CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
 Define the term sociology;
 Describe the subject-matter, scope and basic
concerns of sociology;
 Understand how sociology emerged and
developed;
 Appreciate the personal and professional benefits
derived from learning sociology;
 Understand the methods and approaches of
sociology;
 Describe macro-sociology and micro-sociology;
 Appreciate the various views and concepts
formulated by the founding fathers of sociology;
 Describe the relationship of sociology with other
fields of study; and
 Appreciate the application of sociology in
addressing contemporary societal problems.

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 1.1. Definition and Subject
Matter of Sociology

1.1.1. What is Sociology?

Before attempting to define what sociology is, les us look at
what the popular conceptions of the discipline seem. As may
be the case with other sciences, sociology is often
misconceived among the populace. Though many may rightly
and grossly surmise that sociology is about people, some think
that it is all about “helping the unfortunate and doing welfare
work, while others think that sociology is the same as
socialism and is a means of bringing revolution to our schools
and colleges” (Nobbs, Hine and Flemming, 1978:1).

The first social scientist to use the term sociology was a

Frenchman by the name of Auguste Comte who lived from
1798-1857. As coined by Comte, the term sociology is a
combination of two words. The first part of the term is a
Latin, socius- that may variously mean society, association,
togetherness or companionship. The other word, logos, is
of Greek origin. It literally means to speak about or word.
However, the term is

2
generally understood as study or science (Indrani, 1998).
Thus, the etymological, literal definition of sociology is that
it is the word or speaking about society. A simple
definition here is that it is the study of society and culture.

Box 1.1. A simple definition of sociology

Sociology is the study of society

Although the term “sociology” was first used by the French

social philosopher August Comte, the discipline was more
firmly established by such theorists as Emile Durkheim, Karl
Marx and Max Weber (Nobbs, Hine and Flemming, 1978).

Before going any further, let us note that the concepts “society
and “culture” are central in sociology. While each concept
shall be dealt with later in some detail, it appears to be
appropriate here to help students differentiate between these
two important concepts. Society generally refers to the social
world with all its structures, institutions, organizations, etc
around us, and specifically to a group of people who live
within some

3
type of bounded territory and who share a common way of
life. This common way of life shared by a group of people is
termed as culture (Stockard, 1997).

Box 1.2. Distinguishing between society and culture

Society: a group of people who live within some
type of bounded territory and who share a common
way of life
Culture: is common way of life shared by a society
or a group.

Now, turning to the definitional issues, it is important that in

addition to this etymological definition of the term, we need
to have other substantive definitions. Thus, sociology may be
generally defined as a social science that studies such kinds of
phenomena as:

 The structure and function of society as a

system;
 The nature, complexity and contents of human
social behavior;
 The fundamentals of human social life;

4
  Interaction of human beings with their
external environment;
 The indispensability of social interactions for
human development;
 How the social world affects us, etc.

A more formal definition of sociology may be that it is a

social science which studies the processes and patterns of
human individual and group interaction, the forms of
organization of social groups, the relationship among them,
and group influences on individual behavior, and vice versa,
and the interaction between one social group and the other
(Team of Experts, 2000).

Sociology is the scientific study of society, which is interested

in the study of social relationship between people in group
context. Sociology is interested in how we as human beings
interact with each other (the pattern of social interaction); the
laws and principles that govern social relationship and
interactions; the influence of the social world on the
individuals, and vice versa (Ibid.). It deals with a factually
observable subject matter, depends upon empirical research,
and involves

5
attempts to formulate theories and generalizations that will
make sense of facts (Giddens, 1982).

Regarding the detective and expository nature, the science,

Soroka (1992:34) states that “Sociology is a debunking
science; that is, it looks for levels of reality other than those
presented in official interpretations of society and people’s
common sense explanations of the social world. Sociologists
are interested in understanding what is and do not make value
judgments.”

1.1.2. Brief Historical Overview

Sociology and other social sciences emerged from a

common tradition of reflection of social phenomena; interest
in the nature of human social behavior and society has
probably always existed; however, most people in most past
societies saw their culture as a fixed and God-given entity.
This view gradually was replaced by more rational
explanations beginning from the 17th century especially in
Western Europe (Rosenberg, 1987). The sociological issues,
questions and problems

6
had been raised and discussed by the forerunners starting from
the ancient Greek and Roman philosophers' and Hebrew
prophets' times.

Sociology as an academic science was thus born in 19 th

century (its formal establishment year being 1837) in Great
Britain and Western Europe, especially in France and
Germany, and it greatly advanced throughout 19 th and 20th
centuries.

The development of sociology and its current contexts have to

be grasped in the contexts of the major changes that have
created the modern world (Giddens, 1986). Further, sociology
originated in 18th century philosophy, political economy and
cultural history (Swingwood, 1991)

The major conditions, societal changes, upheavals and social

ferments that gave rise to the emergence and development of
sociology as an academic science include the Industrial
Revolution which began in Great Britain, the French Political
Revolution of 1789, the Enlightenment and advances in
natural sciences and

7
technology. These revolutions had brought about significant
societal changes and disorders in the way society lived in the
aforementioned countries. Since sociology was born amidst
the great socio-political and economic and technological
changes of the western world, it is said to be the science of
modern society.

The pioneering sociologists were very much concerned about

the great changes that were taking place and they felt that the
exciting sciences could not help understand, explain, analyze
and interpret the fundamental laws that govern the social
phenomena. Thus sociology was born out of these
revolutionary contexts.

The founders or the pioneering sociologists are the following

(Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Giddens, 1996; Macionis, 1997):

 Auguste Comte, French Social Philosopher

(1798- 1857)
Comte was the first social philosopher to coin and use the
term sociology (Nobbs, Hine and Flemming, 1978). He was
also the first to regard himself as a sociologist.

