FOUNDATION MODULE VIVA POOL

What is mesenchyme
Mesenchyme is a type of animal tissue comprised of loose cells embedded in a mesh of
proteins and fluid, called the extracellular matrix. The loose, fluid nature of mesenchyme
allows its cells to migrate easily and play a crucial role in the origin and development of
morphological structures during the embryonic and fetal stages of animal life. Mesenchyme
directly gives rise to most of the body’s connective tissues, from bones and cartilage to the
lymphatic and circulatory systems.
Neural tube
The neural tube forms very early in embryonic development. It starts as a flat, ribbon-like
structure that rolls together, lengthwise, to form the tube that will normally grow into the
brain and spinal cord.
Teratoma
A teratoma is a rare type of germ cell tumor that may contain immature or fully formed
tissue, including teeth, hair, bone and muscle. Teratomas may be cancerous or noncancerous,
and they can affect people of all ages.
Placental abnormalities
Placenta previa
-) Placenta previa:- It results from avery low lying placenta or placenta which cover the os.
Severe hemorrhage can result with cervical dilation and passage of the baby through the
birth canal.
-) Placenta accreta:- It results from a lack of formation of a normal decidual plate. Thus, the
chrionic villi extend into myometrium, and the placenta can’t separate normally following
delivery.
-) Abruptio placenta:- It results from premature separation of the placenta prior to delivery,
with formation of a retroplacental blood clot. The blood supply of oxygen and nutrients of
the fetus is compromised to a greater degree with increasing size of the abruption.
-) Velamentous placenta;- It is a placenta in which umbical vessels travel abnormally
through the amniochorionic membrane before reaching the placenta proper.
Endocrine glands derived from
The endocrine system arises from all three embryonic germ layers.
Blastocyst
The hollow cellular mass formed during the early development consisting of cells forming
the trophectoderm, the inner cell mass, and the fluid-filled cavity or the blastocoel is known
as the blastocyst.
Derivatives of first and second pharyngeal arch
The first, most anterior pharyngeal arch gives rise to the oral jaw. The second arch becomes
the hyoid and jaw support.
Hydatidiform mole
A slow-growing tumor that develops from trophoblastic cells after fertilization of an egg by
a sperm. A hydatidiform mole contains many cysts.
Somite and its derivatives
Somites are precursor populations of cells that give rise to important structure. The somites
segment into the sclerotome (forms axial cartilage and bone), myotome (forms axial muscle),
and the dermatome (forms the dermis of skin).
Notochord and its derivatives
Remnant of notochord (nucleus pulposus)
The notochord is an embryonic midline structure, providing both mechanical and signaling
cues to the developing embryo.This notochordal tissue will go on to develop into the mature
intervertebral disc. However, small amounts of notochord tissue are thought to persist in the
center of vertebral bodies and the nucleus pulposus.
What is implantation
The zygote travels down the fallopian tube, where it becomes a morula. Once it reaches the
uterus, the morula becomes a blastocyst. The blastocyst then burrows into the uterine lining
this process is called implantation.
Day of implantation
Implantation takes place anywhere between 6 and 12 days after you ovulate. It most
commonly occurs 8 to 9 days after conception.
Neurulation
Neurulation refers to the formation and closure of the neural tube.
-) The notochord induces the overlying ectoderm to differentiate into neuroectoderm and
form the neural plate.
-) The neural plate folds to give rise to the neural tube, which is open at both ends at the
anterior and posterior neuropores.
-) The anterior and posterior neuropore closes during week 4.
-) As the neural plate folds, some cells differentiate into neural crest cells and form a column
of cells along both sides of the neural tube.
Klinefelter syndrome
Klinefelter syndrome is a common genetic condition where a male is born with an extra X
chromosome. People with Klinefelter syndrome can experience breast growth, breast cancer,
osteoporosis, infertility and learning difficulties.
What is monozygotic and dizygotic twins
Monozygotic twin:-
-) The female and male pronuclei fuse and the centriole pair provides the cytoplasmic
machinery for cleavage cell divisions to occur. A zygote is formed.
-) Cleavage divisions produce a cluster of blastomeres called a morula surrounded by a zona
pellucida. The molecular mechanisms that establish twin embryogenesis are active in the
morula and are responsible for the latter “splitting” ofthe inner cell mass. In other words,
twinning causes the “splitting,” not viceversa. The twinning morula can travel two different
routes leading to either monochorionic (splitting after trophoblast differentiation) or
dichorionic twins (splitting before trophoblast differentiation).
Dizygotic twin:-
-) The female and male pronuclei fuse and the centriole pair provides the cytoplasmic
machinery for cleavage cell divisions to occur. Two zygotes are formed with two different
genotypes.
-) Cleavage divisions produce a cluster of blastomeres called a morula surrounded by a zona
pellucida. The morula is a chimera consisting of an assortment of cells with two different
genotypes. The molecular mechanisms that establish twin embryogenesis are active in the
chimeric morula and are responsible for the latter “splitting” of the inner cell mass.The
twinning chimeric morula can travel two different routes leading to either monochorionic or
dichorionic twins
Stages of fertilization
-) Sperm Capacitation – This step refers to the process of preparing sperm for fertilization.
The motility of the sperm increases as it becomes hyperactive. This phase ensures that the
sperm penetrates the egg.
-) Sperm-Zona Pellucida Binding – In this step, the sperm encounters an ovum and binds
into the zona pellucida layer of the ovum to form a receptor-ligand response. No more sperm
can get through this layer after this coupling reaction.
-) Zona Pellucida Penetration– The structure of the sperm’s head is in such a way that it
assists in breaking through the walls of the ovum. It also stimulates ovum maturation,
suspended during one stage of meiosis. Next stages happen just after the egg is fertilized.
-) Acrosome Reaction– The head of sperm, called the acrosome, carries several zona
pellucida digesting enzymes that support it in penetrating farther into the ovum layers. With
deeper entry, the head of the sperm shrinks.
-) Cortical Reaction– At this stage, the egg is activated after being frozen during the
metaphase stage of meiotic division II. Cortical granules unite with the Zona Pellucida,
resulting in exocytosis.
-) Zona Reaction – This step marks the end of fertilization as the Zona Pellucida layer
hardens.
Results/fate of fertilization
Benefits of fertilization
-) Restoring of the diploid number(46) of chromosomes.
-) Determination of the chromosomal sex of the embryo.
-) Variation of the human species.
-) Initiation of cleavage
Common site of fertilization
Ampulla of uterine tube
Apical ectodermal ridge
The apical ectodermal ridge is a structure that forms from the ectodermal cells at the distal
end of each limb bud and acts as a major signaling center to ensure proper development of a
limb.
From which mesoderm limbs are derived
The mesoderm of the early limb bud comes from the lateral plate mesoderm
Derivatives of neural crest cells
-) Cranial and sensory ganglia an nerves.
-) Sympathetic ganglia.
-) Medulla of adrenal gland.
-) Melanocytes.
-) Aorticopulmonary segment of heart.
-) Meninges.
-) Pharyngeal arch cartilage.
-) Odontoblast.
Sacrococcygeal teratoma
-) It is a tumor that arises from remnants of the primitive streak, which normally degenerates
and disappears.
-) It is derived from pluripotent cells of the primitive streak and often contains various types
of tissue (e.g., bone, nerve, hair).
-) Occurs more commonly in female infants and usually becomes malignant during infancy
(must be removed by age 6 months).
Difference between amniotic and chorionic cavity
-) The amnion is the inner membrane that surrounds the embryo, while the chorion surrounds
the embryo, the amnion, and other membranes.
-) The amnion is filled with amniotic fluid that holds the embryo in suspension, while the
chorion also acts as a protective barrier during the embryo’s development.
-) The amnion is made up of tresodeum and ectoderm, while the chorion includes the
trophoblast and the mesoderm.
-) The chorion has a special feature called chorion villi, which acts like a barrier between
maternal blood and fetal blood. It absorbs maternal blood for the embryo’s substance and
other necessities, while the amnion plays a part in the delivery stage. The rupture of the
membrane is a signal that the fully formed offspring is ready to come out of the womb.
Derivatives of ectoderm
-) Epidermis.
-) Hair and nail.
-) Cutaneous and mammary gland.
-) Enamel of teeth.
-) Inner ear.
-) Lens of eye.
-) Iris muscle .
-) Lacrimal and parotid glands.
-) Anal canal (lower part).
-) Epithelium of salivary glands, gums, lips, nasal cavity and hard palate.
Endoderm and its derivatives
Endoderm is one of the germ layers—aggregates of cells that organize early during
embryonic life and from which all organs and tissues develop.
Epithelial part of:- Epithelium of:-
-) Larynx and trachea. -) GIT and its gland.
-) Bronchi. -) Liver
-) Lungs. -) Pancreas.
-) Pharynx. -) Urinary bladder.
-) Thyroid gland. -) Urachus
-) Tympanic cavity. -) Vagina and vestibule.
-) Auditor (Eustachian) tube. -) Urethra and glands.
-) Parathyroid, sublingual and submandibular
glands.
-) Soft palate.
Derivatives of mesoderm
-) Muscle (smooth, cardiac, and skeletal)
-) Muscles of tongue (occipital somites)
-) Pharyngeal arch muscles ( muscles of mastication, muscles of facial expression)
-) Connective tissue
-) Dermis and subcutaneous layer of skin
-) Bone and cartilage
-) Dura mater
-) Endothelium of blood vessels
-) RBCs, WBCs, microglia, and Kupffer cells
-) Kidney
-) Adrenal cortex
Germ layers are derived from
The germ layers form during the process of gastrulation
Shape of somites
Somites are transient, spherical-shaped structures
Specific characteristics of 3rd week of development
-) Primitive streak
-) Trilaminar disc
-) Somites appears
-) Intraembryonic mesoderm
-) Neuralation
-) Primitive CVS appears
Connecting stalk
The connecting stalk, or body stalk is an embryonic structure that is formed by the third
week of development and connects the embryo to its shell of trophoblast.
