EEE 212 Electrical Engineering II

1/3 Course Content

- DC Power Supplies (Rectification, Filters, Complete Power Supply circuit)
- Bipolar Junction Transistor (Operation, Configuration, Characteristics, Simple
Calculations)
- Introduction to Field Effect Transistor (FET)
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DC POWER SUPPLY
Though the common acceptance and progression of AC power systems, the need for DC in
the operation of electronic circuits is crucial as they are often used in electrochemistry,
variable speed motors, traction systems to mention a few. Unlike AC (or Alternating current)
in which the flow of electric charge periodically reverses direction, DC (or Direct Current), is
the unidirectional flow of electric charge. DC current is often produced by batteries, AC
power supplies (through a rectifier), DC machines, thermocouples, solar cells or dynamos.
Since the conventional electric power used to drive our businesses and residences is usually
in the form of AC, one might tend to disregard the importance of DC. The origin of which
form of current to dominate the electric power industry dates back to the late 1880’s. Edison
Thomas drove the agenda for DC while George Westinghouse and Nicola Tesla developed
AC power source. The battle for supremacy was commonly known as the Current War.
Edison cited safety as a major advantage of the DC and would publicly electrocute animals
(with an AC power supply) in public to drive home his point. But in 1983, after the
Colombian exposition at Chicago (1st world fair lighted by electricity), the AC power source
got the nod to handle this event as Nicola Tesla proved that his AC generators would
accommodate such a large energy demand.
In summary, advantages of AC power includes,
- High efficiency in production and distribution (resistance to AC decreases at HV)
- AC generally cheaper to generate.
But,
- AC requires insulation,
- AC cannot be stored
- Produces more heat when compared to DC
Subsequently, DC power supply has a number of advantages; they can be stored, operated
with little insulation, DC power supplies could be portable and ripple free. However, if we
consider the most common source of DC power supply, which is the battery, the voltages
produced are often low and the batteries itself may require frequent replacement.

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But Despite the general acceptance and growth of AC power systems, the need has continued
for DC in electrochemistry, electronics, variable speed motors, and traction systems (e.g. in
Metropolitan transit systems). But as established earlier, since the AC power source is the
most convenient and economical power source for domestic/industrial use, it becomes
imperative to sort out ways of converting AC power to DC power. The process of producing
DC power by the converting the conventional AC power (usually 220V RMS) to DC power
(usually of smaller value) is called Rectification. Filters help to smoothen the pulsating DC
voltage produced from the rectification process and a voltage regulator completes the process
by ensuring the pulsating DC terminal voltage remains constant. But in cases where the load
does not demand the DC terminal voltage to be constant, the voltage regulator circuit is
removed.
BRIEF REVIEW OF SEMI CONDUCTOR PHYSICS
Semiconductors materials are a critical to the operation of electronics. They are neither
conductors nor insulators but they can act as either of them under certain conditions
(Conductors allow electrons to flow through them while insulators do not support the flow of
electrons). In particular, two subjects of this module (Rectification and Transistors) are based
on the semiconductors. Thus, it is imperative to give a brief review on the physics of
semiconductors.
Recall that everything around us is made up of an organized collection of atoms. Atoms contain
three fundamental particles called electrons, protons, and neutron. Electrons are negatively
charged particles of whirling around the nucleus at high speeds. We would be more concerned
with electrons since current is electron flow and conductivity is a measure of the ability of a
material to conduct electric current.
Figure 1 shows the atomic structure of oxygen and germanium atoms. The outer electrons
(valance electrons) contribute to the material’s electrical and chemical properties. We can see
that the electrons in pure germanium are bound in place (covalent bond) and do not readily
contribute to electric current.

Figure 1. Oxygen and Germanium atoms [5].

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However, if sufficient energy is applied, a covalent bond may be broken and an electron freed.
This applied energy may be in the form of heat.

Figure 2. Breaking covalent bonds

When the electron leaves the bond and becomes free, a so-called hole is left in its place. The
hole that was created tries to find another electron to pair with and to fill the hole (see figure
2). It does this by stealing another electron from an adjacent atom. This fills the original hole,
but a new hole is formed where this stolen electron was. Since the hole is an absence of a
negatively charged electron, it is thought of as a positively charged quantity. But in a
diode/transistor, the creation of a hole (breaking of the covalent bond) is not brought about by
heat energy, but rather by substituting some of the germanium atoms with atoms of other
materials. These added atoms are called impurities and the process of adding them to the pure
semiconductor material is called doping (see figure 3).

Figure 3. Impurities added [5].

In figure 3, three indium valence electrons have entered into covalent bonds with adjacent

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germanium atoms, but this leaves one adjacent germanium atom with an electron that is not
bonded with another electron. This absence of an electron corresponds to the presence of a
hole. This type of material is called a P type. P-type material will support conduction of an
electric current by motion of the positive hole. This can be remembered by relating the p in
positive to the P type. The impurities added to form P-type materials are called acceptors. The
majority current carriers in P-type material are holes, but some conduction is also due to free
electron movement. Therefore, the electrons that contribute to conduction in P-type material
are called the minority carriers.

Just as a hole was generated by adding an impurity, a surplus electron can be developed by
adding in place of a germanium atom an atom with five valence electrons (e.g. arsenic atom).
In this case, an N-type material is formed. The addition of this type of impurity atom to the
germanium results in covalent bonds formed between four valence electrons of the impurity
atom around the surrounding germanium atoms. The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom
cannot enter into a covalent bond, since there are no adjacent electrons available. Conduction
is by means of electron flow in N-type material. This can be remembered by relating the n in
negative to the N type (electron has a negative charge). The impurities added to form N-type
materials are called donors. The majority carriers of electric current in N-type material are
electrons. Holes are called the minority carriers.

Figure 4. (a) P-type material formation and schematic representation, and (b) N-type material
formation and schematic representation [5].

When P- and N-type germanium (doped semiconductor) are joined together, a P-N material if
formed (also called diode) and the point at which they join is called the junction. This junction
is surrounded by a depletion region, because there is a depletion, or lack of holes and electrons
in this area due to the combination of holes and electrons from the P and N-type material close

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to the junction. The electric field created by the charged atoms in the depletion region is called
a barrier.
An external battery source is connected to the P-N junction in either forward biased or
reverse biased configuration. Forward biased means that the anode (P-type material) is at a
higher potential or connected to the positive (+ve) terminal of the battery and the cathode (N-
type material) is connected to the negative (-ve) terminal. In forward biased, the junction
offers low resistance to the flow of current (behaves like a closed switch). Subsequently,
when reversed biased, the –ve terminal of the battery is connected to the anode and the +ve
terminal is connected to the cathode thus, offers maximum resistance to the flow of current
(behaves like an open switch). This basic diode principle of operation should be understood
prior to the understanding of the rectification and transistor process.

Figure 5. P-N junction. (a) Forward biased configuration, (junction act as closed
switch/conductor) and (b) Reverse biased configuration (junction act as open
switch/insulator) [10].
- RECTIFICATION
This is the process of converting alternating voltage (one that is constantly changing polarity
and direction) to a voltage that has only one direction/polarity. This is mainly achieved
through the use of semiconductor diodes (usually made from silicon). The property of a
semiconductor diode that makes it able to conduct electricity in one direction and act as an
insulator in the other direction makes this possible (i.e. it conducts current for only one of the
polarities of the alternating voltage). A semiconductor diode is a two terminal device made
up of a P-type material and an N-type material (Anode and Cathode).

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Figure 6. Rectification waveforms. (a) AC Power (Available form), (b) DC power (required
form).
There are various types of rectifier circuits used for rectification,
- Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
The simplest rectifier circuit is the half-wave circuit shown in Fig. 7. This circuit is often used
for low-power rectifiers operating directly from the AC power line. It can deliver power to a
resistive or capacitive load. The half-wave rectifier draws DC and even-order harmonic
currents from the source, in addition to the usual odd-order harmonics that characterize most
nonlinear loads [1].

