. The use of a washer having an oscillating tip
illustrations of joints are given in Chapter 3.
with a pressure of at least 300 psi is
recommended.
9-11
Joints joint widths, it is preferable to allow cumulative

tolerances to be absorbed at corners or opening (see
The importance of joint detailing in respect of the Chapter 3).
cost, appearance and performance of a tilt-up
building cannot be over-emphasised. Joint details The selection of the sealant for joints is complex and
must be compatible with the structural design involves the consideration of a number of factors, eg.
assumptions, the erection procedures, the fixing expected movement, type of sealant, width-to-depth
details and the construction tolerances. When this is ratio of sealant. A full discussion of all factors is
done, the expected service life of a sealant can be up outside the scope of this manual, but detailed
to 20 years, and even more under favourable evaluations can be found in BS 6213 (19) and BS 6093
conditions (19). The main aspects of joint design (20)
. Overseas publications include the ACI guide (21)
which need to be considered are given below. and the BRANZ publications (22, 23).
Appearance - The number of joints should be kept to The following general points for sealants should be
a minimum. If a small-panel appearance is desired noted:
then this can be achieved by the use of false joints
(grooves) in the panel surface. It is usually desirable • Wide joints lower the strain due to volume
to express the joints, not to try to hide them. The use movements and are to be preferred.
of a recess or a dark band of paint on either side will • The preferred width-to-depth ratio varies with
help mask any variation in the width of a joint. It will different sealant types. For an elastic sealant this
also minimise the effects of any variable weathering ratio is 2:1. Adopting the correct geometry helps
at the joint line. In certain circumstances, for example to minimise the stresses developed.
with heavily ribbed panels, it may be possible to • Sealants should be bonded only on the two side
conceal the joints in the overall texture of the wall. faces.
Bevels at the edges of panels are desirable as they • Backup rods, which do not bond to the sealant,
reduce the vulnerability to damage during handling are available to control the depth and profile of
and mask the effects of construction tolerances. the sealant.
Corners of tilt-up buildings can be designed in a • To enable a good bond to be made with the
number of ways. Oversail joints, for example, can be sealant, the concrete faces at the joint should be
used to alleviate build-up of construction tolerances dense, smooth, clean and dry.
where it is acceptable to show a panel edge on one
façade (its prominence will depend on the design • The compatibility of the form-release agent and
details used on the face of the panels). Mitred joints any curing compound with the adhesion of the
allow a uniform surface treatment of both walls, but chosen sealants should be checked.
they do impose greater restrictions on construction • The extension and compression capacities of
and erection tolerances. (Details of these joints are mastic sealants will be inadequate for most tilt-up
given in Chapter 10.) structures.
Weather-tightness and maintenance - Joints • The effect of ageing and exposure on the sealant
between wall panels will usually need to be weather- must be considered
tight. Face-sealed joints or gasket joints are usually • Most tilt-up buildings are not tall and therefore
preferred between panels, although more expensive access to the joints for maintenance of repair may
open-drained joints can be used for very exposed not be difficult or costly.
situations.
• Where long life is required a high performance
Illustrations of joints are given in Chapter 3, Figure material (eg. uv resistant) is desirable.
3.11. The advantages and disadvantages of the four • If the sealant is to be painted it must be
types of joint are summarised in Table 9.3. compatible with the paint system.
At a corner joint the situation is different. The
movement of the joint will include some shearing as REFERENCES
well as tension and compression, so the criteria for
the selection of the joint-sealing material will be 1. Glass, J. Evaluation of tilt-up construction in
different. relation to selected UK building types. Post
Graduate Research School, School of
Joint width and sealants - Joints must be able to Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, UK.
accommodate rotation and the variations in width 1997.
caused by construction and erection practices. They
2. HMSO. The Building Regulations 1991,
must also allow the panels to move relative to each
Approved Document L. HMSO, London, 1994.
other as the environment changes, eg. changes in
74 pp.
temperature or humidity.
3. Chartered Institute of Building Services.
The two simple recommendations for weather joints Thermal properties of building structures.
between panels are: (1) they work best in the range CIBSE, London, 1980. Guide A3. 58 pp.
12 to 25 mm, and (2) in order to maintain specified
9-12
Table 9.3 Comparison of weather-tight joints

Joint type Advantages Disadvantages
Face-sealed joint Simple edge profile Effectiveness of seal totally
(no grooves necessary). dependent on continued adhesion
and performance of sealant.
Completed joints easy to inspect.
Access necessary to front face of
panel after erection.
In order to ensure good adhesion
surface of concrete needs to be
clean, smooth, dense and dry.
Sealant exposed to deteriorating
influences of weather (UV light
etc.)
Open-drained joint Basic sealing mechanism Requires more complex edge
dependent on geometry not on formwork.
adhesion.
Profiled edge can be prone to
Will tolerate larger construction damage during construction.
variations and subsequent
Installation of baffle can be
movement.
difficult.
Installation during wet weather
Drumming of baffle caused by
possible.
wind may be objectionable.
Rear air seal protected from UV
light and weather.
Gasket joint Simple edge profile. Maximum construction width
tolerance is about ± 4 mm,
Quick to install.
requiring special consideration
Completed joints easy to inspect during design and construction.
Precompressed impregnated Simple edge profile. Access necessary to front face of
filler strips panel after erection.
Quick to install.
Sealant exposed to deteriorating
Completed joints easy to inspect.
influences of weather (UV light
Will tolerate larger construction etc.)
variations and subsequent
Installation is low-temperature
movement.
sensitive.
Installation during wet weather
Synthetic impregnate may be
possible.
necessary for longest life.
Does not need wide joints to cater
for large movements.
Seal dependant on precompression
not just adhesion.
4. Flynn, M, O’Neill, B. and Shaw, G. Project design of new buildings and services: (a) Heated
profile - Powergen headquarters. RCC, and naturally ventilated buildings. CIBSE,
Crowthorne, 1996. 97.361. 13 pp. London, 1981.
5. British Standards Institute. prEN 832. Thermal 7. The American Society of Heating,
performance of buildings - Calculation of energy Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers
use for heating - Residential buildings. CEN, (ASHRAE). Standard 90.2. 1989.
August 1992. 8. CTC. Thermomass manual. Geographical
6. Chartered Institute of Building Services considerations for mass factor effect in concrete
Engineers. Building energy code, Part 2, insulated sandwich panels. Composite
Calculation of energy demands and targets for Technologies Corporation, Ames, Iowa, 1996.
9-13
Tilt-up design and
Non-structural construction
considerations
9. Concrete Society. Guide to surface treatments