8
He defined sociology as the scientific study of social
dynamics and social static. He argued that sociology can
and should study society and social phenomena following
the pattern and procedures of the natural science. Comte
believed that a theoretical science of society and the
systematic investigation of human behavior were needed to
improve society. He argued that the new science of society
could and should make a critical contribution towards a new
and improved human society. Comte defined sociology as the
study of social dynamic and social static, the former
signifying the changing, progressing and developmental
dimensions of society, while the latter refers to the social
order and those elements of society and social phenomena
which tend to persist and relatively permanent, defying
change.

 Karl Marx (German, 1818-1883)

Marx was a world-renowned social philosopher, sociologist
and economic historian. He made remarkable contributions to
the development of various social sciences including
sociology. He contributed greatly to sociological ideas. He
introduced key

9
concepts in sociology like social class, social class
conflict, social oppression, alienation, etc. Marx, like
Comte, argued that people should make active efforts to bring
about societal reforms. According to Marx, economic forces
are the keys to underestimating society and social change. He
believed that the history of human society has been that of
class conflict. He dreamed of, and worked hard towards
realizing, a classless society, one in which there will be no
exploitation and oppression of one class by another, and
wherein all individuals will work according to their abilities
and receive according to their needs. Marx introduced one of
the major perspectives in sociology, called social conflict
theory (Macionis, 1997)

 Harriet Martineau, British Sociologist (1802-

1876)
At a time when women were greatly stereotyped and denied
access to influential socio-political and academic arena, it is
interesting to ha a female academic to be numbered among the
pioneering sociologists. Harriet was interested in social issues
and studied both in the United States and England. She came
across with the

10
writings of Comte and read them. She was an active advocate
of the abolition of slavery and she wrote on many crosscutting
issues such as racial and gender relations, and she traveled
widely. She helped popularize the ideas and writings of
Comte by translating them into English (Henslin and Nelson,
1995).

 Herbert Spencer, British Social Philosopher,

(1820-1903)
Spencer was a prominent social philosopher of the 19th
century. He was famous for the organic analogy of human
society. He viewed society as an organic system, having its
own structure and functioning in ways analogous to the
biological system. Spencer's ideas of the evolution of human
society from the lowest ("barbarism") to highest form
("civilized") according to fixed laws were famous. It was
called "Social Darwinism", which is analogous to the
biological evolutionary model. Social Darwinism is the
attempt to apply by analogy the evolutionary theories of plant
and animal development to the explanation of human society
and social phenomena (Team of Experts, 2000).

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  Emile Durkheim, French Sociologist, (1858-
1917)
Durkehiem was the most influential scholar in the academic
and theoretical development of sociology. He laid down some
of the fundamental principles, methods, concepts and theories
of sociology; he defined sociology as the study of social
facts. According to him, there are social facts, which are
distinct from biological and psychological facts. By social
facts, he meant the patterns of behavior that characterize a
social group in a given society. They should be studied
objectively. The job of a sociologist, therefore, is to uncover
social facts and then to explain them using other social facts.
Some regard Durkheim as the first sociologist to apply
statistical methods to the study of social phenomena
(Macionis, 1997; Clahoun, et al, 1994).

 Max Weber, German Sociologist (1864-1920)

Weber was another prominent social scientist.
According to him, sociology is the scientific study of human
social action. Social action refers to any “action oriented to
influence or influenced by another person or persons. It is not
necessary for more than one person to

12
be physically present for action to be regarded as social
action….” (Team of Experts, 2000). It is concerned with the
interpretive understanding of human social action and the
meaning people attach to their own actions and behaviors and
those of others. Weber was a renowned scholar who like
Marx, wrote in several academic fields. He agreed with much
Marxian theses but did not accept his idea that economic
forces are central to social change. Weber argues that we
cannot understand human behavior by just looking at
statistics. Every activity and behavior of people needs to be
interpreted. He argued that a sociologist must aim at what are
called subjective meanings, the ways in which people
interpret their own behavior or the meanings people attach
their own behavior (Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Rosneberg,
1987).

13
Box 1.3. Pioneering founders of sociology
August Comte, French, 1798-1857; key concepts:
social static and social dynamic
Karl Marx, German, (1818-1883), key concepts: class
conflict, alienation, historical materialism, etc Emile
Durkheim, French, 1858-1917; key concept: social fact
Max Weber, German, 1864-1920; key concepts: social
action; subjective meanings
Herbert Spencer, British, 1820-1903; key concept:
social Darwinism
Harriet Martineau, British, 1802-1876; active
advocate of abolition of slavery and gender issues

1.1.3. Subject Matter, Scope and Concerns of

Sociology

The scope of sociology is extremely wide ranging, from the

analysis of passing encounter between individuals on the
street up to the investigation of global social processes The
discipline covers an extremely broad range that includes
every aspect of human social

14
conditions; all types of human relationships and forms of
social behavior (Indrani, 1998). Sociologists are primarily
interested in human beings as they appear in social interaction
and the effects of this interaction on human behavior. Such
interaction can range from the first physical contacts of the
new born baby with its mother to a philosophical discussion at
an international conference, from a casual passing on the
street to the most intimate of human relationships (World
Book Encyclopedia 1994. Vol. 18, PP. 564-567).
Sociologists are interested to know what processes lead to
these interactions, what exactly occurs when they take place,
and what their short run and long run consequences are.

The major systems or units of interaction that interest

sociologists are social groups such as the family or peer
groups; social relationships, such as social roles and dyadic
relationships, and social organizations such as governments,
corporations and school systems to such territorial
organizations as communities and schools (Broom and
Selzinki, 1973).

