Vehicle lighting systems

TOPIC CORVERAGE

 Circuit layout
 Lamp construction
 Maintenance and fault diagnosis

Lights are needed on a vehicle to allow the driver to see, and be seen, in conditions of
darkness and poor visibility.

Statutory regulations dictate the number, position and specification of many of the external
lights fitted to a vehicle. In addition to the obligatory lights, vehicle manufacturers and
vehicle owners often fit other supplementary lights to fulfil other purposes.

1.1 CIRCUIT LAYOUT

Lamps are grouped in separate circuits; these include the following:

 Side and rear lamps including lamps for the number plate, glove compartment and
instrument panel illumination.

 Main driving lamps (headlamps) fitted with a dipping facility to prevent approaching
drivers being dazzled.

 Rear fog lamp(s) for 'guarding' the rear of the vehicle in conditions of poor visibility.

 Auxiliary driving lamps including spot lamps for distance illumination and fog lamps
that are positioned suitably and designed to reduce the reflected glare from fog.

 Reversing lamps to illuminate the road when the vehicle is moving backwards and
warn other drivers of the movement.

 Brake lights to warn a following driver that the vehicle is slowing down.

 Interior lights and courtesy lights on doors.

 Instrument panel lights for signaling either the correct operation of a unit, or the
presence of a fault in a particular system.

In addition to these lights, directional indicators and hazard warning lights are fitted;.
Circuit arrangements

For maximum illumination the lamps are connected in parallel with each other. This
arrangement provides various circuit paths for the current so an open circuit in any branch
will cause failure in that one branch only; the other lamps will still function normally.

Most vehicle lighting systems use an earth-return circuit; this requires less cable than an
insulated return or two-wire system. When the vehicle body is used as an earth, a good clean
connection must be made at suit-able earthing points on the main body. This earthing lead is
essential where the lamp is mounted in a plastic body panel.

Lighting circuit diagrams are drawn in either a locational or compact theoretical form. The
former type shows each component positioned relative to its situation on the vehicle.
Although this is useful in showing the location of the various connectors and component
parts, it makes the diagram more difficult to trace out a particular circuit path. To minimize
this problem, some manufacturers use extra diagrams to show separate parts of the circuit,
e.g., the supply system is shown separately. Fig 1.1 shows a simple circuit drawn both ways.

This parallel circuit has the lamps controlled by three switches: Switch I operates the side and
rear lamps. It also supplies: Switch 2 which operates and headlamps. and supplies: Switch 3
to distribute the current to either the main beam or the dip-beam headlamp bulbs.

Circuit protection A single fuse, mounted in the main supply cable, protects a circuit in the
event of a severe short. This simple protection system cannot be used in the external lighting
supply cable because all lights will go out when the fuse fails; a dangerous situation when the
vehicle is travelling at speed along a dark road.
 Fig.1.1 Lighting circuit- simplified

To avoid this danger manufacturers either fit separate fuses for each light system, or refrain
from fusing the headlamp circuit altogether (Fig 1.2).

The circuit in Fig1.2 incorporates the following extra features.

Headlamp flash switch This switch enables the driver to signal to other drivers during
daylight and avoids the use of the main light switches. The spring-loaded switch operates
only when the lever is held in the 'on' position.

Ignition-controlled headlamps Regulations insist that the headlamps should not be used
when the engine and vehicle are stationary. This is achieved by using the ignition switch to
control the feed to the headlamps. A relay is often used to reduce the current load on the
switch.

Auxiliary driving lamps These long-range lamps (spot lamps) are used when the headlamps
are set to main beam, but they must be extinguished when other vehicles are approaching.
This is achieved by connecting the auxiliary lamps to the main beam branch of the circuit. As
the power consumed by these lamps is considerable. the load on the lighting switches is
reduced by using a relay to control these lamps.
 Fig. 1.2 lighting circuit incorporating fuses and relays

Fog lamps (front) In fog the main headlamps cause glare so by using low-mounted fog
lamps this problem is minimized. These twin lamps can be used instead of headlamps so the
feed must be taken from the side lamp branch of the circuit.

Rear fog guard the high-intensity fog lamp(s) guard the rear of the vehicle; they must be
used only in conditions of poor visibility. To prevent the driver using the lights illegally the
feed is taken from either the dipped beam or the front fog lamps. A warning light must be
fitted to indicate when the rear fog guard lamp(s) are in use.