for protection and enhancement of concrete.
Concrete Society, Slough, 1997. Technical Report
No.50. 87 pp.
10. Tilt-up Concrete Association. Tilt tips No.3,
Painting tilt-up panels. TCA, Ames, USA, 1993.
2 pp.
11. CIRIA. Standard tests for repair materials and
coatings of concrete, Part 1, Pull-off tests.
CIRIA, London, 1993. 41 pp. Technical Note 139
12. British Standards Institution. Draft European
Standard pr EN 1542. BSI, Milton Keynes.
13. British Standards Institution. BS 6270. Code of
Practice for cleaning and surface repair of
buildings, Part 2. BSI, Milton Keynes, 1985.
20 pp.
14. American Society for Testing of Materials.
D4258, Standard practice for surface cleaning of
concrete for coating. ASTM, Philadelphia, USA,
1992.
15. American Society for Testing of Materials.
D4259, Standard practice for abrading concrete.
ASTM, Philadelphia, USA, 1992.
16. British Standards Institution. BS 6150:1991
Code of practice for painting buildings. BSI,
Milton Keynes, 1991. 132 pp.
17. Portland Cement Association. Precast concrete
loadbearing wall panels. Building system report.
PCA, Skokie. 12 pp.
18. Hawes, F. Appearance matters 6 - The
weathering of concrete buildings. Cement &
Concrete Association (now British Cement
Association), Wexham Springs (now
Crowthorne), 1986. 47.106. 48 pp.
19. British Standards Institute BS 6213. Guide to
the selection of joint sealants. Milton Kenyes,
BSI, 1982 (1992). 32pp.
20. British Standards Institute BS 6093. Code of
practice for design of joints and jointing in
building construction. Milton Keynes, BSI, 1993.
48 pp.
21. American Concrete Institute. CI 504R-77.
Guide to joint sealants for concrete structures.
ACI manual of concrete practice Part 5 ACI,
Detroit, 1990.
22. Building Research Association of New
Zealand. Sealed joints in external claddings: 1
Joint design. BRANZ, Judgeford, 1984. Building
Information Bulletin 238.
23. Building Research Association of New
Zealand. Sealed joints in external claddings: 2
Sealants. BRANZ, Judgeford, 1984. Building
Information Bulletin 238.
9-14
CONNECTION DETAILS
10
This chapter examines the need for connections in structures incorporating tilt-up panels, the requirements on
their performance, and their conceptual design. It then reviews connection types and presents typical details
which designers may wish to develop or adapt to suit the particular demands of individual projects. However, it
should be noted that the diagrams are illustrative only, and do not show all the detail of construction.
GENERAL CRITERIA contractor may, however, provide some input into the
design process.
Tilt-up panels often fulfil a multitude of functions as
part of the structural system of a building. In addition When tilt-up is precast off site, the design architect
to serving as the external cladding (non loadbearing and structural engineer provide information in the
panel), it is common for wall panels to carry vertical contract documents to identify the materials,
and horizontal loadings (loadbearing panel). The locations, and the magnitude and type of loading for
connections must therefore be designed to allow all connections. The precast producer then designs
panels to transfer the various forces from the roof and and details the panels and connections. The shop
floor members into the foundations. drawings and structural calculations are then
submitted to the architect and structural engineer for
Connections must also be capable of providing a approval.
degree of ductility for relief of temperature and
shrinkage stresses, for seismic energy absorption, and Because each project has a unique set of design
to allow safe predictable behaviour under fire problems it is important that the architect discusses
loading. Finally, it is important that cosmetic connection ideas with the structural engineer and
cracking of concrete around connections is precast concrete producer early in the design process (5).
minimised, particularly at service load level. Connections should be protected from fire to the
When designing connections, strength and same degree as the component they support.
serviceability criteria must be met. Details that are Connections should also:
not properly considered in design may result in costly • Be easy to install
construction delays or unsafe structures. BS 8110
• Have adequate ductility and flexibility
part 1: section 5 (1) and Reference 2 provide
information on design and detailing of precast • Have provision for on-site adjustment
construction but they do not relate specifically to • Be repetitive and accommodate tolerances.
tilt-up.
Although general in nature, the above conceptual
More detailed information directly relevant to tilt-up design considerations are important since the
may be found in References 3, 4, and 5 which give an connections need not only to be structurally adequate
overview of important design criteria and materials but must also ensure efficient construction and enable
that should be considered in connections for tilt-up the take up of tolerances(4).
construction. The following section highlights some
of the common requirements for connections used on Load path - Each structure with all its elements and
tilt-up, and discusses the types available. The connections should be considered as a single
information and details given are for general structural system. Each connection is not an isolated
guidance only and the designer must assess their element but is part of an integrated system. An
suitability and adapt as necessary for the particular applied external load (including that caused by
project under consideration. volume changes) is distributed by load paths in the
structural building system to the support foundations.
Load paths induce internal forces between elements
CONNECTION DESIGN of the system. In an effort to simplify the
connections, an efficient design considers the number
Conceptual design and magnitude of internal forces within a structural
When tilt-up is site cast, the architect and structural system.
engineer together will be responsible for determining Failure modes - The designer should be aware of the
the materials, locations, and the magnitude and type potential modes of failure in each connection.
of loading for all connections. They will also produce Sufficient redundancy should be provided to
the designs and details of the panels and connections eliminate the potential for a progressive collapse.
that are given to the tilt-up contractor. The tilt-up Failure mechanisms are often obvious and easy to
10-1
define. Failure modes that are difficult to determine TYPES