Figure 7. Half wave rectifier circuit with input and output Voltage waveform shown [7].
The transformer, T, is used to alter the voltage level of the AC supply to the required level
and R is a resistive load (e.g. DC load, DC motor, electronic devices). Aside the function of
the transformer mentioned above, the transformer also helps to isolate the load from the main
power source since in reality, there is no conductor connecting the primary to the secondary
side, they are connected by varying magnetic flux through the core (transformer action).
Also, since transformers are highly efficient machines, the power lost in using them in a
rectifier circuit is minimal.

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When the AC power supply is switched on, the source voltage is reduced to the voltage V
(the voltage required by the diode and DC load for operation) via the transformer. The AC
voltage V, is applied to the load via a diode in series. The diode is connected in the forward
bias direction (i.e. connecting the positive terminal of the AC supply to the anode and the
cathode is connected to the negative terminal), the diode would conduct. During the positive
half cycle, “P” would become positive and “Q” is negative and under this forward biased
direction, the current “i” flows through the load, R. Again, during the negative half cycle, P is
negative and Q is positive. During this reversed biased configuration, there is no flow of
current as the circuit now acts as an open switch. The process continues until the power
source or DC load is disconnected.
As can be seen in figure 7 and 8, the resulting output DC voltage is not constant, it is a
pulsating DC power supply, having a ripple frequency equal to that of the input voltage
frequency. To make this a constant DC supply, a filter is connected across the load (this
would be discussed later).
Since only half cycles are produced, hence the name half wave rectifier. Also note that for the
purpose of this discussion, we have assumed an ideal diode (having zero forward resistance
and infinite reverse resistance). Furthermore, some energy is lost since there is an output for
only one half of the cycles.
The value of the DC output can be measured by a DC voltmeter which will show a pulsating
DC voltage as against the input where it will indicate zero reading. Also, a moving coil
connected in series with the load will measure the average value of load current over a
complete cycle of input signal.

Figure 8. Output waveform from positive half cycle.

If we consider the output waveform of a half wave rectifier as shown in figure 8 above,
Vm is the peak/maximum voltage
Vdc is the average value of rectifier output
ωt is the angular velocity
This average value is gotten by calculating the area under the curve and dividing by the base
length. To calculate this, we recall that the instantaneous voltage,

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V = Vm sinωt,
For ωt from 0 to 2π (base length)
Integrating, we have
1 2π
Vdc = 2π ∫0 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛ωt dωt
1 π
Vdc = 2π ∫0 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛ωt dωt
π π
2 𝑉𝑚
Vdc = 2π ∫02 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛ωt dωt = − [𝐶𝑜𝑠 ωt]02
π

𝑉𝑚 π 𝑉𝑚
Vdc = − [𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 − cos 0] = − [0 − 1]
π π
𝑽𝒎
Vdc = = 0.318Vm
𝛑

In terms of percentage, the DC output voltage (Vdc) from the half wave rectifier is 31.8% of
the peak/maximum voltage.
- Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
This rectification process is performed using two diodes alongside a centre-tapped
transformer, T, as shown in figure 9. Diodes D1 and D2 are connected to the opposite ends of
the transformer. Q is usually considered the centre point or the ground point (reference point).
When an AC input voltage is applied to the primary winding of T, a voltage is induced in the
secondary of T. The induced voltage makes P sufficiently positive with respect to Q, diode
D1 conducts and current flows through R (shown by the broken line in Figure 9) while D2
acts like an open switch. That is, for the positive half of the AC signal, P is positive and
“centre or ground point, G” would be zero and S would be negative. At this instant, D1 would
be forward biased and D2 would be revered biased.
When S is positive with respect to Q, diode D2 conducts and current flows (shown by the
continuous line in Figure 9). During the negative half cycle, P is negative and S becomes
positive. D1 becomes reversed biased and D2 becomes forward biased. When the current
flow is compared to the positive and negative half cycles, we see that the current flowing in R
is in the same direction for both half cycles of the input. The output waveform is also shown
in figure 9.

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Figure 9. Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectifier Circuit with input and output Voltage waveform
shown [7].
Again, a pulsating DC wave is produced. A filter would be needed to smoothen the waves.
The average value of the DC voltage produced in figure 10 is,
2 π/2 −2𝑉𝑚
Vdc = 2π ∫0 𝑉𝑚 sin ωt dωt = [cos ωt]π0
π
𝟐𝑽𝒎
Vdc = = 0.636Vm or 63.6% of Vm
𝛑

When compared with the average value of that which is produced by the half wave rectifier,
we noticed that the voltage produced by the centre tapped full wave rectifier circuit is larger
than that of the half wave rectifier (approximately twice the value). This is largely due to the
fact that there is an output for both the positive and negative half cycles. Also, the
transformer rating should have twice the overall rating since it is centre tapped and the rating
of the diodes must be able to withstand twice the peak inverse voltage (PIV). The PIV is the
maximum voltage that occurs across the rectifying diode in the reverse direction (Voltage
drop across the non-conducting path)
- Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Circuit.

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Figure 10. Full wave bridge rectifier circuit with input and output voltage waveform shown
[7].
Four diodes may be used in a bridge rectifier circuit, as shown in Figure 10 to obtain full
wave rectification. The circuit used here is similar to that used in the Wheatstone bridge.
Here, the conversion of AC-DC is done in both the positive and negative half cycles. The
circuit consists of an AC source, transformer (not centre tapped), four diodes and a DC load.
When the AC supply is switched on, a voltage appears across the primary winding of the
transformer and subsequently, induces a voltage on the secondary winding of the transformer
(the voltage required by the load for operation). During the positive half cycle, P is positive
and Q is negative. Under this condition D2 and D4 is forward biased. The flow of current is
denoted by the broken lines shown in figure 11. The voltage, V, across the load R = current
flow, I, times the resistance of the load. This is also equal to the peak voltage, Vm, which will
be developed across the load R. The voltage across each reverse biased diode is also Vm, and
thus, the total voltage drop around the non-conducting path is 2Vm.
Successively, during the negative half cycle, P is positive and Q is negative. D1 and D3 are
forward biased while D2 and D4 are reversed biased. The flow of current in the circuit is
indicated by the solid lines shown in figure 11.
The process continues until the load or source is disconnected. This type of rectification can
be employed in HV applications; it allows the full secondary voltage to be passed across the
load, thus, requires much smaller transformers when compared to the centre tapped full wave
rectifier.
A comparison between the half wave, centre tapped full Wave, and full wave bridge rectifier
circuit is shown in table 1. .

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Table 1. Comparison between different rectifier circuits.
Half Wave Centre tapped full wave Bridge full wave

1 Vdc = 31.8% of Vm Vdc = 63% of Vm Vdc = 63% of Vm

2 1 diode required 2 diodes required 4 diodes required
3 Diode PIV = Vm Diode PIV = 2Vm Diode PIV = Vm
4 Transformer not centre Transformer centre tapped. Transformer not centre
tapped. tapped.
5 Full secondary voltage Half of secondary voltage Full secondary voltage
impressed across the impressed across the load impressed across the load
load

- FILTERS
As established earlier, the DC power produced by rectifier is in pulsating form. To smooth
out the output of the rectifiers, a filter is often employed. It is imperative to smoothen out
these pulsating DC signals as the loads that require them are designed to operate with a
somewhat pure DC signal. The filter would help to reduce the ripple content/AC components
of the output signal. The ripple content is often characterised by the ripple factor, r.
𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑐 (𝑅𝑀𝑆)
The ripple factor r, = =
𝐷𝐶 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑑𝑐

Where the ripple voltage (Vac) is the RMS voltage of the AC components and Vdc is the DC
voltage (To represent the ripple factor in percentage, we multiply r by 100%).
𝐼𝑎𝑐 (𝑅𝑀𝑆)
In terms of current, the ripple factor r, = . Iac is the RMS AC current and Idc is the
𝐼𝑑𝑐
value of the DC.
Filters are often made up of inductors (L) and capacitors (C).
An inductor is a piece of conducting wire generally wrapped around a core of a ferromagnetic
material that adds inductance to a circuit. Like capacitors, they are also employed as filters
but the most well-known application is their use in AC transformers or power supplies that
converts AC voltage levels. A capacitor is a passive circuit element that has the capacity to
store charge in an electric field [4].
- Capacitor Filter
The most basic or simple filter is made from a capacitor connected across the rectifier output
and in parallel with the DC load so that the DC voltage is also fed through the capacitor. This
operation tends to filter out the ripples in the output. This filter circuit depends on the
property of a capacitor to charge up/ store energy during conducting half cycles and
discharge/dissipate energy during non-conducting half cycles. That is to say that the capacitor
does not allow instantaneous voltage change.