Cranial and caudal defects of neurulation
-) Failure of the anterior neuropore to close results in upper neural tube defects Anencephaly;
Typical frog like bulging eyes, large tongue and short neck, it can be found early in
pregrancy by looking at the amniocentesis.
-) Failure of the posterior neuropore to close results in lower NTDs (e.g., spina bifida with
myeloschisis).
Different deciduas
-) Decidua basalis:- Which is derived from the endometrium of the uterus located between
the blastocyst and the myometrium.
-) Decidua parietalis:- Which includes all portions of the endometrium other than the site of
implantation
-) Decidua capsularis:- the portion of endometrium that covers the blastocyst and separates it
from the uterine cavity.
Fetal and maternal part of placenta
The fetal part of the placenta is known as the chorion. The maternal component of the
placenta is known as the decidua basalis
What is gastrulation
Gastrulation is defined as an early developmental process in which an embryo transforms
from a one-dimensional layer of epithelial cells (blastula) and reorganizes into a multilayered
and multidimensional structure called the gastrula.
Which neuropore closes first
The rostral/anterior neuropore appears and closes first.
Name of germ layers
Endoderm (inner layer), the ectoderm (outer layer), and the mesoderm (middle layer).
Fate of neurulation
-) Central nervous system
-) Retina of eye
-) Pineal gland
-) Posterior pituitary gland
Spermiogenesis
The series of changes resulting in th formation of spermatids into spermatozoa is known as
spermiogenesis. The time is 64 days. The changes include
Formation of acrosome, condestion of nucleus, formation of neck, middle piece and tail and
shedding of cytoplasm.
Spina bifida cystica
It is a growth defect of the central nervous system in which a cyst containing meninges
(meningocele), spinal cord (myelocele), or both (myelomeningocele) sticks out through a
gap in the vertebral column present in birth.
Nervous system derived from
The nervous system develops from the ectoderm.
What is amniotic fluid
The amniotic fluid is the protective liquid contained by the amniotic sac of a gravid amniote.
This fluid serves as a cushion for the growing fetus, but also serves to facilitate the exchange
of nutrients, water, and biochemical products between mother and fetus.
What is acrosome
Normal sperm cells have an oval-shaped head with a cap-like covering called the acrosome.
The acrosome contains enzymes that break down the outer membrane of an egg cell,
allowing the sperm to fertilize the egg.
Epiblast derived from
The epiblast is derived from the inner cell mass
Fibers of connective tissue
Three main types of fibers are secreted by fibroblasts: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and
reticular fibers.
Functions of melanocytes
These cells synthesize a dark brown pigment (melanin) in oval-shaped organelles
(melanosomes). Melanosomes contain tyrosinase, a UV-sensitive enzyme directly involved
in melanin synthesis. Melanin protects against tissue damage caused by UV radiation.
Location of stratified squamous non keratinized epithelium
-) Oral cavity
-) Vagina
-) Esophagus
-) Anal canal
Location of stratified columnar epithelium
-) Male urethra
-) Conjunctiva of eye
Site of keratinized epithelium
Epidermis of skin
Site of transitional epithelium
-) Ureter
-) Urinary bladder
-) Renal pelvis
Site of simple columnar epithelium
Ciliated:- Non-ciliated:-
-) Uterine tube -) Gall bladder
-) Uterus -) Intestine
Site of simple simple squamous epithelium
-) Endothelium (heart, blood vessels and lymphatics vessels)
-) Mesothelium
-) Alveoli
Site of simple cuboidal epithelium
-) Distal convulated tubule
-) Small ducts of glands
-) Epithelium of ovary (follicular cells)
Features of transitional epithelium
Undistended state:-
-) Seen to consist 5 or 6 cell layers.
-) Basal cells are cuboidal and can divide.
-) Over basal layer there are several layers of large polygonal cells.
-) The cell surface are very large and dome shaped. These cells may be binucleated.
Distended state:-
-) In fully distended state it appears 2-3 layers thick; a basal layer of cuboidal cells over
which lie on one or two layers of flattened cells.
Epithelium of thyroid
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Epithelium of urinary bladder
Epithelium of ureter
The urinary bladder and ureter lining is a specialized stratified epithelium, the urothelium
What is connective tissue
Connective tissue is formed primarily of extracellular matrix, consisting of ground
substance, and fibers, in which various connective tissue cells are embedded. Tissue that
supports, protects, and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the body.
Examples of Dense regular connective tissue
Dense regular connective tissue comprises structures such as ligaments and tendons and
aponeurosis
Examples of Dense irregular connective tissue
-) Dermis of skin
-) Capsules of organs (liver, testes, lymph nodes)
-) Perichondrium
-) Periosteum
Features of Dense Regular and Irregular connective tissue
Dense regular connective tissue:- Dense irregular connective tissue:-
-) Fibers are densely packed and arranged in -) This form usually occurs in form of sheets.
parallel to each other. -) Consist mainly of collagen fibers also
-) Fibroblast are the only cell present in very contain some other fibers, which interlace to
small number as elongated and flattened form dense network.
between bundles of fibers. -) Some fibroblast and macrophages are
found between fibers.
Desmosome
A desmosome (macula adherens) is a small, discrete, disk-shaped adhesive site. It is also
commonly found at sites other than the junctional complex, where it joins epithelial cells.
Contents of ECF and ICF
The fluid inside of cells, also called the cytoplasm or cytosol, makes up about 60% of the
water in the human body,. Organelles like the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria,
lysosomes, and Golgi apparatus are suspended in and supported by the ICF. Also found in
the ICF are cellular building blocks like sugars, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
ECFs are any body fluids that are not inside cells. The two main components of ECF are
plasma and interstitial fluid (IF). The balance consists of cerebrospinal fluid, lymph, the
synovial fluid in the joints, pleural fluid in the pleural cavities (lungs), pericardial fluid
around the heart, peritoneal fluid in the peritoneal cavity (abdomen), and the aqueous humor
of the eye. In mammals, milk is also considered an extracellular fluid.
-) The ICF has higher amounts of potassium, phosphate, magnesium, and protein compared
to the ECF. The plasma has high concentrations of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate, but
lower levels of protein as compared to the ICF.
Types of adipocytes
There are two general classes of adipocytes; white adipocytes - which store energy as a
single large lipid droplet and have important endocrine functions, and brown adipocytes -
which store energy in multiple small lipid droplets but specifically for use as fuel to generate
body heat (i.e. thermogenesis).
Types of cell junction
-) Occluding junctions (zonula occludens or tight junctions)
-) Adhering junctions (zonula adherens).
-) Desmosomes (macula adherens). There are also 'hemidesmosomes' that lie on the basal
membrane, to help stick the cells to the underlying basal lamina.
-) Gap junctions.
Examples of apocrine, merocrine and holocrine glands
Apocrine:- Merocrine:- Holocrine:-
-) Sweat gland -) Salivary glands -) Sebaceous gland
-) Ceruminous gland
Histological layers of skin
Histologically, skin has two main layers-the epidermis and the dermis-with a subcutaneous
fascia called the hypodermis, which lies deep in the dermis.
Components of Connective tissue
-) Ground substance
-) Cells
-) Fibers
Classification of connective tissue
There are four classes of connective tissues: blood, bones, cartilage and connective tissue
proper
Example of tubuloacinar gland
Submandibular salivary gland
Sebaceous glands
Sebaceous glands are microscopic simple branched acinar glands found in your hair follicles
that secrete sebum. Sebum is an oily substance that protects your skin from drying out.
Cells of connective tissue
Resident cells of connective tissue
Migrant cells of connective tissue
Connective tissue cells include many types with different functions. Some originate locally
and remain in the connective tissue (resident cells), whereas others originate elsewhere and
remain only temporarily in connective tissue (migrant cells)
Fixed Cells of Connective Tissue:-
-) Fibroblasts:- It arise from mesenchymal cells and are the predominant cells in
connectivetissue proper. They often possess an oval nucleus with two or more nucleoli.
Fibroblasts seldom undergo mitosis except in wound healing.
-) Adipose cells (adipocytes):- It arise from mesenchymal cells and perhaps from fibroblasts.
They do not normally undergo cell division because they are fully differentiated cells.
However, they do increase in number in early neonatal life. They are surrounded by a basal
lamina and are responsible for the synthesis, storage, and release of fat.
Migrant Cells of Connective Tissue:-
-) Macrophages:- They are the principal phagocytosing cells of connective tissue. They are
responsible for removing large particulate matter and assisting in the immune response. They
also secrete substances that function in wound healing.
-) Lymphoid cells:- They arise from lymphoid stem cells during hemopoiesis. They are
located throughout the body in the subepithelial connective
tissue and accumulate in the respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract, and elsewhere in areas
of chronic inflammation.
-) Plasma cells:- They are antibody-manufacturing cells that arise from activated B
lymphocytes and are responsible for humoral immunity.
-) Granulocytes:- They are white blood cells that possess cytoplasmic granules and arise
from myeloid stem cells during hemopoiesis. At sites of inflammation, they leave the
bloodstream and enter the loose connective tissue, where they perform their specific
functions.
-) Mast cells:- They arise from myeloid stem cells in bone marrow and usually reside near
small blood vessels. Although they share many structural and functional characteristics with
basophils, they develop from different precursors and are not related.
