Basics of Psychological Counselling

BASICS OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL
COUNCELLING
(FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY)

2023
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Prof. Dr Uttara Deolankar
COURSE DESIGN AND REVIEW COMMITTEE

Prof. Piyushee Mukherjee Prof Tanmay Joshi
Prof. Dr. Alapati Srinagesh Prof. Dr Uttara Deolankar
COURSE WRITERS
Prof. Dr Rekha Chavan Mrs Shefhali Phalak
Prof. Gajanan Nerkar
EDITOR
Yogesh Bhosle
Published by Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning (SCDL), Pune

July 2022
Copyright 2023 Symbiosis Open Education Society

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, transmitted or utilised in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information
storage or retrieval system without written permission from the publisher.
Acknowledgement
Every attempt has been made to trace the copyright holders of the materials reproduced in this book.
Should any infringement have occurred, SCDL apologises for the same and will be pleased to make
necessary corrections in future editions of this book.
II
PREFACE
Psychosocial counselling is a service provided by a skilled professional counsellor to an individual,

family, or group for the purpose of improving well-being, alleviating distress, and enhancing coping
skills. This fundamental course will provide you with the knowledge of Human developmental
process and Concepts of guidance and counselling. We will also be discussing on the history and
challenges of counselling. The course also highlights on the process of counselling and Techniques
of Guidance. Lastly, we will also discuss Ethics and Legal issues in counselling.
III
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Rekha Chavhan is a teacher educator working in the field of Education since past 16 years with
excellent ICT skills. She has deep understanding of education systems and teaching learning process.
Passionate about integrating ICT in teaching learning. Proficient in the use of Moodle, Learning
Management Systems (LMS), Google classroom, canvas to deliver courses through blended mode.
Her area of interest includes Education Technology, e Learning, MOOCS, OER’s and open educational
practices.
Mrs Shefali Bharat Phalak is a counsellor and has conducted workshops for guiding students.
To name a few of them, Individual Counselling for 8th to 10th class students, Study Skills. She
has also conducted lectures on Group Sessions – Life Skills - Self Awareness, Goal Setting, Time
Management, Motivation, Behavioural Problems.
Prof. Gajanan Nerkar has been working as Assistant Professor Law at SCDL, Pune. He has
completed his Master in Commerce, Master in Arts, Master in Business Administration. He is a
qualified Company Secretary. His area of expertise has been Law and Finance. He has more than 14
years of experience in the field of teaching and 4 years in the Industry. He has authored 8 books and
has published 5 research papers in ISSN and UGC care journals. He has also worked as a Corporate
Trainer and Soft skills Trainer to deliver numerous Management Development Programs.
IV
CONTENTS
Unit No. Title Page No.

1 Human Development Process 1 - 12
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Human Development
1.3 Principles of Development
1.4 Stages of Human Development
1.5 Psychological Counselling
1.6 Professional Counselling
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
2 Concepts of Guidance and Counselling 13 - 30
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concept and Definition of Guidance
2.2.1 Nature and Scope of Guidance
2.2.2 Need and Importance of Guidance
2.3 Concept and Definition of Counselling
2.3.1 Nature and Scope of Counselling
2.3.2 Need and Importance of Counselling
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
3 History of Counselling and Counselling in India 31 - 48
3.1 Background and Overview of Historical Context of Psychological
Counselling
3.2 The Historical Developments of Counselling Psychology
3.3 Counselling and Psychotherapy
3.4 Difference Between Guidance and Counselling
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
V
4 Challenges of counselling in 21st century 49 - 64
4.1 The Status of Counselling in India
4.2 Challenges of Counselling in 21st Century
4.3 Counselling Relationship: Qualities of Helping Relationship
4.4 Egan’s Model of Counselling with Reference to Challenges in
Counselling
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
5 Purpose, Goals and Types of Counselling 65 - 78

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Purpose of Counselling
5.3 Goals of Counselling
5.4 Types of Counselling
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
6 The Process of Counselling 79 - 100

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Introduction to the Process of Counselling
6.3 Rapport Establishment and History Taking
6.4 Consent Signing, Testing, Interpretation
6.5 Conveying Results, Further Support
6.6 Termination Summary
Summary
Keywords
Self Assessment Questions
References
VI
7 Techniques of Guidance 101 - 116
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Cumulative Records
7.3 Anecdotal Records
7.4 Case Study
7.5 Case Conference
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
8 Psychometric Assessment in Guidance 117 - 132
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Nature of Psychological Tests
8.3 Tests of Abilities
8.4 Achievement and Aptitude Tests
8.5 Personality Estimates and Interest Inventory
8.6 Projective Techniques
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
9 Referral and Transference 133 - 148

9.1 Definition of Referral, Purpose of Referral
9.2 Impact of Referral on Client and Counsellor
9.3 Definition and Concept of Transference and Countertransference,
Types of Transference
9.4 Difference between Transference and Countertransference
9.5 Examples of Referral and Transference
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
VII
10 Ethics and Legal issues in Counselling in India and Abroad 149 - 174
10.1 Ethical Practices of Psychological Counselling
10.2 Ethical Codes and Guidelines
10.3 Rights of Person Who Seeks the Counselling – Dimensions of
Confidentiality
10.4 Fidelity: Honouring the Trust Placed in the Counsellor
10.5 Dual Relationships in Counselling Practices
10.6 Case Study
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
Human Development Process
UNIT
1
Structure:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Human Development
1.3 Principles of Development
1.4 Stages of Human Development - Prenatal to Adulthood
1.5 Counselling Psychology
1.6 Professional Counselling
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
Human Development Process 1

Notes
---------------------- Objectives
---------------------- After going through this unit, you will be able to:
---------------------- • Understand the concept of Human Development

• State principles of human development
----------------------
• Explain stages of human development
----------------------
• Understand importance of Counselling Psychology in human
---------------------- development
• State ethical principle in counselling
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1.1 INTRODUCTION
---------------------- Understanding human development is a complex task. It covers the entire

life span of an individual. This span starts with the prenatal stage and ends
---------------------- with death of an individual. Throughout life an individual adopts and develops
specific qualities, abilities, characteristics and interests. All these specific
---------------------- qualities, characteristics, interests etc. determine and influence the behaviour
---------------------- and lifestyle of an individual.
Imagine two children born in the same city and the same year to families with
----------------------
similar socio economic status. One child grows to be a assertive and confident while
---------------------- the other grows up to be timid and shy. The study of stages of human development
can help explain the reasons of these differences and much more.
----------------------
The reasons for studying human development are to gain understanding of
---------------------- ones own life experience, help one to understand what they are going through,
understand the relationship between society and individual growth, lead more
---------------------- effectively and support physical mental health of others.
---------------------- Developmental psychology studies how and why individuals turn out the
way they do, it examines the growth and changes throughout the human life
---------------------- span, studying factors that influence personality, preference and health.
----------------------
1.2 CONCEPT OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
----------------------
Human development is a multifaceted process and involves different
---------------------- aspects. One aspect involves biological and physical development, the size
and complexity of the human whereas the other aspect involves cognitive
----------------------
and intellectual abilities and processes. What children know, learn and
---------------------- can remember changes greatly as they grow with the time. A third aspect
involves social behaviour and relationships. A new born has limited ability to
---------------------- participate in social interactions but before reaching adulthood a child forms
many relationships and knows how to behave appropriately in variety of social
----------------------
situations. All the different facets of development are interrelated.
2 Basics of Psychological Councelling

Development refers to change through time but not all changes are Notes
developmental. Developmental changes are systematic rather than haphazard
and successive rather than independent of earlier conditions. Werner (1957) ----------------------
suggested that changes areas when they are from a form of to a considered
developmental global organization more differentiated and complex form. ----------------------
The pattern of development for all typically developed children is ----------------------

approximately the same, so it is easy to evaluate each child in relation to the norms
----------------------
of her/his age group. The typically developed children may make adjustments
to social expectations. But the children who deviate from the normal pattern ----------------------
may improve with help, opportunities and motivation. Knowledge about the
pattern of normal development may facilitate the parents and teachers to guide, ----------------------
provide opportunities and encouragement for the delayed children.
----------------------
One of the key element of growth and development is genetics. Genetics
influences the speed and way in which people develop though other factors such as ----------------------
parenting, education, experiences and socio economic factors too play the role. The
----------------------
multiple genetic factors that affect human growth and development include genetic
interactions and sex chromosome abnormalities. Human’s genetic always interact ----------------------
with the environment this can impact development and growth. For example if
a child is exposed to drugs, the child’s cognitive abilities may be impacted, thus ----------------------
changing the developmental process. Even if the child’s genes would indicate a
----------------------
tall height, if that child experiences poor nutrition, it may impact their height.
Each child inherits certain genetic potential from the parents. Although ----------------------
the gene determines particular behavior, it is the environment that determines
----------------------
where within those limits the behavior will be expressed. Major environmental
influences include: Culture-the impact of Indian values, Race, Social class - ----------------------
the influence of wealth, poverty, middle-class status, Ethnicity-the impact of
common language, religion, or national origin,, Key people in the child’s life ----------------------
- parents, peers, relatives and others who exert a powerful influence,,The media -
----------------------
information and attitudes conveyed to children on TV, over the radio,and through
books, magazines, newspapers, records, tapes and CDs, Unpredictable life events ----------------------
- the unexpected turns (or the loss of a and othersudden wealth poverty, parent,
sudden disability factors) in life can alter the course of the child’s life. ----------------------
----------------------
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
----------------------
There is set of principles that characterizes the pattern and process of growth
and development. These principles describe typical development as a predictable ----------------------
and orderly process i.e., we can predict how most children will develop and that
----------------------
they will develop at a same rate and at about the same time as other children.
Although there are individual differences in timing of developmental milestones ----------------------
such as ages and stages the principles of development are universal.
----------------------
● Development is continuous
● Development follows an orderly pattern ----------------------
● Development proceeds from general to specific ----------------------
● Development leads to integration
Notes ● Development proceeds from egocentricism to allocentricism
● Development proceeds from dependence to autonomy
----------------------
● Development is an individualized process
---------------------- ● Development is predictable
---------------------- ● Development is the product of the interaction between maturation and
learning
----------------------
● Development is the product of the interaction between heredity and
---------------------- environment
● All the aspects of development are interrelated
----------------------
● Development is cumulative
---------------------- ● Development is complex
---------------------- ● Development is spiral and not linear
----------------------
1.4 STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT - PRENATAL
---------------------- TO ADULTHOOD
---------------------- Prenatal Period (Conception birth)
---------------------- ● Physical Development
---------------------- Basic body structures and organs form. Brain growth spurt begins. Physical
growth is the most rapid in the life span. Vulnerability to environmental
---------------------- influences is great.
---------------------- ● Cognitive Development
Abilities to learn and remember, and to respond to sensory stimuli, are
----------------------
developing.
---------------------- ● Psycho social Development
---------------------- Fetus responds to mother’s voice and develops a preference for it
---------------------- Infancy (Birth to age 3 years).
● Physical Development
----------------------
All senses and body systems operate at birth to varying degrees. The
---------------------- brain grows in complexity and is highly sensitive to environmental
influence. Physical growth and development of motor skills are rapid.
----------------------
● Cognitive Development
----------------------
Ability to learn and remember are present, even in early weeks. Use
---------------------- of symbols and ability to solve problems develop by end of second
year. Comprehension and use of language develop rapidly.
----------------------
● Psycho social Development
----------------------
Attachments to parents and others form. Self-awareness develops.
---------------------- Shift from dependence to autonomy occurs. Interest in other
children increases.
Early childhood (3 to 6 years) Notes
----------------------
Growth is steady, appearance becomes more slender and proportions
more adult like. Appetite diminishes, and sleep problems are common. ----------------------
Handedness appears, fine and gross skills and motor strength improve
----------------------
----------------------
Thinking is somewhat egocentric, but understanding of other
people’s perspectives grows. Cognitive immaturity leads to some ----------------------
illogical ideas about the world. Memory and language improve.
Intelligence becomes more predictable. Attending preschool is ----------------------
common, kindergarten more so. ----------------------
----------------------
Self-concept and understanding of emotions grow, self-esteem is
global. Independence, initiative/ self-control, and self-care increase. ----------------------
Gender identity develops. Play becomes more imaginative, more
elaborate, and more social. Altruism, aggression, and fearfulness ----------------------
are common. Family is still focus of social life, but other children ----------------------
become more important.
----------------------
Middle childhood (6 to 11 years)
● Physical Development ----------------------
Growth Slows. Strength and athletic skills improve. Respiratory ----------------------
illnesses are common, but health is generally better than at any
other time in life span. ----------------------
● Cognitive Development ----------------------
Egocentrism diminishes. Children begin to think logically but ----------------------
concretely. Memory and Language skills increase. Cognitive gains
permit children to benefit from formal schooling. ----------------------
● Psycho social Development ----------------------
Self concept becomes more complex, affecting self-esteem.
----------------------
Co-regulation reflects gradual shift in control from parents to child.
Peers assume central importance. ----------------------
Adolescence (11 to 20 years)
----------------------
----------------------
And other are rapid and Physical growth changes profound.
Reproductive maturity occurs. Major health risks arise from ----------------------
behavioral issues, such as eating disorders and drug abuse.
----------------------
----------------------
Ability to think abstractly and scientific reasoning develops.
Immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behaviors. ----------------------
Education focuses on preparation for college or vocation.
Notes ● Psycho social Development
Search for identity, including sexual identity, becomes central.
---------------------- Relationships with parents are generally good. Peer groups help develop
---------------------- and test self-concept but also may exert an antisocial influence.
Early Adulthood (20 to 40 years)
----------------------
----------------------
Cognitive abilities and moral judgments assume more complexity.
---------------------- Educational and career choices are made.
----------------------
Personality trait and styles become relatively stable, but changes in
---------------------- personality maybe influenced by life stages and events. Decision
are made about intimate relationships and personal lifestyles. Most
---------------------- people marry, and most become parents.
---------------------- Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)
---------------------- ● Physical Development
Physical condition peaks, then declines slightly. Lifestyle choices
----------------------
influence health. Some deterioration of sensory abilities, health,
---------------------- stamina, and skills may take place. Women experience menopause.
----------------------
Most basic peak;and skills are mental abilities expertise practical
---------------------- problem solving high. Creative output may decline but improve
in quality. For some, career success and earning powers peak; for
----------------------
others, burnout or career change may occur.
---------------------- ● Psycho social Development
---------------------- Sense of identity continues to develop; stressful midlife traction
may occur. Double responsibilities of caring for children and elderly
---------------------- parents may cause stress.
---------------------- Late Adulthood (65 years and above)
----------------------
Most people are healthy and active although health and physical
---------------------- abilities decline somewhat. Slowing of reaction time affects some
aspects of functioning.
----------------------
----------------------
Most people are mentally alert. Although intelligence and memory
---------------------- may deteriorate in some areas, most people find ways to compensate.
----------------------
Retirement from workforce may offer new options for use of time.
---------------------- People need to cope with personal losses and impending death.
Relationship with family and close friends can provide important
----------------------
support. Search for meaning in life assumes central importance.
Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
Make a list of at least five such members from your family and neighborhood
----------------------
about whom you feel that they have attained their physical growth. Through
conversation, find out their age and ask them the following questions and ----------------------
make a written account of their answers.
----------------------
1. Approximately, at what age did you stop growing in height?
2. After your attainment of complete height, what new things you are ----------------------
learning even now? ----------------------
3. Did you notice any change in your thinking and behavior during this
----------------------
period?
----------------------
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------