15
Sociologists are keen to understand, explain, and analyze the
effect of social world, social environment and social
interaction on our behavior, worldviews, lifestyle, personality,
attitudes, decisions, etc., as creative, rational, intelligent
members of society; and how we as such create the social
reality.

1.1.4. Levels of Sociological Analysis and Fields

of Specializations in Sociology

There are generally two levels of analysis in sociology, which

may also be regarded as branches of sociology: micro-
sociology and macro- sociology (Henslin and Nelson,
1995). Micro-sociology is interested in small- scale level of
the structure and functioning of human social groups; whereas
macro-sociology studies the large-scale aspects of society.

Macro-sociology focuses on the broad features of society. The

goal of macro-sociology is to examine the large-scale social
phenomena that determine how social groups are
organized and positioned within the social structure.
Micro-sociological level of analysis

16
focuses on social interaction. It analyzes interpersonal
relationships, and on what people do and how they behave
when they interact. This level of analysis is usually employed
by symbolic interactionist perspective.

Some writers also add a third level of analysis called meso-

level analysis, which analyzes human social phenomena in
between the micro- and macro-levels. Reflecting their
particular academic interest sociologists may prefer one form
of analysis to the other; but all levels of analysis are useful
and necessary for a fuller understanding of social life in
society.

Box 1.4. Levels of analysis in sociology

Micro-sociology: Analyzing small scale social
phenomena
Macro-sociology: analyzing large-scale social
phenomena
Meso-sociology: analysis of social phenomena in
between the micro- and macro- levels.

17
Within these general frameworks, sociology may be divided
into specific sub-fields on the basis of certain criteria. The
most important fields of sociology can be grouped into six
areas (World Book Encyclopedia, 1994: Vol. 18; Pp. 564-
568).

 The Field of Social Organization and Theory

of Social Order: focuses on institutions and groups,
their formation and change, manner of functioning,
relation to individuals and to each other.
 Social Control: Focuses on the ways in which
members of a society influence one another so as to
maintain social order.
 Social Change: Focuses on the way society and
institutions change over time through technical
inventions, cultural diffusion and cultural conflict,
and social movements, among others.
 Social Processes: Focuses on the pattern in which
social change takes place, and the modes of such
processes.

18
  Social Groups: Focuses on how social groups are
formed, structured, and how they function and
change.
 Social Problems: Focuses on the social conditions
which cause difficulties for a large number of persons
and which the society is seeking to eliminate. Some of
the problems may include: juvenile delinquency,
crime, chronic alcoholism, suicide, narcotics
addiction, racial prejudice, ethnic conflict, war,
industrial conflict, slum, areas, urban poverty,
prostitution, child abuse, problem of older persons,
marital conflicts, etc.

Currently, sociology has got quite several specific sub-

divisions or fields of specialization in it: some of these include
the following: criminology; demography; human ecology;
political sociology; medical sociology; sociology of the
family; sociology of sports; sociology of development; social
psychology; socio- linguistics; sociology of education;
sociology of religion; sociology of knowledge; sociology of
art; sociology of science and

19
technology; sociology of law; urban sociology; rural
sociology; economic sociology; and industrial sociology.

1.1.5. Major Theoretical Perspectives in

Sociology

Sociology as science employs perspectives or theories to

understand, explain, analyze and interpret social phenomena.
To interpret social facts, they must be subjected to a
theoretical framework. A theory may be defined as a general
statement about how some parts of the world fit together and
how they work (Macionis, 1997). Scupin and DeCorse (1995)
define a theory as a set of interconnected hypotheses that offer
general explanations for natural or social phenomena.

It should also be noted that the terms “perspectives” and

“schools of thought” are often used interchangeably with the
term “theory”.

20
There are three major theoretical perspectives in sociology
that have provided an overall framework for sociological
studies. These are structural- functionalism, social
conflict theory and symbolic interactionism. There are
also theories that have emerged challenging these major ones
(see below).

The Structural-Functionalist Theory

This is one of the dominant theories both in anthropology and

sociology. It is sometimes called functionalism. The theory
tries to explain how the relationships among the parts of
society are created and how these parts are functional
(meaning having beneficial consequences to the individual
and the society) and dysfunctional (meaning having negative
consequences). It focuses on consensus, social order, structure
and function in society.

The structural-functionalist theory sees society as a complex

system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and
stability; it states that our social lives are guided by social
structure, which are relatively stable patterns of social
behavior (Macionis, 1997). Social

21
structure is understood in terms of social function, which
are consequences for the operations of society. All social
structure contributes to the operation of society. The major
terms and concepts developed by anthropologists and
sociologists in this theory include (or the theory focuses on):
order, structure, function (manifest or direct functions and
latent or hidden, indirect functions), and equilibrium.

Those hold this view ask such questions as: what hold society
together? What keeps it steady? The Structural- functionalist
theory pays considerable attention to the persistence of shared
ideas in society. The functional aspect in the structural-
functionalist theory stresses the role played by each
component part in the social system, whereas the structural
perspective suggests an image of society wherein individuals
are constrained by the social forces, social backgrounds and
by group memberships.

Many of the great early founding sociologists such as August

Comte, Emile Durkheim and Herbert Spencer and later
American sociologists like Talkot Parsons and

22
Robert K Merton. Structural -functionalist theorists in modern
sociology are more likely to follow in the tradition of the
writings of particularly Emile Durkheim, who is regarded as
the pioneering proponent of this perspective (Hensiln and
Nelson, 1995).