Difference between fibroblast and fibrocytes
The main difference between fibroblast and fibrocyte is that fibroblast is a large, flat cell
with an oval-shaped nucleus involved in the secretion of the extracellular matrix, collagen,
and other extracellular macromolecules whereas fibrocyte is a small cell and is the inactive
form of the fibroblast.
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. It is best known as
the site of ribosome biogenesis, which is the synthesis of ribosomes. The nucleolus also
participates in the formation of signal recognition particles and plays a role in the cell's
response to stress.
How spinal nerve is formed
Each spinal nerve contains a mixture of motor and sensory fibres. They begin as nerve roots
that emerge from a segment of the spinal cord at a specific level. Each spinal cord segment
has four roots: an anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal) root on both right and left sides.
Each of these roots individually is composed of approximately eight nerve rootlets.
The rootlets unite to form an anterior (ventral) or posterior (dorsal) root of a spinal nerve.
The anterior/ventral root contains efferent nerve fibres, the posterior/dorsal root contains
afferent nerve fibres. The anterior and posterior roots join to form the spinal nerve proper,
containing a mixture of sensory, motor, and autonomic fibers.
Hinge joint with example
A hinge joint is a type of synovial joint that exists in the body and serves to allow motion
primarily in one plane. The hinge joint is made up of two or more bones with articular
surfaces that are covered by hyaline cartilage and lubricated by synovial fluid. Example;
Elbow joint.
Agonist and antagonist muscles
We describe the main muscle that does an action as the agonist. It is sometimes also called
the “prime mover”. Many actions in the body do have one muscle that is responsible for
more of the work in that action than any other muscle. For example, the agonist, or prime
mover, for hip flexion would be the iliopsoas.
In order to maintain a balance of tension at a joint we also have a muscle or muscles that
resist a movement. The main muscle that resists a movement is called the antagonist. We
could also say that the antagonist is the main muscle that does the opposite of the action that
it is resisting. For example, we could say that gluteus maximus is an antagonist of the
primary hip flexor, iliopsoas because gluteus maximus is a hip extensor.
Which factors stabilize joint
-) The shape, size, and arrangement of the articulating surfaces,
-) The structure of the joint capsule and ligaments associated with the joint, and.
-) The musculature surrounding the joint.
Features of long bone
Long bones are hard, dense bones that provide strength, structure, and mobility. The thigh
bone (femur) is a long bone. A long bone has a shaft and two ends.
Some bones in the fingers are classified as long bones, even though they are short in length.
This is due to the shape of the bones, not their size. Long bones contain yellow bone marrow
and red bone marrow, which produce blood cells.
Parts of long bone
A long bone has two parts: the diaphysis and the epiphysis. The diaphysis is the tubular shaft
that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The hollow region in the
diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow marrow. The walls of
the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone. The wider section at each end
of the bone is called the epiphysis which is filled with spongy bone. Red marrow fills the
spaces in the spongy bone. Each epiphysis meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis, the narrow
area that contains the epiphyseal plate (growth plate), and a layer of hyaline (transparent)
cartilage in a growing bone.
Sesamoid bones and its functions
Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. These small, round bones are commonly
found in the tendons of the hands, knees, and feet. Sesamoid bones function to protect
tendons from stress and wear. The patella, commonly referred to as the kneecap, is an
example of a sesamoid bone.
Vessels of long bone
A typical long bone receives blood supply from various sources. They are the Nutrient
arteries, Epiphyseal arteries, metaphyseal arteries and periosteal arteries.
-) The nutrient artery supplies directly from major systemic arteries. It enters the long bone
through the nutrient foramen. Its branches supply the bone marrow and inner third of the
compact bone of the diaphysis.
-) Metaphyseal arteries arising from the anastomosis around the joint enters the metaphysis at
the margin of the capsule attachment. These anastomose with the spiral arteries making the
metaphysic the most vascular area of the long bone.
-) The epiphysis has openings that allows arteries to go in and out. In children the epiphyseal
arteries are separated from the metaphyseal arteries due to the presence of an epiphyseal
plate. In adults the epiphysis and metaphysis is fused together following the arrest of growth
plate.
-) Periosteal arteries act as a low pressure system and penetrate bone at the sides of
attachment of the facial sheath or aponeurosis. They enter the Volksmann canal and supply
roughly the outer one third of the compact bone of the diaphysis.
Hip joint is which type of joint
The hip joint is a ball-and-socket joint

Types of synovial joint

Synovial joints are often further classified by the type of movements they permit. There are
six such classifications: hinge (elbow), saddle (carpometacarpal joint), planar
(acromioclavicular joint), pivot (atlantoaxial joint), condyloid (metacarpophalangeal joint),
and ball and socket (hip joint).
Types of bones
-) Long bone – has a long, thin shape. Examples include the bones of the arms and legs
(excluding the wrists, ankles and kneecaps). With the help of muscles, long bones work as
levers to permit movement.
-) Short bone – has a squat, cubed shape. Examples include the bones that make up the wrists
and the ankles.
-) Flat bone – has a flattened, broad surface. Examples include ribs, shoulder blades, breast
bone and skull bones.
-) Irregular bone – has a shape that does not conform to the above three types. Examples
include the bones of the spine (vertebrae).
Plane synovial joints
Type of structure in the body formed between two bones in which the articular, or free,
surfaces of the bones are flat or nearly flat, enabling the bones to slide over each other In a
plane joint the mating surfaces of the bones are slightly curved and may be either ovoid or
sellar. Only a small amount of gliding movement is found. Because the articular surfaces of
the bones are free and move in a sliding motion, the plane joint is classified as a type of
synovial joint.
Types of ossification
-) Intramembranous ossification:- The bones develop directly in the area of vascularized
mesenchyme. Eg; bones of skull cap
-) Endochondral ossification:- In this type mpost of the cartilage in the bones is replaced by
bone tissue during fetal life. Eg; Long bones
Secondary cartilaginous joints
Example of fibrocartilaginous joint
Secondary cartilaginous joints are known as "symphysis". These include fibrocartilaginous
and hyaline joints, which usually occur at the midline.
Some examples of secondary cartilaginous joints in human anatomy would be the
manubriosternal joint (between the manubrium and the body of the sternum), intervertebral
discs, and the pubic symphysis.
Location of pivot joints
An example of a pivot joint is the joint of the first and second vertebrae of the neck that
allows the head to move back and forth. The joint of the wrist that allows the palm of the
hand to be turned up and down is also a pivot joint.
What are flat bones and its examples
Flat bones are made up of a layer of spongy bone between two thin layers of compact bone.
They have a flat shape, not rounded. Examples include the skull and rib bones. Flat bones
have marrow, but they do not have a bone marrow cavity. Flat bones serve as a point of
attachment for muscles or protection for your internal organs.
Immovable joints
Fibrous joint
A type of joint between bones in which there is no joint cavity, and with very little or no
movement is possible under normal conditions.
Examples; Sutures, syndesmosis and gomphosis
Compact bones
Compact bone forms a shell around cancellous bone and is the primary component of the
long bones, they consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems.
Type of joints
According to the structural classification of joints, they are divided into 3 types:-
-) Fibrous Joints
-) Cartilaginous Joints
-) Synovial Joints
Difference between compact and spongy bones
Spongy bone:- Compact bone:-
-) They are also called cancellous bones -) They are also called cortical bones.
-) They are light, spongy and soft in nature. -) They are heavy, tough and compact in
-) They are made up of trabeculae. nature.
-) They fill the inner layer of most bones. -) They are made up of osteons
-) It forms the ends or epiphyses of long -) They fill the outer layer of most bones
bones -) It forms the shaft or diaphysis of long
bones.
Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is a component of the peripheral nervous system that
regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration,
digestion, and sexual arousal. It contains three anatomically distinct divisions: sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and enteric.
What are spinal nerves
Spinal nerves are an integral part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). They are the
structures through which the central nervous system (CNS) receives sensory information
from the periphery, and through which the activity of the trunk and the limbs is regulated.
Also they transmit the motor commands from the CNS to the muscles of the periphery.
Spinal nerves, sensory or motor
They are composed of both motor and sensory fibres
Difference between circumduction and rotation
Circumduction – this is where the limb moves in a circle. This occurs at the shoulder joint
during an overarm tennis serve or cricket bowl.
Rotation – this is where the limb turns round its long axis, like using a screw driver.
Sutures
The suture joints are immovable or fixed joints consisting of a thin layer of dense fibrous
connective tissue, which are found between all the bones of the skull except the mandible.
These joints also provide strength to the joint by attaching the irregular interlocking edges of
cranial bone.
Number of spinal nerves
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves and roots
Sciatica
Sciatica refers to pain, weakness, numbness, or tingling in the leg. It is caused by injury to or
pressure on the sciatic nerve
Types of long bone
-) Typical long bones:- These are humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia and fibula; with two
secondary epiphyses.
-) Miniature or short long bones:- Have only one epiphysis like metacarpals, metatarsals and
phalanges.
-) Modified long bones:- Have no medullary cavity like clavicle.
Difference between bi pennate and multipennate
A bipennate muscle has two sets of fibers that lie obliquely on both sides of a common
tendon (e.g., gastrocnemius and rectus femoris muscles). The multipennate deltoid muscle
contains more than two sets of fibers that converge at different angles and insert directly into
tendons at both their ends
What is aponeurosis
Aponeuroses are sheet-like elastic tendon structures that cover a portion of the muscle belly
and act as insertion sites for muscle fibers while free tendons connect muscles to bones
Compound lipids classification
They are esters of fatty acid with alcohols having additional groups like Phosphoric acid,
Carbohydrates, Proteins etc.