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Let us consider the centre tapped full wave circuit operation in figure 10. If we connect a
capacitor C, (e.g. a few micro farads), the circuit operation is altered slightly, noticeably at
the output (see figure 12).

Figure 12. (a) Centre tapped full wave rectifier circuit with capacitor connected and, (b)
Output wave form of the circuit prior to capacitor connection [2] [7].
Again, during the positive half cycle, D1 is forward biased and D2 reverse biased. In this
case, the current would flow through the capacitor and then the DC load. Capacitor C charges
through D1 and the voltage increases simultaneously with the applied voltage until it reaches
the maximum voltage, Vm. But that this point, where the applied voltage begins to drop, the
capacitor voltage would not drop at same pace (because does not allow instantaneous voltage
change). Since the source voltage starts decreasing and the voltage value across the capacitor
is Vm, the potential difference (voltage) between the anode and cathode becomes negative.
This negative voltage across D1 means that the diode would not conduct. That is D1 and D2
are now both reverse biased. At this point, the circuit operation reduces to the circuit below in
figure 13a. The capacitor C, discharges and current flows to the load and as long as long as C
is sufficiently charged, the load current and voltage will be fairly constant. The discharge
time is usually high, meaning that the voltage would be decreasing slowly (slower in light

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loads compared to much larger loads; heavy loads would have a larger ripple factor than
lighter loads). This capacitor discharge would continue until the next half cycle. But up to the
point on the next cycle where the capacitor voltage is less than the supply voltage, there
would be a positive voltage drop across D2 making it forward biased (remember that the
voltage signal on the next cycle is fed through D2). At this point, the capacitor C, begins to
charge and follow supply voltage until it reaches the maximum voltage, Vm. The process
continues until the supply or load is disconnected. The new output waveform from this circuit
is shown below in figure 13(b).

Figure 13. (a) Circuit operation just after Vm is reached and (b) output waveform of rectified
voltage (during periods a’b’, c’d’, etc, current supplied by the diode and during b’c’, d’e’,
f’g’, etc). [2].
If we compare the output waveform in figure 12(b) to that in 13(b), we see the ripple value
reduced drastically when a capacitor filter was connected. If we increase the value of the
capacitor C, the output waveform would become even smoother and would contain less
ripples. Remember that the ripple content in a rectified output voltage is also affected by the
size of the load. For lighter loads, the capacitor discharges marginally and thus, provides little
ripple when compared to the ripple content produced when a heavy load is connected.
- Series Inductor Filter
This consist of an inductor (a choke) connected in series with the DC load. An inductor is a
piece of conducting wire generally wrapped around a core of a ferromagnetic material. An
inductor opposes any sudden changes in the current flowing through it. The inductor helps to
further filter out the ripple content in the output voltage since it has a high impedance to the
flow of AC current.
Also, if we consider the impedance offered by an inductor (with inductance L), which is
given as its reactance, XL (resistance to flow of current);
XL = 2πfL, Where f is frequency.
If we consider a constant DC voltage, then frequency, f, = 0. Thus, XL = 0. This implies that
an inductor offers least resistance to the flow of DC current.

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Consequently, if the frequency is high as in the case of AC components, the reactance value
would also be high, which implies a high resistance to the flow of AC components.
Thus, an inductor allows DC current but blocks AC current flow. The circuit and associated
waveforms are shown in figure 14 below.

Figure 14. (a) Full wave rectifier with inductor (L) connected at the output, and (b) Output
waveform of rectifier with filter and without filter [2].
- LC Filter
This type of filter, an inductor and a capacitor are connected to the output of the rectifier
circuit. This combination offers a better operation compared to the C-filter and L-filter
working alone. In this filter, the ripple factor is independent of the DC load.

Figure 15. (a) Full wave rectifier with inductor (L) and capacitor (C) connected at the output,
and (b) Output waveform of rectifier with filter and without filter [2].
- RC Filter
This is an “advanced” capacitor filter. Here, a resistor is introduced together with another
capacitor to form an RC filter. This filter is employed at the output of the simple capacitor
filter. This arrangement allows more DC components across capacitor C2 while also filtering
much of the AC components. It is basically a filter that uses a resistor to slow the capacitor
discharging, thereby reducing the ripple content.
However, a disadvantage of this filter is that the DC component is often reduced to the
voltage drop across R1.
The reason for this is that the resistor slows down the charging capacitor C1, the output
voltage would further delay the voltage change across C1.

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Figure 16. Centre tapped full wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter and an additional RC
- C-L-C or π Filter
In this type of filter, two capacitors connected across each end of an inductor. The
arrangement is similar to the RC filter connection. The difference is that an inductor is
connected instead of a resistor. In this filter, the input capacitor C1 is connected such that C1
offers a very low reactance to the ripple frequency. The remaining ripple content in the output
is removed via the combined action of L and C2. The circuit configuration is shown below in
figure 17.

Figure 17. C-L-C filter circuit [2].

The efficiency of this filter is way higher than that of the LC circuit. But C1 is still directly
across the supply voltage and would require higher pulses of current if load current is large.
Since these high peak currents often produced in half wave and full wave rectifiers might
cause the diodes used for rectification to fail, they are better suited for low current equipment
[2].
Another advantage over the LC filter is that the C-L-C filter produces a slightly higher output
voltage, however, the voltage regulation of the LC filter is better than that of the C-LC filter.

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COMPLETE POWER SUPPLY
Combining the various circuits discussed (i.e rectification and filter circuits), we have a
clearer picture of what the complete power supply looks like. Virtually all our electronic
equipment (TV, phones, printer, etc.) are powered through the circuit shown below in figure
18.

Figure 18. Complete power supply circuit [2].

Voltage is induced on the primary terminal of the transformer from the AC mains. The
voltage is then decreased to the required value for diode operation via transformer action. The
diodes then converts this AC power to a pulsating DC power supply (full wave rectifier used
for this example). A filter (C-L-C) reduces/eliminates the ripple content in the pulsating DC
and then a voltage regulator regulates the terminal voltage due to load variation (i.e. no load
to full load) and/or variations from the AC source supplying the transformer (deviations from
220V are common). The voltage regulator circuit can consist of transistors, Silicon
Controlled Rectifier (SCRs), Zener diodes, ICs, or a combination of these. A voltage divider
circuit makes it possible to supply multiple voltages from a single power source. This voltage
divider circuit (RB) is made up of a number of resistors connected in series across the
terminals of the regulated output voltage. This ripple free output voltage is then used to
power our electronic devices [2] [6].
Let us consider the voltage divider circuit in figure 19.