should be assessed by testing.
Rigid connections can be subject to unanticipated
Connections that subject concrete to tensile forces stresses due to volume changes, and may fail. An
can result in brittle failure modes. Unlike a ductile alternative to a rigid connection is one that relieves
failure, a brittle failure is usually sudden and without stress by allowing movement to occur. Flexibility can
warning. If a ductile connection (such as by yielding be attained in various ways: bearing pads supporting
of reinforcement after cone failure of the concrete) structural members can offer stress relief and low
cannot be provided to cater for the ultimate loading, friction materials allow a member to slip, thus
the engineer should increase the safety factor of the accommodating movement.
connection.
Connections can be made flexible through the use of
Design loads - Some design loads are obvious such slotted holes in bolted connections (Figure 10.1 (a)).
as vertical imposed and dead loads and lateral loads The bolt is tightened sufficiently to hold the member
due to wind, soil pressure and seismic events. In but still allow it to move with little restraint. If the
connection design, less apparent loads such as connection is bolted tight against the end of the slot,
temporary erection loads and volume changes must movement is restricted: this can be avoided by using
also be considered. friction-grip bolts.
Over-stiff connections can introduce unwanted Alternatively, movement can be accommodated
restraints. The amount of fixity of a connection through elastic and, ultimately, plastic flexibility of
influences the load paths, which in turn affect other the connection (Figure 10.1 (b)).
elements of the structural system. Therefore, the
design must consider connections as an integral part
of the structure.
Connections are often designed with the intention of
resisting only one type of loading. An example is a
connection that has a large tensile capacity but little
shear capacity to accommodate movement due to Angle welded to
volume changes. channel webs only
Angle with oversize
Ductility of connections - Ductile connections are holes bolted to cast-
in inserts
those that exhibit an ability to withstand deformation Channel fixed at
and load beyond the initial yield. It is desirable to middle-third of
panels to minimise
design connections to behave in a ductile manner so restraint
they can support loads if unexpected forces occur and
large deformations develop. (a) Slotted angle (b) Flexing
connection connection
Restraint to volume change - Shrinkage from
drying, changes in temperature, and creep cause
movements in wall panels. Where possible, it is Figure 10.1 Corner connections to permit movement
advisable to design connections that will
accommodate all likely volume changes. Connections used in tilt-up construction can be
Shrinkage occurs due to drying of the concrete. If broadly categorised into four main groups:
immersed in water after drying the concrete absorbs • Cast-in-place connections
water and expands but it does not return to its
• Steel plates with welded studs
original volume. Concrete also expands or contracts
as the ambient temperature increases or decreases. • Embedded inserts
Differential volumetric effects can also induce out- • Drilled-in inserts.
of-plane bending that may also need to be addressed.
Cast-in-place connections - Cast-in-place
Durability - Durability refers to a material’s ability connections are made by casting infill sections
to maintain its strength and serviceability throughout between the erected panel components with
its service life. Exposure of connections to weather overlapping reinforcement projecting from the ends
may foster deterioration of the components and of the panel (see Figure 10.15 later in this chapter).
results in a subsequent reduction in strength. Proper The result is a very strong but often expensive
protection is, therefore, essential. In climates where solution for connecting the panel elements. Cast-in-
freeze-thaw cycles occur, concrete should have place connections tend to be very rigid and therefore
sufficient strength or be air entrained. Connections proper attention to thermal and shrinkage stress
utilising wood may need to be treated, whilst exposed build-up must be given. Ductility after yielding can
steel components must be given protective coatings be attained but usually not without considerable
(eg. galvanised). Alternatively, the use of stainless concrete distress.
steel or non-ferrous materials may be necessary.
10-2
Connection details
Steel plates with welded studs - Steel plates with

welded studs (6) are one of the most common tilt-up
connections (Figure 10.2). Typically, an anchored
embedded steel angle or plate is cast into the panel.
The plate is either anchored by fully embedded
reinforcement or it is provided with short studs
crossed by panel reinforcement thus providing
ductility to any failure cone of concrete. Subsequent
connections are made by site welding to the exposed
metal surfaces. These connections are sufficiently
strong for most applications, are fast and inexpensive,
and can be designed with reasonable ductility.
(b) Ferrule inserts
However, the use of site welding requires careful
specification and inspection.
Reinforcement usually detailed

to pass through failure cone to
ensure ductility
(c) Coil inserts
Figure 10.2 Steel plates with welded studs Figure 10.3 Embedded inserts
Embedded and drilled-in inserts - Embedded

inserts such as the ferrule or coil inserts (Figure 10.3),
DETAILS
or drilled-in inserts such as the expansion anchor, Details for connecting structural components to tilt-
allow bolted connections to be made directly. These up panels are not easily standardised. Variations in
eliminate the need for site welding, reduce the the type of roof and floor systems, and designers’
requirements for pre-planning, and provide a own preferences, have resulted in a wide variety of
convenient means for correcting errors. connection types.
Embedded and drilled-in inserts are most often used Some of the common connection details are now
for light loads or for fastening non-structural reviewed to demonstrate the simplicity of the
elements. They are the cheapest but least reliable. principles involved.
Both types of inserts should be avoided in seismic
applications or where heavy vibrations occur, Mastery of these simple concepts offers considerable
because of their poor cyclic loading characteristics. design flexibility in developing or varying details to
suit individual projects.
10-3
Main roof and floor connections designed and detailed to carry vertical loads, transverse
loads due to out-of-plane wind or seismic forces, and
Main roof and floor structural elements are attached sometimes longitudinal shear forces.
to tilt-up panels by a variety of connection details
that transfer forces to provide stability and, in many The pocketed connection has the added benefit of
cases, give immediate support to the element during reducing eccentricity of load. The steel member is
construction. The connections used for tilt-up follow commonly site welded to the angle seat.
the usual principles adopted for precast concrete, but An alternative to this connection is a flat steel plate
some have been specially developed for this form of with stud anchor (6) or reinforcement tie embedded in
construction. the concrete (Figure 10.4 (b)). The angle seat is
Seat for steel truss - This is often provided by a usually welded on before by hand but can also be
pocket recessed in the plane of the panel with an attached after the panel is erected.
anchored angle seat (Figure 10.4 (a)). It is commonly Both of the above examples avoid projections above the
surface of the panel to allow for easy screeding and
finishing, or for stack-casting one panel on top of
another.
Joist pocket formed with Seat for steel beam - Recessed pockets (similar to
block-out Figure 10.4 (a)) are also sometimes used for beam
connections when the vertical reaction is of a light or
Continuous chord
angle welded to truss moderate nature.
For heavy loads, a corbel or full height pier should be
considered in order to provide sufficient concrete
depth to install confining ties (Figure 10.5).
Alternatively, a large flush plate with embedded
anchors may be used with an angle seat welded on
Cast-in angle
seat with truss before or after erection, similar to that shown in
connected by Figure 10.4 (b).
weld or bolts
Reinforcement
welded to angle seat
Chord angle
(a) Pocketed connection for steel truss
Continuous chord
angle welded to joists
Angle seat with