Lamp failure indicator Many manufacturers now fit a warning system to inform the driver
when a light is not functioning correctly. Often the lamp signal indicator on the instrument
panel is a graphical map of the vehicle. On this display sections are illuminated either when
the lights are operating normally, or as a signal to warn the driver that a light is 'out'.

In addition to the graphical display unit, a module (sometimes called a 'bulb outage module')
is fitted to sense when a specific section of the circuit does not consume the appropriate
current. When an open-circuit

condition exists, the module triggers a light on the instrument panel to show the driver the
actual lamp that is 'out'.

To enable the module to monitor the system, each branch of the circuit passes through the
module. Unfortunately, this feature tends to complicate the circuit and also increases the
weight and bulk of cable needed for the lighting system. However, its use is defended on
grounds of safety.

Most graphical display systems are arranged to illuminate fully for a few seconds after
switching-on the ignition; this tests the lights in the graphical display panel and shows that
they are functioning correctly. For further details on lamp monitoring systems, see page 316.

Dim-dip lighting devices British vehicles registered after 1 April 1987 must be fitted with
dim-dip lighting. This regulation makes it impossible for the vehicle to be driven on side
lights alone. The side lights will operate only when the ignition is switched 'off' so they may
be regarded as parking lights.

Headlamps can be operated in two dip modes. A dim-dip light of low power is intended for
use, without dazzling other road users, in conditions such as well-lit streets at night or dull
weather at twilight. The dip beam of standard intensity is for normal night driving in out-of-
town areas.

Fig. 1.3 Interior lamp circuit

The regulation requires one pair of headlamps to incorporate a dim-dip device. Compared
with the normal dipped beam, the dim-dip light intensity should be:

 10% (halogen lamps)

 15% (normal filament lamps).

Anti-theft lamp control Most alarm systems flash the headlamps when the' sensing system
detects that somebody is tampering with the vehicle. In this situation the headlamps are
supplied from a separate multi-function unit which receives its feed direct from an alarm
ECU.
Interior lamp circuit in the past the interior lamp circuit consisted of a roof lamp and
perhaps two lamps for instrument panel illumination. Today many lamps are used; these are
controlled by manual and automatic switches. Fig 15.3 shows an interior lamp circuit of a
vehicle fitted with a factory-installed alarm.

Interior circuits can be further refined by incorporating features such as a lamp-out delay
device; this gives interior illumination for a short time after the doors are closed. Normally
the delay module uses a capacitor to control a transistorized switch.

1.2 LAMP CONSTRUCTION

Illumination can be obtained from an incandescent filament or from the glow emitted when
an electric current is passed through a glass tube containing a special gas. The majority of
motor vehicle lamps are filament types but the alternative type is often used on public-service
vehicles for interior lighting. These fluorescent lamps have the advantage of a light source
that is spread over a large area, so passengers are not subjected to glare and eyestrain.

Light intensity

The intensity of light or luminous intensity is the power to radiate light and produce
illumination at a distance. Luminous energy refers to the source of light and its intensity is
measured in candelas (cd); in the past the unit 'candle power'(c.p.) was used. For practical
purposes:

The amount of light that falls on a surface is called the illumination and the intensity of
illumination is measured in lux or metre-candles. A surface illumination of 1 metre-candle or
1 lux is obtained when a lamp of 1 cd is placed 1 m from a vertical screen. When the distance
is increased the intensity of illumination decreases; it varies inversely as the square of the
distance from the light source. This means that if the distance is doubled, the illumination of
the surface on which the light rays fall will be reduced to 1/4 of the original illumination; if
the original brightness is required, the power of the lamp must be quadrupled.

Filament lamps

The main details of a lamp are shown in Fig 1.4. Enclosed in a glass container is a tungsten
filament that is secured to two support wires; these are normally attached to contacts in a
brass cap. Low wattage bulb, such as those used for side lamps, are normally of the vacuum
type. Removal of the air prevents oxidation and vaporization of the filament, and reduces the
heat loss. Oxygen in the air causes tungsten deposits to blacken the glass above the filament;
also, after a very short time the filament burns away.
 Fig.1.4 Filament lamp

When operated at the rated voltage, a filament temperature of about 2300 ℃ is reached and a
white light is produced. If the lamp is operated at a lower voltage both the temperature and
light output will be low. Conversely the operation of a lamp at a higher voltage soon
vaporizes the tungsten, blackens the glass and burns-out the filament.