1. At a particular stage of development, after a child had developed to a ----------------------
certain level, there is likely to be a period of rest. In advancing further
development turns back and moves forward. This indicates which of ----------------------
the following principle?
----------------------
A. Development is cumulative
----------------------
B. Development is complex
C. Development is spiral and not linear ----------------------
D. Development is predictable ----------------------
2. During early adulthood which of the following begin to decline? ----------------------
A. Metabolism
----------------------
B. Emotional stability
----------------------
C. Physical fitness
D. Cognitive functioning ----------------------
3. Which of the following is NOT the ‘crisis’ that affect social emotional ----------------------
well being in middle adulthood?
----------------------
A. Physical signs of aging
----------------------
B. Children growing up and leaving home
C. Boredom with chosen career ----------------------
D. Enhancement in high problem solving skills ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes 1.5 COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY
---------------------- Counselling Psychology is a psychological speciality that encompasses
research and applied work in several broad domains such as counselling
---------------------- process and outcome, supervision and training, career development and
counselling and prevention and health. Counseling psychology is a general
----------------------
practice and health service provider specialty in professional psychology. It
---------------------- focuses on how people function both personally and in their relationships at all
ages. .Counseling psychology addresses the emotional, social, work, school
---------------------- and physical health concerns people may have at different stages in their lives,
focusing on typical life stresses and more severe issues with which people may
----------------------
struggle as individuals and as a part of families, groups and organizations.
---------------------- Counseling psychologists help people with physical, emotional and mental
health issues improve their sense of well being, alleviate feelings of distress
---------------------- and resolve crises. It is concerned with everyday problems in living. It also
provides assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of more severe psychological
----------------------
symptoms.
---------------------- Counselling psychologists are interested in answering variety of questions
---------------------- about counselling process and outcome. They also provide assessment,
diagnosis, and treatment of more severe psychological symptoms. Counselling
---------------------- process refers to how and why counselling happens and progresses. Counselling
outcome addresses whether or not counselling is effective, under what condition
---------------------- it is effective and what outcomes are considered as effective such as symptom
---------------------- reduction, behaviour change or quality of life improvement. Counselling
psychologists practice in diverse settings and employ a variety of evidence-
---------------------- based and theoretical approaches grounded in psychological knowledge.
In public agencies, independent practices, schools, universities, health care
---------------------- settings, and corporations, counselling psychologists work in collaboration with
---------------------- individuals to ameliorate distress, facilitate well-being, and maximize effective
life functioning. Research and practice are viewed as mutually informative and
---------------------- counselling psychologists conduct research in a wide range of areas, including
those of the counselling relationship and other psychotherapeutic processes, the
---------------------- multicultural dimensions of psychology, and the roles of work and mental health
---------------------- in optimal functioning. Counselling psychologists are especially concerned with
culturally appropriate methods suitable for investigating different perspectives
---------------------- on human behaviour, and promote the use of research methods drawn from
diverse epistemological perspectives, including innovative developments in
---------------------- qualitative and quantitative research.
---------------------- Across all stages of development (i.e., childhood, adolescence, adulthood
and older age) counseling psychologists focus on:
----------------------
● Healthy aspects and strengths of clients (whether being seen as individuals,
---------------------- couples, families, groups or organizations)
---------------------- ● Environmental/situational influences (how cultural, gender and lifestyle
issues shape people’s experiences and concerns).
----------------------
● The role of career and work in peoples’ lives.
The problems addressed by counseling psychology are addressed from Notes
developmental, environmental and cultural perspectives. They include:
----------------------
● School and career/work adjustment concerns.
● Making decisions about career and work, and dealing with School-work- ----------------------
Retirement transitions.
----------------------
● Relationship difficulties including marital and family difficulties.
----------------------
● Learning and skill deficits.
● Stress management and coping with negative life events. ----------------------
● Organizational problems. ----------------------

● Dealing with andadjusting to or Dealing adjusting physical disabilities, ----------------------
disease injury.
----------------------
● Personal/social adjustment.
● The development of one’s identity. ----------------------
● Persistent difficulties with relating to other people in general. ----------------------
● Mental disorders. ----------------------
1.6 PROFESSIONAL COUNSELLING ----------------------
Nowadays, more often than ever before, people are confronting stress ----------------------
and issues, therefore becoming more and more helpless in dealing with daily ----------------------
problems. The burden of a problem accompanied by the state of pressure is
even more difficult to deal with by the person who is suffering; that is why ----------------------
many people resort to professional assistance in order to obtain support and aid
during their entire counselling period. ----------------------
Life is full of daily challenges, which most people are not prepared to manage, ----------------------
without outside help. Not solving situations or ignoring them can lead to the occurrence
of early and certain personal problems that sooner or later may lead to frustration, ----------------------
stress and to the inability to solve personal problems. At various times in life, people ----------------------
feel overwhelmed by the multiplicity and gravity of the problems, they lose their
balance and become functional and powerless in solving their own problems. When ----------------------
they grow aware of these states, they resort to the counselor. Through professional
counselling support services are provided through a special person to the client who ----------------------
is feeling social discomfort, in order to solve the problem and also to regain his ----------------------
lost functional well being and balance. Professional counselling has become an
effective model for solving specific problems for more people in recent years. ----------------------
Professional counseling is a professional relationship that empowers ----------------------
diverse and to individuals, families, groups accomplish mental health, wellness,
education, and career goals. Counselors work with clients on strategies to ----------------------
overcome obstacles and personal challenges that they are facing.
----------------------
A professional counsellor is a highly-trained individual who is able to
use a different range of counselling approaches with their clients. He helps the ----------------------
client to find ways to deal with emotional issues.
Notes Professional counselling is a specialized social service, that has become
increasingly sought in modern times, because people need professional help
---------------------- to solve the many problems they are facing, which may also become more
complicated over time. They also need to learn simple techniques and methods
---------------------- for managing stress in order to be more effective in personal and professional
---------------------- problems.
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. __________________ help people with physical, emotional and
---------------------- mental health issues improve their sense of well-being, alleviate
feelings of distress and resolve crises.
----------------------
2. Counselling _________ are especially concerned with culturally
---------------------- appropriate methods suitable for investigating different perspectives
on human behaviour, and promote the use of research methods drawn
---------------------- from diverse epistemological perspectives, including innovative
---------------------- developments in qualitative and quantitative research.
3. _________ work with clients on strategies to overcome obstacles and
---------------------- personal challenges that they are facing.
---------------------- 4. A professional counsellor is a highly-trained individual who is able to
use a different range of _________ approaches with their clients.
----------------------
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
● Development in each area affects development in other. Development of
---------------------- physical skills makes the infant mobile, increases, his range of activity
---------------------- and helps him to explore his surroundings. This also helps in cognitive
development. Language development helps the child to communicate
---------------------- better. It also allows him to interact with more people. This interaction
has a significant influence on this social development. The child is a
---------------------- complete person with the experiences and skills in one area influencing
---------------------- the development in others. The effect of each area of development cannot
be separated out easily. Thus development is a holistic process.
---------------------- ● Counselling psychology plays significant role at each stage of human
---------------------- growth and development. Counselling psychologists use culturally
appropriate methods suitable for investigating different perspectives on
---------------------- human behaviour, and promote the use of research methods drawn from
diverse epistemological perspectives, including innovative developments
---------------------- in qualitative and quantitative research.
---------------------- ● Professional counselling has become increasingly sought in modern
times, because people need professional help to solve the many problems
---------------------- they are facing.

Notes
----------------------
1. Discus briefly the relative role of heredity and environment in growth
and development of an Individual. ----------------------
2. What are different ethical principles in counselling?
----------------------
3. Why its necessary for a counsellor to follow the ethical principles?
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress ----------------------
1. C
----------------------
2. A
----------------------
3. D
Fill in the blanks. ----------------------
1. Counselling psychologists help people with physical, emotional and ----------------------
mental health issues improve their sense of well-being, alleviate
feelings of distress and resolve crises. ----------------------
2. Counselling psychologists are especially concerned with culturally ----------------------
appropriate methods suitable for investigating different perspectives
on human behaviour, and promote the use of research methods drawn ----------------------
from diverse epistemological perspectives, including innovative
developments in qualitative and quantitative research. ----------------------
3. Counselors work with clients on strategies to overcome obstacles and ----------------------

personal challenges that they are facing.
----------------------
4. A professional counsellor is a highly-trained individual who is able to
use a different range of counselling approaches with their clients. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Suggested Reading
----------------------
● Aggarwal, J.C. (2002) Essentials of Educational Psychology. New Delhi:
---------------------- Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
● Berk E. Laura (1997) Child development. London: Allyn and Bacon
----------------------
● Dandapani, S. (2000). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi:
---------------------- Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.
---------------------- ● Elizabeth Hurlock (1978) Child Development, McGraw Hill.
---------------------- ● Harris (1993) Child Development: A. West Publishing Company. 25
● Hill. Tim Bond (2000) Standards and Ethics for Counselling in Action.
----------------------
SAGE Publication.
---------------------- ● Mangal, S.K. (2003) Advanced Educational Psychology. Prentice Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
----------------------
● Narayana Rao (2008) Counseling and Guidance. New Delhi: Tata Mc-
---------------------- Graw
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Concepts of Guidance and Counselling
UNIT
2
Structure:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concept and Definition of Guidance
2.2.1 Nature and Scope of Guidance
2.3 Concept and Definition of Counselling
2.3.1 Nature and Scope of Counselling
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
Concepts of Guidance and Counselling 13