After dominating sociology and anthropology for a long time,

this theory was challenged by its main critics, notably those
who proposed the social –conflict theory (see below). The
theory was attacked for its emphasis on stability and order
while neglecting conflict and changes which so vital in any
society.

The Social Conflict Theory

This theory is also called Marxism; to indicate that the main

impetus to the theory derives from the writings of Karl Marx
This theory sees society in a framework of class conflicts and
focuses on the struggle for scarce resources by different
groups in a given society. It asks such questions as what pulls
society apart. How does society change? The theory holds that
the most important aspect of social order is the
domination of some group by others, that actual or
potential conflicts

23
are always present in society. The writings of Karl Marx are
generally in the spirit of conflict theory, and Marxism
influences most of conflict theorists in modern sociology.

The theory is useful in explaining how the dominant groups

use their power to exploit the less powerful groups in society.
Key concepts developed in this perspective include: conflict,
complementation, struggle, power, inequality, and
exploitation.

Although this theory gained fame in recent decades, it came

under sharp criticism, for its overemphasis on inequality and
division, for neglecting the fact of how shared values and
interdependence generate unity among members of society; it
is also criticized for its explicit political goals. Another
critique, which equally applies also to structural
functionalism, is that it sees society in very broad terms,
neglecting micro-level social realities (Macionis 1997).

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Symbolic Interactionism

This theory was advanced by such American sociologists as

Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) William I Thomas (1863-
1947) and George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) in early 20th
century. This perspective views symbols as the basis of social
life. Symbols are things to which we attach meanings. The
theory stresses the analysis of how our behaviors depend on
how we define others and ourselves. It concentrates on
process, rather than structure, and keeps the individual actor at
the center. According to symbolic interactionism, the essence
of social life and social reality is the active human being
trying to make sense of social situations. In short, this theory
calls attention to the detailed, person-oriented processes that
take place within the larger units of social life (Calhoun et
al, 1994; Henslin and Nelson, 1996; Soroka, 1995).

As indicated above, there are contemporary sociological

theories that have emerged in recent decades that have heavily
influenced sociological and anthropological thinking. These
include the following:

25
Feminism

This theory takes as its central theme the place and facts
of women’s underprivileged status and their exploitation in a
patriarchally dominated society. Feminist sociology focuses
on the particular disadvantages, including oppression and
exploitation faced by women in society. This theory ranges
from liberal feminism, which recognizes inequalities but
believes that reform can take place without a fundamental
restructuring of the social system, to radical feminism,
which advocates the fundamental need for societal change
(Marcus and Ducklin, 1998: 32)

Social Exchange Theory

This theory focuses on “the costs and benefits which people

obtain in social interaction, including money, goods, and
status. It is based on the principle that people always act to
maximize benefit. However, to receive benefits, there must
always be an exchange process with others” (Marcus and
Ducklin, 1996: 26)

26
Public Choice Theory: This theory states that collective
organizations such as political parties act rationally to
maximize their own benefits. It argues that individual
differences are best resolved by collective involvement within
organizations. The role of the state is important in arbitrating
between large-scale interests (Ibid, same page).

Rational Choice Theory: This theory assumes that

individuals will operate in rational way and will seek to
benefit themselves in the life choices they make (ibid).

Structuralism

This theory denies any basis for humans being active, since
human consciousness is no longer seen as the basis of
meaning in language. Structuralism differs from the
mainstream traditional theories in that it rejects objective
social facts and a concept of society as an objective, external
entity. It defines social reality in terms of the relations
between events, not in terms of things and social facts. Its
basic principle is that the observable is meaningful only in so
far as it can be related to an underlying structure or order
(Swingwood, 1984).

27
The equivalent of structuralism in anthropology, advanced by
its famous French structuralist anthropologist, Claude Levi-
Strauss, states that “the origin of universal principles that
order the ways in which we behave and think about the
world is to be found in the structure of human
thought.”(Howard and Dunaif- Hattis, 1992:373). The
problem with this theory is that they view societies as static
and do not help very much in explaining variation among
societies. The theory treats culture as a given order and fails
to explain the adaptive dimensions of culture.

Post-Structuralism and Post-modernism:

Post –structuralism: focuses on the power of language in

constructing knowledge and identity. The writers in this
field have emphasized the role of language in human life,
how language dictates the thoughts we have, and how it
constructs meanings for us. Post- structuralists argue that
humans cannot arrive anything they can confidently call the
(universal) truth. There is no link between the words
(language) ideas, and the real world. It denies the
sociological idea that our concepts

28
have some relationship to the real world. It is not possible to
arrive at a sociological truth, and such attempts are dangerous
(Bliton, et al. 1996; Kirby, et al. 2000).

Post-modernism: The basis of post-modernism was post-

structuralism. Post-modernism is defined as a cultural and
aesthetic phenomenon which mainly rejects order and
progress, objective and universal truth; and supports the need
for recognizing and tolerating different forms of reality. It
tends to celebrate chaos and disorder, diversity and
fragmentation in the modern global society rather than
wanting to achieve order. This theory maintains that there is
no ultimate reason in human life and existence (Bliton, et al.
1996; Kirby, et al. 2000). Postmodernists argue, “Power has
become decentralized and fragmented in contemporary
societies “(Torres and Mitchel, 1998). The theorists of post-
structuralism share a lost with post-modernists.

29
A note on applying sociological theories to health, culture
and society may be important here. Each of he above
sociological theories may have its own views on medicine and
society. But for the sake of brevity, I would just focus on the
three major theories:

 Structural functionalism: the version of this theory as

applied to medicine ad society may be termed as the
“medical ecological approach. The structural
functionalist theory views medicine and the systems
of health care as important social institutions; and it
focuses on the functions and roles played by the
institution in maintaining odder and stability in society.
The medical institutions whether scientific or
traditional and the various practitioners exist to meet
the needs of individuals and society (Henslin and
Nelson, 1995).