Angle seat with attached tie bar
joist connected
by weld or bolts
Reinforced section
(confining ties)
Support pier cast

Embedded plate with with panel
stud anchors
(b) Truss supported by angle welded

to embedded plate
Figure 10.4 Connections for steel trusses Figure 10.5 Seat angle on pier for heavily loaded beam
10-4
Connection details
Support for timber joist - Timber roofs and floors

have been used for a number of tilt-up projects,
although this may not be common in the UK.
A system popular for timber roof construction on tilt-
Reinforcement from panel
up is to use timber joists supported on a timber wall
cast into topping or
plate (Figure 10.6). concreted into cores
The wall plate is connected with bolts, cast into the

panel, or drilled in before erection. This is generally
sufficient for vertical loads but is considered to be Precast concrete hollow-core units
inadequate for transverse loads, and it is
recommended that additional transverse steel strap
ties are installed to prevent separation of the roof or
floor deck from the tilt-up panel. Bearing pad where required
(a) Continuous top ledge to support

precast concrete floor units
Steel strap cast in panel
and fixed to joists
Decking
Reinforcement from panel
concreted into cores or
cast into topping as above
Timber joist
Timber plate bolted Precast concrete

to panel hollow-core floor units
Bearing pad where required
(b) Continuous corbel to support

precast concrete floor units
Figure 10.6 Timber wall plate connection Figure 10.7 Support for precast concrete hollow-
core units
Support for precast concrete hollow-core units -
Hollow precast concrete floor or roof slabs can be Support for precast concrete double-tee beams -
supported by a ledge on a tilt-up panel (Figure 10.7 (a)), Support for a double-tee beam may be provided by
on a continuous corbel (Figure 10.7 (b)) or by an pocketed connections (Figure 10.8 (a)) or a
angle (as shown in Figure 10.4 (b)). However, panels continuous horizontal corbel (Figure 10.8 (b)). In
with corbels are more difficult to produce. The use of both cases the units would normally be supported on
a ledge is common where storey-height panels are neoprene pads so as to allow for some rotational
used or at roof level. But at intermediate floors in a movement when the beam is loaded.
multi-story panel it is more common to use a steel
angle (Figure 5.1, Chapter 5) due to the limitations of Ties can be provided by embedded panel anchors and
construction. site welding or by reinforcement cast into a concrete
topping.
The slabs are sometimes supported on a neoprene
The limitations and alternative support as indicated
strip to even out the bearing stresses. Lateral
for hollow-core units are also applicable to double-
reinforcing ties may be detailed to be cast into some
tee beams.
of the cores or into the structural topping when used.
10-5
perimeter is provided by reinforcement within the

Welded connection
between plates in panel
panels and ties between the panels or by the use of a
and beam perimeter angle, which often serves as support for the
roof or floor as shown in Figure 10.4(b) above.
Steel angle connections - With this method, site-
welded connections are made between the roof or
floor diaphragm to the continuous angle. The chord
angle will in turn typically be welded to cast-in
anchor plates or fastened to machine bolts embedded
Precast concrete double-tee units in the concrete (Figure 10.9). This connection will
also carry small vertical loads. Where bolted
connections are used the steel angle plate is provided
with slotted holes to allow the panel to shrink without
restraint from the bolts. The angle is also often attached
to the panels away from its edges (say at third points)
Neoprene bearing pad to further reduce panel restraint (Figure 10.10).
Angle attached by cast-in

bolts or welded to cast-in
plates
(a) Continuous top ledge to support
precast concrete double-tee units
Welded connection between

Welded connection
steel decking and panel angle
between plates in panel
and beam
(a) Edge connection to steel decking
Bar welded between angle

and cast-in panel plate
Precast concrete double-tee units
(b) Edge connection to double-tee unit

Neoprene bearing pad
Plate welded between studded

Reinforced corbel panel plate and plate cast-in
panel
(b) Continuous corbel to support

precast concrete double-tee units
Figure 10.8 Double-tee support to wall panel (c) Edge connection to hollow-core unit
Roof or floor diaphragm connections

Figure 10.9 Connections between roof/floor
Diaphragm action of a floor or the roof may serve to diaphragm and perimeter support angle
support the walls and transmit lateral wind, soil, or
earthquake forces back into shear walls and
Perimeter reinforcing steel connection - This detail
foundations. The roof or floor is stiffened or braced
(Figure 10.11) is popular with timber roof and floor
to perform as a diaphragm (a large deep horizontal
systems. The timber wall plate (or steel channel)
beam with the deck acting as the web and its
transmits vertical and longitudinal loads into the
perimeter acting as the flange) (3). Continuity of the
panel. The reinforcing bar is cast into the panel with
10-6
Connection details
For most buildings it will be necessary for certain

