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1 Proof by mathematical
induction
1.1 Overview
You were introduced to the concept of proofs in Unit 1 Chapter 3. In that chapter, we explored how to
construct a logical argument based on definitions and axioms to prove that a statement or proposition is true.
These concepts are extended here, through proof by mathematical induction, which is an indirect method of
constructing a proof.
Euclid’s proof that the number of primes is infinite contains suggestive use of proof by
mathematical induction, but as a technique it was not until the 10th century when the Persian
mathematician al-Karaji (953–1029) used a more overt style of induction-type proof to prove that
13 + 23 + ... + n3 = (1 + 2 + ... + n)2 . In 1838 the term mathematical induction was introduced, and a
common understanding of the process was developed through the work of Augustus De Morgan
(1806–1871).

LEARNING SEQUENCE
1.1 Overview
1.2 Introduction to proof by mathematical induction
1.3 Proof of divisibility
1.4 Further proof by induction
1.5 Review: exam practice
Fully worked solutions for this chapter are available in the Resources section of your eBookPLUS at
www.jacplus.com.au.

CHAPTER 1 Proof by mathematical induction 1

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1.2 Introduction to proof by mathematical induction

1.2.1 Proof by induction basics
Imagine a series of dominoes, placed
just close enough so that if the first
one topples, then it will cause the next
one to fall and so on. This process is
how a proof by mathematical
induction works.
Notice that for the dominoes to
topple, they firstly need to be
close enough together and the first
domino needs to fall. Without both
of these steps happening, some (or all)
of the dominoes will remain standing.
The first step in a proof by induction
is to prove that the formula works for
n = 1. This is the equivalent of knocking over the first domino and is known as the initial statement. This
step is important because it is necessary to prove that the formula works at least once.
The second step is to assume that since that formula works once, the formula will also be true when
n = k. It is then necessary to prove that the formula is also true for n = k + 1. This is the equivalent of
having the dominoes close enough together that they will topple and is known as the inductive step.
If the formula is true for n = k also true for n = 1 and if it is also true for n = k + 1, this means it is also
true for n = 2. And as it is true for n = 2, it is also true for n = 3 and so on. Therefore, the formula is true
for all natural numbers.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
n (n + 1)
Use mathematical induction to prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n = for n ≥ 1.
2
Note that this was first proven by a form of mathematical induction by the Persian mathematician
al-Karaji (953–1029) in the 10th century.

THINK WRITE
1. Verify that the formula is true for n = 1. If n = 1,
1(1 + 1)
LHS = 1. RHS =
2
1 (2)
=
2
=1
True for n = 1.
2. There are some values of n that make the formula Assume that it is true for n = k.
true. Write down the formula for n = k. k (k + 1)
1+2+3+…+k=
2
3. Knowing that When n = k + 1, then next term in the
k (k + 1) series is k + 1.
1+2+3+…+k= , add the next term
2 1 + 2 + 3 + … + k + (k + 1)
(k + 1) to both sides. k (k + 1)
= + (k + 1)
2

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4. Note that if n = k + 1, then

n (n + 1) (k + 1) [(k + 1) + 1]
=
2 2
so we are trying to demonstrate that
k (k + 1) (k + 1) [(k + 1) + 1]
+ (k + 1) = .
2 2 ( )
k
Additionally, k + 1 is a common factor and is part = (k + 1) +1
of the expression that we are working towards. 2
( )
Factorise and then simplify. k+2
= (k + 1)
2
(k + 1) [(k + 1) + 1]
5. Write the expression so that it is clearly the same =
formula as when n = k + 1. 2
6. Write a statement to explain what you have If the statement is true for n = k, it is
demonstrated and concluded. also true for n = k + 1. The statement
is true for n = 1. Therefore, by
mathematical induction, the statement
is true for n ≥ 1.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

Use mathematical induction to prove that 2 + 4 + 8 + … + 2n = 2n+1 − 2, n ≥ 1.

THINK WRITE
1. Verify that the formula is true for n = 1. If n = 1,
LHS = 21 RHS = 21+1 − 2
=2 =2
True for n = 1.
2. There are some values of n that make the formula Assume that it is true for n = k.
true. Write down the formula for n = k. 2 + 4 + 8 + … + 2k = 2k+1 − 2
3. Knowing that When n = k + 1, then next term in the
2 + 4 + 8 + … + 2k = 2k+1 − 2, add the next term series is 2k+1 .
(2k+1 ) to both sides. 2 + 4 + 8 + … + 2k + 2k+1
4. Note that if n = k + 1, then = 2k+1 − 2 + 2k+1
2n+1 − 2 = 2k+1+1 − 2 = 2k+1 + 2k+1 − 2
so we are trying to demonstrate that = 2 × 2k+1 − 2
2k+1 − 2 + 2k+1 = 2k+1+1 − 2.
2k+1 + 2k+1 can be rewritten as 2 × 2k+1 .
5. Use index laws to write the expression so that it is = 2k+1+1 − 2
clearly the same as the formula when n = k + 1.
6. Write a statement to explain what you have If the statement is true for n = k, it is
demonstrated and concluded. also true for n = k + 1. The statement
is true for n = 1. Therefore, by
mathematical induction, the statement
is true for n ≥ 1.