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Explain the nature and scope of guidance and counselling
----------------------
• Describe the need and importance of counselling.
----------------------
---------------------- 2.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- Guidance is an old concept and process. It is unorganized and informal
---------------------- process in all places, at all levels and at all times. In the ancient times guidance
was given to the young by elders or parents in the family. Good teachers have
---------------------- always been interested in providing guidance to their students to help them to
overcome problems of learning and adjustment. The guidance was informal
---------------------- and incidental, more akin to advising, suggesting, and sometimes ordering and
---------------------- prescribing. Guidance is a personalized assistance made readily available by
matured, experienced and qualified person. Guidance is the concept as well as
---------------------- a Process. As a concept guidance is concerned with the optimal development of
the individual. As a Process guidance helps the individual in self understanding
---------------------- and self direction.
---------------------- The aim of education is to achieve the fullest possible realization of
potentialities inherent in the individual. Education fosters all aspects of
---------------------- individual personality. Guidance is an integral part of education and help in
---------------------- achieving the goal of education. Guidance is quite essential for the development
of individual which is the main objective of education. Guidance is a assistance
---------------------- given to individual through various procedures so that he is able to understand
the social requirement and opportunities and to know the ways and means to
---------------------- adjust himself to these.
---------------------- Guidance is an organized set of specialist services established as an
integral part of education system designed to promote the development of
----------------------
students and assess them towards realization of sound wholesome adjustment
---------------------- and maximum accomplishment with their potential. Guidance is also point of
view that includes a positive attitude towards student and the realization that
---------------------- it is to supplement strengthen and make more meaningful or other phases of
an individual’s education. Counselling is the central aspect of whole guidance
----------------------
program. All the activities and services of the guidance program leads and help
---------------------- in the counselling process. Counselling is aimed at helping the individual in
solving problems in future and also enhancing personal, social, emotional,
---------------------- educational and vocational development. Many people at some point in their life
find themselves in the role of a counselor without having a true understanding
----------------------
of the concept of counselling. There is a big difference between professional
---------------------- Counselor and a person who uses some counselling skills as the part of their
life for example as a friend or colleague. Many a times you provide advice
---------------------- and tips on remedies to overcome problematic situation. This is also called as

a counselling but there the difference between counselling done by the person Notes
without any training and the counselling done by a professional Counselor. A
professional Counselor is highly trained individual who is able to use a different ----------------------
range of counselling approaches with their clients to solve the problems. In
this unit you will develop an understanding about the concept of guidance and ----------------------
counselling and also develop an understanding about significance of guidance ----------------------
and counselling in today’s context.
----------------------
2.2 CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF GUIDANCE ----------------------
Guidance is a general term which means helping people to make wise ----------------------
choices and solve their educational, vocational and personal problems. It is a
process by which individual are assisted in making adequate adjustments to ----------------------
life’s situation. Guidance can be explained as assistance made by competent
counselor to an individual of any group to help him/ her direct the life, develop ----------------------
a point of view, make decisions and be better adjusted. Guidance is an assistance ----------------------
given to an individual through various procedure so that he is able to understand
the social requirement and opportunities and to know the ways and means to ----------------------
adjust himself to these. It is a service which also aims at providing the individual
relevant and necessary information about himself and also about the world ----------------------
around him. Giving guidance does not mean an imposition of once own point ----------------------
of view on another person. The person who is guiding another does not take
the onus of making decisions on behalf of the client. Guidance is more about ----------------------
assisting people to find their way rather than giving instructions or readymade
solutions. ----------------------
Guidance refers to the act or process of guiding. It is a process of ----------------------

helping every individual through his own efforts to discover and develop his
potentialities. Ruth Strang highlighted four important characteristics of the ----------------------
process of guidance. ----------------------
1. It is a process of gaining understanding of oneself,
----------------------
2. It is a process of gaining understanding of gaining of ones’ relationship
with other people, ----------------------
3. It is a process of gaining understanding of solving personal problems, ----------------------
4. It is a process of gaining understanding of making decisions. It is giving ----------------------
direction for future actions.
Guidance is a type of counselling such as that provided for students seeking ----------------------
advice about vocational and educational matters. Guidance is a continuous ----------------------
process required at every stage for every person. It is a program geared to meet
the needs of all people. It is needed right from childhood to adolescent to old age. ----------------------
Guidance is an organized set of specialized services established as an integral
part of education system designed to promote development of student and to ----------------------
assist them in realization of goals of life. It is both generalized and specialized ----------------------
service. It is a generalized service because teachers, lecturers, advisors, deans,
parents and elders, all play a part in guidance. It is a generic term as it includes ----------------------
Concepts of Guidance and Councelling 15

Notes information giving and research activities. It is a specialized service because
specially qualified personnel as counselors, psychiatrists, psychologists join
---------------------- hands to help Individuals to adjust to the environment.
---------------------- Definitions of Guidance
The term guidance has been severally defined by several psychologists.
----------------------
Some important definitions has been provided in the following paragraph.
---------------------- According to Jones, “ Guidance is a personal help that is given by one
person to another in developing life goals, in making adjustments and solving
----------------------
problems that confront him in attainment of goals.
---------------------- “Guidance is a process of helping every individual through his own
---------------------- efforts, to discover and develop his potentialities for his personal
happiness and social usefulness.”
---------------------- - Ruth Strang
---------------------- “Guidance seeks to help an individual discover his own talents in

comparison to the opportunities of the world and help him prepare
---------------------- himself so that he can he can find or develop a place in which he can
live a well balanced life and contribute his part to the welfare of his
---------------------- fellow men”
---------------------- - Chishorlm
“Guidance is a contentious and pervasive process as a favourable
---------------------- directional influence upon appropriate social behavior, personal
---------------------- effectiveness in every day affairs, academic competence and progress
and assimilation of right values and attitude’’
---------------------- -Mathewson
---------------------- “Guidance is a process through which individual or groups of
individuals are helped to make necessary adjustment to the environment
---------------------- inside or out side the school’’
-Proctor
----------------------
These definitions indicate the following aspects of Guidance:
----------------------
● Helping people to make wise choices when faced with various alternatives
---------------------- available.
● Helping people to solve their educational, vocational and personal
----------------------
problems as efficiently as possible.
---------------------- ● Helping people to make adequate adjustments in life’s situation.
---------------------- ● Helping people to develop their potentialities optimally.
● Helping people to acquire more reliable information about the world of
----------------------
work.
---------------------- ● Helping people to live a balanced and tension free life with full satisfaction
under the circumstances.
----------------------
● Helping people to satisfy their needs most effectively and efficiently in
---------------------- most desirable way.

2.2.1 Nature and scope of Guidance Notes
Following is the nature of guidance -
----------------------
● Guidance is continuous and sequential Process
----------------------
Guidance does not occupy independent place. The chief aim of this process
is to assist in the development of an individual in view the social needs. ----------------------
Guidance is a process. Here it is important to point out that process of
guidance never ceases. It remains dynamic. In this process an individual ----------------------
understand himself, learn to use maximum his own capacities, interest
----------------------
and other abilities. He continues his struggle for adjustment in different
situation. He develops his capacity of decision making. Hence we see ----------------------
that it is a non stop process. The process of guidance is related to life.
Formally or informally in both formal and informal occasions a person ----------------------
gets informal guidance from his friends and relatives.
----------------------
● Guidance aims at holistic development of an individual
----------------------
During the process of guidance the individual is assisted in such a way
that he makes himself in a world to develop is capacities maximum from ----------------------
all angles. Hence guidance stresses the complete development of of
possibilities present in an individual and become familiar with his real ----------------------
image hence guidance is helpful in self realization. Guidance aims at
----------------------
development of a person as a whole.
● Guidance is based on individual assistance and cooperation ----------------------
Guidance is accepted as individualized help through guidance. An ----------------------
individual is provided a direction and not to a group. It is a process of
individualized assistance. Guidance is based on the principle that every ----------------------
individual different from the other and that every person is unique.
----------------------
Guidance is based on cooperation in the sense that every person seeking
help must be ready to cooperate with the one ready to provide help for ----------------------
best result. Guidance cannot be forced upon individual.
----------------------
● Guidance requires trained personnel
Providing guidance is not a function of all persons because various ----------------------
techniques and skills are to be used in it. Everybody does not possess the
----------------------
knowledge of the same for this task trained persons, psychologist and
counselors are required. Hence guidance is a skill involved process ----------------------
● No imposition of ones’ view point
----------------------
One of the main characteristics of guidance is not to impose one’s
viewpoint on others. it depends upon the wish of an individual how he ----------------------
acquired benefit by accepting the decision of the guidance worker. if he
----------------------
wishes he may deny to accept such decisions of the guidance worker
hence it is not a process of imposing the decisions. ----------------------
● Guidance as an educational service ----------------------
The nature of guidance also includes educational touch it has been
defined as educational service the meaning of guidance is explained in the ----------------------

Notes context of problems occurred in the field of education and in the context
of adjustment in the school environment.
----------------------
---------------------- Samit has appeared for the medical entrance examination for the last two
years. He feels that if he doesn’t become a doctor life isn’t worth living. He is
----------------------
a good artist. He paints very well and is very creative. He could do well in field
---------------------- which involves creative and artistic/aesthetic activity. In medical exam he faces
repeated failure which leads to lack of confidence and feeling of inferiority.
----------------------
The above instance depicts the kind of challenges that young people
---------------------- may face. This requires the dire need for guidance. All India Educational and
Vocational Guidance Association reported the following responses regarding
---------------------- the problems and issues of college students. 50% college students responses
were:
----------------------
- Gap between expectation and performance
----------------------
- Lack of knowledge regarding careers and professions
---------------------- - Inability to make friends or deal with people of opposite sex
---------------------- - Lack of information regarding one’s strength and weaknesses
---------------------- - Lack of knowledge regarding one’s aptitude and abilities
---------------------- - Lack of knowledge about effective learning strategies

The findings clearly indicates the need for professionals in the field of
---------------------- guidance and counselling.
---------------------- Guidance and counselling services are coming more and more important
as the society and its various institutions are growing in complexity. The society
---------------------- and institutions are built of individuals as their units as a mansion is built of
---------------------- bricks. The strength and solidarity of the society and its Institutions are therefore
contingent upon the strength of these individual units. strength and solidarity of
---------------------- these individual units constitutes the foundation of a strong Nation. Hence the
the optimal development of each of these units should be the most cherished
---------------------- goal of every Nation. Guidance and counselling contributes to the achievement
---------------------- of this goal. Through guidance and counselling efforts are made to develop
the potentialities of an individual to the the maximum possible extent so that
---------------------- they may live in an effective life themselves and may contribute their best to
the progress of the society. from this point of view guidance and counselling
---------------------- should be considered essential social services. Besides there are several other
---------------------- considerations on the basis of which the need for guidance and counselling may
be justified.
----------------------
Following are the major considerations for the need of guidance services
---------------------- 1. All round development of the student
---------------------- Intellectual development through the teaching of the subject along
cannot lead to total development of the student. What is needed is
---------------------- some method of helping students to understand themselves and helping

teachers to understand the students. This is done through a program of Notes
guidance. All round development of the student requires that individual
differences among students are accepted and understood and all types ----------------------
of experiences are so organised in an institution as to contribute to their
overall development. ----------------------
2. Proper choice of courses ----------------------

Everyone knows that our education system has grown hap hazard. While ----------------------
humanities and liberal arts are subjects most frequently offered and taken
both in the colleges and Universities. These are the oldest and relatively ----------------------
inexpensive areas of knowledge taken because they required no specified
----------------------
intellectual equipment. Hence thousands of young men educated in this
Liberal Arts are without jobs. For the best development of individual ----------------------
and growth of society the process of herding youths into educational
disciplines and connected with their attitude must be checked through a ----------------------
scientific process of guidance and counselling.
----------------------
3. Proper choice of careers
----------------------
Ours’ is a highly complex and rapidly changing world of work. The
changing requirement in industrial jobs, altered market conditions for ----------------------
professional power, the development of para professional occupations
and many other labour market trends are making occupational selection ----------------------
more difficult than ever. Students in college and Universities must be ----------------------
informed about various available jobs and openings and the requirements,
responsibilities and the nature of work involved in them so that they ----------------------
could measure themselves up to them and develop and crystallized their
occupation goals.They should be help in making meaningful occupational ----------------------
selection be prepared for an entry into them to have a fulfilling and ----------------------
rewarding career.
4. Vocational development ----------------------
The process of vocational development covers almost the entire span ----------------------
of life of an individual. It begins quite early in one’s life and continues
sometimes after retirement. In this process the individual passes through ----------------------
growth, exploration, maintenance and decline. Guidance services are ----------------------
provided at the college and universities to help the students in the process of
vocational development by making it possible for them to gain knowledge ----------------------
about themselves, their abilities, interest and needs and knowledge
about the world of work. Their transition from education to work can be ----------------------
facilitated by providing them opportunities for self exploration as well ----------------------
as exploration of the world of work while they are still in an educational
institution. ----------------------
5. Development of abilities to face new challenges ----------------------
Guidance services are needed to develop in the students the ability to
----------------------
cope with their new problems and concerns so that they become more
competent to meet the demands which will be made upon them in the ----------------------
future.
Notes 6. Minimize the mismatch between education and employment and help
in efficient use of manpower
----------------------
Most of the young men and women have no clear objectives or career
---------------------- targets. They go through university courses for learning without requiring
much knowledge for preparing themselves for an uncertain future. The
---------------------- employment of workers is ill suited to their jobs leads to a higher rate
of labour placement or to the retention of persons who are inefficient.
----------------------
This is a huge wastage of scant resources. Guidance facilities may help in
---------------------- reducing this wastage and ensure efficient use of Manpower.
8. Motivate the youth for self employment
----------------------
Considering the magnitude of educated job seekers flowing into the job
---------------------- market every year a sizeable fraction of enterprising youth should be
initiated into areas of self employment.Some arrangements needs to be
----------------------
instituted in the college and universities to identify the deserving cases fit
---------------------- to take up self-employment. They must be educated on how to proceed
about the job of setting up a venture. They must be help through the
---------------------- cooperation of the concerned agencies in this sphere to prepare technically
sound and economically viable projects. Agencies must sponsor their
----------------------
cases to the banks for loan assistance and guide them to overcome the
---------------------- teething trouble through effective follow-up after the commencement of
the venture. All this requires guidance.
----------------------
9. Helping the students in period of turmoil and confusion
---------------------- Normally all the students undergo a great deal to turmoil and searching
---------------------- to give meaning to their lives. They have their conflicts and anxieties.
They are disillusioned regarding higher education. They find that instead
---------------------- of imparting them education college and university is just enable them
to pass examination. They feel lost and when this education does not
---------------------- enable them to get immediate employment. They have their personal
---------------------- conflict and anxieties about their parents and family. They have problem
of adjusting their personality to the world of people. To tackle all these
---------------------- situation successfully they need someone to sort out the strands. This is
done through guidance.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
1. The main objective of guidance is
----------------------
A. All round development of student
----------------------
B. Physical development of student
C. Emotional development of student ----------------------
D. Mental development of student ----------------------
2. The advice provided by a experienced person to solve problem is ----------------------
called as
A. Counselling ----------------------
B. Guidance ----------------------
C. Teaching ----------------------
D. Mentoring
----------------------
3. Guidance is a process because
----------------------
A. It helps an individual in understanding himself
B. It is helps an individual in solving problem ----------------------
C. It provides individual assistance in taking decisions ----------------------