panels to resist overturning forces (Figure 10.12 (b))
due to wind or other specified loadings (eg. due to
earthquakes). When this is necessary, as in the case
of high, narrow panels in earthquake zones, the
panels should be connected in pairs, or at most, in
Angle plate or floor/roof connections
attached to panel at intermediate
groups of three. When this is done, additional
positions to minimise restraint reinforcement may be required in the panels in order
(shown at 1/3 positions) to minimise the effect of increased shrinkage stresses
due to this restraint.
Shear force from roof diaphragm
Figure 10.10 Attachment of connections to reduce

restraint
(a) Panels not connected

Cylindrical cardboard sleeve encasing
top chord bar at both ends of panel
L Shear force from roof diaphragm
L/3 L/3 L/3
Bars spliced
Discontinuous
together at
wall plate
ends of panel
attached to (b) Panels connected in pairs
panel via
slotted holes
Figure 10.12 Panel shear wall stability
The shear wall connection of this type should have a

high static strength with good ductility under cyclic
loading (3). Since it is used primarily for transmitting
Figure 10.11 Reinforcing bar chord connection shear forces, it should be recessed below the surface
of the panel and anchored with splayed deformed
a sleeve at the outer one-third ends to allow for panel bars (Figure 10.13). Split pipe connectors as shown
expansion or contraction. A full-strength lap splice is in Figure 10.13 can be used with several of the other
made at panel joints by site welding. This details shown in this Section to provide restraint but
reinforcement system can also be used with a roof or with the ability to offer some give to movements. The
floor that is supported by a pocketed connection with embedded angle (Figure 10.14) with stud anchors can
intermittent fixings from the deck. have adequate static strength but is poor in cyclic
loading, and cracks may occur around the connector
Panel-to-panel connections as a result of volumetric panel movement. Therefore,
There are wide differences in opinion as to whether it is generally only used to tie together or attach
panels need be connected structurally to one another panels of short length. For very large shear forces, a
at their vertical joints. There are those who suggest cast-in-place stitch may be used such as illustrated in
that two or three welded connectors should be Figure 10.15. Again, because of the effect of
provided at each panel joint, particularly for restraint, it needs to be used with discretion. It may
buildings located in seismic zones. On the other also be necessary to tie other panels or columns, and
hand, there is the view that unconnected panels examples are shown in Figure 10.16.
enable expansion and contraction between panels to
take place, thereby reducing the build up of stresses. Panel-to-foundation connections
It is believed that unconnected panels may also
In general, it is recommended that some kind of
perform better in a large earthquake (due to structural
connection is made between the wall panel and the
damping) (3). An assessment of these variations in
ground floor or foundation. This is most important in
opinion indicates that there is insufficient evidence to
seismic zones but is also good practice in other
require arbitrary panel-to-panel connections, and that
situations since, occasionally, panels have been
only those connections required for structural
displaced by impact from equipment, eg. forklift
stability need be provided. This now seems to be the
trucks (3).
view of most tilt-up designers.
10-7
Panel reinforcement
Splayed connector
plate anchors
(a) Panel-to-panel detail
Panel reinforcement Pilaster cast after

extended into pilaster panel erection
ELEVATION
Split pipe connector Panel reinforcement

welded to anchor plates (b) Panel-to-pilaster detail
Figure 10.15 Cast-in-place connection
The connection can sometimes be made at slab level

ENLARGED SECTION (Figure 10.17) or alternatively connections can be
made both to the foundation and the concrete ground
floor slab (Figure 10.18). The slab connection serves
Figure 10.13 Panel-to-panel connection to transmit longitudinal and transverse loads and may
take the form of a dowel projecting from the panel or
a welded embedded anchor. A dowel, welded plate,
or continuous longitudinal slot or upstand in the strip
Embedded angle Plate welded across
with studs angles
footing provides transverse restraint for the panel at
this level and can provide a degree of moment
restraint to the panel, which is discussed further in
Chapter 7.
Connections for sandwich panels

Many of the forgoing details can in essence be used
(a) Embedded angles for sandwich panels that have the added advantage of
built-in insulation and the ability to reduce
Plate welded across
Embedded plate plates temperature movements of the inner leaf. The use of
with studs
two leaves also provides greater scope for variations
in construction details as the outer leaf masks the
inner panel allowing, for example, full-width pockets
and fixings to be used. Another benefit is that it
enables initial eccentricities of vertical loads to be
minimised or even eliminated.
(b) Embedded plates
A range of typical connection details is shown in
Figures 10.19 to 10.31, which are adapted from
Cast-in sockets Plate bolted to cast-
in sockets Reference 7.
Connection details – further information
Design of connections for tilt-up requires
consideration of strength and serviceability of all
materials that may be affected, whether they are
concrete, steel or wood. For further requirements
(c) Cast-in sockets related to these materials, the appropriate Codes of
Practice should be consulted. For data on the
performance of the connection elements, refer to the
Figure 10.14 Embedded connections in panels
manufacturer’s design data.
10-8
Connection details
Loose angle
welded in place
Recessed joint
mortared up Shims for
initial support Welded
and levelling
Reinforcement
Grout for
long-term
Welded plates support
(a) Welded connection

Make-up strip
Mortared recess
Main floor
Cast-in threaded
insert
Continuous
footing
(a) level site
Tolerance hole for

bolt through panel
(b) Bolted connection

Loose angle bolted or welded to cast-in
fixings in panel and column
Continuity strip
Concrete or welded
column connection
Continuity strip
Steel column reinforcement
Steel clip shown bolted

to cast-in socket.
(Alternatively weld to
cast-in plate)
(c) Bolted and welded connection Concrete support
with dowel cast in
(Shown as split column section) to footing
Shims for initial
Mortar filled support and levelling
Grout
Continuous
footing
Concrete column
(b) Stepped site
Continuous rebates
(d) Slotted connection
Figure 10.16 Other panel connections Figure 10.17 Simple panel-to-floor slab connections
10-9
Shims for initial Dowel screwed into

support and Grouted anchor dowel
threaded coupler in
levelling. (Grout panel
carries panel load
in service) Grout
(a) Dowelled - 1 (b) Dowelled - 2
Angle welded to
cast-in plate in Plate anchored
panel and into panel
bolted to
foundation
Welded plate
Angle anchored
into panel
(c) Embedded plate with angle (d) Embedded fixings with welded plate
50 mm nominal
grouted recess
(b) Recessed
Figure 10.18 Typical panel-to-floor slab connections
10-10
Connection details
Sealant and backing strip