CHAPTER 1 Proof by mathematical induction 3

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1.2.2 Using ∑ notation

An alternative way to write the equation to be proved involves using the summation sign, ∑ , the Greek
letter ∑, pronounced ‘sigma’). In Worked example 1, the expression 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n was used. An
n
alternative way to write this is ∑ r, which means to add up all the r values beginning with r = 1 and ending
r=1
with r = n, that is 1 + 2 + 3 + … n. n
In the next worked example, the expression ∑ 3r is used. When r = 1, 3r = 3 and when r = 2, 3r = 6.
r=1
n
Therefore, ∑ 3r can be rewritten as 3 + 6 + 9 + … + 3n.
r=1

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
n
3n (1 + n)
Use mathematical induction to prove that 3r = .
∑ 2
r=1

THINK WRITE
1. Verify that the formula is true for n = 1. If n = 1,
3(1)(1 + 1)
LHS = 3 × 1 RHS =
=3 2
3(2)
=
2
=3
True for n = 1.
2. There are some values of n that make the formula Assume that it is true for n = k.
k
true. Write down the formula for n = k. 3k (1 + k)
∑ 3r =
r=1 2
k+1 k
3. Finding the sum of the first k + 1 terms is the same ∑ 3r = ∑ 3r + 3 (k + 1)
as finding the sum of the first k terms and then r=1 r=1
adding term k + 1. 3k (1 + k)
= + 3 (k + 1)
In this instance, term k + 1 will be 3 (k + 1) and 2
k
3k (1 + k)
we know that ∑ 3r = .
r=1 2 ( )
k
4. If the sum is true for the first k + 1 terms, = 3 (k + 1) +1
3 (k + 1) [1 + (k + 1)] 2
then the sum will equal . ( )
2 k+2
Additionally, k + 1 and 3 are common factors and = 3 (k + 1)
2
are part of the expression that we are working
towards. Factorise and then simplify.
3 (k + 1) [1 + (k + 1)]
5. Write the expression so that it is clearly the same =
as the formula when n = k + 1. 2
6. Write a statement to explain what you have If the statement is true for n = k, it is
demonstrated and concluded. also true for n = k + 1. The statement
is true for n = 1. Therefore, by
mathematical induction, the statement
is true for n ≥ 1.

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Proof by mathematical induction procedure

1. Show the statement is true for n = 1
2. Assume the statement is true for n = k
3. Show the statement is true for n = k + 1
4. State your conclusion.

1.2.3 Review of set theory and logic symbols

Set notation Meaning
R The set of real numbers; numbers which can be represented on
the number line, the set of which can be divided into irrational
numbers and rational numbers (Q).
N The set of natural numbers; N = {1, 2, 3, 4...}
Z The set of integers; Z = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3...}
Z = Z + ∪ Z − ∪ {0} The set of integers consists of zero, the positive natural numbers
and the negative integers.
Z+ The set of positive integers, the same as N
Z− The set of negative integers

Q The set of rational numbers; numbers which can be written as

a the ratio of two integers, a, b where b ≠ 0.
Q = { , a, b ∈ R, b ≠ 0}
b
Logic symbols Meaning
Proposition A mathematical statement that is either true or false.
Proposition A or B One or both of the propositions are true. Equivalent to A ∪ B.
Proposition A and B Both of the propositions are true. Equivalent to A ∩ B.
¬A The negation of proposition A. The negation of a
true statement is false, and the negation of a false statement
is true. Equivalent to A′ .
¬(A or B) = ¬A and ¬B Equivalent to (A ∪ B)′
¬(A and B) = ¬A or ¬B Equivalent to (A ∩ B)′
P⇒Q Implication: if P, then Q
P⇔Q Equivalence: if P, then Q and if Q, then P
Quantifiers
∀ For all; all possible values for the variable are considered.
∃ There exists; there is a value for the variable that would
make the propositional function true.
R.T.P Required to prove
iff If and only if

Units 3 & 4 Area 1 Sequence 1 Concept 1

Introduction to proof by mathematical induction Summary screen and practice questions

CHAPTER 1 Proof by mathematical induction 5

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Exercise 1.2 Introduction to proof by mathematical induction