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Figure 19. Voltage divider circuit.
From our basic knowledge of ohm’s law, we know that Voltage, V, induced on a circuit is
equal to IR, where I is current and R is resistance to current flow.
i.e V = I x R
In figure 19, the total resistance R is the sum of the two resistance values (R1 +R2).
𝑉𝑖
Thus, Input voltage (Vi) = I (R1 + R2) ; 𝐼 = ………. (1)
𝑅1+𝑅2
𝑉𝑜
But, the output voltage Vo, = I x R2 ; 𝐼 = ………… (2)
𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑖
Equating equations (1) and (2), we have 𝑅2 = 𝑅1+𝑅2
𝑹𝟐
Therefore, the output voltage (Vo), is given by Vo = Vi 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐

Example 1.
Calculate the current flowing through the circuit in figure 19 and determine the voltage (Vo)
across R2 given the following parameters; Vi = 12v, R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 20Ω.
Solution
𝑉 12
Using V= IR. Current, I = 𝑅 = 10+20 = 0.4A
𝑅2 20
Vo = Vi 𝑅1+𝑅2 = (12)10+20 = 8V

We can also calculate the current flowing in the circuit using the output voltage.
𝑉𝑜 8
i.e. Vo = IR2; I = 𝑅2 = = 0.4𝐴
20

Example 2.
Design a voltage divider circuit with an output of 12V and a current of 50mA using a 20V
battery.
Solution
Vi = 20V, I = 50mA (0.05A),Vo = 12V, R =?,

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Vi = IR;
20 = (0.05)R
R = 400 Ω
The total resistance R = 400 Ω = R1 + R2
𝑅2
Vo = Vi 𝑅1+𝑅2
𝑅2
12 = (20) 400

R2 = 240Ω
R1 = R – R2 = 400 – 240 = 160 Ω

The reader may refer to reference [6] for solved examples and exercise questions regarding
rectification.

- BIOPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

The basic elements required for the operation of any electronic circuit are a source of input
signal, a load to absorb the output signal, a power supply, and the circuit that perform various
functions to attain the desired output signal. The transistor is the component of the circuit
that controls the current through the various other components. By controlling the current
through itself, the transistor also controls the current through various resistors and other
components. A Transistor can be thought of as a Transfer Resistor (signals are transferred
from low resistance circuit into high resistance circuit.)

In this way, the desired voltages at diverse parts of the circuit can be achieved and functions
such as amplification and switching can be achieved. The input signal for the transistor is
current but it may be argued that since current is the result of a voltage (Potential difference)
applied across a resistance, why not the input signal be considered voltage. However, it is
better to accept the current concept because not only does the physics of transistor tilt
towards the current concept, it would also been seen as more practical when discussing the
circuit operation involving transistors. All the power dissipated in the system and delivered to
the load is supplied by the power supply discussed earlier. No power is actually supplied by
transistors.

In summary, an input signal “tells” the transistor how much current to allow in the output
circuit. A grasp of this basic concept will aid in understanding the operation of the transistor
in a circuit.
Transistors are three terminal devices constructed from materials called semiconductors. The
transistor consists of two P-N junctions; one forward biased (FB), the other reverse biased
(RB). Note that this is when the transistor is operated in a normal/active mode. The two
junctions share one section so that the transistor actually consists of three sections. The
collector is often connected to the metal case of the transistor to conduct the heat away from
the junction (this is vital in medium-and high-power applications). Just like with rectification,

18
a basic knowledge of semiconductor diodes would provide a foundation for understanding the
operation of transistors [5, 11].
Further to the active mode operation of a transistor, the device may also be operated in,

- Saturation mode: Transistor to be operated in saturation region if both the junctions

i.e., collector to base junction and base to emitter junction are forward biased and in
- Cut-Off mode: For the transistor to operate in cut-off region both the junctions i.e.,
base to emitter junction and collector to base junction are reverse biased.

These modes of operation ensures the transistor achieve several functions. For instance, to
use the transistor as an amplifier, it should be operated in active mode. But for transistor to
act as a switch, it should be operated in saturation mode for ON state, and cut-off mode for
OFF state.

The BJT is classified because of the arrangement of the P and N-type material into PNP or
NPN. The BJT is named so because both minority and majority carriers are involved in the
flow of current, hence the name, ‘bipolar’. The other main type of transistor is the field effect
transistor, this would be introduced later on.

Figure 20. Types of BJT [5] [11].

The three regions that make up the transistor are called the collector, base, and emitter. If we
consider the width of the 3 regions from largest to smallest, we have collector, emitter and
base. The FB junction is the base-emitter junction, while the RB junction is the base- collector
junction. The emitter region is so called because it emits majority carriers into the base region.
The collector region is named so because it collects the majority carriers from the base region.
The base region is so called because it acts as a support/base for the emitter and collector
materials. The NPN and PNP transistors symbols together with the direction of electron flow
in the circuit connected to it are shown in Figure 21.

19
Figure 21. Transistor symbols and current flow direction [5].
In the case of the NPN transistor where electrons are the majority carriers, the electron flow
shown is a continuation of the internal flow. For the PNP, the majority current carriers are holes
and the internal conduction is due to hole current. But, hole conduction takes place only within
the semiconductor crystal itself. This internal hole conduction leads to electron flow in the
external wires connected to the transistor. Thus, the direction of the electron flow is opposite
to the internal hole conduction.

The theory of operation of the PNP transistor is similar to the NPN except that the majority
carriers are holes instead of electrons and the minority carriers are electrons instead of holes.
Therefore, the operation principle of the NPN is used to explain the transistor operation, the
reader is expected to apply similar principle to the understanding of the PNP transistor.
Subsequently, most of the transistor discussion would be concerned with only the NPN
transistor.

Remember that the NPN transistor has two junctions; one forward biased and the other
reverse biased. We shall consider the two junctions separately and then the two junctions
working together.

Figure 22. NPN Transistor operation. (a) Forward biased junction, and (b) reverse biased
junction [5].

Before we proceed, it is important to note that in the structure of the transistor, the base
terminal is thin when compared to the emitter and collector terminals. The reason for this is

20
that the N-type materials on both sides of the P-type material have more impurity atoms OR
we can say, are more heavily doped than the P material.
If we consider the FB junction, due to the more heavily doped N-type material, more current
will be carried across the junction by the majority carrier electrons from the N material than
by the majority carrier holes from the P type. That is conduction through the FB junction is
mainly by the majority carrier electrons from the N-type material.
In the RB junction, it was earlier stated that no current due to majority carriers passes through
the junction. But in reality, there is a very small current, called reverse current or leakage
current (ICBO), due to thermally generated minority carriers. For the P-N junction, this would
be electrons from the P region and holes from the N region.
When considering the action of the two junctions working together (see figure 23), we
remember that the FB junction suppled electrons from the N region (emitter) to the P region
(base) because of the larger percentage of doping in the N material. The P region that these
electrons enter is the same P region that is part of the RB junction. When in the P region, these
electrons are available to contribute to the minority-carrier current crossing the RB junction.
By controlling the number of electrons crossing the FB junction (by controlling the amount of
bias and the percentage of impurity doping), the number of electrons available to contribute to
the current passing through the reverse-biased junction is also controlled.
Nearly all the electrons injected into the P region contribute to the current crossing the reverse
biased junction (Around 99.5% of the electrons leaving the emitter will cross the base-collector
junction and only 0.5% of the electrons will recombine with holes in the narrow base region).
This is true for two reasons,
- The first reason is that the P region is very thin compared to the N region, and thus the
electrons have little chance of recombining with holes in this region.
- Secondly, the electrons are under the influence of a higher potential due to the battery
supplying the reverse bias and are therefore drawn in that direction.

Figure 23. NPN transistor with two junctions working together [5].
The basic current paths are shown for the NPN and PNP transistor in figure 24 below. The
battery labelled Vbb provides the forward bias for the base-emitter junction. Forward biasing
causes current from one terminal of the battery through the junction and resistor, and back to
the other battery terminal. This current is called base current. The resistor is included in this
path to indicate that some means of controlling this current is necessary. Remember that most
of the majority carriers that are injected into the base region from the emitter do not continue

21
in the base-emitter path. They are attracted toward the larger potential applied to the collector
region. This potential is supplied by the battery labelled Vcc. This current that is attracted to the
Vcc battery is called collector current. Since both the base current and collector current come
from the emitter region, a simple relationship exists between the currents (this is the basic
equation governing transistor operation):
IE = IB + IC ……………. (3)

Figure 24. Basic current paths for the BJT transistor.