Filaments of larger powered bulbs, such as those used for headlamps, can be made to operate
at a higher temperature and give about 40% more light by filling the bulb to a slight pressure
with an inert gas such as argon. Heat loss from the filament due to convection movement of
the gas is reduced by winding the filament in the form of a helix.

Regulations state that all bulbs used on vehicles must be marked with the letter 'E' and a
number that identifies the country where approval was given. This mark indicates that the
bulb conforms to the EU standard specified for a given application.

Tungsten-halogen bulbs

During the life of a normal gas-filled bulb, evaporation of a tungsten filament causes the glass
to turn black. Although this can be minimized by spreading out the tungsten deposit over a
larger glass bulb, the light intensity after a period of time is far from ideal.

The problem has recently been overcome with the introduction of the tungsten-halogen bulb;
this type is also called quartz-halogen, quartz-iodine and tungsten-iodine. A much higher
output is obtained from these types; efficiency is also maintained for a longer time.

Halogen refers to a group of chemical elements that includes iodine and bromine. When a
halogen is added to the gas in a bulb a chemical action takes place which overcomes the
evaporation problem. Evaporation of the tungsten still occurs but as the tungsten moves from
the hot filament towards the envelope it combines with the halogen and forms a new
compound (tungsten halide). This new compound does not deposit itself on the glass
envelope; instead, the convection movement carries it back to the hot gas region around the
filament. Here the tungsten halide splits up and causes the tungsten to redeposit itself back on
the filament; the halogen particles released are returned to the gas. This regeneration process
not only prevents discoloration of the bulb; it also keeps the filament in a good condition for
a much longer time.

Fig.1.5 Quartz-halogen lamp bulb

To produce this action, the bulb must be made to operate at a gas temperature higher than the
250℃needed to vaporize the halogen; this is achieved by using a small bulb of quartz. This
material can withstand the heat and is sufficiently strong to allow the bulb to be gas filled to a
pressure of several bars so as to give a brighter filament for a given life (Fig.1.5).

An added advantage is obtained from the smaller filament needed with this type; it allows
more precise focusing than is achieved with the normal bulb

Fig.1.6 Headlamp filament position

Reflector

The function of a headlamp reflector is to redirect the light rays. An ideal reflector gives a
beam of light that illuminates the road from far ahead to the region im-mediately in front of
the vehicle.

A normal reflector is shaped in a paraboloid form, highly polished and then coated with a
material such as aluminum to give a good reflective surface.

To give good illumination, the lamp filament must be accurately positioned at the focal point
of the reflector; this allows it to reflect the light rays in the form of a parallel beam (Fig 1.6).

Other positions of the filament put the lamp out-of-focus; this reduces the illumination and, in
the case of a diverging beam, may dazzle the drivers of oncoming vehicles. In the past, lamps
incorporated a focus adjustment, but nowadays pre-focus bulbs have a fitting which sets the
filament at the correct place.

Some bulbs are shielded on the lens side to ensure that all light rays are directed back to the
reflector.

Lens

A glass lens, moulded to form several prismatic block sections, bends the rays and distributes
the light to obtain the required illumination. The design of a headlamp lens pattern attempts
to achieve good illumination for both main- and dip-beam positions. The main beam
requirement is a long-range penetrating light whereas a dipped light needs a low-level beam
that gives a wide light spread just in front of the vehicle and offset to the near-side of the
vehicle.

Fig 1.7 shows a typical headlamp lens. This European-type lens design incorporates a region
(marked A) to deflect the dip beam towards the left-hand side, if intended for use on UK
roads. For Continental

touring this lens must be temporarily converted to 'dip to the right' either by fitting a pair of
beam deflectors to the lens or by masking-out with tape the region marked 'A' in Fig 1.7.

All lamp lenses must be 'E' marked and have an arrow moulded in the glass to show the dip
direction. When two opposing arrows are shown, the lens is suitable for both dip directions:
the actual direction is dictated by the position of the bulb.