Additional ties at upper level
Mitered tolerance joint Roof truss
Fixing welded or bolted to

embedded anchor plates
(but see Connection
design on page 10-1)
Thermal insulation
Angle ledge welded or
bolted to embedded
anchor plates
Inner concrete leaf

Ties joining inner and
outer leafs together
Figure 10.19 Mitred corner joint Figure 10.21 Parapet with angle support
Outer leaf discontinuous at

corner to allow for movement
Sealant and backing

(but see Connection
design on page 10-1)
Direct bearing of roof

truss (Welded or
bolted to angle seat)
Figure 10.20 Butted corner joint Figure 10.22 Roof with top support
10-11
Leveling shims (Joint

grouted between shims
along length of wall)
Sealant and
backing strip
Angle ledge welded or

bolted to embedded
anchor plates
Insulation as
necessary
Figure 10.23 Roof with angle support Figure 10.25 Panel with simple welded connection
to floor slab
Dowelled grouted
Roof deck and framing joint
Levelling shims (Joint

Sealant and grouted between shims
backing strip along length of wall)
Roof steelwork attached to
Figure 10.24 Roof edge support Figure 10.26 Panel with simple dowelled connection
to floor slab
10-12
Connection details
Embedded
Precast concrete
continuity strip
hollow core units
In-situ concrete
Foundation recessed
to clamp panel
Reinforcement welded to
support angle and concreted
into hollow-core unit
Levelling shims (Joint
grouted between shims Angle welded or bolted to
along length of wall) embedded anchor plates
Caulking strip
Figure 10.27 Panel tied to slab and restrained in Figure 10.29 Intermediate floor connection
foundation
Inner concrete
leaf
Restraint block with

dowel into foundation
Fixing welded or
bolted to anchor
plates
Timber subframe to
Levelling shims window / door
(Joint grouted frame
between shims
along length of
Caulking strip wall)
Figure 10.28 Retaining panel propped by slab and Figure 10.30 Insulated opening
restrained by foundation
10-13
Connection details
More detailed information on connections can be