In words this means that the emitter current separates in the transistor into the base current
and also the collector current. The amount of collector current depends on the amount of base
current. The more base current, the more majority carriers are injected into the base region and
the collector current is larger. The base current converts the current supplied by Vcc into a
controlled current, namely the collector current. The amount of collector current is related to
the base current by the following simple but important relationship:
βIb = Ic………….. (4)
The Greek letter β (Beta) represents the current gain of the transistor.
Example 3
A transistor operates with a collector current of 100mA and an emitter current of 102mA.
Determine the value of base current.
Solution
Emitter current, IE = IB + IC from which,
Base current, IB = IE − IC
Hence, base current, IB = 102−100 = 2mA
TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS
The input signal to a transistor is applied between two terminals. The output signal is also taken
between two terminals. That means that one element is going to be part of both the output and
input signals, since the transistor has only three terminals/regions. Thus, each type of
configuration derives its name from the element that is common to both the input and output.

22
There are three configurations; Common base, common emitter and common collector. The
common element is usually grounded. Ground is the reference point in the circuit from which
voltages are measured. This reference point is called ground because it is usually connected to
the actual earth/ground. Again, when discussing these configurations, the NPN transistor would
be considered. The working/current paths of the PNP transistor is similar to that of the NPN
except that the polarity of the power supply would be reversed and, naturally, the arrow on the
emitter lead would point in the opposite direction.

- Common Base
In this transistor configuration, the base is common to both the input and output circuits, hence
the name, common base.

Figure 25. NPN Transistor in Common base (CB) configuration

Figure 25 shows a NPN transistor configured in common base mode. IE, IB, IC are the emitter
current, base current and the collector current respectively. The discussion that precedes is
based on the transistor connected in active mode. The junction J1, is forward biased and the
junction J2, is reversed biased. Hence, the negative terminal of the battery VEE is connected
to the emitter terminal (n-type material) and the positive terminal connected to the base
terminal (p-type material). The shorter lines in a battery symbol is often regarded as the
negative terminal while the longer line, positive terminal. RE and RC are resistors connected
to the input and output terminals respectively to control the flow of current. VBE is the
voltage/potential difference across the emitter and base terminal while VCB is the
voltage/potential difference between the collector and base terminal. For sake of simplicity,
lets neglect the effect of the RE and RC. Then VBE = VEE and VCB = VCC.
When writing down the voltage, the transistor terminal connected to the positive
terminal/higher potential of battery comes first. In figure 25, E is connected to negative
terminal and B is connected to positive terminal, hence the voltage VBE.
Unlike a diode which is a single port device, the transistor is a two port device. That is to say
in diodes, a simple current and voltage characteristics exists but in transistor, there exist an
input and output characteristics.
The input characteristics would be given by a plot of the input current and input voltage (in
figure 25, IE vs VBE). Similarly, the output characteristics would be given by a plot of output
current and output voltage (in figure 25, IC vs VCB). The input and output characteristics are
dealt later on.

23
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL) to the circuit in figure 25, we notice that IE is the
only leaving current while IB and IC are entering the transistor. Therefore,
IE = IB + IC…………. (5)
Also, in CB configuration, IC is the output current and IE is the input current. Current gain or
amplification factor is the ratio of the output to input. Thus,
I
α = C ; IC = α • IE…………. (6)
IE
α is the current gain for the transistor in CB configuration.
Earlier, it was stated that a very small current due to minority charge carriers, called reverse
current or leakage current or reverse saturation current (ICBO), flows through the reverse
biased junction. This current is often measured when the emitter terminal is open. Thus
equation (6) could be rewritten as
IC = α•IE + ICBO………. (7)
But if we compare IE and ICBO, we notice that ICBO is much smaller than IE. Therefore we may
neglect ICBO and stick to equation (6).
The larger the value of α, the better the transistor in the sense that collector current
approaches the emitter current. α is usually between the range of 0.95 - 0.98 (95% - 98%).
This also means that the recombination in base is usually between 5% - 2%.
The base current, (IB) is given by
IB = (1-α)IE……………. (8)
Also, since α is less than unity, the CB configuration cannot be used for current amplification.
However, it is useful in matching a low impedance circuit to a high impedance since it has a
high input impedance and low output impedance. Also, it has a high voltage gain.

ΔIC
The discussion of α so far has been based on DC. In terms of AC, αAC = when the output
ΔIE
voltage VCB is constant.

- Common Emitter
In this transistor configuration, the emitter is common to both the input and output circuits,
hence the name, common emitter. It is the most commonly used transistor configuration.

Figure 26. NPN Transistor in Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

24
Figure 25 shows a NPN transistor configured in common emitter mode. Again, in active mode,
the junction J1, is forward biased and the junction J2, is reversed biased. VBE is the
voltage/potential difference across the emitter and base terminal (input voltage) while VCE is
the voltage/potential difference between the collector and emitter terminal (output voltage).
The output current here is IC and the input current IB.
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL) to the circuit in figure 26, we notice that IE is the
only leaving current while IB and IC are entering the transistor. Therefore,
IE = IB + IC (same as equation 3)
Also, from equation 7, IC = α•IE + ICBO
Therefore, we can write that
IC = α (IC + IB) + ICBO
IC = αIC + αIB + ICBO
(1-α)IC = αIB + ICBO
Dividing both sides by 1-α,
α 1
IC = 1−αIB + 1−αICBO………….. (9)
Current gain/amplification factor for CE configuration, β, is the ratio of the output to input.
Thus,
I
β = C ; IC = β • IB + ICEO…………. (10) (ICEO is leakage current in CE configuration)
IB
Comparing equations 9 and 10, we find that
α 1 α 1
β = 1−α and β+1 = 1−α (check: β + 1 = 1−α +1 = 1−α)
Therefore,
IC = βIB + (β+1) ICBO
ICEO = (β+1) ICBO.
The leakage current in the CE configuration is much higher than the leakage current in the CB
configuration. In the CB configuration the leakage current is ICBO but in the CE configuration,
the leakage current is (β+1) ICBO (β is usually a high number)
But since ICEO is much smaller than βIB, we may rewrite equation 10 as IC = β • IB
Transistors usually have the base current less than 5% of the emitter current. Due to this, β
ranges from 20 – 500. Accordingly the CE configuration is often used when a huge current is
required (i.e. very useful for amplification purposes). It is generally the most popular circuit
because of its high flexibility and gain.
For example, If IB (input current) = 1mA and β = 100, then, IC (output current) = βIB = 100mA.
Notice how the output current increases greatly compared to the input current.
ΔIC
In terms of AC, βAC = when the output voltage VCE is constant.
ΔIB

- Common Collector
In this configuration, the input signal is applied between base and collector and the output is
taken from the emitter and collector. As collector is common to input and output circuits, hence
the name common collector configuration. This type of configuration is commonly known as
a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit because the output voltage at the emitter follows
the input voltage at the base.

25
Figure 27. Common Collector (CC) configuration

VBB and VEE are the biasing potentials. Here, junction J2 is forward biased and J1 is reversed
biased. IE is output current and IB is input current.
The output characteristics of CE configuration is similar to the output characteristics of the CC
configuration. This configuration is typically employed in impedance matching because of the
high input impedance and low output impedance.
The current amplification factor here is usually denoted by γ (γ is slightly less than or equal to
unity). Here the output current is IE and input current IB. Similarly, VBC is input voltage and
VCE is output voltage
𝑰
γ = 𝑰𝑬
𝑩
Let us consider how the output current (IE) would rise as a function of input current (IB).
Bearing in mind equation 3 and 7 above,
IE = αIE + ICBO + IB
(1-α)IE = IB + ICBO
1 1
IE = 1−α IB + 1−α ICBO
1
And 1−α = γ
IE = γIB + γICBO
ΔIE
In terms of AC, γAC = when the output voltage VCE is constant.
ΔIB

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALPHA (α), BETA (β) AND GAMMA (γ)

Let use refer to equation 3 again,
IE = IB + IC
Dividing all the terms by IB gives
IE IB I
= + IC ………………. (11)
IB IB B
IE IC I
As stated earlier
IB
=γ;
IB
= β ; IB = 1
B
Thus, equation 11 can be re-written as
γ = β +1……………. (12)

26
 α
Also, β = 1−α. Substituting the value of β into equation 12, we have,
α
γ = 1−α + 1
α+1− α 1
γ= = 1−α
1−α
Thus, the relationship between α, β and γ is
𝟏
γ = β +1 = 𝟏−𝛂

BJT CHARACTERISTICS
Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behaviour for the BJT under its three
configurations; input and output parameters. They are usually presented in the form of a set of
graphs relating voltage and current present at the transistors terminals.
- Common base
Input Characteristics
The input characteristics is the characteristics of the forward biased diode. Recall that in active
mode of operation, one of the junctions of the transistor is forward biased and the other reversed
biased. Here, the input is connected to the FB junction. It relates the input current (IE) to the
input voltage VBE with VCB remaining constant.
A plot of the IE against VBE for different values of VCB is shown in figure 28.