D. It identifies problem, set goals and plan strategies to achieve ----------------------
that goal.
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
● Visit an Employment exchange bureau and find out different careers
----------------------
related to Arts/ Science/ Commerce / Vocational and prepare a report
on the same. ----------------------
----------------------
2.3 CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF COUNSELLING
Though the term guidance and counselling is used interchangeably both the ----------------------
terms have different meaning. Counselling goes on at many levels. In a family, ----------------------
parent Council their children, doctor Council their patients, lawer Council to
the client’s, teachers to the students. Counselling has remedial, preventive and ----------------------
developmentalvalue. Counselling is used for suggesting some remedies for the
problems. remedies might be for solving the problems of a person it can be ----------------------
personal, professional problem or any other problems which the person faces in ----------------------
his life. Counselling also have a preventive value. It helps the individual to avoid
the situation which may have negative consequences. In this way counseling ----------------------
can also be provided before hand in order to avoid the problems which may
arise later in the life of a person. Counselling has developmental value. Many ----------------------

Notes times student seek the guidance and counselling before they want to go for any
particular profession or choose any particular job. Career Counselor provides
---------------------- counselling about how one can progress in the career. It’s not only useful before
entering the profession or a job but it can also be useful for the person who is
---------------------- already in the job who has problem of adjustment at the workplace.
---------------------- Definitions of Counselling
There is no limitation to the problem for counsellor in providing counselling so
----------------------
let us see some definitions of counselling to know what counselling is.
---------------------- ‘Counselling is an interaction process which facilitates meaningful
understanding of self and environment and result in the establishment
----------------------
of and or clarification of goals and values for future behaviour’.
---------------------- - Shertzer and Stone
‘Counselling is an accepting, trusting and safe relationship in which
----------------------
clients learn to discuss openly what worries upsets them,to define
---------------------- precise behaviour goals to acquire and share social skills and to develop
the courage and self confidence to implement desired new behaviour’.
---------------------- -Merle Ohlsen
---------------------- ‘Counselling is a process by which a troubled person (client) is helped
to tell and behave in a more personally satisfied manner through
---------------------- interaction with an involved person (counsellor) who provides
---------------------- information and reaction which stimulate the client to develop
behaviour which enable him to deal more effectively with himself and
---------------------- his environment’.
- Edwin Lewis
----------------------
‘Counselling is a form of interviewing in which the client is help to
---------------------- understand himself more correctly in order to correct an environment
or adjustment difficulty.’
---------------------- - Wolberg
---------------------- ‘Counselling takes place when a counsellor sees a client in a private
and confidential setting to explore difficulty a client has, distress that
---------------------- the client might be experiencing or perhaps the client’s dissatisfaction
---------------------- with life or loss of sense or direction or purpose.’
- British Association of Counselling and Psychotherapy (2002)
----------------------
If all the definitions are analyzed we can come to the following conclusions.
---------------------- ● Counselling is a two way process.
---------------------- ● It involves two individuals.
● There is mutual relationship between the two individuals.
----------------------
● It deals with personal, social, vocational and educational concerns.
---------------------- ● It takes place in structured setting.
---------------------- ● It helps to gain self understanding, self acceptance and self realization.
---------------------- ● It helps an individual to become happier and better adjusted.

2.3.1 Nature and Scope of Counselling Notes
The Counselor functions in a broad-spectrum varying upon psychotherapy
----------------------
at one end and upon advice given on the other hand and may also enrich the skills
of others in the caring profession. This capacity is endless by Counsellor’s ability ----------------------
to extend his or her own self understanding by willingness to learn from the
client. Counselling is the application of Mental Health, psychological or human ----------------------
development principles through cognitive, affective, behavioral intervention
----------------------
strategies that address Wellness personal growth or career development as well
as Pathology depending on the need of the client and the availability of services. ----------------------
Counselling may range from a few brief interaction in short period of time
to numerous interactions over an extended period of time. Brief interventions ----------------------
such a classroom discussions, workshop presentations or assistance in using
----------------------
assessment information, instructional resources may be sufficient to meet
individual needs. These brief interventions may lead to long-term counselling ----------------------
intervention for individuals with more substantial needs. Counselling may be
delivered by a single counsellor lor working collaboratively or with assistance ----------------------
from another Counselor who has special expertise that is needed by the client.
----------------------
We all encounter problems such as relationship difficulties, financial obligations,
unemployment, divorce or a variety of other pressures. Inability to respond positively ----------------------
to life’s ever-changing situation that can tax the resources of the individual and
----------------------
reduced the overall well being and quality of one’s life resulting quite often in
stress, anxiety, depression or complete immobilization. Some conditions that life ----------------------
presents are just too overwhelming and feeling of despair just too difficult to end.
----------------------
The nature of Counselling is to assist individuals through a healthy
relationship to alleviate current negative response to challenging a situation. ----------------------
Therefore will need to explore this to secure way through confidentiality and
creating a safe environment is paramount within the counselling. ----------------------
The scope of counselling is vast. In fact counselling is required in various ----------------------
areas and aspects of life such as:
----------------------
● Depression
Living with despair can be very hurtful and troublesome place to be. Low ----------------------
spirit leaves people intensely exhausted. People often feel detached and ----------------------
in this situation counselling aids to boost their morale and enhance self
esteem. It benefits people to deliberately reconstruct and steadily put their ----------------------
lives well organized, well balanced and well adjusted.
----------------------
● Low self esteem and confidence
Low self esteem and confidence leads to low dignity. This means that ----------------------
people lack determination and self respect. This is often the consequence of ----------------------
what they have suffered in the past. Counselling can guide people begin to
rely in themselves. It can cooperate people in prospering and acquiring. ----------------------
● Relationships ----------------------
Relationships can often be intensely problematic and challenging.Many a
times couples come for counselling because they have controversies about ----------------------

Notes closeness between them or their sex life is being afflicted. Sometimes one
mate has been disloyal and people want to be able to work through with
---------------------- a non committed person. A counsellor can surely cure couples to initiate
listening to one another repeatedly, to perceive and sense each other and
---------------------- to shape up their way of relating. Counselling can also be profitable if
---------------------- individuals or couples are going through divorce and they want someone
to guide them through this.
----------------------
● Stress and anxiety
---------------------- Stress plays a substantial part in many peoples’ life. Sometimes jobs,
commitments, property, health issues can cause people to feel lot of stress
---------------------- and anxiety. Stress can often precede to phenomenal fitness dilemmas
---------------------- and impulsive outbreaks. Stress makes the life of the person miserable
and counselling can offer an avenue for this to come out of that stressful
---------------------- situation.
---------------------- ● Trauma
An outcome of traumatic event makes the person feel devastated and
----------------------
affect their mental state. They may experience upsetting memories,
---------------------- fantasies and restlessness. People can often feel disconnected from what
has happened and find them recapturing the event repeatedly. Counselling
---------------------- can comfort people to manage with shocking experience and cooperate
them to to conceive what they have gone through.It can also lay hand to
----------------------
them in dealing with the signs of illness that they may have grown.
---------------------- ● Post Traumatic stress disorder
---------------------- Post traumatic stress disorder originates from intensely scary experiences.
There may be an acute sensitivity of apprehension and sense of being
---------------------- upset. This can lead to confinement, a feeling of apathy and extended
shock. Insomnia and mood swings can also be consequences of this mental
----------------------
disorder. In this situation cognitive behaviour therapy technique works best
---------------------- as this can inspire an individual to alter undesirable thoughts and feelings.
● Eating disorder
----------------------
Eating disorder can seize peoples’ lives and existence and often they
---------------------- find themselves struggling with issues around food, body size, shape and
obesity. Eating disorder is not just about food and activity, they have lot
----------------------
to do with affairs, belief in oneself. Counselling can help people to change
---------------------- the manner they eat and exercise. It can also benefit people to flourish and
raise all other scopes of their lives.
----------------------
---------------------- With the present increase in anxiety level, complexities in daily life and
---------------------- more impersonal attitude of the people there is need for some formal counselling.
1. Complexities in everyday life
----------------------
Living in 21st century is indeed living in a very complex era. Life has
---------------------- become so much governed by technical advancement. Urban area is full

of complex gadgets, rush of work, distance to be covered, tension and Notes
open to more hazards, may be accidents or may be crime. In such complex
and strenuous living an individual is more like to break down with stress. ----------------------
People have lesser time for others and even the intentions to be helpful to
others are fast dwindling. In such circumstances one needs formal help ----------------------
which can be had through counselling. ----------------------
2. Uncertainties
----------------------
When people are living in rural background and in more or less joint
family, there was a greater economic security and social support. Now a ----------------------
days there are nuclear families in big towns when both the husband and
----------------------
wife go to work, their children face a lot of insecurity. Besides divorce has
become legally so easy that even for minor reasons there may be break up ----------------------
in the family. This leads to further uncertainty in living. In this situation
formal counselling can be helpful in preventing a home from breaking up. ----------------------
3. Increase in Anxiety ----------------------
With increasing complexities and uncertainties, anxiety is bound to be ----------------------
there. There is a limit upto which one can tolerate anxiety and stress
beyond which breakdown is possible. The fast tempo of living, the rat ----------------------
race for material possessions and accelerated achievement, cut throat
competition, more ans more impersonal ans selfish relations are all ----------------------
facilitates anxiety. A counsellor can help professionally in setting goals, ----------------------
making life meaningful and reduce anxiety.
4. Advancement in science and technology ----------------------
In earlier days, occupation of an individual was by and large inherited ----------------------

by his forefathers. The skills required could be taught by the parent to
the child and thus could be pass on. In the present era each occupation ----------------------
has become so complex and specialized due to the rapid advancement of ----------------------
science and technology that creates lots of tension and stress at workplace.
Proper training is required to get adjusted with the job. Besides training ----------------------
one should have the ability in terms of intelligence and aptitude and also
the right personality make up, interest and motivation which. ----------------------
5. Educational Growth ----------------------

Education has grown in its height, breadth and depth. More and more ----------------------
people are going for higher studies devoting 15-16 years of their most
dynamic years of life to this cause. Proper guidance is therefore must ----------------------
at a right age. Problems of school adjustment are bound to occur with
----------------------
this expansion in educational opportunities. Guidance is required for the
proper placement and adjustment in classroom. Therefore, counselling ----------------------
may again be needed in such cases.
----------------------
Bragdon has mentioned the following situations where counselling is
required ----------------------
1. When the counsellor has to access those facilities which can help in ----------------------
resolving the pupils problems.

Notes 2. When the pupil requires not only reliable information but also an
interesting interpretation of those information which can solve his
---------------------- personal difficulties.
---------------------- 3. When the pupil needs intelligent listener who has more experience
than the pupil with whom he can express his difficulties and seek
---------------------- suggestions for his working plan.
---------------------- 4. When the pupil has some problem and he is unaware of the problem
and he is to made aware of that problem.
----------------------
5. When the pupil is aware of the problem and difficulties arise out
---------------------- of that problem but he finds difficult to define that problem and
understand it.
----------------------
6. When the pupil suffers from mal adjustment and which needs
---------------------- careful diagnosis by an expert.
----------------------
----------------------
1. Seema is already in her final year of graduation program. After
---------------------- attending the webinar on career choices she gets confused with her
career plan, whether to take teaching or physical therapy. How would
---------------------- you help her ?
---------------------- a. Tell her to chose a course that is closer to her heart
---------------------- b. Tell her to take take an aptitude test to know her strengths
---------------------- c. Tell her to see career guidance counsellor

d. Tell her to go for teaching as it is her dream to be a teacher
----------------------
2. Which of the following aims to provide knowledge or inputs which
---------------------- generally are not provided through instructional academic programs ?
---------------------- a. Counselling
b. Follow up
----------------------
c. Placement
----------------------
d. Information
---------------------- 3. The responsibility of the counsellor is to..............
---------------------- a. Express his views to the counselee
---------------------- b. Make decisions for the counselee
c. Set up goals for the counselee
----------------------
d. Observe and monitor the counselee
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
● Identify a student requiring help through counselling in your school/ ----------------------
college. Conduct an interview to find out what problem student is
facing. Describe the procedure/ technique you will use to help the ----------------------
student.
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
----------------------
● We have understood that guidance is given to individuals in making
adjustment and best possible choices. Guidance is a life long process ----------------------
which give importance to individual differences and is meant for all.
There is need for guidance as the society is complex and it involves ----------------------
various changes time to time, change in the society, social changes,
----------------------
unemployment, change in family structure, maladjustment and also for
making career choices. The purpose of guidance is to help an individual ----------------------
to adjust effectively in society keeping in mind ones’ needs and abilities.
Guidance is an integral part of education which helps an individual to ----------------------
develop an all round personality.
----------------------
● Different authors have defined guidance with differing emphasis on
various aspects. However most of them agree that guidance helps people ----------------------
to make wise choices when faced with various alternatives available, solve
----------------------
educational, vocational and personal problems as efficiently as possible,
make adequate adjustments in life’s situation, develops individuals’ ----------------------
potentialities optimally, provides more reliable information about the
world of work, live a balanced and tension free life with full satisfaction ----------------------
under the circumstances.
----------------------
● Different authors have defined counselling with differing emphasis on
various aspects. However, most of them agree that counselling is a process ----------------------
and involves a relationship between professionally trained counsellor and
----------------------
an individual in need for help. Counselling assumes that every individual
is capable of taking his/her own decisions and also that he/she has a right ----------------------
to choose his/her path. The counsellor does not give him/her advice or
solves problems for him/her but only facilitates judicial thinking and ----------------------
decision-making.It helps to gain self understanding, self acceptance
----------------------
and self realization. It helps an individual to become happier and better
adjusted person. ----------------------
----------------------
Keywords ----------------------
● Guidance: Guidance is a personal help that is given by one person to ----------------------
another in developing life goals, in making adjustments and solving
problems that confront him in attainment of goals. ----------------------