Technology free
1. Consider the statement 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2n = n (n + 1), n ≥ 1.
a. Demonstrate that the statement is true for the first three possible values of n.
b. If 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2k = k (k + 1), demonstrate that 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2k + 2 (k + 1) = (k + 1) (k + 2).
n
2. Consider the statement ∑ 2r−1 = 2n − 1.
r=1
a. Demonstrate that the statement is true for the first three possible values of n.
k k+1
b. If ∑ 2r−1 = 2k − 1, demonstrate that ∑ 2r−1 = 2k+1 − 1.
r=1 r=1
3. Consider the statement 3 + 5 + 7 + … (1 + 2n) = n (n + 2), n ≥ 1.
a. Demonstrate that the statement is true for the first possible value of n.
b. Assume that the statement is true for n = k. Document this assumption by writing a suitable
mathematical equation.
c. Use the assumption from part b to demonstrate that if the statement is true for n = k,
it will also be true for n = k + 1.
d. Explain how you have demonstrated that 3 + 5 + 7 + … (1 + 2n) = n (n + 2).
n
4. Consider the statement ∑ (2r − 1) = n2 .
r=1
a. Demonstrate that the statement is true for the first possible value of n.
b. Assume that the statement is true for n = k. Document this assumption by writing a suitable
mathematical equation.
c. Use the assumption from part b to demonstrate that if the statement is true for n = k,
it will also be true for n = k + 1.
n
d. Explain how you have demonstrated that ∑ (2r − 1) = n2 .
r=1
n (n + 9)
5. WE1 Use mathematical induction to prove that 5 + 6 + 7 + … + (n + 4) = , n ≥ 1.
2
6. WE2 Use mathematical induction to prove that 3 + 6 + 12 + … + 3 × 2n−1 = 3 (2n − 1), n ≥ 1.
n
7. WE3 Use mathematical induction to prove that ∑ 2r = 2n+1 − 2.
r=1
n
8. Use mathematical induction to prove that ∑ 2r = n (n + 1).
r=1
n
1 1
9. Use mathematical induction to prove that ∑ =1− .
r=1 r (r + 1) n+1
10. Use mathematical induction to prove that
1
12 + 32 + 52 + … + (2n − 1)2 = n (2n − 1) (2n + 1) for n ≥ 1.
3
a (rn − 1)
11. Use mathematical induction to prove that a + ar + ar2 + … + arn−1 = , n ≥ 1.
r−1
n
1
12. Use mathematical induction to prove that ∑ r2 = n (n + 1) (2n + 1).
r=1 6

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n
1
13. Use mathematical induction to prove that ∑ r3 = n2 (n + 1)2 .
r=1 4
14. Use mathematical induction to prove that
n
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + … (a + [n − 1] d) = [2a + (n − 1) d], for n ≥ 1.
2

1.3 Proof of divisibility

1.3.1 Divisibility results
Proof by induction can also be used to prove that an expression is divisible by a certain number. An equation
can be found by writing the expression as a multiple of that number. This means that if n3 − n is divisible by
3, then n3 − n = 3m (where m is an integer).

WORKED EXAMPLE 4

Use a proof by induction to demonstrate that n3 − n is divisible by 3, n > 1.

THINK WRITE
1. n > 1 means that the first value of n to If n = 2, n3 − n = 8 − 2
check is n = 2. Verify that the formula is =6
true for n = 2. As 6 is divisible by 3, that claim is true for n = 2.
2. There are some values of n that make the Assume that it is true for some n = k.
claim true. If a number is divisible by 3, k3 − k = 3m, m ∈ Z
it can be written as 3m, write this as a
mathematical equation where n = k.
( )
3. Consider the statement when n = k + 1. (k + 1)3− (k + 1) = k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 − (k + 1)
4. Substitute k3 − k = 3m to demonstrate = k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 − k − 1
that the statement can be written as a = k3 − k + 3k2 + 3k
multiple of 3.
= 3m + 3k2 + 3k
= 3(m + k2 + k)
5. Write a statement to explain that the The statement k3 − k = 3m, m ∈ Z is
statement is true for n = k + 1 if it is divisible by 3.
true for n = k. Therefore if k3 − k is divisible by 3, then
(k + 1)3 − (k + 1) is divisible by 3.
6. Write the concluding statement. n3 − n is divisible by 3 if n = 2. It is true for
n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. Therefore, by
mathematical induction, the statement is true
∀ n > 1.

1.3.2 Using divisibility notation

When proving an expression is divisible by a certain number, an alternative way to write the equation to be
proved involves using | notation. In Worked example 4, it was required to prove (R.T.P) that n3 − n is
divisible by 3. An alternative way to write this is 3|(n3 − n).

CHAPTER 1 Proof by mathematical induction 7

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In the following worked example, the notation 5|(24n+1 + 3) is used which is equivalent to 24n+1 + 3 is
divisible by 5. In general terms, a|b means b is divisible by a.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
( )
Use a proof by induction to demonstrate that 5| 24n+1 + 3 , n ≥ 1.