Figure 28. CB Input characteristics

Note that the threshold or offset voltage must be overcome before the transistor can be in the
active region. For instance, in silicon (as shown in figure 28), it is 0.7V.
To understand the effect of characteristic when the output voltage (VCB) is varied, it is
important to understand the early effect concept.
The Early effect (named after its discoverer, James Early) is a vital concept in electronics and
it is also known as base width modulation. This concept is based on the idea that there is
modulation of base width when the output voltage VCB (reverse biased voltage is increased).

27
Figure 29. Early effect.
Junctions J1 is forward biased (FB) and J2 is reversed biased (RB). In RB condition, width of
depletion layer increases. The depletion layer would penetrate more in the base region
because the region is thin and lightly doped (shown in figure 29). The depletion layer would
have the negative ions on the base side and positive ions on the collector side as we are
considering NPN transistor. WB is width of base (which is constant), W is width of depletion
layer penetrated in the base region, Weff is width of base region not in depletion layer.
In figure 29, WB = W + Weff ; Weff = WB – W
When VCB is increased, W would increase because penetration of depletion layer in base
region would increase. Accordingly, when W increases, Weff (effective base width) decreases.
Weff is the width of region where recombination occurs. This means that there is a less chance
of recombination of holes with electrons in base region which implies that the input current
(IE) would be increased. Other consequences of this effective base width reduction is that
- As IB decreases, the collector current IC increases
- As base width reduces the emitter current IE increases for small emitter to base
voltage.
- As collector current increases, CB current gain increases.
If VCB further increased, the depletion region moves towards J1 and effective base width
reduces to zero. This causes breakdown in the transistor. This condition is called Punch
Through condition. But this situation hardly occurs because the transistor cannot withstand
the high power dissipated.
Output Characteristics
This is the graphical plot of the output current (IC) and the output voltage (VCB) for various
values of input current (IE). It is similar to the reversed biased characteristics of a diode

28
Figure 30. CB output characteristics.
Recall that
IC = α•IE + ICBO
Since ICBO is very small compared to α•IE. Also since α is between 0.95-0.98, which is nearly
equal to one, we may rewrite the equation as
IC ≈ IE
Thus, the output current (IC) is greatly affected by a change in input current IE.
When IE is zero, only a small current (ICBO) would exist at the output. When IE is 5mA, IC is
also nearly equal to 5mA. Similarly, when IE equal to 20mA, IC is approximately 20mA. The
different regions of the output characteristic graph is also shown in figure 30. A summary of
the three regions is shown in table 2 below.
If the plot in figure 30 is inverted, it is noticed that the plot is similar to the reverse biased
characteristics of a diode.
Active Region Saturation Region Cut-off Region
Can be employed in Suitable region when To be avoided if an
amplification (voltage, transistor acts as a logic undistorted operational
current and power) switch. signal is required.

Table 2.

- Common Emitter
Input Characteristics
This relates the input current (IB) to the input voltage (VBE) for different values of output
voltage (VCE). Recall that the emitter base junction is forward biased, thus, the input
characteristics is similar to that of a forward biased diode. However, the input characteristics
also relates the plot to different values of the output voltage (VCE). To understand this, we
need to refer to the early effect concept discussed above.
Considering the CE circuit in figure 26, VCE = VCB + VBE
Therefore increase in VCE would also cause VCB to increase. When VCB increases, the width
of depletion layer (W) would also increase and there would more penetration in base region
because it is little doped. Similarly, width of base region not in depletion layer (Weff) would

29
decrease. Decrease of Weff implies that recombination would decrease (recombination of
electrons in emitter region and holes in base region will reduce). So, the base current (IB)
which is the input current decreases.
Thus, increase in output voltage (VCE) will cause the input current (IB) to decrease. Similarly,
decrease in VCE will cause IB to increase.

Figure 31. CE input characteristics.

The input characteristic shows that very little base current flows until the base emitter voltage
VBE exceeds 0.7V. Again, a silicon transistor was used to depict the input characteristics.
Recall that the cut in voltage of a silicon transistor is 0.7V (For a germanium transistor, it is
0.3V). In figure 31, notice that after 0.7V, a small increase in input voltage (VBE) will rapidly
increases the input current (IB).

Also, in the CE configuration, the input current (IB) is very small as compared to the input
current (IE) in the CB configuration. Hence, the input current in CE configuration is often
measured in microamperes (μA) while the input current in CB configuration is measured in
milliamperes (mA). The reason for this is that, in the CE configuration, the input current (IB)
is produced in the base region which is lightly doped and has a small width. So the base
region produces only a small input current (IB). But in the CB configuration, the input current
(IE) is produced in the emitter region which is heavily doped and has large width. So the
emitter region produces a large input current (IE).

From the above characteristics, we can conclude that for higher fixed values of output voltage
(VCE), the curve moves towards the right side. This is because for higher fixed values of
output voltage, the cut in voltage is increased above 0.7V. Therefore, to overcome this cut in
voltage, more input voltage VBE is needed than in the CB configuration.

Output characteristics

The most widely used family of curves supplied by the BJT manufacturers is the CE output
characteristics curve. This is the graphical relationship between the output current (IC) against
the output voltage (VCE) for different levels of input current (IB).

30
To determine the output characteristics, the base current IB is kept constant at a suitable value
by adjusting base-emitter voltage, VBE. The magnitude of collector-emitter voltage VCE is
increased in suitable equal steps from zero and the collector current IC is noted for each
setting of VCE. Now the curves of IC versus VCE are plotted for different constant values of IB.
The output characteristics thus obtained are shown in figure 32 below.

Recall that IC = βIB + (β+1) ICBO

When IB = 0
IC = (β+1) ICBO (leakage current in CE configuration)
The value of IC mainly depends on IB (the leakage current is constant). But IC also depends on
output voltage (VCE) due to early effect.
Consequently, as IB is increased. IC is also increased. As can be seen in figure 32, when IB =
20 μA (0.02mA), IC = 1 mA. Similarly, when IB = 40 μA (0.04mA), IC = 2 mA.
The amplification factor, β, can thus be calculated for the transistor.
ΔIC 2−1 1
β= == == = 50
ΔIB 0.04−0.02 0.02

Figure 32. CE output characteristics.

- Common Collector

Input Characteristics
In many ways the common collector configuration (CC) is the reverse of the common emitter
(CE) configuration.

To determine the input characteristic, VCE is kept at a suitable fixed value. The base collector
voltage (input voltage) VCB is increased in equal steps and the corresponding increase in IB is
noted. This is repeated for different fixed values of VCE. Plots of VCB versus IB for different
values of VCE shown in figure are the input characteristics.

Here, the input voltage is largely determined by the output voltage (VCE). From figure 27 we
can see that

31
VCE = VCB + VBE; VBE = VCE - VCB
Thus when VCB increases, with VCE constant, VBE decreases and hence IB decreases. The
input characteristics is shown below.