Dipping facility

The eye takes time to adjust when it moves from a brightly lit area to an area where the light
is poor. For the few seconds that it takes the iris of the eye to open. vision is poor.
Conversely, movement from a dim to a bright zone reverses the iris movement; the
immediate effect is to squint the eye to restrict the sudden burst of light until the iris
adjustment has been completed.
Applying this example to night driving shows that an arrangement is needed to prevent a
dazzling high beam from entering the driver's eyes. This provision allows the driver's vision
to be maintained during, and after, the time that the passing light is directed towards the
driver.

Once the eye has adjusted itself to a high level of illumination it finds difficulty in seeing
clearly the areas that are dimly lit. For this reason, the headlamp design should graduate and
distribute the light rays to even-out the illumination rather than concentrate the light in one
small region. Also, under this distributed pattern. dazzle is less pronounced.

Eye strain results if the eye has repeatedly to adjust to cope with varying illumination levels.
This further emphasizes the need for efficient anti-dazzle headlamp arrangements.

Fig.1.7 Headlamp lens

The statutory requirements are detailed in the Road Vehicle Lighting Regulations. These state
that the lighting system must be arranged, so that it is:

'Incapable of dazzling any person standing on the same horizontal plane as the vehicle
at a greater distance than 25 feet from the lamp whose eye level is not less than 3ft 6in
above the plane.'

Nowadays the dip facility is achieved by redirecting the rays downwards and towards the
near-side; this is obtained by using a bifocal, twin-filament bulb which has the dip filament
either offset to the focal point of the reflector or shielded (Fig 1.8).
Fig. 1.9 Light pattern from European-type headlamp, dipped beam; left dip

When these bulbs are combined with a modern lens as fitted to European-type lamps, the
light pattern, as projected on to a vertical screen, gives an asymmetrical image with a sharp
cut-off as shown in Fig 1.9. The dimensions shown indicate the legal requirements, so to
meet this regulation adjusters must be provided for horizontal and vertical alignment.

Sealed beam

In the past a headlamp was made up of separate parts and this made it difficult to locate the
filament at the focal point. Also, the efficiency deteriorated severely when dust and moisture
settled on the reflector after entering the lamp through various gaps between the lens and
reflector.

The designers of the sealed beam lamp unit over-came these problems by producing a one-
piece sealed glass unit that incorporated the lens and aluminized reflector. Two tungsten
filaments for the main and dip beams are precisely positioned at the correct points and the
complete lamp is filled with an inert gas. Because the bulb has no independent glass
envelope, tungsten deposits are spread over a very large area, so the light efficiency of this
unit remains high for a long period of time (Fig 1.10).

Although this type of lamp is a great advance over earlier designs, the sealed beam unit has
two disadvantages: it is more costly to replace when the filament fails; also, sudden light
failure occurs when the lens becomes cracked. In some countries a secondary glass screen is
used to improve the aerodynamic line and give extra protection to the lamp lens.
 Fig. 1.10 Sealed beam light unit

Four-headlamp system

Optically it is difficult to produce a single lens and reflector unit that gives an illumination to
satisfy both main and dip conditions.

To overcome this drawback some manufacturers, use four headlamps: two for long-distance
illumination and two for lighting the area immediately in front of the car. Each one of the
outer lamps has two filaments; a dip filament situated at the focal point to give good light
distribution and a second filament positioned away from the focal point to provide near-
illumination for main-beam lighting. When the lamps are dipped the inner lamps giving long
distance illumination are switched off.

For accommodation reasons the lamp of a four-headlamp arrangement is smaller than that
used on a two-headlamp system.

British-American and European headlamps

Headlamps can be divided broadly into three main categories which can be identified by the
lens marking and shape. Identification of the lamp type is necessary because the alignment
method differs with each type.
British-American lamps Those having the number '1' or 'la' moulded on the lens, or in some
cases no number whatsoever, are checked on main beam. These lamps are always circular in
shape, are often of a sealed-beam construction, and have a symmetrical main-beam pattern.

Fig.1.11 Bulb types used in European headlamp

Other British-American lamps having the number '2' moulded on the lens are checked on the
dipped, or passing beam.