 Symbolic interactionist theory: This theory as applied

to medicine and society may be termed as
the”cultural interpretationist approach. This approach
focuses on the social and cultural constructions of
health, illness and disease.

30
 According to this theory, illnesses and health are not
just things that exist “out there”; they are productions
of the complex social interactions; and health and
illness are highly shaped by the manner in which
people as actors give meanings to them and how the
actors respond to them in socio-culturally sanctioned
ways.

 Conflict theory: The equivalent of this theory in

medical sociology and anthropology may be termed
as “the critical” or “radical political economy”
approach. It is an approach which stresses on the
socio-economic inequality in power and wealth which
in turn significantly affects the health status and
access to health care facilities. Individuals, groups,
communities and even nations thus tend to have
unbalanced share of health resources; and these often
leads to the unequal distribution of morbidity and
mortality patterns among a given society; those in
power and dominance enjoy better health and the
marginalized groups suffer from the burden of diseases
(Turner, 1987).

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 Table 1.1. Summary of sociological theories

S. Name of the What does it Key concepts Its weaknesses

No. theory state?
1. Structural Sees society as a Consensus, Emphasis on
Functionalism complex system social order, stability and order
whose parts work structure and while neglecting
together to promote function conflict and
solidarity and in changes which so
stability society. vital in any society
2. Social conflict Sees society in a Class conflict; For its
theory framework of class alienation; overemphasis on
conflicts and competition; inequality and
focuses on the domination division, for
struggle for scarce neglecting the fact
resources by of how shared
different groups in a values and
given society interdependence
generate unity
among members of
society; it is also
criticized for its
explicit political
goals.
3. Symbolic Stresses the Symbols; Too much
interactionism analysis of how our processes; emphasis on micro-
behaviors depend interaction; level analysis;
on how we define meaning neglect of larger
others and social processes
ourselves. It
concentrates on
process, rather than
structure, and
keeps the individual
actor at the center.

32
4 Feminism Feminist sociology Women; Some extreme
focuses on the gender; views such as
particular exploitation; radical feminism
disadvantages, male seem unrealistic
including oppression supremacy
and
exploitation faced
by women in
society
5. Social Focuses on the costs - -
Exchange and benefits which
theory people obtain in social
interaction, including
money, goods, and
status. It is based on
the principle that
people always act
to maximize benefit.

6. Rational Assumes that -- --

choice theory individuals will
operate in rational
way and will seek to
benefit themselves
in the life choices
they make
7. Structuralism Denies any basis Underlying Views societies as
for humans being structures; static and do not
active, since human language help very much in
consciousness is explaining variation
no longer seen as among societies;
the basis of treats culture as a
meaning in given order and
language fails to explain the
adaptive
dimensions of
culture.

33
8. Post- Argues that -- --
structuralism humans cannot
arrive anything they
can confidently call
the (universal) truth.
There is no link
between the words
(language) ideas,
and the real world
Post- Argues power has Modernity; Denial of objective,
modernism become post- sociological
decentralized and modernity; knowledge
fragmented in subjective
contemporary reality
societies

1.2. The Significance of Learning

Sociology
Generally, learning sociology provides us with what
sociologists call the sociological imagination.
Sociological imagination is a particular way of looking at the
world around us through sociological lenses. It is a way of
looking at our experiences in light of what is going on in
the social world around us. This helps us to appreciate the
social and non-biological forces that affect, influence and
shape our lives as individuals, groups, and communities
(Giddens, 1982). Sociological

34
imagination helps us look beyond individual psychology to
the many and varied facets of social and cultural forces, and
"the recurring patterns in peoples' attitudes and actions, and
how these patterns vary across time, cultures and social
groups." (Henslin and Nelson, 1995)

Learning sociology helps us understand how social forces

influence our goals, attitudes, behavior, and personality. We
become more sensitive towards the social issues. Furthermore,
learning sociology helps to cast aside our own biased
assumptions, stereotypes and ethno-centric thinking and
practices to become more critical, broad- minded and
respectful in our interpersonal and inter- group relationships.
By learning sociology, we can be more humane and people –
centered; we give high value to human dignity.

In general, sociology increases our self-knowledge. Learning

sociology can provide us with self- enlightenment. When we
learn sociology, we gain more knowledge about the conditions
of our own lives, and about the way our society and social
system function. As such knowledge increases, we can be
more

35
empowered to influence the direction of forces and
circumstances that affect our lives. We can also be more
responsive to the various policies set by governments; and can
suggest our own policy initiatives and alternatives (Giddens,
op cit).

In addition to the aforementioned theoretical benefits,

sociology has certain practical benefits. There is what we
call applied sociology, the application of sociological
knowledge, principles, methods, concepts and theories to
provide the solutions to the contemporary social pathologies.
Sociology plays practical roles to tackle social pathologies.

Sociological knowledge is highly applicable in dealing with

today's most crucial social problems, and in facilitating
developmental activities in socioeconomic sectors.

Before closing this section, it is important to note why health/

medical sciences students need to take a course in
introductory sociology. The following are some of the
arguments for the necessity of such a course:

36
1. Health, disease and illness are as much sociocultural in
their nature as they are physical.

2. So far, despite certain steps being taken, the dominant

trend in the medical/ health sciences training is to highly
focus on the biomedical and ecological dimensions of
health and disease. However, given the bio-psycho-social
nature of human being and health, this is very partial. This
restricted approach to health disease does not provide the
students with appropriate and whole picture about the
issue. Such highly narrow focus in the training of health
professionals and design of health policies and strategies
is not appropriate.