Figure 33. CC Input Characteristics

Output Characteristics
As mentioned earlier, the output characteristics shown in figure 34 below are the same as
those of the CE configuration. It relates IE to VCE for various values of IB.

Figure 34. CC output characteristics.

Recall that IC = αIE
And α = 0.95 – 0.98 ≈1
Thus, IC ≈ IE
Consequently, the IE could be replaced with IC. And we know that the output characteristics
of the CE configuration is the graphical relation of IC vs VCE for various levels of IB.

DC LOAD LINE
This is the line drawn to show every possible operating points of a transistor. Every transistor
has a load line. The DC load line is a line joining the cut off and saturation points in a
transistor output characteristics. The top end of the load line is called saturation, and the
bottom end is called cutoff.

32
Since the transistor is a two port device, an input and output operating point exist. The input
operating points are the coordinates obtained by the intersection of load line with the
transistor input characteristics for a certain value of output voltage, VCE (Let us take the CE
configuration for example since it’s the most widely used). If we consider the CE circuit in
figure 26, and the input characteristics in figure 31.
Applying KVL to the input loop of the CE circuit,
+VBB – IBRB – VBE =0 ……………… (13)
From the input characteristic graph, we can see that IB is the y-axis and VBE x-axis.
To draw the load line, two points are needed. Let’s the points by P1 (with x-axis 0 and y-axis
a value larger than 0) and P2 (with x-axis a value larger than 0 and y-axis 0)
i.e P1 = (0, y) ; P2 = (x, 0)
Using equation (13),
𝑉
For P1, VBE =0 ; IB = 𝑅𝐵𝐵
𝐵
Similarly, For P2, IB = 0 ; VBE = VBB

Figure 35. Load line for CE input circuit.

The Q point is called the quiescent or operating point of the transistor

The slope of the line is given as 1/RB. This implies that if IB is increased, the slope with
decrease and if IB is decreased, the slope would increase. This would shift the operating
points for the transistor. Also, when VCE is increased, the operating points also changes.

In the case of the output operating point (CE output curve shown in figure 32), it is the
coordinates obtained by the intersection of load line with the transistor output characteristics
for a certain value of input current IB,.
Applying KVL in the output loop of the CE circuit,
VCC – ICRC – VCE = 0
𝑉𝐶𝐶
Again to find P1, when VCE = 0, IC = 𝑅𝐶
For P2, when IC = 0, VCE = VCC.
The load line is shown below in figure 36.

33
Figure 36. Load line for CE output circuit.

The value of IB was selected to be IBQ as this was the operating point in the input
configuration. As can be seen, increase and decrease in IB would change the operating points.
Here, the slope is given as -1/RC. Increase and decrease in RC would alter the operating point.

Setting the ideal operating point is necessary when used for amplification of weak signals. To
avoid distortion, it is important to have the operating points not close to the saturation and cut
off region (at the centre of the active region).

REQUIREMENTS OF A TRANSISTOR
A good transistor should have the following characteristics
- It must have a high current gain
- It must have a low leakage current
- It must have a high reverse breakdown voltage
- The characteristics should be evenly spaced for equal movement of base current.

INTRODUCTION TO FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FET)

Similar to the BJT, the field-effect transistor (FET) is also a three terminal device. However,
the three terminals are called the source, gain and drain, similar to the emitter, base and
collector terminal in the BJT. The application of the FET is similar to the application for BJT
(switching and amplification). The main difference between BJT and FET is that the former is
a current controlled device while the latter is a voltage controlled device. The output current in
the BJT (IC) is a function of input current (IB), whereas, the output current (ID) is a function of
the potential difference (voltage) between the source and gate terminal. Another difference is
that the FET is a unipolar transistor, as against the BJT which is a bipolar transistor. Here, only
one type of charge carrier is available for conduction, either only electrons or holes.
In the FET, an electric field is created by the charges present, and this electric field controls
the conduction part of the output circuit, hence the name field effect transistors.

34
Figure 37. Basic structure of FET.

Similar to the NPN and PNP arrangement in the BJT, the FET could exist in either n-channel
or p-channel FET. When the FET is dependent on electron flow, it’s called n-channel, and
when it depends on holes, it is called p-channel.
However, the two main types of FET are junction field effect transistor (JFET), and Metal
oxide semi-conductor FET (MOSFET).

Figure 38. Classification of FETs.

- Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

The JFET could exist in either the n-channel type or the p-channel type. The n-channel JFET
would be used to explain the working of JFET. The p-channel JFET also functions on similar
principle, the main difference is that conduction is influenced by holes instead of electrons in
the n-channel JFET. Also, the controlling voltage, VGS ≠ +ve voltage in n-channel JFET, but
in p-channel JFET, VGS = +ve voltage (gate is at higher potential compared to the source
terminal)

35
Figure 39. (a) N-channel JFET and (b) P-channel JFET

The name N-channel is given because the N-type material forms a channel between the P-type
materials. Similarly, P-channel because the P-type materials forms a channel between two N-
type materials. The channel is the path through which the majority carriers move from source
to drain.

As can be seen in figure 39, there are two P-N junctions in the JFET and that implies two
depletion layers. Let’s consider figure 39(a), we recall that the depletion layer is void of free
charge carriers, thus, preventing conduction. But if the width of depletion layer is increased,
the width of N-channel is reduced and this will obstruct the flow of electrons in the N-type
material. If an external battery source with a positive voltage is connected to the drain and the
source terminals, the positive voltage (potential difference) would cause the electrons to flow
towards the drain from the source with the flow of current in the opposite direction. At the
drain the junction is reverse biased compared to source. A further increase in the depletion
layer will increase the obstruction to the flow of electrons. The effective width of the channel
(in which conduction takes place) is controlled by a charge placed on the gate terminal. The
effective resistance between the source and drain is thus determined by the voltage present at

36
the gate. As VGS increases negatively, the width of depletion layer increases and the channel
width decreases.
In the operation principle of the JFET, we shall consider two scenarios;
1. when the voltage between the source and the gate (VGS) = 0, and
2. when VGS is negative, i.e. < 0

- Case 1: VGS = 0

Figure 40. N-channel JFET, case 1: VGS = 0, VDS = +ve

VDS increases then depletion region increases and ID increases. But the depletion region would
increase more at the top (area closer to the drain terminal) and the depletion region towards the
bottom does not increase much. This is because the electrons at the drain are at a higher
potential than electrons at the source. At a particular point the two depletion layers will touch
each other, then that point is called the pinch off point (the corresponding VDS voltage called
the pinch off voltage)
After pinch off point, the VGS = 0 or VDS = +ve, then ID is constant.
The gate current IG = 0 V, (reversed P-N junction, no electron flow)

Figure 41. Pinch off point. (Notice how the two depletion later touch each other like a pinch)

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However, in reality these two depletion layer will never touch themselves, the channel will still
exist, however, very small (The drain current passes through the small passage between the
layers. Therefore, increase in drain current is very small with VDS above pinch off voltage,
consequently, ID remains constant). This is because, if the two depletion layers touch
themselves, ID would become 0A, thus the potential at the pinch off = 0V. Now, the n-type
material at the source is connected to 0V (pinch off), and the P-type material is connected to
0V (at gate). Thus, the P-N junction is not reversed biased, and hence the width of depletion
region would not increase.

- Case 2: VGS is negative (<0V)

Here the VDS is also a +ve voltage, but not as large at that in case 1. The reason for this is that
we desire to obtain the saturation at lower value of VDS. Saturation is the condition at which
ID is constant with change in VDS. In case 1, when VGS = 0V; VDS > |VP|; ID = IDSS (max drain
current).

But in case 2, when ID is constant, we cannot conclude that ID=IDSS. This is because for IDSS,
VGS should be = 0V. But in this case, VGS is –ve (<0V), thus ID ≠ 0V. Since VDS is smaller
here, VGS should be made more negative to get the same width of depletion region. IG will
remain 0A because of RB at gate.