Depending on the additional groups present they are again classified into
-) Phospholipids
-) Glycolipids
-) Other complex lipids like Sulfolipids, Lipoproteins, Amino lipids.
Phospholipids is furher divided into
-) Glycerophospholipids: The alcohol in this group is Glycerol, e.g. Lecithin, Cephalin
-) Sphingophospholipids: The alcohol in this group is an amino alcohol Sphingosine, e.g.
Sphingomyelin.
Isoelectric pH
The pH at which an amino acid has no net charge on it and therefore does not move towards
the electrodes in an electric field.
-) At pH below pI, the amino acid donates H+ ions, thus acts as acid.
-) At pH above pI, the amino acid accepts H+ ions, thus acts as base.
Hypotonic/Hypertonic difference
Hypotonic solutions:- Hypertonic solution:-
-) Solution is less concentrated than 0.9% -) Solution is more concentrated than 0.9%
NaCl NaCl.
-) If RBCs is placed in this solution, they will -) If RBCs is placed in this solution, they will
swell or can even be ruptured. shrink and crenate.
Amino acid classification
Essential amino acid names
Based on nutritional requirement:-
-) Essential amino acids: AAs which cannot be synthesized in our body and therefore they
have to be taken in our diet.
Methionine, Arginine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Phenylalanine,
Histidine, and Lysine.
-) Nonessential amino acids: AAs which are continuously being synthesized in our body and
hence are not required in our diet.
All other amino acids.
Based on variable side chain:-
-)Aliphatic amino acid:
-Simple amino acids:
Glycine and Alanine
-Branched chain amino acids:
Leucine, Isoleucine and Valine
-Sulfur containing amino acids:
Cysteine and Methionine
- Amino acid with hydroxyl group:
Serine and Threonine
- Acidic amino acids:
Aspartate and Glutamate
- Basic amino acids:
Arginine and lysine
-) Aromatic Amino Acid:
Phenylalanine, Tyrosine and Tryptophan
-) Imino acid:
Proline
Based on side chain characteristic (polarity):-
-) Polar amino acids:
Glutamine, Cysteine, Serine, Threonine, Aspargine and Tyrosine
-) Non-polar amino acids:
Proline, Alanine, Leucine, Glycine, Isoleucine, Valine, Metheonine, Tryptophan,
Phenylalanine.
Based on metabolic fate:-
-) Ketogenic amino acids:
Leucine and Lysine
-) Glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids :
Tyrosine, Tryptophan, Isoleucine and Phenylalanine
-) Glucogenic amino acids:
Any amino acid that do not belong to above group
Carbohydrates classification
Carbohydrates are classified into:
-) Monosaccharaides
-) Disaccharides
-) Oligosaccharides
-) Polysaccharides
Protein structural classification
Fibrous Protein:-
-) Elongated or Needle-shaped or long cylindrical or rod-like
-) Minimum Solubility in water
-) Regular Secondary Structure
-) Axial Ratio > 10
-) They are Structural Proteins
-) E.g. Collagen, Elastin, Keratin.
Globular Proteins:-
-) Spherical or Oval or Spheroidal in shape
-) Easily Soluble
-) Axial Ratio < 3
-) They perform dynamic functions
-) E.g. Albumin, Globulin, most enzymes
Viscosity
It is the resistance offered by a liquid and is due to the attraction of molecules for each other
as well as from asymmetry in their structure.
Most common secondary structure of protein
The most common types of secondary structures are the α helix and the β pleated sheet.

Mention hexose reducing sugar?

Fructose is found in which disaccharide
All the Hexoses have a free functional group, hence they are reducing sugars.
Glucose:-
-) Most predominant sugar in human body.
-) Main source of metabolic fuel of mammals.
-) Glucose is dextrorotatory, hence otherwise called Dextrose.
-) Universal fuel of fetus.
Galactose:-
-) Constituent of Lactose (Milk sugar).
-) Synthesized in the mammary gland for synthesis of lactose.
-) Part of Glycoprotein, Glycosaminoglycan in Proteoglycans and Glycolipids.
Mannose:-
-) Isolated from plant mannans, hence the name.
-) Occurs in Glycoproteins and Mucoproteins.
Fructose:-
-) Constituent of sucrose, the common sugar.
-) Present in fruit juices, honey and sugarcane.
-) Present in the seminal fluid.
FA Classification with examples
Depending on the chain length:-
-) Short Chain Fatty Acid (C2–C6).
-) Medium Chain Fatty Acid (C8–C14).
-) Long Chain Fatty Acid (≥ C16).
Depending on the presence of double bond:-
-) Saturated fatty acid: No double bond in the hydrocarbon chain e.g. butter, ghee, suet, lard,
coconut oil and palm oil.
-) Unsaturated fatty acid: Double bonds are present in the hydrocarbon chain.
Depending on the number of double bonds present unsaturated fatty acid is again classified
into:
-Monounsaturated Fatty Acid: Only one double bond is present e.g. oleic acid, olive,
peanut, and canola oils. Avocados. Nuts such as almonds, hazelnuts, and pecans.
-Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid: More than one double bonds are present. E.g. safflower,
sesame and sunflower seeds, corn and soybeans, many nuts and seeds, and their oils.
Derived lipids
Compounds which are derived from the other group of Lipids, e.g. Fatty acids, glycerol,
cholesterol. Etc.
Carbs digestion and absorption in which part of digestive tract?
Digestion of starches into glucose molecules starts in the mouth, but primarily takes place in
the small intestine by the action of specific enzymes secreted from the pancreas; which are
then also absorbed in the small intestine.
Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, macromolecules, essential to all known forms of life. They
are composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made of three components: a 5-
carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. The two main classes of nucleic
acids are deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid
Difference between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
-) It is a single stranded structure. -) It is a double stranded helical structure.
-) Present mainly in nucleus but some in
-) Present mainly in cytoplasm but some in cytoplasm.
the nucleus. -) Contains purines (adenine and guanine).
-) Contains purines (adenine and guanine). -) Contain pyrimidines (cytosine and
-) Contain pyrimidines (cytosine and uracil). thymine).
-) Contain ribose. -) Contain deoxyribose.
DNA Structure and chain bonding
Each DNA molecule consists of two nucleotide chains wrapped around each other in a
double helix and held together by hydrogen bonds. This hydrogen bonding involves only the
nitrogenous bases. Each of the purine bases can hydrogen bond with one and only one of the
pyrimidine bases
Transcription
The process by which RNA is synthesized from the DNA. The segments of DNA transcribed
into RNA molecules that can encode proteins are said to produce messenger RNA.
RNA Types + Functions
-) mRNA (messenger RNA): it provides the template for protein synthesis during translation.
-) tRNA (transfer RNA): it brings amino acids and reads the genetic code during translation.
-) rRNA (ribosomal RNA): it plays a structural and catalytic role during translation.
Define carbohydrates
Carbohydrates or saccharides are polyhydric or polyhydroxy alcohols (OH) with potentially
active carbonyl groups.
Name 4 carbon aldose and ketone sugar
-) Erythrose (aldose)
-) Erythrulose (ketose)
Vitamin classification with names
Vitamins are mainly classified into
Fat soluble vitamins:-
-) Vitamin A (Retinol)
-) Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol)
-) Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
-) Vitamin K (Menaquione)
Water soluble vitamins:-
-) Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
-) Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
-) Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
-) Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
-) Vitamin B5 (Panthothenic acid)
-) Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
-) Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
-) Vitamin B9 (Folic acid)
-) Vitamin B12 (Cyanocabalamine)
Vitamin E name and function
-) Strong antioxidant (anti-aging)
-) Required for the prevention of non-enzymatic oxidation of cellular components.
-) Protects against heart diseases.
Lipid classification
Simple Lipids:-
They are esters of fatty acid with alcohol
They are divided into
-) Fats and oils
-) Waxes.
Compound Lipids:-
Explained above
Derived Lipids:-
Explained above
Phospholipids
-) Lipids containing phosphoric acid residue and nitrogenous base in addition to glycerol and
fatty acid.
-) Present in all biological membranes and as well as in serum lipoproteins, bile, pulmonary
surfactant and egg yolk.
-) They play an important role in electron transport, oxidative phosphorylation and energy-
linked transport of ions across membranes.
Lipoproteins
A lipoprotein is a biochemical assembly whose primary function is to transport hydrophobic
lipid molecules in water, as in blood plasma or other extracellular fluids.
Glycolipids
-) Lipids containing carbohydrate apart from Fatty acidand Alcohol (usually Sphingosine)
-)Fatty Acid + Alcohol (Sphingosine) + Carbohydrate, e.g. Cerebroside, Ganglioside
Enzyme Classification
-) Oxidoreductases:-
Enzymes that catalyze oxidation of one substrate with reduction of another substrate.
• Dehydrogenase
• Oxygenase
• Oxidase
• Catalase
• Peroxidase
-) Transferases:-
Transfer functional group other than hydrogen from one substrate to another.
• Kinases
• Transaminase
• Transmethylase
-) Hydrolases:-
Enzymes that catalyze hydrolytic cleavage of C—C, C—O, C—N and other covalent bonds.
• Lipase
• Arginase
• Pepsin
• Esterases
-) Lyases:-
Enzymes that catalyze cleavage of C—C, C—O, C—N and other covalent bonds by atom
elimination, generating double bonds.
• Aldolase
• Fumarase
• HMG CoA Lyase
• Argininosuccinase
-) Isomerases:-
Enzymes that catalyze geometricor structural changes within a molecule.