Notes ● Counselling: Counselling is an interaction process which facilitates
meaningful understanding of self and environment and result in the
---------------------- establishment of and or clarification of goals and values for future behaviour’
----------------------
----------------------
1. Define Guidance and Counselling?
----------------------
2. Differentiate Between Guidance and Counselling.
---------------------- 3. Explain the Nature and Scope of Guidance and Counselling.
---------------------- 4. Explain Need and Importance of Guidance and Counselling.
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- 1. A
---------------------- 2. B
3. D
----------------------
---------------------- 1. C
---------------------- 2. A
---------------------- 3. C
---------------------- Suggested Reading

----------------------
1. Agarwal J. C. (1991) Educational & Vocational guidance & Counselling,
---------------------- New Delhi
2. Bhatnagar, R.P (2003) Guidance and Counselling in Education and
----------------------
Psychology. R Lall Book Depot, Meerut.
---------------------- 3. Bengalee mehro D. (1990) “Guidance & counselling” Sheth Publication
---------------------- Mumbai
4. Gibson, M. Mitchell, M.H., Introduction to Counselling and Guidance.
---------------------- New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1986
---------------------- 5. Gibson, R.L. & Mitchell, M.H. (2005). Introduction to Counseling and
Guidance. Pearson Education
----------------------
6. Kochhar S. K. (1990) ‘Educational and vocational Guidance in secondary
---------------------- school”, sterling, New Delhi.
---------------------- 7. Sharma R. A. (2011) “Fundamentals of Guidance & Counselling” R. Lall
Book Depot, Meerut, U.P
----------------------
8. Wright, Robert J. (2011) School Counseling, an Evolving Profession.
---------------------- Introduction to School Counseling. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE
Publications, Inc.
History of Counselling and Counselling in India
UNIT
3
Structure:
3.1 Background and Overview of Historical Context of Psychological

Counselling
3.2 The Historical Developments of Counselling Psychology
3.3 Counselling and Psychotherapy
3.4 Difference Between Guidance and Counselling
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
History of Counselling and Counselling in India 29

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
----------------------
• Explain the background of the development of psychological
---------------------- counselling
---------------------- • Define the concept of counselling
• Differentiate between guidance and counselling.
----------------------
----------------------
3.1 BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL
----------------------
CONTEXT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELLING
----------------------
American Psychological Association (APA) added counselling
---------------------- psychology as an applied specialty in the early 1940s. John Wickley, a noted
historian counselling psychology, identified areas of counselling Psychology in
----------------------
vocational guidance, mental hygiene, individual differences, and emergence of
---------------------- non-medical forms of counselling interventions such as Carl Rogers’ Person-
centered therapy etc.
----------------------
The growth of counselling psychology was seen by the demand of its
---------------------- services created by the veterans returning from World War II. Counselling
Psychologists helped the veterans in their readjustment to the civilian life.
---------------------- These veterans needed help to gain employment, to look for a job, education
opportunities and requiring different knowledge and skills. The veterans also
----------------------
needed help to address their psychopathological and neurological injuries.
---------------------- The main difference between counselling psychology, psychiatry and clinical
psychology resulted from this need for the veterans.
----------------------
One of the most important events in the history of counseling psychology
---------------------- was the Greyston conference in 1964. The purpose of the Greyston conference
was to examine the professional preparation and areas of work of counseling
---------------------- psychologists and to develop specific recommendations in these areas.
The conference documented the history of the counselling psychology.
----------------------
A comprehensive picture of the profession of counseling psychology emerged
---------------------- - Three different roles were described for counseling psychologists:
---------------------- ● remedial or rehabilitative,

● preventive, and
----------------------
● educative and developmental.
---------------------- The conference also included information about counseling psychologists’
jobs and work settings.
----------------------
The early 1960’s and the 1970 saw the scope of counselling psychology
---------------------- in a variety of fields. There were changes in the attitudes of people regarding
counselling. The social attitudes where changing because of a number of
----------------------
reasons. –
● the Vietnam War Notes
● the need of the veterans regarding the issues that they faced
----------------------
● Challenges and changes in the traditional attitudes
● disruption of authority ----------------------
● significant changes in the society and need regarding equality - equal ----------------------
rights for different minorities, women, physically or mentally challenged
people etc. ----------------------
Counselling psychology responded to this need with the help of psycho- ----------------------
education and prevention. There was a trend that showed the search for ideal
self and personal fulfillment. The roots of counselling psychology were seen in ----------------------
the issues of cultural and also individual diversity. These issues strengthened
----------------------
in time and personal fulfillment and the exploration of personal relationships
also created an increased demand for services that counseling psychologists ----------------------
provided.
----------------------
Consequently, counseling psychologists were found engaged with diverse
clients in a wide variety of employment settings. Behavior therapy and existential ----------------------
approaches to counseling were two of the major theoretical issues being debated
during this period, and there was continued elaboration of research on theories ----------------------
of career, occupational, vocational, and personality development as well as
----------------------
psychotherapy and counseling.
Counselling psychology includes Research and applied work in several ----------------------
different areas: Counselling process and its outcome, supervision, training, ----------------------
career guidance, health etc. Counselling psychologists also include a focus on
the strengths and assets of an individual, interaction between a person and his ----------------------
environment, educational and career guidance and also development, focusing
on becoming healthy and well adjust personality. ----------------------
The term counselling was coined by Carl Rogers. Counselling ----------------------

psychologists are employed in many different settings depending on the services
they provide and also to the people they serve. Some work in educational ----------------------
institutions, schools, colleges or universities. Some practice independently ----------------------
to provide counselling psychotherapy, assessment and consulting services to
different individuals, couples or families, groups and also organizations. Other ----------------------
settings in which counselling psychologist practice includes communities,
health centres and other similar facilities, rehabilitation centres, industrial ----------------------
organisations, health maintenance centres etc. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The growth of counselling psychology was seen at the end of
---------------------- __________.
---------------------- 2. The purpose of the __________ was to examine the professional
preparation and areas of work of counseling psychologists and to
---------------------- develop specific recommendations in these areas.
---------------------- 3. The roots of counselling psychology were seen in the issues of cultural
and also individual ________.
----------------------
4. Counselling psychologists also include a focus on the strengths and
---------------------- ______ of an individual,
---------------------- 5. Different settings in which counselling psychologist practice includes

communities, __________ centers, __________ centers, industrial
---------------------- organisations, etc.
----------------------
---------------------- 3.2 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF

COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY
----------------------
Traditionally human beings have always found comfort in sharing their problems
---------------------- of telling their stories to other people. “A problem shared is a problem solved” - this
---------------------- tells us that when someone faces of problem or when things get difficult or
when we have to make a decision an important decision in our life we need
---------------------- someone to listen to us. Counselling history can be traced back to ancient times
where people would come together in groups and share their experiences. As
---------------------- civilizations and people developed this type of sharing and coming together was
---------------------- offered by religion. In the late 1800s, German Neurologist Sigmund Freud developed
a theory which was later called as psychoanalysis which allowed and individual to
---------------------- tell his problems to an psychoanalyst. Psychoanalysis is nothing but interpreting
the subconscious mind - a part that we are not aware of but according to Freud
---------------------- our subconscious influences our behavior and plays an important role in our
---------------------- lives. The actual term counselling was not coined until the late 1960s. The practice of
counselling became important after the Second World War. Many of the therapies that
---------------------- we use today can be traced back to some psychologist or psychiatrist. Techniques and
different theories are referred to as “schools” of therapy. It refers to how psychologists
---------------------- being human beings developed their view about the world and how they cope with it.
---------------------- The three schools are psychoanalytical, behavioural and humanistic.
A lot of research has been carried out in this area which gives us a better
---------------------- understanding of what makes human beings think and why they behave in a
---------------------- certain way. Counselling as a profession started to emerge when psychologist
and medical professionals tried to understand what caused depression and how
---------------------- it can be treated. are –

● The most basic form of counseling — talking as a form of treatment Notes
for emotional problems — was practiced in the form of advice and
information in 19th century. ----------------------
● 1886 – Sigmund Freud started practising in Vienna. He went on to develop ----------------------
psychoanalysis – for those with severe internal emotional conflicts.
● During the 1930s while the Great Depression sparked a change in the ----------------------
counseling methods related to employment. E.G. Williamson developed ----------------------
the first theory of counseling to work with students and the unemployed
by emphasizing a direct, counselor-centered approach known as trait- ----------------------
factor counseling.
----------------------
● 1951 – Carl Rogers outlined his person-centred approach - a nondirective
approach to counseling. His theory was controversial and was based on the ----------------------
belief that clients were responsible for their own growth and would know
themselves better if they felt accepted and heard. This theory shed light ----------------------
on the importance of building a relationship with the client in counseling ----------------------
and brought about a clear difference between guidance and counseling:
● 1951 – Fritz Perls, Paul Goodman, and Ralph Hefferline outlined Gestalt ----------------------
therapy
----------------------
● 1954 – Abraham Maslow helped to found Humanistic psychology and
later developed his famous Hierarchy of Needs. ----------------------
● 1955 – Albert Ellis began the first form of cognitive behavioural therapy ----------------------
which he called Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
----------------------
● 1959 –Viktor Frankl published the English edition of his book Man’s
Search for Meaning, which provided an existential account of his ----------------------
experiences as a prisoner in Nazi concentration camps during World War
II. The book also outlines an existential approach to counselling known ----------------------
as Logotherapy
----------------------
● 1967 – Aaron Beck developed Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
suggesting that in terms of depression the way we think contributes to our ----------------------
emotional well being.
----------------------
● 1970-80 – Michael White and David Epston who proposed that cultural
influences and unconscious processes shape human behaviour. Their ----------------------
theory was known as Narrative Theory.
----------------------
● Late 1970s – Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg developed the Solution
Based Theory, a future-focused, goal-oriented approach which helps ----------------------
clients replace problems for solutions.
----------------------
● 1980s – Harlene Anderson and Harry Goolishian – proposed the
Collaborative Language system which states that the client works through ----------------------
their difficulties in the conversations they have with the therapist.
----------------------
In the early 20th century, when counseling was first emerging, Humanistic
Reform, with an increased emphasis on the value of all human beings, was also ----------------------
emerging. Human qualities such as choice, creativity, self-realization, and ultimately
the value of all people became the focus of human change and intervention. ----------------------

Notes 3.2.1 Indian Context
Counselling in the Indian context emerged against the background of
----------------------
social change over the last few years. Economic reforms have enhanced the pace
---------------------- of these changes and also transformed our lifestyle. Yet counselling services are
not very clearly defined nor are there many institutions which offer training for
---------------------- these services. The available counselling services are largely based on western
approaches to psychology. These approaches have been widely criticized as
----------------------
not being relevant to the Indian cultural context. A culturally relevant and valid
---------------------- counselling psychology therefore has remained a novice and budding discipline.
Ancient traditions present ideas and construct that are rich in its
----------------------
possibilities for application in psychology. Ancient Indian texts refer to the
---------------------- mind, behaviour, emotions, perception, cognitions, personality traits, and many
such psychological constructs. Many psychological concepts and intervention
---------------------- techniques and ideas from modern Western psychology can be found in our
texts. For example -
----------------------
The Bhagavad Gita is central to the Hindu scriptures. This writing is
---------------------- a description of interaction between a confused and anxious Arjuna, and his
spiritual mentor, Lord Krishna. It provides one of the earliest illustrations of
----------------------
the effect of cognitions on emotions and behaviour and also describes how
---------------------- counselling could reorient a person to deal effectively with life.
---------------------- Ayurvedic approach to healing has detailed descriptions of how emotions

are linked to both physical illnesses and psychological disturbances.
---------------------- Counselling as a specialized service offered by a trained professional did
---------------------- not exist in India until very recently. This does not mean that counselling was
not available to us. Counselling as it is defined today was embedded within a
---------------------- complex support system of our social relationships. The ancient Guru-Shishya
tradition incorporates this relationship. The Guru carried the responsibility of
---------------------- forming and shaping the lives of his students. Our ancient culture and systems
---------------------- are no longer there in today’s world. The changes in our society and our life
styles have been tremendous.
---------------------- The applied psychology section of the Calcutta University was established
---------------------- in 1938 and the department of psychological services at Patna University in
1945. Psychology as a speciality has been added in almost all Universities and
---------------------- they offer different courses at the graduate and post-graduate level.
---------------------- The school sector has underlined counselling as an important and
urgently felt need and has made policy provisions for this to be started. It was
---------------------- resolved that it would be mandatory for all of its schools to have trained school
counsellors.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. In the late 1800’s German Neurologist Sigmund Freud developed a
theory which was later called as – ----------------------
a. Logical Analysis ----------------------
b. Psychoanalysis
----------------------
c. Psychotherapy
----------------------
d. Behavioural Analysis
2. Person-centered approach was outlined by – ----------------------
a. Carl Rogers ----------------------

b. Albert Ellis ----------------------
c. Albert Rogers
----------------------
d. Aaron Beck
----------------------
3. The Bhagwad Gita provides one of the earliest illustrations of the
effect of _______ on emotions and behavior. ----------------------
a. Parents ----------------------
b. Genetics
----------------------
c. Heart
----------------------
d. Cognition
4. Ayurvedic approach to healing has detailed descriptions of how ----------------------
emotions are linked to both physical illnesses and _________. ----------------------
a. Age
----------------------
b. Personality
----------------------
c. Psychological disturbances.
d. Progress ----------------------
----------------------
3.3 COUNSELLING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY ----------------------
We all face problems in our daily day to day life. Most of the times, ----------------------
we are able to handle these problems and move ahead. But sometimes, the
problem disturbs us emotionally or stresses us too much. Because of this, we ----------------------
are unable to solve that problem. Counselling is a service which is offered to
----------------------
us, that will help us to overcome these problems. Counselling is a specialized
service which requires training. It is called as a “Talking Therapy”, which ----------------------
helps us to overcome our problems like a traumatic experience, emotional
disturbance, helping in choosing our path, etc. It is a supporting relationship ----------------------