found in References 3, 4, 6, which show typical
connection details used in tilt-up connections, and
which also contain design guidance. References 2
and 8, although not strictly applicable to tilt-up,
provide guidance on fixings for precast members and
for non-loadbearing vertical elements. Due to local
environmental conditions such as temperature,
humidity, expansive soils or because of locally
accepted details and practices, some of the details
shown may not perform satisfactorily or prove
economical in all situations. Therefore, each detail
and the specific requirements for the connection
should be studied thoroughly before any decision to
adopt its use.
REFERENCES
1. British Standards Institution. BS8110 Part 1:
Structural Use of Concrete, 1985. 124 pp.
2. Institution of Structural Engineers. Structural
joints in precast concrete: manual. ISE, London,
1987. 56 pp.
3. Weiler, G. Connections for tilt-up construction.
Concrete International, Vol. 83, No 3, June 1986.
pp 24-28.
4. Portland Cement Association. Connections for
tilt-up wall construction. PCA, Skokie, USA,
1987. EB 110.OID. 39 pp.
5. Portland Cement Association. Precast concrete
loadbearing wall panels. PCA, Skokie, USA,
1987. Building Systems Report. PA167.01B.
12 pp.
6 BRC Square Grip. Peikko, Fastening plate
design manual. BRC Square Grip, Sutton-in
Ashton, 1998.
7 Composite Technologies Corporation Inc.
Thermomass building system. Design folder. CTC,
Iowa, USA.
8. British Standards Institution. BS 8200. The
design of non-loadbearing vertical enclosures.
BSI, Milton Keynes, 1985. 76 pp.
10-14
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
11
This chapter contains safety information drawn mainly from countries where tilt-up is well established. It may
be used when considering the safety aspects of particular UK projects.
GENERAL based upon weight but also on how far the crane
must reach and how far the crane may have to
Until recently, the main responsibility for safety travel with a panel.
during construction work has been with contractors,
but with the introduction of the CDM Regulations in • The panel contractor should obtain from the
1995, this is now shared by clients and designers, erection sub-contractor documentation attesting
who are specifically targeted by many of the to the crane’s certification, also a certificate of
requirements of the Regulations. insurance.
• Ensure that there is a proper sub-base under the
This chapter briefly discusses just some of the issues floor slab. This will be the casting area as well as
considered important to safety in those countries a working surface. The slab is only as good as
where tilt-up is in common use. This will help the the sub-base upon which it is placed.
above parties determine their responsibilities when
considering the Regulations. Planning supervisors • Check the floor slab for adequate strength to
may also wish to consider the material when support the crane if required.
constructing their health and safety plans. • Obtain a properly designed and detailed tilt-up
package that is supported by a professional
By its very nature, much of the construction process
engineer.
in forming tilt-up panels is inherently safe. Up to the
point of lifting, construction is at ground level with • Obtain a bracing manual showing braces
good access, and involves easily handled components appropriate for design wind loads.
with the minimal use of heavy plant. Side forms are • Obtain approved shop drawings for each panel
lightweight and starter bars are often unnecessary. showing all pertinent information.
Concrete, the heaviest component, is often delivered
• Develop a panel casting and erection sequence.
by mixer truck chute or by pump. Finally, before
lifting, all possible operations are performed on the • Always test the bond-breaker prior to casting any
horizontal panel to avoid unnecessary working at a panels. Verify that the bond-breaker is compatible
height. For instance, bracing props and welded or with any curing or sealing compounds that may
bolted fittings are attached at this point. have been used on the floor slab.
• Inspect the panel formwork for proper placing of
Due to the size and weight of the elements
reinforcing, inserts, embedded items and for
concerned, the lifting and subsequent temporary
dimensional accuracy.
bracing phases prior to the structure being self-
supporting introduce particular demands on safety 2. Prior to erection day
planning. The Tilt-up Concrete Association (TCA)
has recently introduced a safety checklist for tilt-up • Perform a site inspection. Look for any
concrete construction (1) which, together with other underground hazards, overhead wires, rough
material, has been used to produce the list below. terrain, or soft sub-grade on which the crane will
However, it may be necessary to make some travel. Make notes of any corrections that need
modifications or additions to these guidelines in to be made or any hazardous areas.
order to suit UK law and practice. • Rig the crane prior to the date on which erection
is to start.
SAFETY CHECKLIST • The panel contractor should verify that the crane
is in good working condition.
1. Prior to construction
• Check that lifting inserts are properly located,
• Hire an erection sub-contractor and crew strongbacks properly installed, and that the
experienced in the handling of tilt-up or precast concrete has gained the required strength at
panels. lifting. This information should be recorded in
• Select a crane with a capacity capable of lifting the erection manual.
the heaviest panel (including an allowance for • Install entrance and exit ramps for the crane to
suction – see Chapter 3) plus the weight of the position itself onto the floor slab. Do not allow
rigging gear. Crane selection will not only be
11-1
the crane to exert its weight on the extreme edge • Provide the crane operator with weights of
of any portion of the slab. individual panels, predicted suction, and
• Check to make sure all the floor slab blockouts instructions on the lifting sequence.
are covered. If water gets under the slab, it could
weaken the sub-grade and the crane may crack 4. During the lift
the slab. • Provide a clean working area with debris and
• Itemise the equipment required for a proper and obstacles removed.
safe lift. Ensure that the tools and equipment are • Do not lift panels when wind conditions would
well maintained. produce unsafe conditions during a lift.
• Identify erection sub-contractor’s crew. A • No personnel should pass beneath a non-vertical
minimum crew should consist of the crane panel, under any circumstances.
operator, rigger foreman, two journeyman
riggers and welders if required. • Personnel not involved with the panel lifting
procedure should be clear of the lifting area.
• Provide a clean working area with all debris and
obstacles removed. • If possible, fully extend outriggers and use
cribbing to spread the outrigger loading. If
• Locate proper shim points on the footing to outriggers cannot be fully extended, then the
prevent overloading the footing prior to grouting crane capacities must be reduced.
under the panels. The design engineer can help
you with these locations. • Inspect all rigging gear prior to loading the
inserts. Rigging gear must be properly aligned
• Hold safety meeting before any lifting starts. and free of snags.
• Ensure that each member of the crew • Make certain that the rigging configuration
understands their position and the responsibility matches that shown in the erection manual.
that goes with it.
• Check to be sure that braces will not be trapped
• Draw up an erection manual containing all by the rigging once the panel is in its final
necessary information for erection. position.
3. At the safety meeting • Be alert for panels that may be stuck to the
casting surface. These may require releasing
• Create a safety checklist and have all relevant carefully with wedges or pry bars as loads to the
staff sign and check the list after the safety lifting inserts may be twice that designed for,
meeting has been conducted. causing possible insert withdrawal.
• Instruct personnel never to place themselves • At a predetermined lifting force, carefully
under a panel while it is being tilted, on the blind release the panel using pry bars and wedges.
side of the panel while the crane is travelling • If you must ‘walk’ a panel, be alert to all
with it, or between the crane and the panel. obstacles in the path of the crane and the crew.
• At the site, do not allow horseplay or • Take extra precautions when lifting panels with
unnecessary talking. special shapes or special rigging.
• Instruct personnel to remain alert at all times and • Do not use any damaged or bent braces, lifting
to look out for fellow workers. hardware or bolts.
• While on the site, proper attire should be worn at • Make certain that any strongbacks shown on the
all times (ie. hardhats, shoes, etc). erection details are included on the panels.
• Address all fall protection requirements.
• Identify the rigging foreman. Ensure that the 5. After the lift
rigging foreman and the crane operator know all • Be alert when plumbing panels to their final
the hand signals that they will be using to upright position. Make sure that the panel being
communicate with each other. Instruct the other plumbed does not strike another previously
personnel that the only person that should signal erected panel.
the crane operator is the rigging foreman.
• Support panels as close as possible to the vertical
• Clearly define the function and responsibility of prior to attaching braces to the floor slab.
each person on the lifting crew.
• Never release the crane load if the bracing does
• Demonstrate the use of the lifting hardware, not appear adequate.
bracing hardware, and proper use of any tools
and equipment that are to be used. • If the bracing design calls for a support system
of knee, lateral, end or cross bracing, it should be
• Instruct the construction gang never to reach completely installed prior to releasing the crane
their hands under a panel to adjust a shim or a load.
bearing pad.
11-2
Safety requirements
• If the lateral and end bracing cannot be installed Main contractor

with the panel load still on the crane, then the
completion of this bracing must not be further Access for crane/trucks
than one panel behind the lifting schedule. Preparation for floor
• All bracing should be installed on all erected Placing reinforcement in floor
panels at the end of the working day. Placing brace inserts in floor
• At the beginning and end of the working day, all Placing and compaction of concrete for floor
brace inserts should be checked to ensure that Curing compound for floor and application
they are tight and have not worked loose
throughout the night or day. Check brace Panel casting sequence (building programme)
inserts daily. Crane/panel weight ratio
• Maintain a daily torque log on brace insert Panel erection sequence
tightening. Safe working environment/procedures
• If at all possible, grout under the erected panels
prior to the end of the working day. Tilt-up sub-contractor*
• Do not remove any braces until all the structural Bond-breaker type and application
connections are completed and the lateral Curing compound for panels and application
resistive system is in place and completed. The Design of panels for lifting
structural engineer can help you determine if it is
safe to remove any or all of the panel braces. Selection and use of strongbacks
• Be careful when backfilling the infill strip of the Lifting and bracing insert type
ground slab so that you do not exert excessive Positioning inserts in panel
pressure on the tilt-up panel. Positioning reinforcement in panels
Part 1 of the Australian Standard (2) covers safety Placing, compacting and curing concrete in panels
requirements in some detail. It focuses particularly on Bracing design
lifting and bracing phases, with reference to design, Casting sequence
material, fittings and construction aspects.
Lifting procedures
Rigging gear and lifting
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Erection sequence
Since efficient tilt-up construction requires a team Crane position
approach, safety must involve the designer,
Safe working environment/procedures
contractor and lifting contractor. Each team member
should have an agreed role in clearly defined * This assumes the tilt-up contractor is responsible
procedures and with known responsibilities. for both the production and erection of the panels.
The C&CA of Australia (3) suggests the following