THINK WRITE
1. Verify that the statement is true for n = 1. If n = 1, 24n+1 + 3 = 25 + 3
= 32 + 3
= 35
As 35 is divisible by 5, the statement
is true for n = 1.
2. There are some values of n that make the claim true. Assume that it is true for some n = k.
If a number is divisible by 5, it can be written as 5m, 24k+1 + 3 = 5m
write this as a mathematical equation where n = k.
3. Consider the statement when n = k + 1. 24(k+1)+1 + 3 = 24k+4+1 + 3
4. Rewrite using 24k+4+1 = 24k+1 × 24 and expand 24 . 24k+4+1 + 3 = 24k+1 × 24 + 3
( 4k+1 )
As we want 16 2 + 3 = 16 × 24k+1 + 16 × 3 = 16 × 24k+1 + 3
it is necessary also subtract 16 × 3 to maintain the ( )
equality. = 16 24k+1 + 3 − 3 × 16 + 3
( )
Substitute 24k+1 + 3 = 5m to show that the = 16 24k+1 + 3 − 48 + 3
claim is also true for n = k + 1. = 16 × 5m − 45
= 5 (16m − 9)
Alternatively: Alternatively:
If 24k+1 + 3 = 5m then we can substitute 24(k+1)+1 + 3 = 24k+4+1 + 3
24k+1 = 5m − 3 to show that the claim is also = 24k+1 × 24 + 3
true for n = k + 1. = (5m − 3) × 16 + 3
= 16 × 5m − 3 × 16 + 3
= 16 × 5m − 3 × 15
= 5 (16m − 9)
5. Write a statement to explain that the statement This is divisible by 5, therefore
is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. 24(k+1)+1 + 3 is divisible by 5 if
24k+1 + 3 is divisible by 5.
6. Write the concluding statement. 24n+1 + 3 is divisible by 5 if n = 1. It
is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for
n = k.
Therefore, the statement is true
∀ n ≥ 1.

Units 3 & 4 Area 1 Sequence 1 Concept 2

Proof of divisibility Summary screen and practice questions

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Exercise 1.3 Proof of divisibility

Technology free
1. Consider the statement that 6n + 4 is divisible by 5, n ∈ Z + ∪ {0}.
a. Demonstrate that the statement is true for the first three possible values of n.
b. If 6k + 4 = 5m, m ∈ Z, demonstrate that 6k+1 + 4 is divisible by 5.
2. Consider the statement that 8n − 1 is divisible by 7, n ∈ Z + .
a. Demonstrate that the statement is true for the first three possible values of n.
b. If 8k − 1 = 7m, m ∈ Z, demonstrate that 8k+1 − 1 is divisible by 7.
3. Consider the statement: 32n−1 + 1 is divisible by 4, n ∈ Z + .
a. Demonstrate that the statement is true for the first possible value of n.
b. Assume that the statement is true for n = k. Document this assumption by writing a suitable
mathematical equation.
c. Use the assumption from part b to demonstrate that if the statement is true for n = k, it will
also be true for n = k + 1.
d. Explain how you have demonstrated that 32n−1 + 1 is divisible by 4, n ∈ Z + .
4. Consider the statement: 10n − 4 is divisible by 12, n ≥ 2.
a. Demonstrate that the statement is true for the first possible value of n.
b. Assume that the statement is true for n = k. Document this assumption by writing a suitable
mathematical equation.
c. Use the assumption from part b to demonstrate that if the statement is true for n = k, it will
also be true for n = k + 1.
d. Explain how you have demonstrated that 10n − 4 is divisible by 12, n ≥ 2.
5. WE4 Use a proof by induction to demonstrate that n3 + 2n is divisible by 3, n ≥ 1.

6. Use a proof by induction to demonstrate that 34n − 1 is divisible by 80, n ≥ 1.

7. Use a proof by induction to demonstrate that 5n + 2 × 11n is divisible by 3, n ≥ 0.
8. WE5 Use a proof by induction to demonstrate that 9| (4n + 15n − 1), n ≥ 1.

9. Prove, using a proof by induction, that 9| (4n + 5n ), n is odd.

10. Prove, using a proof by induction, that 5|(23n − 3n ), n > 0.
11. Prove, using a proof by induction, that 21|(4n+1 + 52n−1 ), n > 0.
12. Prove, using a proof by induction, that 11|(10n − (−1)n ), n ≥ 1.
( )
5
13. Prove, using a proof by induction, that 19| n
×8 +3 3n−1
, n ∈ Z +.
4
14. Prove by induction that 9|[(3n + 1)7n − 1], n ∈ Z+ .

1.4 Further proof by induction

1.4.1 Using other notations
n (n + 1)
In Worked example 1, we proved that the statement 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n = , n ≥ 1 is true. We then
2
n
n (n + 1)
looked at how it is possible to write the statement using ∑ notation, namely ∑ r = . It is not
r=1 2
n n
strictly necessary to write ∑ , ∑ can be written if it is clear from the context that the variable is r. Although
r=1 1
each question and example completed so far has used the variable r, any variable can be used.
As the statement to be proved is a proposition, this can be abbreviated using the capital letter P followed
by the variable to be considered in brackets.

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WORKED EXAMPLE 6
n
n (n + 1)
Consider proposition P (n): i= .
∑ 2
1
a. Identify P (1).
b. Identify P (k).
n
c. Identify term k + 1 in i.
∑
1
d. If P (k) is true, demonstrate that P (k + 1) is true.