• Phosphohexose isomerase
• Mutase
• Racemase
-) Ligases:-
Enzymes that catalyze the joining together (ligation) of two molecules in reactions coupled
to the hydrolysis of ATP.
• Acetyl CoA carboxylase
Arginosuccinate synthetase
• PRPP synthetase
• Carbamoyl phosphate
Synthetase
• Glutamine synthetase
Protein classification
Based on the shape of proteins:-
Explained above
Based on nutritional value:-
-) Nutritionally rich (complete protein or first class proteins):
They contain all the essential amino acids in the required proportion. E.g. casein of milk.
-) Incomplete protein:
They lack one essential amino acid. E.g. Pulses deficient in methionine
-) Poor protein:
They lack many essential amino acids. E.g. Zein from corn lacks tryptophan and lysine.
Based on composition:-
-) Simple proteins:
Proteins which contain only aminoacids. E.g. albumin, globulin.
-) Conjugated proteins:
Combination of Protein with non-protein part called prosthetic group. E.g. glycoproteins,
lipoproteins, nucleoproteins, chromoprotein, phosphoprotein, metalloproteins.
Phosphoproteins
A phosphoprotein is a protein that is posttranslationally modified by the attachment of either
a single phosphate group, or a complex molecule such as 5'-phospho-DNA, through a
phosphate group. E.g. casein of Milk, vitellin of egg yolk.
Define lipids
Lipids are organic compound made up of fatty acids, alcohols and may contain other
compounds.
What is another name of sucrose
Sucrose is also known as table sugar.
Why sucrose is called invert sugar
It exhibits the phenomenon of inversion.
Sucrose is dextrorotatory because it contains glucose and fructose in its furanose form but
after hydrolysis fructose changes its form to pyranose which is strong levorotatory.
Vitamin E active form
α-tocopherol
Vitamin definition
A vitamin is an organic molecule that is an essential micronutrient that an organism needs in
small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism.
Significance of fructose?
-) It is the sweetest of all the sugar.
-) Pure honey is made up of fructose only.
-) Unlike glucose, fructose does not need insulin to enter into the cell to get metabolized.
Therefore theoretically even diabetics can take honey in small amounts.
-) It is present in appreciable amount in seminal fluid and acts as a source of energy for
spermatozoa.
pH
The pH is used to measure the basicity and acidity of a solution. The amount of hydrogen ion
concentration in a solution determines its pH.
Sucrose source
Sucrose occurs naturally in sugarcane, sugar beets, sugar maple sap, dates, and honey. It is
produced commercially in large amounts (especially from sugarcane and sugar beets) and is
used almost entirely as food.
Protein structure
The complete structure of a protein can be described at four different levels of complexity:
primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure.
-) Primary Structure:-
It is the linear sequence of amino acid held together by peptide bonds in its peptide chains.
Bond involved in primary structure is Peptide Bond, a type of covalent bond.
-) Secondary Structure:-
-Configurational relationship between residues which are about 3-4 amino acids apart in
linear sequence.
-The folding of short (3- to 30-residue), contiguous segments of polypeptide into
geometrically ordered units.
-Bonds involved in the secondary structure are primarily non-covalent.
-) Tertiary structure:-
The entire three-dimensional conformation of a polypeptide is referred to as tertiary
structure.
-) Quaternary structure:-
If more than one polypeptide aggregate to form one functional protein, the spatial
relationship between the polypeptide subunits is referred to as quaternary structure.
Primary protein example
Insulin
Quaternary protein example
Examples of proteins with quaternary structure include hemoglobin, DNA polymerase,
ribosomes, antibodies, and ion channels.
Bond present in DNA
Covalent bonds occur within each linear strand and strongly bond the bases, sugars, and
phosphate groups (both within each component and between components). Hydrogen bonds
occur between the two strands and involve a base from one strand with a base from the
second in complementary pairing.
Definition of buffer and most common buffer?
A buffer is a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of an acidic or basic
components.
Bicarbonate buffer is the most important buffer system in blood plasma (generally in the
extracellular fluid).
Definition of enzymes and types of inhibitory enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions.
There are three basic types of enzyme inhibition: competitive, noncompetitive, and
uncompetitive.
Competitive inhibition:-
A type of inhibition in which the inhibitor compete directly with a normal substrate for an
enzyme’s substrate binding site.
Noncompetitive inhibition:-
A type of inhibition in which the inhibitor bind to a site distinct from the substrate binding
site.
Uncompetitive inhibition:-
Uncompetitive inhibition occurs when an inhibitor binds to an allosteric site of a enzyme,
but only when the substrate is already bound to the active site.
What are polysaccharides? Mucopolysaccharides?
-) Polysaccharides are condensation product of more than 10 monosaccharide units or yield
> 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis.
-) Mucopolysaccharides are unbranched heteropolysaccharide chains composed of
Disaccharide repeat units
Pellagra is due to deficiency of
Pellagra is a disease that occurs when a person does not get enough niacin (B3).
Pellagra symptoms?
It is characterized by 4 "D's": diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death.
Polysaccharides examples?
Examples of polysaccharides include cellulose, chitin, glycogen, starch, and hyaluronic acid

Isomerism? Examples of Isomers?

Isomerism is the phenomenon in which more than one compounds have the same chemical
formula but different chemical structures.
-) Stereoisomerism:- Compounds having the same molecular formula but different spatial
configuration of H and OH group around the asymmetric carbon atoms.
-) D and L isomerism [Enantiomers]:- Difference in the orientation of H and OH group
around penultimate carbon atom results in two mirror images called D and L isomers
(enantiomers).
-) Epimers are carbohydrates that differ in the location of the -OH group in one location.
-) Optical isomerism:- When a beam of plane polarized light is passed through a solution of
carbohydrates, it rotates the light either to right or to left. Depends on the direction of
rotation, two optical isomers possible.
Sphingomyelin (Definition, Structure, Belongs to which class?)
-) Definition:- Any of a group of crystalline phosphatides that are obtained especially from
nerve tissue and that on hydrolysis yield a fatty acid.
-) Structure:- It contain fatty acids, sphingosine and phosphorylcholine or
phosphorylethanolamine.
It belongs to sphinghophospholipids class.
Translation (definition + explanation)
Definition:- The process by which message in the genetic code in the mRNA is translated
into sequence of amino acids in the proteins.
Explanation:-
Translation occurs outside the nucleus once nuclear processing of the pre-mRNA is complete
and the mRNA molecules have been transported to the cytoplasm via nuclear pores.
Translation is primarily facilitated by ribosomes located on the rough endoplasmic
reticulum, on the outer surface of the nuclear envelope, or in the cytoplasm.
The four steps of translation are:
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
Recycling
Difference between lipids and waxes
TAGs are esters of fatty acids with glycerol while waxes are the esters of fatty acids with
alchols, other than glycerol, sually monohydroxy alchol
What happens due to the deficiency of Vitamin A?
Night blindness occur due to deficiency of Vit-A.
What are structural proteins? Examples?
These proteins give strength and stability to the body e.g. collagen, keratin, elastin e.t.c.

Which protein maintains plasma colloid pressure?

The protein we use in this study, albumin, has a special role in regulating the osmotic
pressure balance at the level of blood vessels
Name Plasma Proteins
Albumin, globulins and fibrinogen are the major plasma proteins
Vitamin C disease by its deficiency?
Scurvy is the disease cause by its deficiency.
Exergonic
In an exergonic reaction, energy is released to the surroundings. The bonds being formed are
stronger than the bonds being broken.
Endergonic
In an endergonic reaction, energy is absorbed from the surroundings. The bonds being
formed are weaker than the bonds being broken.
Maltose
-) Also called fruit sugar.
-) The two glucose molecules are attached with each other through 1,4-glycosidic linkage
between C1 of glucose 2 molecule and C4 of glucose 1 molecule.
-) It is the reducing sugar
Sucrose
-) In sucrose, the two monosacchrides i.e. glucose and fructose, are linke together through α-
1,2-glycosidic linkage (C1 of glucose is joined with C2 of fructose).
-) Sucrose is non-reducing sugar.
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharide units are linked by a glycosidic bond or yield 2 monosaccharide units
on hydrolysis.Depending on their reducing property
Activation energy definition?
Activation energy is defined as the energy required to convert all molecules of a reacting
substance from ground state to transition state.
Myoglobin quaternary structure?
Haemoglobin has a quaternary structure composed of two alpha and two beta subunits,
whereas myoglobin has a tertiary structure.
Amino Acid which doesn’t take part in protein synthesis?
-) Citrulline and Ornithine:- Used in formation of urea from ammonia.
-) Taurine:- It conjugates with bile acid to synthesize bile salts.
-) GABA:- Acts as neurotransmitter
-) DOPA:- Acts as neurotransmitter, also used in treatment of parkinsonism.
Effect of temperature on enzymatic activity?
Raising the temperature increases the rate of both uncatalyzed and enzyme-catalyzed
reactions by increasing the kinetic energy and the collision frequency of the reacting
molecules.
Plasma proteins
Plasma proteins are proteins present in the blood plasma and are produced by the liver
(except for immunoglobulins).
The proteins are produced by the rough ER in hepatocytes and exported into the blood via
the golgi complex.
Albumin function
-) It has carrier functions in blood e.g. it carries Ca++, bile salts, bilirubin, fatty acids,
steroids e.t.c.
-) It exerts oncotic pressure in the plasma
Peptide linkage
An amide bond formed between an amino group and a carboxyl group at least one of which
is not an alpha group. Seen in the side chains of proteins.
How many Triglycerides in fatty acids?
Triglycerides are the most common form of fat in the bloodstream. They consist of three
fatty acid chains linked by a molecule called glycerol.
Define monosaccharaides?