breakdown of responsibilities, which has been REFERENCES
modified to suit that more likely for the procurement 1. Tilt-up Concrete Association. Safety checklist
route and particular needs of a UK project. This will for tilt-up concrete construction. TCA, Mount
vary, depending on the procurement method adopted. Vernon, USA, 1996. 4 pp.
Some of these responsibilities are shown as being
shared, but in such cases one of the team will need to 2. Standards Australia. AS 3850.1, 1990. Tilt-up
assume overall responsibility. It will also be concrete and precast concrete elements for use in
necessary to further sub-divide these responsibilities buildings. Part 1: Safety requirements. SA,
if separate parties carry out the construction and Sydney, Australia, 1990. 16 pp.
erection. 3. Cement and Concrete Association of Australia.
Tilt-up technical manual. C&CA Australia,
Structural designer Sydney, 1990. 24 pp. (Amended to a series of
data sheets 1997).
Overall building stability
Fire resistance of elements
In-service design of panels
Load design of floor/pavement
Drawings and documentation for the contractor
Panel size/shape/tolerance
Panel fixings and their positions
11-3
11-4
SPECIFICATIONS
12
It is beyond the scope of this manual to produce a standard specification for tilt-up construction for the UK.
However, a new British national specification (1) has been developed by BRE, Construct and the RCC for the
construction of concrete frames in buildings. This may prove suitable for use on tilt-up projects with appropriate
amendments permitted in Part 2 of the Specification. Alternatively, readers wishing to research this matter may
refer to the Australian Standard, Tilt-up concrete and precast concrete elements for use in buildings, Part 2:
Guide to design, casting and erection of tilt-up panel (2).
REFERENCES
1. Building Research Establishment. National
concrete frame specification for building
construction. BRE, Garston, 1998. 60 pp.
2. Standards Australia. A 3850.2. Tilt-up
concrete and precast concrete elements for
use in buildings, Part 2: Guide to design,
casting and erection of tilt-up panel. SA,
Sydney, Australia, 1990. 28 pp.
12-1
12-2
SPECIALIST SUPPLIERS
13 AND SERVICES
The following list of suppliers of products and services, particularly relevant to tilt-up, is not exhaustive. It is
composed mainly of those individuals and companies who have come to light during the compilation of this
manual, and inclusion or omission does not constitute endorsement or censure by the RCC. This list will be
updated from time to time, and can be obtained from the Reinforced Concrete Council at Century House,
Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks RG45 6YS.
Name of organisation and address Tilt-up Telephone & fax number

expertise
(see key)
FOR THIS EDITION

THIS LIST
HAS BEEN PRODUCED SEPARATELY
Key to codes
1 Tilt-up design experience
2 Tilt-up contracting experience
3 Tilt-up fittings supply a) Lifting
b) Panel fixing
c) Bracing
d) Rigging
e) Other
4 Tilt-up panel lifting design

5 Tilt-up chemicals (curing agents, bond breakers, etc)
6 Tilt-up components
7 Specialist paints/treatment for concrete
8 Tilt-up trade association/licensing
9 Sandwich panel systems
10 Overseas supplier
11 UK sales/agency
12 Architectural finishes a) Form liners
b) Brick slips
c) Other
13 Tilt-up manuals/publications
13-1
Specialist suppliers and services
13-2

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97.366 Published by British Cement Association on behalf of the

3. PLANNING FOR TILT-UP

4. FLOOR SLABS AND FOUNDATIONS

5. DESIGN OF PANELS IN SERVICE

5A. APPENDIX DESIGN EXAMPLES

Design for in-service loads of a typical panel 5A-11

6. DESIGN OF PANELS FOR LIFTING

Lifting methods 8-3

10. CONNECTION DETAILS

11. SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

13. SPECIALIST SUPPLIERS AND SERVICES

ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION

External wall line

Figure 1.1 The tilt-up technique

The efficiency of tilt-up results from careful planning

APPLICATIONS types it clearly has significant benefits to offer,

Tilt-up panel attached to

Internal perimeter frame

Tilt-up panel may span

Building models within £4/m2 of the cheapest metal cladding option,

Table 2.1 Total building costs/m2 gross floor area

Type of external wall Building A Building B Building C Building D

Loadbearing tilt-up panels TU £360 £324 £319 £292

Type of external wall Building A Building B Building C Building D

Loadbearing tilt-up panels TU £49 £50 £54 £57

In the UK and Ireland, tilt-up has been mainly used

Recently a contractor specialising in design-build

Location - Glenrothes, Scotland

View showing provision for an office at each end

Typical cross section

OLD NAAS ROAD, DUBLIN

Location - Old Naas Road, Dublin 12, Irish Republic

Inset band echoing stepped site

Typical elevation showing inset band

27 metre clear span

Old Naas Road, Dublin, Republic of Ireland

LABORATORY, QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA

Location - Garnet Street, Carole Park, Queensland, Australia

Interest provided by use of plain and ribbed panels

Typical cross section

First floor plan

Typical wall section

Ground floor plan

New laboratory, Queensland, Australia

MARY MCKILLOP CATHOLIC CHURCH, QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA

Imaginative use of rugged grit-blasted ribbed panels

Ground floor plan

Mary McKillop Catholic Church, Queensland, Australia

COLD STORE PLANT ROOM, WOLVERHAMPTON

Erection of insulated panels Finished building with metal cladding

Elevation showing multiple panel openings

General plan of cold store complex

Cold store plant room, Wolverhampton

Location - Mill Hill, London

Arial view showing panel erection on

Basement construction being roofed

Finished project, buried and laid to lawn