THINK WRITE
1
1 (2)
a. P (1) means that n = 1. a. P (1) : ∑ i =
1 2
1
P (1) : ∑ i = 1
1
k
k (k + 1)
b. P (k) means that n = k. b. P (k) : ∑ i =
1 2
c. As i is variable in the summation, term k + 1 c. i=k+1
will occur when i = k + 1.
k+1 k
d. Add term k + 1 to both sides of P (k) and d. P (k + 1) : ∑ i = ∑ i + (k + 1)
demonstrate that the sum is equal to 1 1
k (k + 1)
(k + 1) (k + 1 + 1) (k + 1) (k + 2) = + (k + 1)
= . 2
2 2 ( )
k
= (k + 1) +1
2
( )
k 2
= (k + 1) +
2 2
(k + 1) (k + 2)
=
2
If P (k) is true, then P (k + 1) is true.

1.4.2 Forming a proposition and proving it by induction

Sometimes it is necessary to first determine the proposition and then use proof by induction to demonstrate
that the proposition is true.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
In the Tower of Hanoi puzzle, disks from one tower need to be moved to another tower according
to the following rules.

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1. Only one disk can be moved at a time.

2. A disk cannot be placed on a smaller disk.
For a tower with n disks:
a. Determine a rule for the minimum number of moves, M n required to move disks from one
tower to another tower.
b. Use a proof by induction to prove your rule.

THINK WRITE
a. 1. If there was one disk, it could be moved to a a. n Mn
new tower with 1 move. Record this data in a 1 1
table.
2. If there were two disks, number them d1 and n Mn
d2 where d1 < d2 . 1 1
Initially, d1 would be on top and could be
2 3
moved to tower 2.
d2 could be moved to tower 3.
d1 could be moved on top of d2 and the
problem is complete.
This took 3 moves. Record the data in the
table.
3. Continue to explore the problem for an n Mn
increasing number of disks and record the 1 1
data in a table.
2 3
3 7
4 15
4. Observe that Mn is always 1 less than 2n . n Mn = 2n − 1
This means that the rule can be written as 1 1 = 21 − 1
Mn = 2n − 1.
2 3 = 22 − 1
3 7 = 23 − 1
4 15 = 24 − 1
b. 1. Use a proof by induction to prove that the b. From the table, the formula is true for n = 1.
rule is correct. From the investigation, we
know that the formula works for n = 1.
2. There are some values of n that make the Assume this is true for n = k.
formula true. Write down the formula for Mk = 2k − 1
n = k.

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3. If it takes 2k − 1 moves to move k discs, If all k + 1 disks are on the first tower, it will
determine how many moves it will take to take 2k − 1 moves to move the top k disks
move k + 1 discs. onto the second tower. It will take 1 move to
move the largest disk to the third tower and
then 2k − 1 moves to move the other discs
from tower 2 to tower 3 and complete the
problem.(Therefore,
) ( )
Mk+1 = 2k − 1 + 1 + 2k − 1
4. If the rule is true for n = k + 1, simplify the = 2k + 2k − 1
expression to demonstrate that = 2 × 2k − 1
Mk+1 = 2k+1 − 1. Write a statement to
= 2k+1 − 1
explain what you have demonstrated.
If the statement is true for n = k, it is also
true for n = k + 1.
5. Write the concluding statement. If the statement is true for n = k, it is also
true for n = k + 1. The statement is true for
n = 1. Therefore, by mathematical induction,
the statement is true for n ≥ 1.

The Tower of Hanoi puzzle was invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Edouard Lucas (1842 –
1891). In the original puzzle, there were 64 gold discs that needed to be moved.

1.4.3 Pascal’s triangle

In Unit 1 you were introduced to Pascal’s triangle – which links the mathematical fields of combinations,
probability and the binomial theorem. Recall that each row of Pascal’s triangle begins and ends with a 1 and
every other element is generated by adding the pair of elements directly above it.

1 1 ( 00 )
1 2 1 ( 10 ) ( 11 )
1 3 3 1
( 20 ) ( 21 ) ( 22 )
( 30 ) ( 31 ) ( 32 ) ( 33 )
4 6 4 1
1
( 40 ) ( 41 ) ( 42 ) ( 43 ) ( 44 )
1 5 10 10 5 1 ( 50 ) ( 51 ) ( 52 ) ( )( 53 ) ( 54 ) ( 55 )
n
These elements can also be represented using combinatorial notation nC r or .
r
( ) ( ) ( )
n n−1 n−1
This leads to Pascal’s identity: = + which will be proven below.
r r−1 r
There are many patterns that can be found in Pascal’s triangle. In order to talk about them, we need to be
able to number the horizontal and slanted rows.

12 Jacaranda Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics Units 3 & 4 for Queensland

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0
ow
dr

1
nte

ow
Sla

dr
nte

2
ow
Sla

dr

3
nte

ow
Sla

dr

4
Horizontal row 0 1

nte

ow
Sla

dr
nte
Sla
Horizontal row 1 1 1

Horizontal row 2 1 2 1

Horizontal row 3 1 3 3 1

Horizontal row 4 1 4 6 4 1

Horizontal row 5 1 5 10 10 5 1

WORKED EXAMPLE 8
( ) ( ) ( )
n n−1 n−1
Prove, using mathematical induction, Pascal’s identity = + .
r r−1 r

THINK WRITE
( ) ( ) ( )
n n−1 n−1
1. Substitute r = 1 into the equation to = +
r r−1 r
demonstrate Pascal’s identity is true ( )
for r = 1. n n!
LHS: =
1 1! (n − 1) !
Recall the formula
=n
( ) ( ) ( )
n n! n−1 n−1 (n − 1) !
= RHS: + =1+
0 1 1! (n − 2) !
r r! (n − r) !
= 1 + (n − 1)
=n
The identity
( ) is true
( for r =
) ( 1. )
n n−1 n−1
2. There are some values of n that make = +
k k−1 k
the formula true. Write down the
formula for r = k. Demonstrate this n! (n − 1) ! (n − 1) !
= +
assumption using both combinatorial k! (n − k) ! (k − 1) ! (n − k) ! k! (n − k − 1) !
notation and factorial notation.