3. In the objective realties of developing societies such as

Ethiopia human health and well-being are deeply linked
to sociocultural factors such as the entrenched poverty,
the roles of traditional values and institutions in shaping
people’s worldviews about health and disease.

37
1.3. Sociological Research Methods

1.3.1. The Scientific

Method Inductive vs.
Deductive Approaches
Sociology is a science. As such, it is concerned with
systematically observing and classifying facts, and
establishing verifiable laws. It, like any other science employs
scientific method, which is the source for scientific
knowledge. The scientific method is a logical system used to
evaluate data derived from systematic observation. The
scientific method as a precise way of designing and
conducting research consists of the following basic steps: “(1)
establishing a hypothesis, a general statement based on
observed facts; 2) determining ways to test the hypothesis,
incorporating them in research design; 3) testing the
hypothesis through research and further observation…”
(Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992:7)

Sociology as a science employs the two very important

approaches in research design and in the overall research
framework: inductive methods and

38
deductive method. Inductive method is a method by which
the scientist first makes observation and collects data, on the
basis of which he or she formulates hypothesis and
theories (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995). The researcher
tries to build theories from particular observations and
instances. Induction moves from the particular to the general;
whereas deduction moves from the general to the particular.
In deductive approach, the researcher attempts to derive
specific assertions and claims from a general theoretical
principle. In short, deductive approach in research goes from
general theory to particular claims (Dooley, 1995:65-66).

Box 1.5. Inductive vs. deductive approaches

 Inductive method is a method by which the scientist

first makes observation and collects data, on the basis
of which he or she formulates hypothesis and theories
 In deductive approach, the researcher attempts to
derive specific assertions and claims from a general
theoretical principle.

39
As a science, the primary aim of sociology is doing research;
to produce, accumulate, and disseminate scientific knowledge
on society and social phenomena. However, there are some
people who question the scientific status of sociology and
other social sciences. They argue that sociology is not strictly
science because its subject matter is very much complex. It is
not possible to subject human behavior into laboratory
manipulations. People have their own motives and hidden
aspirations and other complex aspects.

However, it is generally accepted that sociology is a

science in the sense that its primary aim is doing scientific
research to promote scientific knowledge. Sociology can and
should employ the scientific methods. The scientific method
is defined as a method of observing the world critically,
empirically and rationally to collect and analyze data
systematically to arrive at a scientific knowledge.

40
1.3.2. Steps in Sociological Research

Generally, there are about seven steps in doing sociological

research. These steps are not, however, typical to sociology
alone. It should also be noted that these steps are not fixed
ones. Some steps may not necessarily be followed in some
research projects. They steps may not necessarily be put in
sequential order.

1. Identification of Research Problems

The first step in doing sociological research (for that matter,
any other research) is to come up with a research problem.
Identification of research problem basically involves choosing
a research topic. The ways and manners in which researchers
identify a research problem and choose a topic vary according
to various factors. The research interests of sociologists are,
often, triggered by their own life experiences and observations
(Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992). The initial ideas for
research thus may occur at any time and place for a
researcher. Walking down a street, reading through
newspapers, watching television, etc may suggest a

41
topic of research for an observing and curious person
(Mann, 1976).

Once a research topic comes to our mind, we should ask

the following questions:
 Is it researchable?
 Is it sociologically/ socially significant?
 What is new about it?
 What gap will it fill?
 Is it manageable in terms of time, money, expertise
and other resources? In other words, do you have the
needed resources to do the research?

If you answer these and other related questions adequately,

then you are on the right track to conduct the research.

2. Literature Review
This step involves familiarizing or orienting yourself with the
concepts, theories and the works already done pertaining to
the topic identified. Relevant available literature on the topic
chosen should be reviewed; we

42
should also check out what works have already been done by
others, what gaps are remaining, what questions remain
unanswered, etc.

Research work normally proceeds by reviewing earlier works

on a specific research problem one has identified. The
researcher will need to review past works on the question he
or she is raising (Dooley, 1995). The traditionally dominant
source for literature review has been libraries and
documentation centers where books and various references
are found in card catalogued manner. Nowadays, most
libraries maintain a computerized filing system, whereby
references are made available via electronic online methods.
Searching literature has become very easy, thus, with the
computerization of library sources; one can easily access
them if Internet connection is available (Rosnow and
Rosenthal, 1996)

Literature review is necessitated by the fact that a researcher

is probably not the first person to develop an interest in a
particular problem; and hence, he or she need to spend some
time in the library reviewing what

43
theories and methods others have used to the topic in the past
and what findings are there (Macionis, 1997). According to
Marshal and Rossman (1989: 35), review of literature has
the following four purposes:

First, it demonstrates the underlying assumptions behind

the general research question…. Second, it demonstrates
that the researcher is thoroughly knowledgeable about
related research and the intellectual traditions that
surround and support the study. Third, it shows that the
researcher has identified some gaps in previous research
and that the proposed study will fill a demonstrated need.
And finally, the review refines and redefines the research
questions and related tentative hypotheses by
embedding those questions in larger empirical traditions.

3. Hypothesis Formulation
Hypothesis is a statement that can be proved to be correct or
incorrect. Hypothesis formulation involves identifying basic
research objectives and determining research questions. This
should be tested empirically. We put some guiding
assumptions to the research in this step. We ask some basic
research questions. However, we may note that this may not
be always the case. The type of research may determine
whether

44
hypothesizing is needed or not. For example, in exploratory
studies hypothesizing may not be needed.