Notes which enables us to deal with the situation and making the person self reliant
in the process.
----------------------
There are many reasons why we cannot solve our problem or help
---------------------- ourselves. Some of these may be –
● negative thinking
----------------------
● emotional disturbance
----------------------
● prejudices
---------------------- ● assumptions about others/situations
---------------------- ● irrational beliefs
● lack of communication and interaction with others/family
----------------------
A few definitions of counselling –
---------------------- Smith (1955) defines counselling as –
---------------------- ● “A process in which the counsellor assists the counsellee to make
interpretations of facts relating to a choice or plan or adjustment which
---------------------- he needs to make.”
---------------------- Papinsky (1954) –
---------------------- ● Counselling is an interaction which occurs between to individuals called
counsellor and client which takes place in a professional setting and is
---------------------- initiated and maintained to facilitate changes in the behaviour of the client.
---------------------- Blocher (1966) –
● Helping and individual become aware of himself and the ways in which
----------------------
he is reacting to the behavioral influences of his environment. It further
---------------------- helps him to establish some meaning for his behavior, to develop and
clarify a set of goals and values for his future behavior.
---------------------- There are many different definitions of counselling. The commonalities of
---------------------- these definitions are –
● change in behavior
----------------------
● it is a process
---------------------- ● it is a relationship - Professional, mutual interaction
---------------------- ● the focus of counselling is on the present as well as the future.
● Self realization
----------------------
● Realization of facts and situation
---------------------- Purpose of Counselling –
---------------------- ● To reduce emotional stress

● To empower the client to cope with the life situations
----------------------
● To engage in self developing and growth producing activities
---------------------- ● To have meaningful relationships
● To make effective decisions
----------------------

As a result of counselling, the counselee increases his control over present Notes
circumstances and also enhances present and future opportunities. Clients
who have developed the internal, interpersonal and social resources will cope ----------------------
more effectively with circumstances or situations in life. The clients who have
developed improved insights about their own needs, desires and capabilities ----------------------
will be empowered to live more effectively. ----------------------
Characteristics of counselling –
----------------------
1. It is a purposeful learning experience for the Counselee
----------------------
2. It is a private interview between the counsellor and counselee
3. The basis of counselling is mutual confidence. ----------------------
4. The counselling process is structured around the needs of the counsellee. ----------------------
5. The main emphasis in counselling process is self direction and self ----------------------
acceptance of the counselee.
----------------------
Hence, we can say that counselling is a process that happens when the
counselor and the client meet in a professional setting to explore the problem ----------------------
areas of the client. Many a times, there isn’t one problem but a combination of
two or more things which is creating problems. In this process, the counselor ----------------------
helps the client to see things more clearly and from a different perspective, This
----------------------
helps the client to bring about positive change. Confidentiality and trust are the
backbone of the counselling relationship. ----------------------
To get a clear picture of what counseling is, you must first understand
----------------------
what it IS NOT –
Giving advice ----------------------
● Getting emotionally disturbed with the client or getting emotionally ----------------------
involved in the client
----------------------
● Judging the client
● Looking at the client and his problems from your perspective ----------------------
● Labelling the client ----------------------
● Giving solutions
----------------------
● Expecting the client to behave like you would in the same situation.
Counseling is a collaborative effort. Professional counselors work with the ----------------------
clients to help clients to develop strategies to identify goals, find potential solutions ----------------------
to problems which cause emotional disturbances, help to improve communication
skills and learn coping mechanisms; strengthen self-esteem; boost self confidence, ----------------------
promote behavior change, etc. A professional counselor is highly trained and helps
the client by using a variety of different approaches and techniques. ----------------------
Different types of Counselling – ----------------------

1. Individual Counselling – ----------------------
Individual counselling helps a person to resolve personal problems like ----------------------
anxiety, depression, anger or other emotional issues, adjustment, conflicts,

Notes etc. The client may also seek support or just someone to listen to in the
process.
----------------------
2. Couples Counselling –
---------------------- Every couple experiences highs and lows in their relationships. Sometimes,
the couples is not able to handle the issues and problems may arise in the
----------------------
relationship. Marriage counselling or couples counselling can help them
---------------------- resolve their conflicts, heal wounds and reestablish the bond between
them.
----------------------
3. Family Counselling –
---------------------- Sometimes one or all the family members face a stressful or life changing
---------------------- situation. This may affect the closeness, family roles, communication in
the family. In such cases, all family members, separately and together take
---------------------- sessions. Common issues are addressed together in the family therapy
sessions. These may include sibling conflict, loss of a family member,
---------------------- addition in a family, etc.
---------------------- 4. Group Counselling –
---------------------- Many a times, when dealing with a problem, we get the feeling that I am
the only one facing such problems. In such situations, attending group
---------------------- therapy sessions help us. Also, it helps in understanding better and a
variety of solutions are seen.
----------------------
Common problems like addiction, facing domestic violence, divorce,
---------------------- recovery from loss or trauma, anger management, etc. can be addressed
in the group counselling sessions.
----------------------
A counselor emphasizes on identifying and developing personal and
---------------------- social resources and helping the client to use them to the fullest. A counselor
basically performs three different types of functions –
----------------------
1. Preventive –
----------------------
It includes measures used to prevent maladjustment, training to think
---------------------- positively, face competition, sustain stressful situations, etc.
---------------------- 2. Therapeutic –
For correcting problems such as on conflicts, lack of confidence, emotional
----------------------
management,
---------------------- 3. Educational and developmental –
---------------------- It includes goal setting, time management, using psychological tests to
measure interests, intelligence, personality, aptitude, etc.
----------------------
Psychotherapy is a term that is used to describe the process of treating
---------------------- psychological disorders and mental distress through the use of various
techniques. During this process, a trained psychotherapist helps the client to
---------------------- deal with his problems such as a mental illness or a source of life stress. There
---------------------- are many different kinds of therapies which can be used for different situations
and problems. The client’s personality also is a deciding factor for the kind
of therapy to be used. But in all the different therapies used, the therapeutic Notes
relation between the therapist and the client, communication and creating a
dialogue is important to overcome the problems. ----------------------
Psychotherapy can take different formats depending on the style ----------------------
of the therapist and the needs of the patient. A few formats that you see
include: individual therapy, couples therapy, family therapy, group therapy. ----------------------
Psychotherapy helps people to overcome challenges, develop coping strategies,
----------------------
and lead happier and healthier lives.
Some of the main types of therapies are – ----------------------
● Psychoanalytic Therapy – Sigmund Freud began using this and the ----------------------
techniques were dream interpretation, free association, etc. This approach
involves trying to reach the patients’ thoughts and past experiences to ----------------------
find the unconscious thoughts, feelings and memories that influence the
----------------------
behavior of the person.
● Cognitive Therapy – is based on the idea that our thoughts have a ----------------------
powerful impact or influence on our mental well-being. If we see negative
----------------------
aspects in every situation we tend to have a pessimistic outlook towards
the situation or person. The goal of cognitive therapy is to identify the ----------------------
cognitive distortions that lead to negative thinking and replace them with
more realistic and positive ones. By doing this, we are able to improve ----------------------
our moods and overall well-being.
----------------------
● Behaviour Therapy – is based on the idea that all behaviours are learned
and hence they can also be unlearned. Unhealthy and problematic behavior ----------------------
which can be self destructing can be changed and replaced with healthy,
----------------------
helpful behavior.
● Cognitive Behaviour Therapy – helps to understand the thoughts that ----------------------
influence behavior. CBT is used for a range of conditions like phobias,
----------------------
depression, anxiety, addiction, etc. This therapy helps to change negative
thoughts and mal-adaptive behavior. ----------------------
● REBT – Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy is an approach which helps
the clients to find the irrational beliefs and negative thought patterns that ----------------------
lead to emotional or behavioural problems. It is a practical therapy with a ----------------------
focus on the present. The basis of this therapy is that as mostly believed,
the event does not cause emotional disturbance or distress but the thought ----------------------
or belief causes it.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes The difference between counselling and psychotherapy is –
---------------------- Counselling Psychotherapy

Counselling is defined as a form Psychotherapy is a form of treatment for
---------------------- of interview in which clients are problems of emotional nature in which a
helped to understand themselves trained person establishes a professional
----------------------
more completely and so that relationship with the patient with the goal of
---------------------- they may correct or deal with changing or reducing existing symptoms of
any environmental or adjustment the disturbed patterns of behavior.It is also
---------------------- difficulty. for promoting positive personality growth
and development.
---------------------- Counselling aims at helping Psychotherapy aims at the resolution of
---------------------- individuals to clear away the blocks in psychosocial development so
entangling and hampering issues so that the individual may aspire for self-
---------------------- that he can be what he really is and fulfillment and more productive attitudes
contribute more to both himself and towards life.
---------------------- others.
---------------------- Correction of situational problems, Facilitate interpersonal and social
expansion of personal skills and adjustment of personality growth and
---------------------- abilities, prevention of emotional development.
breakdown, etc.
---------------------- Deals with individuals who are notDeals with individuals who are deficient
mentally or emotionally ill. in some aspect. They may be mentally or
----------------------
emotionally ill.
---------------------- It is for shorter duration May be longer in duration
Counsellor may be attempt to Attempts to restructure the personality
---------------------- restructure personality, helps to according to the need of the situation.
---------------------- develop what already exists.
Emphasis is on conscious awareness, Emphasis is on neurotic and emotional
---------------------- problem solving as well as on problems. Experiences and insight
situational difficulties. Also on important.
----------------------
educational and supportive aspects.
----------------------
---------------------- Check your Progress 3

---------------------- State True or False.
---------------------- 1. Counselling is a specialized service which requires training.
2. We can solve our problem or help ourselves because of negative thinking.
----------------------
3. After Counselling, the client’s loses control over present circumstances
---------------------- and future opportunities.
---------------------- 4. Psychotherapy helps people to lead happier and healthier lives.
5. Behaviour Therapy is an approach which helps the clients to find the
----------------------
irrational beliefs and negative thought patterns that lead to emotional
---------------------- or behavioural problems.

3.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GUIDANCE AND Notes
COUNSELLING
----------------------
Guidance is a kind of advice or help that is given to a person on topics like choosing ----------------------
a career, work, or preparing for a vocation, Guidance is generally from a person who is
an expert in the field or one who is superior. It is a process of directing, supervising or ----------------------
guiding a person for a particular course of action. The process aims to make the student
or the individual aware of the importance of the decision, whether the choice is right ----------------------
or wrong, and helps in selecting the most appropriate course of action. It results in self ----------------------
development and helps a person to plan his present and future wisely. In guidance
the focus is on listening to the problem for which solutions are given by the expert. ----------------------
Counselling on the other hand is a process in which the person or client ----------------------
discusses his or her problems, shares his feeling freely. The Counselor helps the
client to deal with the problems. He helps the client to see and identify the root ----------------------
of his problems and the potential solutions to the issues. The Counselor also
helps to change the view point or perspective of the client which helps him to ----------------------
take the right decision or to choose a course of action. ----------------------
The differences between Guidance and Counselling are as follows –
----------------------
Guidance Counselling
Guidance is preventive in nature Counselling is curative or remedial ----------------------
Eg – choosing careers Eg – emotional distress, relationship ----------------------
issues
Helps to make the best choice Helps to change the perspective ----------------------
Gives ready answers or solutions Helps to come up with solutions ----------------------
It can be in a group and is open One – on – one and the confidentiality is
with no or less privacy maintained ----------------------
A process that has an external Focuses on in-depth and in-ward ----------------------
approach. analysis of the problem
Advice is given Expression of emotions, fears, ----------------------
problems
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. ______________ is a process of directing, supervising or guiding a
person for a particular course of action. ----------------------
2. The counsellor helps the client to see and identify the ___________ ----------------------
of his problems and the potential solutions to the issues.
----------------------
3. In guidance ______________ is given.
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
---------------------- ● Knowing what counselling and psychotherapy is, write down at least
five situations that have occurred in your life that, now think could
---------------------- have handled differently with the help of counselor or therapist. The
help of counselling could be in any manner – either the result could
----------------------
have been different, or, the result would have been the same but it
---------------------- could have been handled in a way where the impact on you or others
could have been different.
----------------------
---------------------- Summary
----------------------
● Counselling Psychology is an applied field used in many different areas
---------------------- like vocational, career choices, individual differences to different types
of therapies. It can be preventive, remedial or educative. Over the years
---------------------- the need has increased and seen in many different settings. Starting from
talking and sharing about the problem to using the different techniques that
----------------------
promote self development and enhancement, there has been tremendous
---------------------- changes seen in this field. There are many reasons why we cannot solve
our problems ourselves, like negative thinking, biases, some prejudices,
---------------------- etc. Psychotherapy is the process of treating psychological disorders or
mental distress. Different types of therapies are used depending on the
----------------------
situation with many different techniques.
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
● Guidance - it is a kind of advice or help that is given to a person by an
----------------------
expert.
---------------------- ● Counselling - a process in which the person discusses his problems,
shares his feeling freely. The Counselor helps the client to deal with the
----------------------
problems. He helps the client to see and identify the root of his problems,
---------------------- change his perspective and see the potential solutions to the issues.
● Psychotherapy - the process of treating psychological disorders and
---------------------- mental distress through the use of various techniques.
----------------------
----------------------
1. What is the importance of psychological counselling in our lives?
----------------------
2. Explain the history of psychological counselling.
---------------------- 3. What is counselling? What are it’s the different types?
---------------------- 4. What is psychotherapy? Explain the different types of therapies.
---------------------- 5. Guidance different from counselling. Explain