-) Sugars which cannot be further hydrolyzed. They contain one sugar unit.
-) Building blocks of all carbohydrates.
How aldoses and ketosis classify and what is the diff between them?
Depending on the functional group, monosaccharides are classified into:
-Aldoses with Aldehyde group
-Ketoses with Keto group.
Aldehyde group is always present on C1 and keto group is always at C2
What is Km?
Substrate concentration required to produce half maximal velocity (½ Vmax).
What is Michael’s equation?
Vi =Vmax x S / Km + S
• Where Vi is the initial velocity
• Vmax is the maximal velocity
• Km is the Michaelis Constant
• S is the substrate concentration
Difference between nucleotides and nucleosides?
-) A nucleotide is an organic molecule that serves as the foundation for RNA and DNA.
Nucleotides also have roles that are linked to enzyme processes, cell signalling, and
metabolism. A phosphate group, a nitrogenous base, and a 5-carbon sugar are all present in
the nucleotide.
-) A nucleoside is any nucleotide that does not have a phosphate group but is bound to the 5’
carbon of the pentose sugar. A nucleotide always contains a nucleoside that binds the one to
three phosphate groups
Significance of Lactose?
-) Lactose is one of the main constituents of human and animal milk.
-) Lactose is used today in a large number of foodstuffs as well as in the pharmaceutical
industry.
Enzyme activity in low and high temp?
-) Lower temperatures lead to slower chemical reactions. Enzymes will eventually become
inactive at freezing temperatures but will restore most of their enzyme activity when
temperatures increase again, while some enzymes lose their activity when frozen.
-) At higher temperatures, the protein is denatured, and the rate of the reaction dramatically
decreases.
Phosphodiester bond - what is it?
In chemistry, a phosphodiester bond occurs when exactly two of the hydroxyl groups in
phosphoric acid react with hydroxyl groups on other molecules to form two ester bonds
Name the pH indicators?
Common indicators, such as phenolphthalein, methyl red, and bromothymol blue, are used to
indicate pH ranges of approximately 8 to 10, 4.5 to 6, and 6 to 7.5, respectively.
Phenolphthalein ranges from colourless to pink. Methyl red ranges from red to yellow.
Bromothymol blue ranges from yellow to blue.
How many types of pH meters are there?
There are three types of pH meter
-) Hz electrode
-) Zinc electrode
-) Glass electrode
Principle of pH meter?
An electric device used to measure H+ ions, acidity or alkality in a solution.
Two methods for determination of pH of Urine
The determination of urine pH is done by;
-) Diagnostic
-) Theoripetic
( Siemens Clinitek Status pH meter, a hand-held pH meter, and litmus paper read visually).
Determination of acids and bases in colorimeter (color indicator)
-) By using indicator:-
pH indicator are weak acid or weak base that exist as natural dyes and indicates the
concentration of H+ (H3O+) ions in a solution via a color changing indicator.
-) By using litmus paper:-
It is red below a pH of 4.5 and blue above the pH of 8.3. If it turns purple, this indicates the
pH is near neutral.
What is meant by Vmax
Why enzyme rate become constant after Vmax?
Vmax or a maximum velocity of an enzymatic reaction can be defined as the rate of the
reaction at which the enzyme shows the highest turnover. Increasing the substrate
concentration indefinitely further does not increase the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction
after reaching a certain point.
How we find out concentration of H+
[H+] = 10^−pH
Any equation for pH
pH = -log ([H+])
Give 2 therapeutic importance of enzymes?
Enzymes in replacement therapy, enzymes in cancer treatment, enzymes for fibrinolysis, and
finally enzymes that are used topically for various treatments.
Vitamin E diseases
-) Anemia
-) Hemolizing RBCs
-) Muscular leasions in childrens
What is peptone
Peptone, a protein decomposition product, is made by incomplete hydrolysis process of the
protein.
What is peptide
Peptides are short chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
What is tripeptide
They are the peptide chains made up of 3 amino acids linked through peptide bond.
Classification of polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are of two main types i.e. homopolysacchrides and hetropolysacchrides.
Hm-PS includes; Glycogen, starch, cellulose, dextrin e.t.c.
Ht-PS includes; Mucilages, hemicellulose and mucopolysacchrides.
Glycogen is found in?
Your body mainly stores glycogen in your liver and skeletal muscles
Proteins deficiency diseases in children?
Marasmus:-
-) It is condition of chronic deficiency calories in the presence of adequate intake of proteins.
-) It occurs usually in children under one year of age when mother’s breast milk is
supplemented with watery grewl of native cereals.
-) Symptoms include arrested growth, muscular wasting, weakness and anemia.
Kwashiorkar:-
-) It is a condition of inadequate intake of proteins in presence of adequate calories.
-) Seen in children above one year.
-) Symptoms include hypoalbuminia which causes massive edema of hands and feet,
dermatitis, depigmented hair, enlarged fatty liver and anemia.
Define lock and key theory of enzyme?
Three dimensional structure of the active site of unbound enzyme is complementary to the
substrate, thus enzyme and substrate fit each other.
Fluid mosaic model? Constituents? Can blood group be measured through this model?
The fluid mosaic model explains various observations regarding the structure of functional
cell membranes. According to this biological model, there is a lipid bilayer in which protein
molecules are embedded. The phospholipid bilayer gives fluidity and elasticity to the
membrane.
Yes we can measured the blood groups through this models because antigens are on the
plasma membrane.
Difference between reducing and non-reducing sugars?
Sugars with no free active group in their structure i.e. their carbonyl groups are engaged in
making bonds, are called non reducing sugars.
The potentially active carbonyl groups, if are free i.e. not engaged in any bond formation,
have reducing properties.
Nonstandard amino acids and examples
Nonstandard amino acids basically are standard amino acids that have been chemically
modified after they have been incorporated into a protein (posttranslational modification).
Cystine, desmosine, and isodesmosine, hydroxyproline, hydroxylysine, gamma-
carboxyglutamate.
How are carbs, proteins, and lipids digested and where?
-) Carbohydrates:-
Starch Maltose Glucose
(Amylase) (Maltase)
It starts in mouth and en in small intestine
-) Proteins:-
Proteins are first converts into peptones then polypeptides by enzymes include gastric juice,
trypsin and chymoptrypsin in pancreatic and intestinal juices.
It starts in stomach and absorbed in small intestine
-) Lipids:-
In the stomach fat is separated from other food substances. In the small intestines bile
emulsifies fats while enzymes (lipase) digest them. The intestinal cells absorb the fats.
Definition and example of isoenzyme?
Physically distinct forms of the same enzymes, but catalyze the same reaction. Different
molecular forms of the same enzyme synthesized from same/various tissues. E.g. Lactate
dehydrogenase (LDH), alkaline phosphatase, creatine phosphokinase (CPK) e.t.c.
What is methionine
-) Methionine is an essential amino acid in humans.
-) It is an initiator of protein synthesis.
-) It contains sulphur and provides it to the body.
-) Methionine is an antioxidant. It may help protect the body from damage caused by
ionizing radiation.
Amino acid present in hairs
The most abundant amino acids are: Cysteine, cystine, serine, glutamic acid, glycine,
threonine, arginine, valine, leucine and isoleucine. Alpha keratin, fibrous and with a low
sulphur content, is the protein we find in the greatest quantity in hair.
Types of beri beri?
-) Wet beriberi:- Marked peripheral vasodilatation, resulting in high output cardiac failure
with dyspnea, tachycardia, cardiomegaly, pulmonary and peripheral edema.
-) Dry beriberi:- Involves both peripheral and central nervous system.
-Typically a symmetric motor and sensory neuropathy with pain, paraesthesia and loss of
reflexes. The legs are affected more than the arms.
-Burning feet syndrome
-Polyneuritis is the principle feature
Diff between oil and ghee
-) Vegetable oils are made of unsaturated fatty acids whereas vegetable ghee is made up of
saturated fatty acids.
-) Ghee is a type of clarified butter, whereas oil is a viscous, neutral and non-polar chemical
substance.
Definition of emulsification
Emulsification is the process of dispersing two or more immiscible liquids together to form a
semistable mixture.
OR
Emulsification is the process of breaking down the fat into smaller blood cells which makes
it easy for enzymes to function and digest food
Which fat soluble and water soluble vitamin is toxic and why?
The fat-soluble vitamins A and D are the most likely to cause toxicity symptoms if you
consume them in high amount
Transamination and types?
Catalyze the exchange of amino group (NH2) between an amino acid and a ketoacid as a
result amino acid becomes ketoacid and ketoacid becomes amino acid.
-) ALT (Alanine transaminase) or SGPT
-) AST (Aspartate transaminase) or SGOT
Deamination
Deamination is the removal of an amino group from a molecule. Enzymes that catalyse this
reaction are called deaminases.
Lactose intolerance
-) It can be caused by inherent or acquired deficiency of the enzyme lactase.
-) Patients cannot digest lactose found in dairy products.
-) Symptoms include; Nausea, cramps, diarrhea e.t.c.
-) Patients should avoid dairy products.
Special amino acids?
Those AAs are produced in our body but do not take part in protein synthesis.
Pentose and their imp
Pentose is a five-carbon simple carbohydrate (monosaccharide). An example of a pentose
sugar would be ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA.
Zwitterion
It is an ion possessing both positive and negative electrical charges. Therefore, zwitterions
are mostly electrically neutral (the net formal charge is usually zero). It can act as acid as
well as base.
Scurvy
Causes:-
-) Deficient reduction of folate to THF resulting in inability of RBCs to mature.
-) Deficient hydroxylation of collagen, resulting in defective connective tissue.