CHAPTER 1 Proof by mathematical induction 13

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( ) ( ) ( )
n n−1 n−1
3. Knowing
( ) that ( ) ( ) = +
k+1 k k+1
n n−1 n−1
= + , n! (n − 1) !
k k−1 k =
substitute r = k + 1 and use factorial (k + 1) ! (n − k − 1) ! k! (n − k − 1) !
notation to write the identity. (n − 1) !
+
(k + 1) ! (n − k − 2) !
( )
n n!
4. If the identity is true for r = k, LHS: =
k+1 (k + 1) ! (n − k − 1) !
demonstrate that it must also be true
for r = k + 1. n! (n − k)
=
(k + 1) k! (n − k) (n − k − 1) !
(n − k) n!
=
(k + 1) k! (n − k) !

Substitute
n! (n − 1) ! (n − 1) !
= +
k! (n − k) ! (k − 1) ! (n − k) ! k! (n − k − 1) !
( ) ( )
n n−k (n − 1) ! (n − 1) !
= +
k+1 k + 1 (k − 1) ! (n − k) ! k! (n − k − 1) !
(n − k) (n − 1) ! (n − k) (n − 1) !
= +
(k + 1) (k − 1) ! (n − k) ! (k + 1) k! (n − k − 1) !
(n − 1) k (n − 1) ! (n − k) (n − 1) !
= +
(k + 1) k (k − 1) ! (n − k! ) (k + 1) k! (n − k − 1) (n − k − 2) !
k (n − 1) ! (n − k) (n − 1) !
= +
(k + 1) k! (n − k − 1) ! (n − k − 1) (k + 1) ! (n − k − 2) !
k (n − 1) ! n−k (n − 1) !
= +
k + 1 k! (n − k − 1) ! n − k − 1 (k + 1) ! (n − k − 2) !
k k+1−1 1 n−k n−k−1+1 1
As = =1− and = =1+
k+1 k+1 k+1 n−k−1 n−k−1 n−k−1
( ) ( ) ( )
n 1 (n − 1) ! 1 (n − 1) !
= 1− + 1+
k+1 k + 1 k! (n − k − 1) ! n − k − 1 (k + 1) ! (n − k − 2) !
(n − 1) ! (n − 1) ! (n − 1) !
= − +
k! (n − k − 1) ! (k + 1) k! (n − k − 1) ! (k + 1) ! (n − k − 2) !
(n − 1) !
+
(n − k − 1) (k + 1) ! (n − k − 2) !
(n − 1) ! (n − 1) ! (n − 1) !
= − +
k! (n − k − 1) ! (k + 1) ! (n − k − 1) ! (k + 1) ! (n − k − 2) !
(n − 1) !
+
(k + 1) ! (n − k − 1) !
(n − 1) ! (n − 1) !
= +
k! (n − k − 1) ! (k + 1) ! (n − k − 2) !
( ) ( )
n−1 n−1
= +
k k+1

14 Jacaranda Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics Units 3 & 4 for Queensland

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5. Write the concluding statement. If the statement is true for n = k, it is also true for
n = k + 1. The statement is true for n = 1.
Therefore, by mathematical induction, the
statement is true.

Units 3 & 4 Area 1 Sequence 1 Concept 3

Further proof by induction Summary screen and practice questions

Exercise 1.4 Further proof by induction

Technology free
n
1. WE6 Consider proposition P (n) : ∑ 2i = 2n+1 − 2.
1
a. Identify P (1).
b. Identify P (k).
n
c. Identify term k + 1 in ∑ 2i .
1
d. If P (k) is true, demonstrate that P (k + 1)
is true.
n
2. Consider proposition P (n) : ∑ 2i = n (n + 1).
1
a. Identify P (1).
b. Identify P (k).
n
c. Identify term k + 1 in ∑ 2i.
1
d. If P (k) is true, demonstrate that P (k + 1) is true.
n
3n+1 − 3
3. Use a proof by induction to demonstrate that P (n) : ∑ 3i = is true.
1 2
n
4. Use a proof by induction to demonstrate that P (n) : ∑ 2 × 3i−1 = 3n − 1 is true.
1
n
n (3n + 1)
5. Use a proof by induction to demonstrate that P (n) : ∑ (3i − 1) =
i 2
n
(n − 1) n (n + 1)
6. Consider the proposition P (n) : ∑ (r − 1) r = .
2 3
Demonstrate that P (2) is true.
a.
b. Identify P (k).
c. Identify P (k + 1).
d. Use a proof by induction to prove P (n).
7. WE7 In a puzzle similar to the Tower of Hanoi, a series of squares can be either red, white or blue. The
squares can change colour according to the following rules.