Answers to Check your Progress Notes
1. World War II
----------------------
2. Greyston conference
----------------------
3. Diversity
4. Assets ----------------------
5. Health, Rehabilitation ----------------------

1. b) Psychoanalysis ----------------------
2. a) CarlRogers
----------------------
3. d) Cognition
----------------------
4. c) Psychological disturbances.
----------------------
----------------------
State True or False.
1. True ----------------------
2. False ----------------------
3. False ----------------------
4. True
----------------------
5. False
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. Guidance
2. Root ----------------------
3. Advice ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Guidance and Counselling – By S.K. Gupta, Mittal Publications
---------------------- 2. Basic Counselling Skills – A Helper’s Manual. By Richard Nelson-Jones,
Sage Publication
----------------------
3. Practical Approach to Counselling – By Margaret Hough, Pitman
---------------------- Publication
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Challenges of Counselling in 21st Century
UNIT
4
Structure:
4.1 The Status of Counselling in India

4.2 Challenges of Counselling in 21st Century
4.3 Counselling Relationship: Qualities of Helping Relationship
4.4 Egan’s Model of Counselling with Reference to Challenges in Counselling
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
Challenges of Counselling in 21st Century 45

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
----------------------
• Elaborate the status of the profession in India.
----------------------
• Identify the challenges faced in counselling
---------------------- • To understand the concept of the relationship between the counselor
and his client
----------------------
• Describe the Egan’s model of counselling.
----------------------
----------------------
4.1 THE STATUS OF COUNSELLING IN INDIA
----------------------
Rapid industrialization and urbanization has played a significant role
---------------------- in economic and social changes in India. People are experiencing significant
stresses in their lives. Professional counselling is just beginning in India and
---------------------- there is a shortage of trained mental healt professionals in India. Because of
this lack of trained professionals, individuals and their families often rely on
----------------------
alternative healers to resolve their issues. Recently, because of the publicity the
---------------------- counselling profession has received in Indian newspapers and various websites,
personal counselling, mental health counselling, and also academic and career
---------------------- counselling are increasingly gaining acceptance and also popularity in India.
---------------------- India is one of the oldest Civilization and has a rich cultural heritage. It
also has many ancient healing traditions. India is also a land of contradictions.
---------------------- There is a large gap between the rich and the poor, there maybe mud huts in some
---------------------- areas and also many skyscrapers. There is a new respect for communication.
No civilization can survive or be resilient without good guidance, mental and
---------------------- spiritual health.
---------------------- Indian culture is no exception. India has a long history of help-seeking.

Previously people in the community used to get together to share their
---------------------- experiences, talk about their problems and also express their emotions. The
basics of counselling and psychotherapy concepts known in the modern times
---------------------- were seen and date back in our ancient civilization. It has just changed over
---------------------- time in the nature and purpose, sources and the relationship between the health
seekers and the health providers.
---------------------- As a result of the economic and social changes in India, people are
---------------------- experiencing multiple stresses in their life. Some of these stresses are causing
serious mental health concerns like depression, anxiety, marital discord,
---------------------- domestic violence, problems of addiction, etc. Several psychosomatic and
physical health problems such as hypertension, heart problems, phobias, etc.
---------------------- are also seen. Many people in India are in need of Mental Health Services. It
---------------------- is believed that every 10th person in India faces a mental health challenge of
some sort. Hence, the number of people suffering from psychological problems
---------------------- in India is very high. Lack of availability and access to trained professionals

is making things worse. There is still a stigma attached to going for help to a Notes
professional in these areas to deal with the psychological and mental health
challenges. A large number of people still visit their priests, spiritual healers, ----------------------
and some such kind of people rather than being visiting a professional counselor.
Also, despite the diversity in the Indian culture, there is very little attention ----------------------
placed on tackling the diversity issues in training. ----------------------
There is an immediate and urgent need for trained Mental Health care
----------------------
professionals and for counselling facilities to help the people of India to meet
their guidance and counselling needs. Because of a lack of trained professionals ----------------------
families often rely on healers for resolving their psychiatric issues. Their
approach includes reading of horoscopes, prescribing mantras and prayers, ----------------------
special offerings to a particular God in a temple, etc. The Nakshatra (zodiac)
----------------------
in which the person is born is also of significance. It determines one’s destiny
at birth and charts the course of life. The planetary effects are believed to be ----------------------
changed by using different kinds of stones, wearing clothes of a particular
colour, etc. Overall these traditions are popular as they do not require much ----------------------
responsibility or efforts on the part of of the concerned person accept to pay for
----------------------
the services.
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation has played a significant role
in economic and _______ changes in India. ----------------------
2. The number of people suffering from _________ problems in India is ----------------------
very high.
----------------------
3. There is a _______ attached to going for help to a professional in these
areas to deal with the psychological and mental health challenges. ----------------------
4. The ________ in which the person is born is also of significance. ----------------------
5. The planetary effects are believed to be changed by using different
----------------------
kinds of_______, wearing clothes of a particular colour, etc.
----------------------
4.2 CHALLENGES OF COUNSELLING IN 21st ----------------------

CENTURY ----------------------
Mental health services in India face a number of challenges – ----------------------
● Raising awareness in the general public about mental health issues and ----------------------
services. A diverse population increases the complexity of this in terms of
educational, religious and social economic backgrounds. ----------------------
● To increasing the number of professionals
----------------------
● Setting up of licensing and certification boards and defining the scope of
practice for professionals. ----------------------

Notes ● Expanding and evaluating the professional and also educational training
needs.
---------------------- ● Improving clinical and applied research.
---------------------- At present, India provides a rich ground for professional counselors. India
is a developing country and because of its diversity, inequalities, and many
---------------------- such factors, counselling is needed to address the personal and social problems
---------------------- because of the large population and because of the social, economic, scientific
and Technical advances, However it must be noted that professional counselling
---------------------- will only supplement and not replace the traditional healing methods. Strong
and deeply rooted heritage, spiritual healing and traditional methods such as
---------------------- ayurveda, palmistry, jyotish shastra, etc. will continue to coexist.
---------------------- The rapid change in the personal/social values and work world are creating
complex challenges. These challenges have affected the personal/social career
---------------------- and educational development of the students. Schools counselors have been
---------------------- and will continue to be in the forefront in the effort to assist students response
to these problems through their work within the structure of comprehensive
---------------------- guidance and counselling programmes in schools.
---------------------- Counselling is a process in which one person assists another in a one-to-
one or face-to-face set up. This assistance may take various forms vocational,
---------------------- educational, social, personal, emotional, or moral. Counselling becomes the
preferred and only option when individuals find themselves unable to handle
----------------------
the complexity their problems. Counselling is necessary in helping students
---------------------- also. Students who have a problem go to a school Counselor because he or she
cannot solve their particular problem or the teacher recommends the student
---------------------- who has issues like behavioural, emotional, etc to the counselor. The Counselor
is an expert and he has mastery of some counselling theories, skills, techniques
----------------------
or models to use for his counselling.
---------------------- Counselling services uses positive approaches towards solving
disciplinary problems among students. The secondary school counselor finds
----------------------
out the causes of behavioural problem and helps the students to handle the
---------------------- situation. The counselors need to keep an eye on the psychological atmosphere
of the school in crisis which may arouse the students’ tensions and reduces their
---------------------- effective learning.
---------------------- The school counsellors work directly with the students to support them
through their academic life to foster, promote and improve their success and
---------------------- achievement. The secondary school counselling unit believes that sound
education involves the development of the students in a holistic manner - the
----------------------
social, emotional, intellectual and physical aspect of the student life.
---------------------- Counselling services are provided to improve the academic performances
---------------------- and career choices of the students. Counselling programmes was designed to
provide academic solution to students in order to help them in career aspiration
---------------------- and development. The significance of guidance and counselling programmes
in secondary schools has not been fully embraced and appreciated by the
---------------------- government and schools. These affect the students’ academic performances.

Since the benefits of counselling could also be extended to the provision of peace Notes
and the security of school’s properties that would have been stole, destroyed or
vandalized by students, and other deviant behaviours minimized or eradicated ----------------------
in schools through the agency of guidance and counselling.
----------------------
A number of personal, social, cultural, and economic forces are present and
working against each other in our global environment. In order to maintain ----------------------
professional responses, which reflect changing times, counsellors and counsellor
----------------------
education programs must attend to international, sociopolitical trends in an
interdisciplinary context. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. At present, India does not provide a rich ground for professional
counselors. ----------------------
2. Professional counselling will only supplement and not replace the ----------------------
traditional healing methods.
----------------------
3. The rapid change in the personal/social values and work world are
creating complex challenges. ----------------------
4. Counselling is not the only option when individuals find themselves
----------------------
unable to handle the complexity their problems.
5. Counselling services are provided to improve the academic ----------------------
performances and career choices of the students.
----------------------
----------------------
4.3 COUNSELLING RELATIONSHIP:
----------------------
QUALITIES OF HELPING RELATIONSHIP
----------------------
In the counselling process, the relationship between the Counselor and
his client is called as the therapeutic relationship, also known as therapeutic ----------------------
alliance. It tells us how the counsellor and his client connect with one another ----------------------
and build their relationship together.
Therapeutic relationship or alliance refers to the close and consistent ----------------------
association that exists between at least two individuals - the Counselor and one ----------------------
or more person in therapy. The therapeutic relationship forms the foundation of
all counselling work. ----------------------
The purpose of a therapeutic relationship is to help the individual in ----------------------
therapy to change his life for the better. Such a relationship is essential, as
it is often the first setting in which the person receiving therapy or treatment ----------------------
shares his most intimate thoughts, emotions and also his beliefs regarding
----------------------
the problems or issues. It is very important that the counselor or therapist
provides a safe, open and non-judgmental atmosphere and setting where ----------------------

Notes the individual can be at ease and is able to share his innermost and intimate
thoughts easily. Trust, respect and congruence are the major components of a
---------------------- good therapeutic relationship. The therapist is encouraged to show empathy
and genuineness. As with any other relationship, the therapeutic relationship
---------------------- also has boundaries which help those involved to define acceptable and
---------------------- unacceptable behaviour.
Establishing a therapeutic relationship is an important step in the recovery
----------------------
process and also for the relationship to be productive. Trusting the therapist is the
---------------------- key. A person must be able to trust that his therapist has the skills, knowledge and
also the desire to provide help. The person in treatment must also trust that it his
---------------------- issues will remain confidential and he is safe from exploitation by the therapist.
Once the therapeutic relationship is formed and trust is built, the individual
----------------------
in therapy feels more inclined to open up emotionally and he will provide the
---------------------- details about his concerns. The more open the individual is, the more it will help
the therapist to better comprehend the clients’ point of view, his feeling and also
---------------------- his motives. When the therapist has a better and complete understanding of the
situation, he is able to provide the most appropriate treatment using the most
----------------------
effective strategies and techniques to address the issue.
---------------------- Unhealthy therapeutic alliance is because of violating the boundaries and
also the ethics of acceptable behaviour within the relationship. In some cases,
----------------------
an unhealthy therapeutic relationship can cause more harm to the person in
---------------------- therapy rather than helping him.
There are many warning signs of inappropriate behaviour by the therapist.
----------------------
A therapist must avoid these. Some of these are as follows –
---------------------- ● The therapist is judgmental of the client’s conduct, his lifestyle or motives.
---------------------- ● Encourages the client to blame other people like family, friends or partner
or situation
----------------------
● Provides no explanation about the therapy and whether it has ended
---------------------- ● Tries to be friends outside of therapy.
---------------------- ● Tries to get involved romantically.
● Tries to touch the client without consent.
----------------------
● Pays no attention to the changes the client wants to make or the goals he
---------------------- wants to achieve.
---------------------- ● Talks too much or not at all.
● Tries to push his spiritual beliefs, values, opinions on the client.
----------------------
● Tries to make decisions for the client.
---------------------- Options for resolving an unhealthy therapeutic relationship will vary
depending on the unique situation. For example, they can include:
----------------------
● Discussing concerns openly with your therapist,
----------------------
● Terminating therapy with that therapist.
---------------------- ● Meeting with another therapist for a second opinion,