Symptoms:-
-) Perifollicular hemorrhages.
-) May lead to megaloblastic anemia.
-) Frog position of legs
-) Gums bleeding
Semi essential amino acids with examples?
These AAs are synthesized in our body but are not produced in adequate amount to meet the
metabolic requirements, therefore should be taken in diet.
E.g. Arginine and histidine
Which amino acids take part in buffer?
These amino acids include arginine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, histidine, lysine,
and tyrosine.
How many amino acids are in glutathione?
A tripeptide comprised of three amino acids cysteine, glutamic acid, and glycine.
Neurotransmitters
A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across
a synapse. The cell receiving the signal, any main body part or target cell, may be another
neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell
Main inhibitory neurotransmitter
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is an amino acid that functions as the primary inhibitory
neurotransmitter for the central nervous system (CNS).
Main excitatory neurotransmitter
Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system (CNS).
Happy neurotransmitter and its use
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that mediated satisfaction, happiness and optimism. Most
modern anti-depressant drugs, known as serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), act by
increasing the amount of serotonin available to brain cells.
Which sugar helps in fertilization?
Fructose and glucose
Function of hyaluronic acid and how it helps in fertilization
-) It is present in skin in high concentration where it acts as an intercellular cementing agent,
which prevent the penetration of bacteria and other microorganisms through skin.
-) It is present in synovial fluid thus helps in lubrication of joint.
-) Present in seminal fluid where it is believe to promote fertilization of the ovum.
what is an allosteric site
Sites different from the active site of an enzyme where a molecule can bind and change the
shape of the active site is called allosteric site.
Glycoprotein (definition + example)
Glycoproteins are proteins which contain oligosaccharide chains covalently attached to
amino acid side-chains. One example of glycoproteins found in the body is mucins, which
are secreted in the mucus of the respiratory and digestive tracts.
Tags and Waxes example
-) TAGs:- Fats and oils
-) Waxes:- Beeswax, lanolin and spermaceti
Induce fit model
Binding of substrate to specific part of enzyme induce conformational changes in the active
site of the enzyme.
Enzyme changes shape during or after binding with the substrate.
In which condition phosphatase levels increase
High alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels may be a sign of a liver problem or a bone disorder.
Tyrosine helps in formation of?
It helps the body build proteins in your body, and produce enzymes, thyroid hormones, and
the skin pigment melanin. It also helps the body produce neurotransmitters that help nerve
cells communicate. Tyrosine is particularly important in the production of epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and dopamine.
Which enzyme is found in tears?
Lysozyme is the major enzyme in tears.
Factors of enzymes? What is the optimum temperature for working of enzymes?
-) Temperature
-) Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)
-) Enzyme Concentration
-) Substrate Concentration
The optimum temperature for most human enzymes is between 35 and 40°C
Derivatives of monosaccharides, functions, and effects of their deficiency
-) Many derivatives of the monosaccharides are found in the systems, which include sugar
phosphate, deoxy and amino sugars, sugar alcohol, and sugar phosphate, deoxy and amino
sugar, sugar alcohols, and sugar acids.
-) Their major function in living systems is the storage and transport of energy. They can
also have structural, informational, recognition, and protective functions.
Reason of gum bleeding?
Deficiency of vitamin C
If vitamins increase in amount what do we call it?
Taking an excessive amount of any one vitamin can cause serious health problems, a
condition generally referred to as hypervitaminosis, or vitamin toxicity.
Osmolality?
Osmolality is a test that measures the concentration of all chemical particles found in the
fluid part of blood. It is the number of solute particles in 1 kg of solvent.
What is oligosaccharides, examples, and functions
-) Oligosaccharide, any carbohydrate of from three to six units of simple sugars
(monosaccharides).
-) Three examples of oligosaccharides are raffinose, fructooligosaccharides and
galactooligosaccharides.
-) The only common features of the varied functions of oligosaccharides are that they either
mediate 'specific recognition' events or that they provide 'modulation' of biological
processes.
What are ketone body and where are they present in normal conditions
Ketone bodies are produced by the liver and used peripherally as an energy source when
glucose is not readily available.
Ketones are always present in the blood and their levels increase during fasting and
prolonged exercise.
Importance of hydrogen bond in nucleic acid
Hydrogen bonds play a key role in the stabilization of protein and nucleic acid secondary
structure and in modulating the speed and specificity of enzymatic reactions.
What is cellulose?
-) Chief constituents of plant cell wall.
-) Homopolysaccharide of βGlucose in β 1, 4 linkage
-) Insoluble
-) Major component of dietary fiber [Source of bulk in the diet]
Examples of derived proteins
Examples of derived proteins are proteases, peptones, and peptides. These are formed during
the digestion of proteins.
Define monopeptides, dipeptides, polypeptides
-) Any peptide containing a single amino acid (combined with some other entity)
-) A dipeptide is a molecule that consists of two amino acids joined together by a peptide
bond
-) A dipeptide is a molecule that consists of three amino acids joined together by two
peptide bonds
Monomers of proteins
Proteins are composed of monomers called amino acids.
What are ketogenic bodies? Examples
The two main ketone bodies are acetoacetate (AcAc) and 3-beta-hydroxybutyrate (3HB),
while acetone is the third, and least abundant, ketone body.
Keratin structure?
-) Alpha helix coiled coil structure, i.e. two alpha helix are wind around one another to form
a super helix.
-) Cross links are formed by disulphide bond.
Relation of amide group to peptide linkage?
A peptide bond is basically an amide-type of covalent chemical bond. This bond links two
consecutive alpha-amino acids from C1 (carbon number one) of one alpha-amino acid and
N2 (nitrogen number two) of another.
How enzymes increase rate of reaction?
Enzymes (and other catalysts) act by reducing the activation energy, thereby increasing the
rate of reaction.
Justify water as a universal solvent?
Because of its polarity and ability to form hydrogen bonds, water makes an excellent solvent,
meaning that it can dissolve many different kinds of molecules. Most of the chemical
reactions important to life take place in a watery environment inside of cells, and water's
capacity to dissolve a wide variety of molecules is key in allowing these chemical reactions
to take place.
What is acid base balance?
The state of having the right amount of acid and base in the blood and other body fluids.
Keeping a normal acid-base balance is important for the body to work the way it should.
What are electrolytes?
A substance that breaks up into ions (particles with electrical charges) when it is dissolved in
water or body fluids. Some examples of ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and
phosphate.
Plasma osmolarity?
Plasma osmolality is a measure of the different solutes in plasma. It is primarily determined
by sodium and its corresponding anions (chloride and bicarbonate), glucose, and urea.
What are extracellular and intracellular ions?
Extracellular ions:- Na+, Ca++, Cl-, HCO3-
Intracellular ions:- K+, Mg++, SO4-
Value of plasma osmolarity?
Normal values range from 275 to 295 mOsm/kg (275 to 295 mmol/kg).
What happens when acid bases balance is disturbed?
Disruption in your acid-base balance can lead to medical conditions known as acidosis and
alkalosis.
Structure of starch
-) Homopolysaccharides made up only of glucose.
-) Amylose (13–20%) which has a nonbranching helical structure.
-) Amylopectin (80–87%) which consist of branched chains with 24–30 glucose residues.
Function of RNA polymerase?
RNA polymerase is an enzyme that is responsible for copying a DNA sequence into an RNA
sequence, during the process of transcription.
Number of amino acids in insulin
Human insulin consists of 51 amino acids, divided into two chains, commonly labelled A
and B, with 21 and 30 amino acids respectively.
What is ECM? What are its contents?
In biology, the extracellular matrix (ECM), also called intercellular matrix, is a three-
dimensional network consisting of extracellular macromolecules and minerals, such as
collagen, enzymes, glycoproteins and hydroxyapatite that provide structural and biochemical
support to surrounding cells.
Mutation?
In biology, a mutation is an alteration in the nucleic acid sequence of the genome of an
organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA.
Lagging and leading strand?
-) Lagging strand:- The strand that opens in the 3’ to 5’ direction towards the replication fork
is referred to as the lagging strand. The strand is replicated discontinuously. Short stretches
called okazaki fragments are formed during replication.
-) Leading strand:- The strand that runs in the 5’ to 3’ direction in the replication fork is
referred to as the leading strand. The strand is replicated continuously.
Albumin globulin ratio disturbances?
The normal range for albumin/globulin ratio is over 1, usually around 1 to 2. That's because
there's a bit more albumin than globulin in serum protein.
An imbalance in the ratio of albumin to globulin may signify ongoing inflammation, liver
problems, or in rare cases immunodeficiency
Bond between nucleotide? How can we resolve that bond through high temperature?
DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotides that are linked to one another in a chain by
chemical bonds, called ester bonds, between the sugar base of one nucleotide and the
phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide.
So lots of heat is required to separate these DNA strands. Thankfully, the phosphodiester
bonds that join each nucleotide in the DNA backbone are much stronger and do not separate
when the molecule is heated to 95 to 100 degrees Celsius.
Km value?
Km values generally lies between 10-1 to 10 -6M.
DNA replication and its enzymes?
-) In molecular biology, DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical
replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule.
-) There are four main enzymes that facilitate DNA replication: helicase, primase, DNA
polymerase, and ligase.
Normal concentration of Albumin?
The normal range is 3.4 to 5.4 g/dL (34 to 54 g/L).
What is hypocalcaemia? What is its clinical condition?
-) Low serum calcium concentrations are most often caused by disorders of PTH or vitamin
D.
-)Muscle cramps can be very painful and progress to carpal spasm or tetany. Paresthesias of
the extremities may occur, along with fatigue and anxiety.