Figure 42. N-channel JFET, case 2: VGS = -ve (<0), VDS = +ve
Here, the width of depletion layer will increase due to the fact that p-type material is
connected to the lower potential and n-type is connected to the higher potential, thus, the two
P-N junctions are RB. On increasing VDS, width of depletion layer will increase further. Once
again the width will increase more in the top than the bottom. When VDS attains the pinch off
voltage (VP), it appears like the two depletion layer will touch each other. VP is a lower
magnitude here than the VP in case 1.

If VDS can hardly be increased beyond VP there would be a breakdown and the current ID will

38
increase rapidly. This hardly happens in practice because the transistors would not be capable
of taking such a high voltage.

The curve between drain current (ID) and drain-source voltage (VDS) of a JFET at constant gate
source voltage (VDS) gives the output characteristics of the JFET. Keeping VGS fixed at some
value, let’s say 1V, the drain source voltage is changed in steps. Corresponding to each value
of VDS, the drain current ID is noted

Figure 43. Output characteristics of JFET. VP = pinch off voltage, IDSS = maximum drain
current, A and B are the pinch off regions for other values of VGS

Initially current on increasing VDS, current ID will increase linearly, until VDS=VP, ID will
become constant (IDSS). IDSS is the drain current when VGS is = 0V, and VDS > |VP|.

The ohmic region is called so because ID and VDS have a linear relationship i.e. ID is directly
proportional to VDS (ohm’s law). The region where ID becomes and remains constant is called
the active or saturation region.

The reader should find out why VGS is not made +ve in the n-channel JFET.

- Metal oxide semi-conductor FET (MOSFET).

As can be seen in figure 38, the MOSFET is generally divided into the Enhancement-
MOSFET (E-MOSFET) and the Depletion-MOSFET (D-MOSFET). The construction of
these two types are similar the main difference being that in E-MOSFET, there is no channel
between drain and source initially but in the D-MOSFET, there is a channel between drain
and source from the start. MOSFETs are more used in today’s IC circuits due to their small
size and high sensitivity amongst other reasons.

E-MOSFET

This type of FET could either exist in the n-channel or p-channel type. We would consider
the working of the n-channel to explain the working of the E-MOSFET. The p-channel type
behaves in a similar way, but they pass current when a negative gate voltage creates an
effective p-type channel under the insulation layer. Also, all the signs of the voltages and
currents are reversed.

39
Figure 44. N-channel E-MOSFET

The gate is connected to the body through a very thin layer of silicon dioxide, to provide
some insulation between the gate terminal and body. As can be seen, there is no channel
between the source and drain (two n-type materials).

As we know, the majority charge carriers of the body are holes, while electron is minority
charge carriers. The charge neutrality is maintained i.e. number of mobile charge carriers
(electrons and holes) = immobile charged ions.

If the gate terminal is made more positive with respect to the substrate terminal (via an
external battery source), the metal contacts on the gate and substrate terminal acts like the
plates of a capacitor, the Si02 acting as an insulation between them. This connection makes
positive charges to accumulate over the gate plate and negative charges will accumulate over
the substrate plate. When VGS (not VGSS because the substrate and the source terminal are
connected internally, potential difference is zero, thus we can call the voltage VGS) is
increased, uncovering of negative immobile ions will take place in the substrate. Due to this,
the holes will be repelled and electrons will accumulate towards the top (towards the Si02
layer). This makes the region at the top less p-type and gradually becomes n-type on further
increasing VGS. The process of converting a p-type material to n-type material (and vice
versa) is called inversion. Thus, the region at the top is now n-type, this implies that a
conductive channel will be formed between the two n-type materials (source and drain) as
they are now all n-type material. Further increase in the voltage will increase the channel
width. Subsequently, the drain current (ID) is increased. The VGS voltage that needs to be
attained to induce a current flow from source to drain is called the threshold voltage (VT).
The current flows from source to drain because the source is at a lower potential with respect
to the drain.

40
Figure 45. N-channel E-MOSFET. Here VDS (VT) reaches a particular voltage which causes
current (ID) to flow (MOSFET switches ON).

The drain characteristics of a MOSFET are drawn between the drain current ID and the drain
source voltage VDS. The characteristic curve is as shown below for different values of inputs.

Figure 46. Drain Characteristics of MOSFET [15].

D-MOSFET

It is called as Depletion MOSFET, because of depletion of channel. Again, we shall consider

the working of the n-channel to explain the working of the E-MOSFET.

As mentioned earlier, the main difference between the D-MOSFET and the E-MOSFET is
that there is a channel between the two n-type materials (in n-channel D-MOSFET) from the
start unlike the E-MOSFET that relies on a certain value of VGS to create a channel. Just like
in the E-MOSFET, there is no direct electrical connection between gate terminal and the

41
channel due to the insulation medium (Si02). Because of this, the input impedance of
MOSFETs are often high.

Figure 47. D-MOSFET.

Since there is no need to enhance the channel, we can start by making VGS=0. For electrons to
flow from source to drain (while current flows in opposite direction), the drain is made
positive compared to the source. On increasing VDS, the current (ID) will increase
simultaneously. However, after increasing VDS to a certain value, ID will remain constant and
not increase further. This is because increasing VDS makes the P-N junction more reversed
biased and depletion layer width also increases. This implies that the effective width of
channel will be reduced and only a limited of electrons can flow, making ID constant. Here,
unlike the JFET, the maximum drain current (IDSS) is not attained when VGS=0, but when VGS
is +ve. However, the D-MOSFET can be operated when VGS is –ve, +ve or 0.

We already know the working of the MOSFET when VGS=0V. When VGS is –ve, the –ve
potential at the gate will repel the electrons in the n-channel pushing it towards the P-
substrate. Similarly, the gate –ve potential will also attract the holes from the P-substrate.
This will cause a recombination between electrons and holes. Due to this recombination, the
available electrons for conduction is reduced, decreasing ID.

When VGS is +ve, the +ve potential at the gate will draw additional electrons from the p-type
substrate (minority charge carriers). This will cause ID to increase rapidly. Care should be
taken not to increase VGS past a certain value that will cause the maximum drain current to be
exceeded.

A summary of the comparison between BJT, JFET and MOSFET is shown in a table 3.

42
 TERMS BJT JFET MOSFET

Device type Current controlled Voltage controlled Voltage Controlled

Current flow Bipolar Unipolar Unipolar

Terminals Not interchangeable interchangeable interchangeable

Operation modes No modes Depletion mode only Both depletion and

enhancement modes

Input Impedance Low High Very High

Output resistance Moderate Moderate Low

Speed of Operation Low Moderate High

Noise High Low Low

Thermal Stability Low Better High

Amplifier Linear Non-Linear Non-Linear

Power Consumption High Low Low

Sensitivity Low Better High

Size Large Small Smaller

Table 3. Comparison between BJT, JFET and MOSFET.

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REFERENCES
[1] Keith H. Sueker, “Power Electronics Design: A Practitioner’s Guide”, 2005.
[2] B. I. Theraja and A. K. Theraja, “A textbook of Electrical Technology”,
[3] Valery Vodovozor, “Introduction to Electronic Engineering”, 2010.
[4] Dr. Wasif Naeem, “Concepts in electric circuits”, 2009.
[5] Charles. A. Pike, “Basic Transistor circuits”, Volume 2, 1982.
[6] S. O. Onohaebi, “Basic Electronics”, 2006.
[7] John Bird, “Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology”, Revised second edition 2003.
[8] H. Lewis York, “Amplifiers”, 1964
[9] Robert Boylestad Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, Seventh
Edition.
[10] Brian Scaddan, “Electrical Installation Work”, Fifth Edition, 2005.
[11] John Bird, “Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology”, Third edition, 2007.
[12] R.HEMALATHA, “A course material on basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering”
[13] Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Lecture Notes Prepared By: Dr. G Hema
kumar Reddy and Mr. N Shiva Prasad.
[14] Videos on Transistors by Neso Academy.
[15] https://www.tutorialspoint.com/basic_electronics/basic_electronics_mosfet.htm

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