4. Selections and Designing of Methods of Data

Collection
Here the researcher determines data collection methods and
prepares data collection instruments. He/she chooses from
among the different data collection methods. There are
generally two categories of methods: Quantitative
methods and qualitative methods. Quantitative methods
focus on measuring quantity of information: terms such as
prevalence, scope, percentage, frequency, magnitude, etc are
very important. On the other hand, qualitative methods focus
on depth and quality of information. The complex, detailed
and sensitive aspects; belief, attitudinal and knowledge
dimensions etc are usually studied by qualitative methods.

5. Conducting Data Gathering Activity

This is the step in which the researcher engages in collecting
the needed data by using the various methods and
instruments. The researcher goes to the field and

45
collects the data. He/ she trains data collectors, supervises the
overall data collection process, and so on.

Data collected thus may be of two types: primary and

secondary data. Primary data are firsthand and original
information; the researcher firsthand collects them. They are
collected by the sociology themselves during their own
research using research tools such as experiment, survey,
questionnaire, interviews and observation (Chapman, 2000).
On the other hand, secondary data are those which are already
collected by some one else found in various sources as
documents or archives. They include: official statistical
documents, mass media sources (such as electronic media –
radio, television, films, etc; and print media such as
newspapers, magazines, journals, posters, brochures, leaflets,
sign broads, etc.)

Some of the methods of data collection in sociology include:

46
Surveys
One of the dominant quantitative techniques is the survey
method, which involves sampling, impersonal data
collections, and sophisticated statistical analysis. Of all the
social sciences research techniques, survey research probably
seems to be the most visible and pervasive form research in
the social and behavioral sciences (Jones, 1995). . In survey
research, people who provide information are termed as
respondents, (unlike in anthropology, where we call them
informants); these respondents are often selected on random
sample basis, wherein all members of a population have
equal chances of being included in the study population

There are three types of survey research: cross sectional

survey, which aims to find out what opinions research
participants across sections of society have about a certain
phenomenon at a given point of time his survey represents
fixed reflections of one moment in time. Longitudinal
survey is conducted on the same type of people over long
period of time, as long as sometimes 20 to 30 years. This
type provides us with a

47
moving picture of the changes over time in a given area. The
third type is called panel surveys, which are alternative
versions of longitudinal surveys. It usually lasts shorter period
of time and asks questions of panel members on a frequent
basis. A panel member may be asked question every month
for a couple of years, while in longitudinal survey, people are
asked often once a year (Moore, 2001).

Traditionally, the survey techniques have been considered the

domain of disciplines such as sociology, psychology, political
science, and economics, which often work mainly in large,
complex and populous societies, unlike anthropologists,
which have traditionally worked among small-scale societies.

Experimentation: This quantitative method is sometimes

used in sociology. Sociologists conduct experimental studies,
following the procedures and principles of experimentation.
This is done usually to explore cause and effect relationship
between one and the other social phenomena. What causes
what? What is the effect of one social phenomenon on the
other?

48
Key Informant Interview: This is a qualitative method in
which a knowledgeable person in study site or community is
contacted and interviewed by the researcher or data collector.
Questions for the interview session may be prepared in
advance, or sometimes only guiding themes are prepared for
the session. This method is similar with in-depth interview,
in that in most cases one individual person is contacted and
interviewed at a time. However, in the latter, the researcher/
interviewer digs deep into issues (Macionis, 1997).

Focus Group Discussion: This is a form of qualitative

data collection method in which intends to make use of the
explicit interaction dynamic among group members which
may yield important information on certain topic. This
qualitative method of data collection has become so popular
particularly in the recent decades; it is highly being used by
researchers from crosscutting fields such as public health,
anthropology, and other behavioral sciences disciplines.

49
Case Study: This method involves investigating a certain
issue as a case taking longer time and investigating the
phenomenon in depth. A case study may be about an
individual person, a social group, a family, or an organization.
The case chosen is regarded as a representative of the wider
group or context from which it is derived. This method may
involve elements of both quantitative and qualitative aspects.

Observation: This qualitative method involves collecting

data on social phenomena by carefully observing the social
processes, events, activities, behaviors, actions, etc., they take
place. All relevant events, actions, places, objects, etc must
be observed and recorded (Marshal and Rossman, 1989). One
of the key procedures in these techniques is called
participant observation, the active involvement in
community life while studying it. The researcher participates
in a research setting while observing what is happening in that
setting (Henslin and Nelson, 1995). A variant of this method
is non-participant observation – collecting data without
participating in what the informants or the subjects do.

50
Unobtrusive Measures: Most of the research techniques
are obtrusive, meaning the data are gathered while the study
subjects’ behaviors actions are directly observed, and they
know that they are being researched. To avoid the risks of the
research act intruding on the subject of study thereby affecting
the research findings, sociologists have developed what is
called unobtrusive measures. When a researcher takes
unobtrusive measures, people's behavior is observed while
they are not aware of it.

Here, this method involves techniques that do not interfere

with the objects or events studied. Sociologist study many
social phenomena using these methods such how people
behave in the public arena, the way people wear and decorate
themselves, the way they sit or stand relative to others, etc
(Rosenberg, et al, 1987).

6. Data Organization, Analysis, Interpretation, and

Report Writing
The most challenging task is how to manage, handle, store
and arrange the raw data as cautiously as

51
possible. Data may get lost, if not handled well. The
researcher here carefully stores the data, manages them,
organizes and systematically arranges.

Various ways of analyzing data are used both in qualitative

and quantitative methods (Henslin and Nelson, 1995). For
quantitative data researchers use sophisticated statistical
techniques using computer models. Plans for data analysis are
often made as early before the data are collected (Mann,
1976).