European headlamps These may be circular, rectangular or trapezoidal in shape and

incorporate a prismatic region as shown in Fig 1.7. These lamps normally have the number '2'
moulded in the glass as well as the 'E' approval mark. All lamps of this type are checked on
the dipped beam when carrying out an alignment test.

This type of lamp has an integral lens and reflector assembly and the bulb is removable (Fig
1.11). This feature allows for variation in the bulb type and enables many different lens
shapes to be developed to suit the body contour of the vehicle. The larger lens and reflector
areas enable the illumination pattern given by the dipped beam to have a wide horizontal
spread.

UK regulations require that four-wheeled vehicles must be fitted with a matched pair of
headlamps, white or yellow in colour, and symmetrically positioned on the vehicle. Each
filament should have a wattage of not less than 30 W.
 Fig.1.12 Double-reflector headlamp

Double-reflector headlamp

This highly efficient light source combines two bulbs and two reflectors in one headlamp
unit. This makes it possible to meet, with precision, the optic requirements for main and dip
beams as well as satisfying the European regulations covering bulb replacement and dazzle.

The Amplilux range of lamps, produced by SEV Marshal, gives out over twice the output of
the average conventional headlamp, e.g., the 7-inch quartz-halogen unit produces 70 000 cd
compared with 32 000.cd for an average non-iodine unit.

The circular or rectangular lead crystal glass lens and reflector are bonded together to ensure
maximum weather protection and constant performance over a long period of time.

Fig 1.12 shows the construction of this type of lamp. In front of the main reflector is a small
inset reflector and bulb that provides the main beam. The back of the main-beam reflector is
used to screen the lower half of the dip-beam reflector; this gives a sharp horizontal cut-off to
the asymmetrical dipped-beam pattern and avoids dazzle. On some lamps a screen (occulteur)
is placed in front of the dip bulb to stop direct light from the bulb showing above the cut-off
axis.

Homofocular headlamps

These headlamps use an advanced design of reflector divided into separate segments with
different focal lengths, all sited inside the one light unit (Fig 1.13).

Use of this type of reflector is necessary where low bonnet lines limit the depth and height of
the head-lamps and where the lens has to be angled ‘to blend with the body contour.
The homofocular reflector features parabolic segments of different focal lengths arranged
about the same focal point. This stepped' reflector cannot be manufactured in sheet metal;
instead, the unit is moulded from a plastic material that combines a very smooth surface with
resistance to heat that is radiated from halogen bulbs.

Headlamp range adjustment

Vertical alignment of the headlamps is affected by the load distribution; when passengers are
carried in the rear seats the vehicle is tilted upwards at the front. This causes the light beams
to be aimed higher than normal so that approaching drivers are dazzled; also, illumination of
the road immediately in front of the car is poor.

On the Audi car this problem is minimized by a headlamp range adjustment system. This
provides the driver with a thumbwheel control that enables the light beam to be lowered
below the normal position when the rear seats are occupied.

Each reflector is moved by an electric servo-motor which is operated by an electronic control

element. This unit senses when the voltage delivered from the driver's control differs from the
voltage given by a variable resistor positioned by the movement of the reflector. When the
two voltage signals differ, the servo-motor moves until a position is reached where the signal
volt-ages are equal. The control system moves the lamps to the setting selected by the driver.

Fig. 1.13 Homofocular headlamp

Other external lamps

Auxiliary driving lamps These lamps are fitted normally to supplement the illumination
given by the obligatory lamps; they include fog lamps and long-range driving lamps (spot
lamps).

Fig.15.14 Auxiliary lamp beams

Current regulations should be consulted prior to fitting any lamp; the following is intended to
act as a guide. If pair of auxiliary lamps is fitted then the lenses must NOT be:

 higher than 1200 mm above the ground

 lower than 500 mm from the ground

 ·More than 400 mm from side of vehicle.

These lamps must have a dipping facility or be capable of being extinguished by the dipping
device.

A lamp fitted less than 500 mm from the ground may be used only in conditions of fog or
falling snow. Although one front fog lamp is permitted, this can only be used in addition to
the headlamps. If glare is to be avoided from the headlamps a second fog lamp is needed. The
two fog lamps must be placed:

 at the same height

 equidistant from the centre line of the vehicle

 so that the illuminated area is not more than 400 mm from the outermost part of the
vehicle.