DNA polymerase function?
The DNA polymerase enzymes double the amount of DNA in a cell during cell division.
Proofreading: The DNA polymerase enzymes also proofread the duplicated DNA and repair
it.
Explain galactose? What is its function in milk and why is it important for baby?
Galactose is a simple sugar belonging to simple carbohydrates which occurs in D-form in
lactose.
Because galactose is a precursor to glucose production, it is an important energy-providing
nutrient.
Galactose is a major nutrient in normal newborn infants and serves as a substrate for energy
production and fuel storage and a regulator of carbohydrate assimilation
Active form of Vitamin E? And its advantages?
-) α-tocopherol is the active form of vitamin E
-) Its main role is to act as an antioxidant, scavenging loose electrons—so-called “free
radicals”—that can damage cells. It also protects against heart disease
Water dissociation?
When water dissociates, one of the hydrogen nuclei leaves its electron behind with the
oxygen atom to become a hydrogen cation (H+). The hydrogen ion is not stable and bonds to
the oxygen atom of a second unionized water molecule to form a hydronium ion (H3O+).
Osmotic pressure?
-) It is the hydrostatic pressure exerted by solutes on solvents. This pressure allows only
solvent to move across the semi permeable membrane. This pressure equalize and maintains
the osmotic equilibrium on both sides of semi-permeable membrane.
First enzyme in DNA replication?
Helicase is the first replication enzyme to load on at the origin of replication
Cell organelles, definition & function
Mitochondria:-
-) Definition:- An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical
processes of respiration and energy production occur. It has a double membrane, the inner
part being folded inwards to form layers.
-) Function:-
-To produce ATP (i.e., phosphorylation of ADP) through respiration.
-Regulation of the membrane potential
-Apoptosis-programmed cell death
-Calcium signaling (including calcium-evoked apoptosis)
-Cellular proliferation regulation
-Steroid synthesis.
-Certain heme synthesis reactions
Lysosome:-
-) Definition:- Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of
enzymes capable of breaking down all types of biological polymers—proteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, and lipids.
-) Function:-
-Contain nucleases for degrading DNA and RNA.
-Contain lipase for degrading lipids
-Contain glycosidases for degrading glycoprotein, proteoglycans and glycolipids.
-Contains protease and peptidases for degrading proteins.
-Contain bactericidal agents e.g. lysozyme and lysoferrin
-Responsible for regression of various tissues.
Endoplasmic reticulum:-
-) Definition:- It is a network of interconnected tubular and flat vesicular structures, bounded
by a lipid bilayer membrane, filled with endoplasmic matrix
-) Function:-
-Granular ER synthesize proteins.
-Agranular ER synthesize lipids
-Has enzymes for glycogen breakdown
-Has enzymes to detoxify substances that are damaging to cell.
Nucleus:-
-) Definition:- The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle that contains the genetic
material and other instructions required for cellular processes.
-) Function:-
- It stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA.
-Coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism, protein
synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).
Nucleoli:-
-) Definition:- These are one or more smaller masses present in nucleus, having no limiting
membrane
-) Function:- Responsible for rRNA synthesis and ribsome assembly.
Peroxisome:-
-) Definition:- These are organelles formed by budding off from smooth ER.
-) Function:-
-A major function of the peroxisome is the breakdown of very long chain fatty acids through
beta-oxidation.
Difference between active and passive transport.
 Active transport:- Passive transport:-
-) Active transport requires cellular energy. -) Passive transport does not require any
-) The circulation in this process is from a cellular energy.
region of lower concentration to a region of -) The circulation in this process is from a
higher concentration. region of higher concentration to a region of
-) It is a dynamic and rapid process. lower concentration.
-) It is a physical and comparatively slow
process.
Difference between active and passive
transport
Simple diffusion:- Facilited diffusion:-
-) Simple diffusion occurs within the -) Facilitated diffusion is caused by the
phospholipid bilayer. presence of transmembrane proteins in the
body.
-) The rate of Simple diffusion is directly -) The rate of facilitated diffusion is
related to the concentration gradient across a determined by the kinetics of the carrier-
membrane, as well as the solute molecule’s mediated transport.
membrane permeability.

Co & counter transport

-) Co transport:-
Carrier protein has two sites on outside, one for Na+ and other for glucose or amino acid
When both bind Conc. Gradient of Na+ cause conformational change in carrier protein
Glucose or AA co-transported with Na+ to inside.
Found in; Epithelium of GIT and renal tubules.
-) Counter transport:-
This occurs in opposite direction, i.e. Na+ is transported to inside and other substance to
opposite side.
Used for; Exchange of Na with K+, Ca++, H+
Difference between RER and SER
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:- Rough endoplasmic reticulum:-
-) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum does not -) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum possesses
have ribosomes on its membrane. ribosomes attached to its membrane.
-) It is organized of cisternae and a few
-)It is organized of vesicles and tubules. tubules.
-) It participates in the synthesis of enzymes
-) Synthesis of glycogen, lipids, and steroids. and proteins.
-) It is present near the cell membrane. -)It is present near the cytoplasm.
Exocytosis & endocytosis
-) Endocytosis is a general term describing a process by which cells absorb external material
by engulfing it with the cell membrane. Endocytosis is usually subdivided into pinocytosis
and phagocytosis.
-)Exocytosis is the fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane and results in the
discharge of vesicle content into the extracellular space and the incorporation of new
proteins and lipids into the plasma membrane.
Define cell, homeostasis
Cell:- The smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and
the tissues of the body.
Homeostasis:- Maintenance of static or constant conditions in internal environment is called
homeostatis.
-Negative feedback: When final result is opposite to initial stimulus.
-Positive feedback: When final result is more of initial stimulus.
Types of protein in cell membrane
They are mostly glycoproteins scattered in lipid bilayer
-) Integral proteins:- Penetrates all the way through lipid bilayer. Provide channels for
passage of water-soluble substances, some act as carrier proteins.
-) Peripheral proteins:- Do not penetrate lipid bilayer, but are attached only to one surface of
the membrane or to one of the end of integral proteins. Acts as enzymes.
How does Golgi apparatus perform packaging
Transport vesicles usually pick up the molecules from the rough endoplasmic reticulum and
transport them to the cis face of the Golgi stacks, where they fuse with the Golgi membrane
and are sorted based on their next destination. They are then moved through the Golgi
cisternae as they undergo remodeling and other modifications. The modified protein or lipid
molecules then depart from the trans face of the Golgi stacks where they are either secreted
from the cell, or transported to another cell compartment.
Function of channel and carrier proteins
-) The main purpose of a channel protein is to transport the ions and water molecules quickly
through the membrane.
-) Carrier proteins bind specific solutes and transfer them across the lipid bilayer by
undergoing conformational changes that expose the solute-binding site sequentially on one
side of the membrane and then on the other.
Basics of humoral immunity
Humoral immunity refers to antibody production, and all the accessory processes that
accompany it
Which immunity is specified
Acquired immunity is also called specific immunity because it tailors its attack to a specific
antigen previously encountered.
Difference between phagocytosis macrophages and neutrophils
-) When the body is breached by infectious agents, such as certain microbes, they encounter
various parts of the immune system. In general, phagocyte is a broad term which refers to
any cell which carries out phagocytosis.
-) Macrophage is a type of white blood cell which is a phagocyte. They are scavengers which
constantly move around to remove dead cells and foreign bodies. They do not specifically act
against a particular antigen and are thus considered to be a part of the innate immune system.
-) Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cell in humans and arise from
granulocytes. They are also phagocytic in nature
Difference between serum and plasma
Plasma is the liquid portion of unclotted blood and still contains the clotting factors. Serum
is the liquid portion of blood that has been allowed to clot.
Hematogenesis
The formation of blood cells in the living body (especially in the bone marrow)
Site of RBC formation at different stages of life
In the human embryo, the first site of blood formation is the yolk sac. Later in embryonic
life, the liver becomes the most important red blood cell-forming organ, but it is soon
succeeded by the bone marrow,
Functions of iron
Iron is an essential element for almost all living organisms as it participates in a wide variety
of metabolic processes, including oxygen transport, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis,
and electron transport.
Erythroblasts foetalis when does its chances increases
Erythroblastosis fetalis classically results from Rh (D) incompatibility, which may develop
when a woman with Rh-negative blood is impregnated by a man with Rh-positive blood and
conceives a fetus with Rh-positive blood, sometimes resulting in hemolysis.
These antibodies usually don't cause problems during a first pregnancy. But Rh
incompatibility may cause problems in later pregnancies, if the baby is Rh-positive.
Anticoagulant and coagulant proteins
-) Protein C is a vitamin K-dependent plasma protein. Activated protein C is a potent
anticoagulant and enhances blood clot lysis.
-) Fibrinogen, the most abundant plasma blood coagulation protein
Hemolytic anemia and it's examples
Hemolytic anemia may be caused by inherited conditions that affect the red blood cells (cells
are destroyed faster than they can be made). It's also caused by certain infections or if
someone receives a blood transfusion from a donor whose blood type didn't match.
Examples include; sickle cell disease, thalassemia, hereditary spherocytosis, glucose-6-
phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency
Energy source of active transport
The energy for primary active transport comes from the energy-carrying molecule called
ATP.
The energy in secondary active transport comes from the electrochemical gradient created by
pumping ions out of the cell.
First step of homeostasis
Constriction of the blood vessel
Which type of feedback is mainly involve in homeostasis
Homeostasis typically involves negative feedback
Which type of ER stores calcium
In muscle cells, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum regulates calcium ion storage
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and its specialized sub compartments such as the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, is the main dynamic Ca2+ storage compartment of the cell.