CHAPTER 1 Proof by mathematical induction 15

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1. If a square is going to change colour, it must be the leftmost square of its current colour.
2. When a square changes colour, it must be the leftmost square of the new colour.
All squares begin as the same colour (for example red) and the puzzle ends when they are all the
same colour, but not the original colour (for example blue).
For 2 red squares

1 2

3. Move 1: Only square 1 can change colour as it is the left-most red square. Let’s make it white.

1 2

Move 2: Either square can change colour. As 1 is the left-most white square, it could become red
or blue. As 2 is the left-most red square, it could become blue, but it cannot become white because
square 1 is already white and to the left of square 2.
For a series of n squares:
a. Determine a rule for the minimum number of moves, Mn required to change the colour of all
squares according to the rules.
b. Use a proof by induction to prove your rule.
8. WE8 Use mathematical induction to demonstrate that the sum of the entries in the nth horizontal row of
( ) ( ) ( )
n n n−1 n−1
Pascal’s Triangle is 2 . You may use Pascal’s identity = + in your proof.
r r−1 r
9. Use mathematical induction to prove the binomial expansion
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n n n 0 n n−1 1 n n−r r n
(a + b) = ab + a b +…+ a b +…+ a0 bn . You may use Pascal’s
0 1 r n
( ) ( ) ( )
n n−1 n−1
identity = + in your proof.
r r−1 r
10. The hockey stick formula involves adding the first r terms of slanted row n in Pascal’s triangle. An
example of a possible ‘hockey stick’ is shown next page.
a. Determine a rule for the sum of the first r terms of slanted row 2 in Pascal’s triangle.
b. Use a proof by induction to prove your rule. You may use Pascal’s Identity
( ) ( ) ( )
n n−1 n−1
= + in your proof.
r r−1 r
11. The hockey stick formula can be generalised for adding the first r terms of slanted row n in Pascal’s
triangle.
a. Determine a rule for the sum of the first r terms of slanted row n in Pascal’s triangle.
b. Use a proof by induction to prove your rule for a given slanted row n.
n (n + 1)
12. Demonstrate al-Karaji’s proof of 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n = . Use this proof for the sum of n
2
numbers to prove by induction that 13 + 23 + 33 + … + n3 = (1 + 2 + 3 + … + n)2 .
n
6n5 + 15n4 + 10n3 − n
13. Use mathematical induction to prove that ∑ r4 = .
r=1 30

16 Jacaranda Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics Units 3 & 4 for Queensland

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14. The Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, ... can be found using the recursive formula
Fn+1 = Fn + Fn−1 where F1 = F2 = 1. Use mathematical induction to prove that the Fibonacci
( √ )n ( √ )n
1 1+ 5 1 1− 5
numbers can be found using the formula Fn = √ −√ .
5 2 5 2

1 1

1 2 1

1 3 3 1

1 4 6 4 1

1 5 10 10 5 1

1 6 15 20 15 6 1

1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1

1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1

CHAPTER 1 Proof by mathematical induction 17

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1.5 Review: exam practice

A summary of this chapter is available in the Resources section of your eBookPLUS at
www.jacplus.com.au.

Simple familiar
n
n (n + 3)
1. Use mathematical induction to prove that ∑ (r + 1) = .
r=1 2
n
2. Use mathematical induction to prove that ∑ 1.5r−1 = 2 × 1.5n − 2.
r=1
n
n (3n − 1)
3. Prove by induction that ∑ (3r − 2) = .
r=1 2
3n+1 − 3
4. Use a proof by induction to prove that 3 + 9 + 27 + … + 3n = .
2
n
1 n
5. Use a proof by induction to prove that P (n) : ∑ = .
1 (2r − 1)(2r + 1) 2n + 1
n
6. Prove by induction P (n) : (1 + x) ≥ 1 + nx.

7. Use proof by induction to demonstrate that 32n − 1 is divisible by 8 for n ≥ 1.

( ( ))
8. Prove by induction that 7| 12n + 2 5n−1 , n ≥ 1.

9. Use a proof by induction to demonstrate that 9| (4n + 6n − 1), n ≥ 1.

10. Prove by induction that 9| (10n − 1), n ≥ 1.
11. Prove by induction that 2n+2 3n + 5n − 4 is divisible by 25 for n ∈ N.
12. Use a proof by induction to prove that 7n − 2n is divisible by 5 for n ∈ Z+ .

Complex familiar
( )
13. Use proof by induction to demonstrate that 19| 52n+1 + 3n+2 × 2n−1 , n ≥ 1.
( n
) n3 2n
14. Use proof by induction to demonstrate that ∑ r2 + r = + n2 + .
r=1 3 3
n ( )2
n (n + 1)
15. Use proof by induction to demonstrate that P (n) : ∑ i3 = is true.
1 2
16. Use proof by induction to demonstrate that n3 + 3n2 + 2n is divisible by 6.