Fog lamps have a lens that gives a wide flat-topped beam with a sharp cut-off to illuminate
the road immediately in front of the vehicle without causing glare in fog conditions (Fig
1.14).

Fog lamps must not be used when the visibility is in general more than 100 metres.

Driving lamps incorporate a lens that projects a narrow spot beam of high intensity light to
illuminate the road well ahead of the vehicle.
Sidelamps UK regulations require a vehicle to carry two white sidelamps each having a
wattage of less than 7 W and be visible from a reasonable distance. Since it is now illegal in
the UK to drive during the hours of darkness using only the sidelights, the role fulfilled by the
sidelamps is now limited to marking the vehicle when it is parked.

On many cars the 'parking' light is incorporated in the headlamp; the bulb often used is a 5 W
capless type as shown in Fig 1.15.

Fig.1.15 Cap less-type bulb

Rear lamps A car must carry two red 'E' marked rear lamps of a given size and of wattage
not less than 5 W. They must be positioned:

 between 1500 mm and 350 mm from the ground

 spaced apart more than 500 mm

 set so that the distance between the edges of the vehicle and the illuminated area is not
more than 400mm.

The red lens must diffuse the light and be 'E' marked to show that it meets the specified
standard.

In addition to the rear lamps, a car must be fitted with two red reflectors of approved design.

Stop lamps Two stop lamps each of wattage between 15 and 36 must be fitted. These lamps
must illuminate a red diffused, and 'E' marked, lens when the service (foot) brake is applied
and be designed to be visible through a given angle.

The lamps must be positioned:

  between 150 mm and 350 mm from the ground

 symmetrically at least 400 mm apart.

Often a single 6/21 W bulb with twin filaments is used to provide rear lamp and stop lamp
functions; the bright light given by the 21 W filament is used for the stop lamp.

LED stop lamps One recent development in external lighting is the use of LEDs in place of
the conventional incandescent filament lamp bulb. This is possible because the EU have
recently changed the wording of the regulations from 'incandescent lamp' to 'light source'.

Since LEDs were first produced commercially by Hewlett-Packard in 1968, their use quickly
spread to vehicle systems, in particular instrumentation. Standard LEDs are made in the
colours red, amber, yellow and green, so a vehicle lamp requiring any one of these colours
can be made. Developments are taking place to make a blue LED; when this is commercially
viable, it will be possible to produce white light by combining the colours red, blue and green
(see page 50).

Compared with a filament lamp, the advantages of a LED are:

 quick response - takes about half the time to reach full brilliance;

 good reliability - life is rated over 50 000 hours;

 good durability - absence of a filament makes the LED shock resistant.

The fast response time makes the LED attractive to use as a stop lamp, and although the
initial cost is about three times as great as a conventional filament-type, companies such as
Volvo feel that this is worth the extra safety.

High-mounted stop lamps Lighting laws in some countries specify that stop lamps must be
positioned at the driver's eye level. It is claimed that this location makes the lamps more
visible when one vehicle is closely following another. Many countries that specify this lamp
siting also require the lighting system to switch on the dipped-beam headlamps when the
engine is started.

Side marker lamps. Each side of vehicles over a certain length must be fitted with a
specified number of lamps to warn drivers of the length of the vehicle.

Number plate the rear number plate must be clearly illuminated by a white light, but the
bulb must not be visible from behind the vehicle. The light is connected in parallel with the
sidelights.

Rear fog lamps These high-intensity red lamps are used to improve safety in conditions of
poor visibility; namely fog, falling snow, heavy rain or road spray. Either one or two lamps
must be fitted by the manufacturer on current vehicles and these must be set:

 between 250 mm and 1000 mm from the ground

  more than 100 mm from any stop lamp.

If two lamps are used, they must be set symmetrically, or in cases where only one lamp is to
be used it must be fitted either on the offside or on the vehicle centre line.

Normally each lamp has a 21 W bulb and a lens of large area; both must be 'E' marked. The
circuit must allow the rear fog lamp to be operated by an independent switch and a warning
lamp must be fitted to signal to the driver when the rear fog lamp is in operation.
Furthermore, the circuit must function only when the headlamps, front fog lamps or sidelights
are in use. In some cases, a fog guard relay coil prevents operation of the rear fog lamps until
the front fog lamps are switched on.

