QUARTER 2

LESSON 1: RESEARCH DESIGN

In writing a research paper, the researcher needs to plan and identify the design of the study. As defined by Prieto
(2017) research design is the overall concept or strategy to put together the components of a study in a logical
manner. It can be considered that research design is the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data. Akhtar (2020) compared research design to a “Glue” that holds all the elements in a research study together. It
is the overall concept or strategy to put together the components of your study in a logical and sequential manner.

Types of Quantitative Research Designs

Exploratory Research Design
• It is a research design used to establish an initial understanding and background information about a research
study of interest, with very few or no earlier related studies found relevant to the research study.

Descriptive Research Design

• A research design that used to gather information on current situations and conditions. It provides answers to
the questions of who, what, when, where and how of a particular study.

• Descriptive research studies provide accurate data after subjecting them to rigorous procedures and is using large
amounts of data from large number of samples.

Correlational Research
• The main goal of this research design is to determine if variable increases or decreases as another variable
increases. This design seeks to establish an association between variables.

• It does not seek cause and effect relationship like descriptive research; it measures variables as it occurs. It has
two major purposes: (a) to clarify the relationship between variables and (b) predict the magnitude of the
association. However, the extent of the purpose of correlational research depends on the scope and delimitation of the
study.

Quasi-Experimental
• The term means partly, partially, or almost – pronounced as kwahz-eye.

• This research design aims to measure the causal relationship between variables. The effect measured is
considered to have occurred during the conduct of the current study.

• The partiality of quasi-experimental design comes from assigning subjects, participants, or respondents into
their groups. The groups are known to be already established before the study, such as age educational background
and nationality.
• Since the assignment of subjects, participants, or respondents are not randomly assigned into an experimental or
control groups, the conclusion of results is limited.

Experimental Research
• This research design is based on the scientific method called experiment with a procedure of gathering data
under a controlled or manipulated environment.

• It is also known as true experimental design since it applies treatment and manipulation more extensively
compared to quasi-experimental design.

• Random assignment of subjects or participants into treatment and control group is done increasing the validity of
the study. Experimental research, therefore, attempts to affect a certain variable by directly manipulating the
independent variable.

LESSON 2: SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND THE SAMPLE

Population and Sample
The first step in determining the sample size is identifying the population of the topic of interest. The population is the
totality of all the objects, elements, persons, and characteristics under consideration. It is understood that this
population possesses common characteristics about which the research aims to explore.
There are two types of population: target population and accessible population
• Target population, for example, all Senior High School Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) in the Division of Dasmarinas City.
• Accessible population is the portion of the population in which the researcher has reasonable access, for example
all Senior High School enrolled, STEM strand at Dasmarinas Integrated High School.

When the whole population is too costly or time-consuming or impractical to consider, then, a sample representative is
identified.
Sampling pertains to the systematic process of selecting the group to be analyzed in the research study. The
goal is to get information from a group that represents the target population. Once a good sample is obtained, the
generalizability and applicability of findings increases.
Sample is the representative subset of the population refers to the. All the 240 Senior High School Students enrolled
in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Strand in a school, for example, constitute the
population; 60 of those students constitute the sample. A good sample should have characteristics of 10
the represented population – characteristics that are within the scope of the study with fair accuracy. Generally, the
larger the sample, the more reliable the sample be, but still, it will depend on the scope and delimitation and research
design of the study.

Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size

Heuristics. This approach refers to the rule of the thumb for sample size. The early established approach by Gay
(1976) stated by Cristobal and Dela Cruz-Cristobal (2017, p. 172), sample sizes for different research designs are the
following:

Literature Review. Another approach is by reading similar or related literature and studies to your current research
study. Since you are done writing your review of related literature and studies, you might want to recall how these
studies determine sample size. Using this approach increases the validity of your sampling procedure.
Formulas. Formulas are also being established for the computation of an acceptable sample size. The common
formula is Slovin’s Formula.

RAOSOFT SAMPLE SIZE CALCULATOR

• The Raosoft sample calculator is basically a software that primarily calculates or generates the sample size of
a research or survey.
• Raosoft sample size calculator offers both sample size confidence interval calculation to minimize these frustrations
encountered during research.
• This software takes into account the margin of error, the confidence level and response distribution. It also offers to
show viz-a-viz what the margin of error would be like with various sample sizes. sample size calculators.
Power Analysis. This approach is founded on the principle of power analysis. There are two principles you need to
consider if you are going to use this approach: these are statistical power and effect size.

Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research

Simple Random Sampling.
• It is a way of choosing individuals in which all members of the accessible population are given an equal chance to
be selected. There are various ways of obtaining samples through simple random sampling. These are fish bowl
technique, roulette wheel, or use of the table of random numbers.
Stratified Random Sampling.
• The same with simple random sampling, stratified random sampling also gives an equal chance to all members of the
population to be chosen. However, the population is first divided into strata or groups before selecting the
samples.
• The samples are chosen from these subgroups and not directly from the entire population. This procedure is best
used when the variables of the study are also grouped into classes such as gender and grade level.

You can simply follow the steps from this given example:
A population of 600 Junior High School students includes 180 Grade 7, 160 Grade 8, 150 Grade 9, and 110 Grade 10.
If the computed sample size is 240, the following proportionate sampling will be as follows. 13

The number of members per subgroup is divided by the total accessible sample size. The percentage result of members
per subgroup will be multiplied from the computed total sample size. After obtaining the sample size per strata, then
simple random sampling will be done for the selection of samples from each group.

Cluster Sampling. T
• This procedure is usually applied in large-scale studies, geographical spread out of the population is a
challenge, and gathering information will be very time-consuming. Similar to stratified random sampling, cluster
sampling also involves grouping of the population according to subgroups or clusters. It is a method where multiple
clusters of people from the chosen population will be created by the researcher in order to have homogenous
characteristics.

For example, a researcher would like to interview of all public senior high school students across Mindanao. As a
researcher cluster will be selected to satisfy the plan size. In the given example, the first cluster can be by region, the
second cluster can be by division, and the third cluster can be by district.
Another way of doing cluster sampling is illustrated on the figure on the right side.
Systematic Sampling.
• This procedure is as simple as selecting sample s every nth (example every 2nd, 5th) of the chosen population until
arriving at a desired total number of sample size.
• Therefore, the selection is based on a predetermined interval. Dividing the population size by the sample size, the
interval will be obtained. For example, from a total population of 75, you have 25 samples; using systematic sampling,
you will decide to select every 3rd person on the list of individuals.

LESSON 3: RESEARCH INSTRUMENT, VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Research Instruments are basic tools researchers used to gather data for specific research problems. Common
instruments are performance tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observation checklist.
Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument
1. Validity
• Validity is defined as a degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring ( Brown,
1996 ) cited in the book of Prieto (2017 ) .
Ways to Assess the Validity of a Set of Measurements
Face validity
• The research instrument appears to measure the construct or variable that the research study is supposed to
measure.

Content validity
• It is most often measured by experts or people who are familiar with the construct being measured.
• The experts are asked to provide feedback on how well each question measures the variable or construct the
study. The experts make judgements about the degree to which the test items or statements match the test objectives
or specifications.

2. Reliability
• It indicates the accuracy or the precision of the measuring instrument (Norland,1990)
• It refers to a condition where measurement process yields consistent responses over repeated measurements.

Ways to assess the reliability of the questionnaire

Test -retest reliability
• The same test or questionnaire is administered twice and correlation between the two sets of scores is computed.

Internal Consistency – Cronbach Alpha

• This method can be used in assessing reliability of questions measured on internal or ratio scale. *
• This can be computed using manual or electronic computations such as the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS)
• It can range from 0 (poor reliability) to 1 (perfect reliability).
• Anything above .70 is considered to be sufficiently reliable.

3. Concise A good research instrument is concise in length yet can elicit the needed data. it should be short, but all
the necessary information is all in.
4. Sequential Questions or items must be arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it from simplest to the most
complex. In this way, the instrument will be more favorable to the respondents to answer.
5. Easily tabulated

• Since you will be constructing an instrument for quantitative research, this factor should be considered. Hence,
before crafting the instruments, the researcher makes sure that the variable and research questions are established.
• These will be an important basis for making items in the research instruments.
Ways in Developing Research Instrument
1. Adopting an instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous related studies.
2. It is modifying an existing instrument when the available instruments do not yield the exact data that
will answer the research problem.
3. The researcher made his own instrument that corresponds to the variable and scope of his
current study.

Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research

Likert Scale
• This is the most common scale used in quantitative research.
• It is used by the researchers to measure behaviors and attitudes quantitatively.
• It consists of choices that range from one extreme to another from where respondents choose a degree of their
opinions. It is the best tool for measuring the level of opinions.
• Respondents were asked to rate or rank statements according to the scale provided.

LESSON 4 PLANNING DATA COLLECTION AND PROCEDURE

Quantitative Data
• Data Collection refers to the process of gathering information.
• The data that you will collect should be able to answer the questions you posed in your Statement of the Problem
(SOP).
• Generally, data are any pieces of information or facts that people have known.