Complex unfamiliar
17. Prove by induction that 15| (4n + 5n + 6n ) for odd n.

18. Use proof by induction to prove that n5 − n is divisible by 30 where n ≥ 2.

( )
19. Prove by induction that 11| 55n+1 + 45n+2 + 35n , n ≥ 0.
n
20. Use induction to prove that ∑ (Fi )2 = Fn Fn+1 where Fi is the ith term in the Fibonacci sequence.
i=1

Units 3 & 4 Sit exam

18 Jacaranda Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics Units 3 & 4 for Queensland

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Answers d. 3
2n−1
+ 1 is divisible by 4 when n = 1. It is divisible by 4
for n = k + 1 if it is divisible by 4 for n = k. Therefore, it
is divisible by 4 for n ∈ Z+ .
1 Proof by mathematical induction 4. a. n = 2. 10n − 4 = 100 − 4 = 96 = 12 × 8. Divisible
Exercise 1.2 Introduction to proof by by 12.
mathematical induction b. 10n − 4 = 12m, m ∈ Z.
1. a. n = 1. LHS = 2. RHS = 1 (1 + 1) = 2. LHS = RHS
c. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
n = 2. LHS = 2 + 4 = 6. RHS = 2 (2 + 1) = 6. the online resources.
LHS = RHS d. 10n − 4 is divisible by 12 when n = 2. It is divisible by 12
n = 3. LHS = 2 + 4 + 6 = 12. RHS = 3 (3 + 1) = 12. for n = k + 1 if it is divisible by 12 for n = k. Therefore
LHS = RHS it is divisible by 12 for n ≥ 2.
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
5–14. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
the online resources. the online resources.
n
r−1
2. a. n = 1. ∑ 2 = 20 = 1, 2n − 1 = 21 − 1 = 1. True
r=1
Exercise 1.4 Further proof by induction
n 1
n = 2. ∑ 2r−1 = 20 + 21 = 3, 2n − 1 = 22 − 1 = 3. True 1. a. P(1): ∑ 2 = 2
i
r=1 1
n
k
n = 3. ∑ 2r−1 = 20 + 21 + 22 = 7, b. P(k): ∑ 2 = 2
i k+1
−2
r=1
1
n 3
2 − 1 = 2 − 1 = 7. True c. 2
k+1
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in d. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
the online resources. the online resources.
3. a. n = 1. LHS = 3. RHS = n (n + 2) = 1 (3) = 3. True 1
b. 3 + 5 + 7 + … (1 + 2k) = k(k + 2) 2. a. P(1): ∑ 2i = 2
c. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 1
the online resources. k

d. If the statement is true for n = k, it is also true for b. P(k): ∑ 2i = k(k + 1)

n = k + 1. The statement is true for n = 1. Therefore, the 1

statement is true for n ≥ 1. c. 2(k + 1)

n d. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
2
4. a. n = 1. ∑ (2r − 1) = 2 − 1 = 1. n = 1. True the online resources.
r=1 3–5. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
k the online resources.
2
b. ∑ (2r − 1) = k 2
r=1 6. a. LHS: ∑ (r − 1) r = (2 − 1) × 2
c. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 2
the online resources. =2
d. If the statement is true for n = k, it is also true for (2 − 1) 2 (2 + 1)
n = k + 1. The statement is true for n = 1. Therefore, the RHS: = 2. P (2) is true.
3
statement is true for n ≥ 1. k
(k − 1)k(k + 1)
5–14. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in b. P(k): ∑(r − 1)r =
the online resources. 2 3
k+1
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
Exercise 1.3 Proof of divisibility c. P(k + 1): ∑(r − 1)r =
2 3
n
1. a. n = 0, 6 + 4 = 1 + 4 = 5. Divisible by 5.
d. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
n = 1, 6n + 4 = 6 + 4 = 10. Divisible by 5. the online resources.
n = 2, 6n + 4 = 36 + 4 = 40. Divisible by 5. 7. a. Mn = 2 − 1
n
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
the online resources. the online resources.
2. a. n = 1, 8n − 1 = 8 − 1 = 7. Divisible by 7. 8, 9. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
n = 2, 8n − 1 = 64 − 1 = 63. Divisible by 7. the(online
n = 3, 8n − 1 = 512 − 1 = 511 = 73 × 7. Divisible by 7. ) resources.
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 4 2+r−1
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 10. a. + + +…+ =
2 2 2 2
the online resources. ( )
3. a. n = 1. 32n−1 + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4. Divisible by 4. 2+r
b. 32k−1 + 1 = 4m, m ∈ Z. 3
c. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
the online resources. in the online resources.

CHAPTER 1 Proof by mathematical induction 19

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( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n n+1 n+2 n+r−1 12–14. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
11. a. + + +…+ =
n n n n in the online resources.
( )
n+r
n+1 1.5 Review: exam practice
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 1–20. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
in the online resources. in the online resources.

20 Jacaranda Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics Units 3 & 4 for Queensland