Reversing lamps When a reversing lamp is fitted it must conform with the statutory
regulations. These state that not more than two lamps may be used and the total wattage per
lamp must not exceed 24 W. The white light should be switched automatically by the gearbox
and be subject to anti-dazzle requirements. Where automatic switching is not provided, a
separate switch, together with a warning lamp, may be used.

Area illuminating lamps When the vehicle is not in motion, a manually positioned white
light can be used to illuminate the area, provided it does not cause a hazard to other road
users. Originally these special lamps were used for illuminating signposts, but today they
have a more general use. Lamps for private use that are made in the colours used by the
emergency services are illegal for use on the public highway.

15.3 Maintenance and fault diagnosis

Other than the usual superficial checks for cable security and condition, most items of work
occur only when a fault develops. On modern vehicles the graphical display on the
instrument panel will warn the driver of a lighting fault.

Failure of a lamp circuit

Initial warming to the driver of 'bulb outage' should be verified to ensure that the monitoring
system is not giving a false signal. Most lighting faults are caused by the failure of a fuse or
bulb.

Fuse A 'blown' fuse should be replaced with a fuse of the correct rating. If the new fuse
blows immediately then the fault must be pin-pointed before fitting another fuse.

Bulb failure the suspected bulb should be removed and replaced with the recommended type.
Glass surfaces must not be touched with the fingers, especially the quartz-halogen type, so a
clean cloth should be used. Stains on a bulb can be removed by washing in methylated spirit
and drying with a lint-free cloth.

Wiring faults If the initial check shows that the bulb and fuse are serviceable, and a visual
check of the cables does not reveal the defect, then the circuit should be tested with a
voltmeter. Fig 1.16 shows the principle as applied to a simple lighting circuit.
Tests

Test 1 A voltmeter (V,) is connected across the battery to measure the voltage under lighting
load.

Fig.1.16 Voltmeter checks on simple lighting circuit

Fig.1.17 Open-circuit test using a test lamp

Test 2 When the voltmeter (V2) is placed across the lamp the voltage should be similar to the
voltage at Test 1. If a resistance in the circuit causes the reading to differ by more than 10%
of the battery voltage, the cause should be investigated by using Tests 3 and 4.

Test 3 Voltmeter V3 shows the voltage drop on the insulated line. If an excessive drop is
shown, the location of the fault can be detected by moving one volt-meter lead along the
connection points in the circuit path until a stage is reached where the change in voltage is
considerable.
Test 4 With the meter arranged as inV4, the drop in the earth line is shown. By using a
similar technique to Test 3, a high resistance can be located. The total voltage drops from
Tests 3 and 4 should be less than 10% of the battery voltage, e.g., less than 1.2 V for a 12 V
system.

A quick check for an open-circuit can be made by using a 12 V test lamp (Fig1.17). A circuit
break between points 1 and 4 is easily found. With one side of the lamp connected to a good
earth, the break can be located.

Headlamp earth faults If an earth wire from one head-lamp is broken, the first impression is
that the lamp with the defective earth will not operate. This is not so, because the lamp will
earth through the other headlamp via the lamp filaments. Since the three filaments are in
series, each filament will glow. For example, when the supply is to the main beam, the
filament of the defective lamp's main beam will be in’ series with the two dipped-beam
filaments.

Headlamp alignment

The alignment of headlamps must be correct to meet the requirements of the Law in respect
to dazzle and also to provide good illumination for the driver. Headlamp alignment, as well
as lamp condition, forms a part of the annual MOT Test.

Although the lamps may be checked by observing the illumination pattern on a vertical
screen, most garages use special aligning equipment to achieve a greater accuracy.

Special equipment Figure 15.18 shows one type of optical beam setter. This equipment
checks horizontal and vertical aim and enables the lamps to be set accurately. Adjusters are
provided at each lamp to alter the setting.

Initially the aligner is set level and positioned parallel with the front of the car. When the
lamps are switched on, light rays from the lamp pass through a condenser lens and are
reflected by a mirror on to a small screen.
 Fig.1.18 Optical beam setter

Fig. 1.19 setting headlamp alignment (without special equipment)

Most lamps, other than the British-American type having a symmetrical beam and identified
by the number '1' or 'la' moulded on the lens, are set to dip beam when aligning the lamps.
Without special equipment this method requires the vehicle to be positioned on level ground
at a given distance in front of a vertical screen set parallel with the headlamps (Fig 15.19(a)).
One method recommended for the Ford Escort is as follows:

(1) Position car 10 metres (33 ft) from aiming board.