Once these data answer the research problem, it becomes helpful to research.
• When research data appears to be measurable in the numerical form, it is considered quantitative data.
• However, some qualitative data can also be useful to quantitative research once it is given a numerical value.

• For example, if you study about adjustment experiences of students to distant learning, if it is categorized and
numbered accordingly, then it can be quantified during analysis.

Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data

Observation
• It is gathering information about a certain condition by using senses.
• The researcher records the observation as seen and heard. This is done by direct observation or indirect observation
by the use of gadgets or apparatus. An observation checklist aids the researcher in recording the data gathered.
Survey.
• Data gathering is done through interview or questionnaire. By means of questionnaire you use series of questions
or statements that respondents will have to answer.
• Basically, respondents write or choose their answer from given choices.
• On the other hand, interview is when you ask respondents orally to tell you the responses.
• Since you are doing quantitative research, it is expected that responses have numerical value either it is nominal or
ordinal in form.
Sample Survey
Census
Tracer Studies
Experiment.
• When your study is an experimental design, it was already discussed in the previous lesson that it would use treatment
or intervention.
• After the chosen subjects, participants, or respondents undergone the intervention, the effects of such treatment will
be measured.

Three Phases in Data Collection

In doing research data collection is a major component of research. Neglecting to clarify the collection procedure
would result in acquiring inaccurate data that will make you research study invalid. Hence, the data collection procedure
is given meticulous attention to gather appropriate data. You are making sure that data you will gather answers to your
research questions.
The data gathering procedure is presented in a paragraph format in your research paper. Basically, the contents are
the steps you are going to follow: (1) before you will gather the data, (2) what to do during the actual gathering of
data, and (3) the things to consider after data has been gathered. The following are the suggested steps but not limited
it.
BEFORE
•Prepare the research instruments.
•Identify the authorities that will be involved and need to ask permission.
•Determine the samples size and corresponding respondents.
•Ask consent form (if respondents are 18 years old above) or parent's consent (if minor). •Pilot test the research
instrument if needed.
DURING
•Clear the instructions provided to the respondents.
•Administer the research instrument to your respondents.
•Collect or gather or take note of the responses.

AFTER
•Summarize the data gathered, in a tabular form.
•Analyze the summarize data corresponding to the research questions.

LESSON 5: PLANNING DATA ANALYSIS

Data Analysis
• Data analysis in research is a process in which gathered information are summarized in such a manner that it
will yield answers to the research questions.
• During quantitative data analysis gathered information is break down and ordered into categories in order to draw
trends or patterns in a certain condition.
• In quantitative research, the numerical data collected is not taken as a whole. In order to understand it better, it is
analyzed into components based on the chosen research variables and research questions you are going to answer.

Purposes of Data Analysis Plan

1. Determine data sets
2. Determine the degree of relationship of variables
3. Determine the differences between variables
4. Predict outcomes
5. Compare variables

These numerical data are usually subject to statistical treatment depending on the nature of data and the type of
research problem presented. The statistical treatment makes explicit the different statistical methods and formulas
needed to analyze the research data.
Planning your Data Analysis
• Before choosing what statistical test appropriate for your research study, it is important to determine the statistical
formation applicable to your current study.
• In immersing yourself into planning your data analysis, you have to decide what basic descriptive statistical technique
you are going to use.
• Although this technique does not give you the degree of association or effect between variables, this will help you to
code and simply tabulate your data.

Descriptive Statistical Technique

It provides a summary of the ordered or sequenced data from your research sample. Frequency distribution, measure
of central tendencies (mean, median, mode), and standard deviation are the sets of data from descriptive statistics.
Inferential Statistics Technique
is used when the research study focuses on finding predictions; testing hypothesis; and finding interpretations,
generalizations, and conclusions. Since this statistical method is more complex and has more advanced mathematical
computations, you can also use computer software to aid your analysis.

In addition, in choosing statistical techniques in quantitative research, the purpose or objective of the research study
should be considered.

Test of Relationship between Two Variables

Pearson’s r (parametric) Phi coefficient (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)
Spearman’s rho (non-parametric for ordinal variable)

Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from One Group

T-test for dependent samples (parametric)
McNemar change test (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous

Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from Two Different Groups
T-test for independent samples (parametric)
Two-way chi-square (non-parametric for nominal variable)
Mann-Whitney U test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)

Test More than Two Population Means

Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (parametric)

Test the Strength of Relation or Effect or Impact

Regression (parametric)