Analysis of qualitative data also actually begins while the

researcher is in the field recording his/ her field notes, tape
recording and transcribing the interviews. Tape-recording the
interview process and transcribing are the essential
components of analysis (Jones 1995). In analyzing the data,
the researcher must distinguish between his own views and
the views of the people being studied (Scupin and DeCorse,
1995). There are many possible analytic schemes and some
computer models for analyzing qualitative data are also
available.

52
After the data are entered into a computer for easy processing,
tabulation, and analysis, the researcher interprets the data and
writes up the findings. The hypotheses are tested,
comparisons are made with similar kinds of studies conducted
elsewhere or done before, conclusions are drawn, and
recommendations are made, depending on the type of
research, such as basic or applied.

7. Dissemination of Research Findings

This is the final step in which the researcher shares the
findings with all concerned bodies. Dissemination of the
research findings is possible via scientific journals, seminars,
symposiums, conferences and other forums.

53
Figure 1.1 Steps in the Research Process (Adapted from
Anthony Giddens, Sociology. 1996)

DEFINE THE PROBLEM: Select a topic for research information

REVIEW THE LITERATURE: Familiarize your self with

existing research

FORMULATE a HYPOTHESIS: What do you intend to

test? What is the relationship between the variables?

SELECT A RESEARCH DESIGN: Choose one or more

research methods: experiment, survey, observation, use of
existing sources, etc

CARRY OUT THE RESEARCH: Collect your data

INTERPRET YOUR RESULTS

Work out the implications of the data collected

REPORT THE RESEARCH FINDING

What is their significance? How do they relate to previous
findings?

54
1.4. The Relationship between Sociology
and Disciplines

Sociology occupies an important position among the

disciplines, usually called the social sciences. These include
sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, political
science, history and human geography. These disciplines are
sometimes also referred to as behavioral sciences, as they
study the principles governing human social behavior.

How is sociology related to other sciences? What are the

similarities and differences? These are important questions.
Sociology is similar with all other sciences in that it employs
the scientific methods and its major aim is production of
scientific knowledge. Sociology is related to other social and
behavioral sciences in that all of them have more or less
similar subject matter; they all in one way or another study
society, human culture, social phenomena; and aim at
discovering the laws that govern the social universe.

55
However, sociology differs from other social sciences in terms
of its focus of study, approach of study, and the method of
study. The closest discipline to sociology is social
anthropology. The two share concepts, theories and methods,
and have similar historical background. However, they are
different in that sociology is primarily interested in the
problems of modern society, whereas anthropology is
primarily interested in the problem of traditional, non-western
society. (It should be noted here that this conventional
distinction between the two is now disappearing.) Further,
sociology focuses mainly on quantitative techniques whereas
anthropology on qualitative research techniques. Perhaps,
the methods of research are more important in differentiating
the two. Anthropology's heavy focus on qualitative method
and sociology's on quantification are still persistent natures
of the two disciplines. Further, one point of difference worth
mentioning is that sociology is narrower in scope than
anthropology, which has four sub fields; and anthropologists
tend to stay in the field for long period (several months to few
years) while sociologists prefer brief stay (weeks to few
months).

56
1.5. Chapter Summary

The term sociology is a combination of two words, socius

and logos, which mean respectively society and study. Thus,
a simple etymological definition of sociology is that it is the
science of society. Sociology is a social or behavioral science
that originated in the 19th century in Western Europe; its main
concern is discovering the basic laws and principles that
govern human social life, the social world, the working and
development of society and its institutions. It grew out of the
great revolutionary contexts, with great concern to address the
social changes, disorders and problems of the modern world.

Micro-sociology studies the micro aspects of human society,

that is the social processes and phenomena taking place at
small scale levels; macro-sociology studies the macro
aspects, that is, the overall structure, functioning, change,
development and processes of social phenomena at large-scale
levels. The six major filed of study in sociology are social
organization and

57
social theory, social change, social problems, social processes,
social groups, and social control.

Learning sociology provides us with sociological

imagination, an illuminating way of understanding the forces
and factors that affect our lives as individuals, groups,
communities and nations. Sociology provides us with much
practical benefit and it contributes greatly to the solutions for
contemporary societal problems.

Research is very important in sociology. Although some

challenge its scientific status, it uses the scientific method to
produce, store and disseminate scientific knowledge on
society and social phenomena. A typical sociological research
may involve seven steps, and each step is very important and
has to be carefully followed to do standard and quality
research.

Sociology is not an island; it is interdependent with other

sciences; and as to its subject matter it is more or less similar
with the other social or behavioral sciences such as
anthropology, social psychology, political science, economics,
and human geography. However, as to its

58
methods, focus, unit of analysis, and approaches, it is
different. The closest discipline to sociology is social
anthropology; they share similar historical development,
concepts, theories, and approaches; although the former
focuses on modern societies and quantitative research and the
latter focuses on traditional societies and qualitative research
techniques.

59
 Review Questions
1. What is sociology? Explain it using your own words.

2. How can we differentiate sociology from other social sciences,

which also study society and human culture?

3. Discuss the main sociopolitical and economic factors behind the

emergence of sociology.

4. Mention at least five issues of sociological relevance in the

contemporary society of Ethiopia.

5. Discuss the personal and professional benefits of learning

sociology.

6. Consider the issue of students’ sexual behavior in your

University. Discuss those aspects that would be interesting to
study for a sociologist. What aspects might not be interesting
sociologically? Why?

7. Discuss the main differences between qualitative and

quantitative methods of doing research.

8. Identify the factors to be considered when one is considering

choosing a certain issue or issues as research topic.

60