(2) Ensure that tyre pressures are correct.

(3) Bounce car to settle suspension.

(4) Mark out aiming board as shown in Fig. 15.19(b). The distance x depends on the
vehicle, e.g., Escort saloon, 130 mm.

(5) Mark centres of front windscreen and rear window with wax crayon and position car
so that it is aligned with the centre line of the aiming board.

(6) Switch on dipped beam and cover one lamp.

(7) Adjust horizontal and vertical alignment to give light pattern as shown in Fig
15.19(a).

Auxiliary driving lamps can also be aligned by using this method. The beams are deflected
downwards a small amount, e.g., the distance x is about 180mm when measured at 10 metres
from the lamp.

Lamp fitting

Care must be taken before and during the fitting of additional lamps to ensure that the system
functions correctly and conforms with the UK and EU lighting regulations.

Driving lamps Most manufacturers make provision for extra driving lights to be fitted, so
reference should be made to the maker's manual before starting the job.

The literature normally gives guidance on the following:

 maximum rating of each lamp to ensure that the extra load is within the supply
capability;

 approved lamp designs, including the need for 'E' marked components;

 facia provision for suitable lamp switches;

 regulations regarding lamp siting;

 location of factory-installed connectors intended for the feed and earth of the extra
lamps; these link to a fused circuit which, in the case of spot lamps, extinguish when
the headlamps are dipped;

 provision for a relay and suitable fuses.

Flowchart

This type of chart shows a logical sequence in which some tasks, such as fault finding, should
be carried out. The system is similar to that used for computer programming; it uses the
following three symbols:

 rectangle: gives an instruction

 diamond: asks a question that normally has either a yes or no answer

 ellipse: indicates that the task can be taken no further or that the job is complete

REMEMBER

Lighting circuit lamps:

 are connected in parallel and often individually fused

 must comply with UK and EU regulations

 must show an approved 'E' mark; this includes the bulb, lens and reflector

 of the quartz-halogen type gives a higher output and longer life than a conventional
filament type

 give parallel rays when a bulb is positioned at the focal point of a parabolic-shaped
reflector

 have a lens designed to give a specified illumination

 if suitable for the UK are unsuitable for Continental use unless modified

 must be incapable of dazzling on-coming drivers

 sometimes use homofocular reflectors to limit the depth and height of a headlamp

 used as auxiliary driving lamps must be fitted and used in accordance with current
regulations

 if classified as obligatory lamps are tested for type. condition, alignment and correct
operation during a MOT inspection

(In flowcharts the term ellipse is loosely used to describe a rectangle with rounded ends.)
Fig1.20 shows a flowchart for fault-finding a lamp defect.
 Fig 1.20 shows a flowchart for fault-finding a lamp defect.

PROGRESS CHECK

1. List the lamps that must be fitted on a vehicle to satisfy the regulations.

2. State why an ignition-sensed relay is fitted in the headlamp circuit.

3. State the circuit in which the rear fog lamps are wired.
4. State how the circuit is arranged to meet the dim-dip regulations.

5. A quartz-halogen gives a higher candela output than a conventional filament lamp.

State what is meant by this expression.

6. What causes glass blackening of a filament lamp?

7. 7.State the position of the lamp filament, in relation to the reflector, to give parallel
light rays.

8. A lamp is fitted with a pre-focused, bi-focal bulb. State the meaning of these two
features.

9. State TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of a sealed beam headlamp compared
with a detachable bulb type.

10. A vehicle is fitted with a four-headlamp system. Which lamps are switched-off in the
dipped position?

11. State one merit of a homo-focular-type headlamp.

12. State the operational difference between a fog lamp and a spot lamp.

13. State TWO advantages of using a LED stop lamp compared with a filament type.

14. A defective earth is suspected as the reason why a headlamp does not operate.
Describe how a meter is used to verify this diagnosis.

15. The earth wire to one of the two headlamps is broken. State the symptom.