● Filing a complaint with your therapist’s employer and/or licensing board, Notes
● Seeking legal counsel or law enforcement support.
----------------------
In a therapeutic relationship at least one of the parties has the intent or
purpose of promoting the growth development, improved skills required for ----------------------
coping with life, maturity, etc. For this the skills, knowledge and the inner
resources of the individual are required. The attitudes of the therapist or the ----------------------
helping person makes a relationship growth-promoting. The counselor or ----------------------
therapist who is warm, expressive and respectful of himself and others in the
relationship, exhibit caring and who facilitates self realization, helps in the ----------------------
development of growth.
----------------------
Study show that for any type of therapy used the clients report similar
kind of changes in themselves. These changes are - being able to deal with ----------------------
the situations of problems that they face, learning skills, dealing with their
emotions, self realization, etc. The most important elements that they found are ----------------------
the attitudinal elements in the relationship. These are – ----------------------
● the trust that felt in the therapist.
----------------------
● knowing that they are being understood by the therapist and
● the feeling of independence they had in making their own choices and ----------------------
decisions. ----------------------
Also, what they found to be most helpful was that the therapist could
clarify and verbalize the feelings and thoughts which the client had been not ----------------------
been able to or was confused about. ----------------------
Therapists’ attitudes such as lack of interest, remoteness, distance, too
much sympathy, were perceived as unhelpful. Also, when the therapist gives ----------------------
direct and specific advice regarding decisions, or emphasizes past history rather ----------------------
than the present problems it is unhelpful.
----------------------
The elements which characterize the therapeutic relationships are –
● an ability to understand the client’s meanings and feelings ----------------------
● sensitivity to the client’s attitudes ----------------------
● a warm interest without any emotional involvement
----------------------
How to create a helping relationship? Working in the field of human
relationship, these questions need to be asked by the therapist – ----------------------
● What can I do to be perceived by the other person as trustworthy, ----------------------
dependable, consistent?
● How can the therapist communicate unambiguously? Is he expressive ----------------------
enough? ----------------------
● Can I be sensitive be aware and accepting towards my own feelings?
----------------------
● Can I let myself experience positive attitudes towards another person -
attitudes of warmth, caring, liking, interest, and respect. ----------------------
● Can I be strong enough as a person to be separate from the other? Can I ----------------------
respect my own feelings, my own needs as well as his next?
Notes ● Am I secure enough within myself? Can I permit him to be honest or
deceitful, despairing or overconfident, etc.
---------------------- ● Can I let myself into the world of his feelings and personal meanings and
---------------------- see these as he does? Can I step into his private world so completely, so
That I completely that I loose all desire to evaluate and judge?
---------------------- ● Can I receive him as he is? Can I communicate this attitude?
---------------------- ● Can I free him from the threat of external evaluation?
● I meet this other individual as a person who is in the process of becoming.
----------------------
The relationship between the helper and the helpee can be a positive
---------------------- catalyst in its own right. The real key to the helping process is the quality of the
relationship.
----------------------
Here are the five characteristics:
----------------------
1. Listening attentively
---------------------- 2. Understanding the other person’s point of view
---------------------- 3. Accepting the person non-judgmentally
---------------------- 4. Caring enough to be committed and involved (but not overly involved)
5. Being genuine.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
1. In the counselling process, the relationship between the Counselor
and his client is called as the _________ relationship. ----------------------
a. Professional ----------------------
b. Healthy
----------------------
c. Therapeutic
----------------------
d. Medical
2. Trust, respect and ________ are the major components of a good ----------------------
therapeutic relationship. ----------------------
a. Love
----------------------
b. Congruence
----------------------
c. Bonding
d. Alliance ----------------------
3. And unhealthy therapeutic alliance is because of violating the ----------------------

________ and also the ethics of acceptable behaviour within the
relationship. ----------------------
a. Boundaries ----------------------
b. Terms ----------------------
c. Norms
----------------------
d. Rules
----------------------
4. The attitudes like warmth, respect, etc. of the therapist or the helping
person makes a relationship __________ . ----------------------
a. Friendly ----------------------
b. Unhelpful
----------------------
c. Unprofessional
----------------------
d. Growth-promoting
5. One of the elements which characterize the therapeutic relationships ----------------------
is _________ to the client’s attitudes. ----------------------
a. Tolerance
----------------------
b. Sensitivity
----------------------
c. Patience
d. Intolerance ----------------------
----------------------

Notes 4.4 EGAN’S MODEL OF COUNSELLING WITH
REFERENCE TO CHALLENGES IN COUNSELLING
----------------------
---------------------- Egan’s model is used in counselling, where the objective is to achieve

lasting change in the individual, to empower him to manage his own problems
---------------------- more effectively and to develop and use opportunities fully. Gerard Egan’s
Skilled Helper Model of counselling provides a structured and solution focused
---------------------- basis for counsellors, psychotherapists and hypnotherapists. It is a three stage
---------------------- model in which each state consists of specific skills that the therapist uses to
help the client move forwards. By mastering the process of using these basic
---------------------- skills in an appropriate manner the talking therapist may be able to increase
their efficiency and structure their work in a more logical way, thus helping
---------------------- clients in a more consistent manner .
---------------------- The model is a client centred approach that drives problem-managing and
opportunity-developing. The client should lead and have control throughout.
---------------------- When using this model it is important to remember that although the client is in
---------------------- control of the content, you as a helper are in control of the process. Stage 1 to 3
does not need to be followed in order, it is in fact possible to skip a certain stage
---------------------- and visit them at a later time, and it is also possible to re-visit certain stages if it
is necessary.
----------------------
The model has three stages, namely, exploration, challenging and
---------------------- planning.
---------------------- Stage 1 – Exploration
The first stage is to find out the clients story about what is happening.
----------------------
To listen to the story in their own words and reflect it back to them without
---------------------- judgement. This involves –
---------------------- ● attention - positive body language eye contact etc

● active listening
----------------------
● acceptance and empathy
---------------------- ● paraphrasing and summarising
---------------------- ● focusing
● questioning
----------------------
Some useful questions/comments that can be asked are –
---------------------- ● let’s explore this...
---------------------- ● Tell me your experience about ....
---------------------- ● You have not mentioned XYZ much... tell me more about..
● What would you like to talk about?
----------------------
● What I understand about ---- paraphrase and summarize
---------------------- ● Recap
----------------------

The strategies used for exploration stage are – Notes
● Pay attention to the relationship and develop and nurture it
----------------------
● Clarify the aims and objectives of the session – what the client exactly
wants ----------------------
● Support the exploration – be patient, ask questions that facilitates ----------------------
introspection, clarity of thought
● Take the lead by listening ----------------------
The methods that the counselor may use are – ----------------------
● Active listening ----------------------
● Asking Open ended questions
----------------------
● Summarizing
To get maximum benefit from the first stage, creating a good rapport and ----------------------
developing trust is are very important. Patience is the key. If this stage is rushed,
----------------------
it may lead to faulty understanding. This will set back the client and discourage
him. Facilitate the client to find his answers. ----------------------
Gerard Egan defined the acronym SOLER as part of his “Skilled Helper” ----------------------
staged approach to counselling. It is a non-verbal listening process used in
communication for active listening, and a key skill for counselors. ----------------------
SOLER stands for: ----------------------
S: Sit SQUARELY on to the client, preferably at a 5 o’clock position to
avoid the possibility of staring. ----------------------
O: Maintain an OPEN posture at all times, not crossing your arms or legs ----------------------
which can appear defensive.
----------------------
L: LEAN slightly in towards the client.
----------------------
E: Maintain EYE CONTACT with the client without staring.
R: RELAX. This should in turn help the client to relax. ----------------------
Stage 2 - Challenging ----------------------

The next stage is challenging the existing views and beliefs of the client. ----------------------
This has to be done one issue at a time. The client must be encouraged to
think about whether there is another way of looking at the issue. Some useful ----------------------
questions/comments that can be asked are
----------------------
● what in particular about this is a problem for you
----------------------
● what does he think or feel
● what might this look like from another person’s point of view ----------------------
● if you were describing someone else in the situation how would you ----------------------
describe it.
● what are your options here... ----------------------
● do you feel that what we have talked about is helping? ----------------------

Notes The strategies used for Challenging stage are –
● Support and Understanding
----------------------
● Identify and recognize the strengths
---------------------- ● Be positive and give constructive inputs
---------------------- ● Establish priorities
---------------------- The methods that the counselor may use are –

● Questioning / probing
----------------------
● Summarize and clarify
---------------------- ● Share experiences and stories
---------------------- ● Share information
Stage 2 is the turning point in the process. New understanding is
----------------------
experienced in many aspects. Being empathetic and supportive towards the
---------------------- client is important. Arriving at a new understanding may be difficult and
uncomfortable for the client. So the counselor needs to be encouraging. Many
---------------------- a times the clients are resistant, so the counselor needs to be understanding. Be
ready to go back to the first stage with new understanding. Reflect back and
----------------------
clarify what the client has learned and its implications on the needs and goals.
---------------------- Stage 3 – Action Planning
---------------------- Some of the useful questions to be asked are –
---------------------- ● What are the possible ways forward in this situation.

● Which of these ways feels the best for you
----------------------
● What will you achieve if you do this
---------------------- ● What will you do first and by when
---------------------- The goal is to get actual results. So goals that are set have to be realistic,
practical and achievable. The targets have to be specific and measurable, so that
---------------------- the clients can know whether they have achieved it. Follow up must be there.
Do not judge if the goals have not been achieved.
----------------------
Some useful questions/comments that can be asked in stage 3 are –
----------------------
● Lets look at the pros and cons of this choice
---------------------- ● Now that you have decided to do this... is there anything that you need to
---------------------- do before..
● How can I help you?
----------------------
● Is there anything I can do to for you to achieve this.
---------------------- ● Let us talk more about..
---------------------- ● Review
The strategies used for action planning stage are –
----------------------
● Examine the options for the client and discuss their consequences
----------------------
● Review the therapeutic process and the relationship

● Negotiate an Action Plan Notes
The methods that the counselor may use are –
----------------------
● Encourage creative ways of thinking so that more and more options are
open ----------------------
● Helping in the decision making process to solve problems ----------------------
● Prepare and agreeing on the action plan
----------------------
● Monitor the clients progress, get feedback, and evaluate outcomes
If stages 1 and 2 are handled well then stage 3 is fairly straight forward. ----------------------
It simply requires some people management and development skills. When ----------------------
the client owns the solution, takes responsibility for it, then the plans follow
through. The counselor may give some advice and direction at this stage. ----------------------
Increase the clients commitment to change by clear agreements and goal ----------------------
setting. Discuss the progress with the client and do not expect miraculous
results. Celebrate the clients success and achievements. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. _______ model is used in counselling, where the objective is to
achieve lasting change in the individual. ----------------------
2. The Egan model is a client centred approach that drives __________ ----------------------
and opportunity-developing.
----------------------
3. The Egan model has three stages, namely, ___________, challenging
and planning. ----------------------
4. The SOLER model is used for ___________. ----------------------
5. Stage 3 requires some _________ and development skills. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
---------------------- ● Meet at least five different people not known to you and try to build a
rapport with them. (Hint - You can do this by explaining the purpose
---------------------- to them)
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
● Due to the rapid economic and social changes in India, people are
----------------------
experiences significant stresses. Hence the need for professional counselors
---------------------- has increased. India is an old civilization and has many alternate healing
methods. These methods will remain and counselling will supplement
---------------------- and ever replace these methods. Rapid changes in personal and social
values are creating complex challenges. Counselling services use a
----------------------
positive approach towards handling these challenges. School counselling
---------------------- is also needed because of the behavioural and emotional problems of the
students, need for career guidance, etc.
----------------------
● The therapeutic relationship is the foundation of the counselling process.
---------------------- An unhealthy therapeutic relationship which is because of violation of
boundaries or ethics of acceptable behavior will cause more harm to the
---------------------- client. A healthy therapeutic relationship is growth promoting for the
client and has trust, understanding and acceptance.
----------------------
● Gerard Egan has developed a model of counselling where the objective
---------------------- is to achieve lasting change in the individual, to empower him to manage
his own problems more effectively and to develop and use opportunities
----------------------
fully. “The Skilled Helper Model” as it is called offers a structured and
---------------------- solution focused process. The model has three stages, namely, exploration
challenging and planning. Egan has also developed a “SOLER” model for
---------------------- active listening – the most essential skill required for the counselor.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Keywords Notes
----------------------
● Therapeutic relationship - the relationship between the Counselor and
his client in the counselling process. ----------------------
● Egan’s model - used in counselling, where the objective is to achieve
lasting change in the individual, to empower him to manage his own ----------------------
problems more effectively and to develop and use opportunities fully. ----------------------
● SOLER - a non-verbal listening process used in communication for
active listening, and a key skill for counselors. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. What are the challenges of the 21 century for the professional counselling
st
----------------------
field?
2. What is the meaning of therapeutic alliance? How is it important in the ----------------------
counselling process?
----------------------
3. What arê the effects of a bad relationship on the client and the counselling
process? ----------------------
4. Explain the different stages of the counselling model. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. Social ----------------------
2. Psychological
----------------------
3. Stigma
4. Nakshatra (zodiac) ----------------------
5. Stones ----------------------

State True or False. ----------------------
1. False
----------------------
2. True
3. True ----------------------
4. False ----------------------
5. True ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes Check your Progress 3
----------------------
1. c) Therapeutic
---------------------- 2. b) Congruence
---------------------- 3. a) Boundaries
4. d) Growth-promoting.
----------------------
5. b) Sensitivity
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
---------------------- 1. Egan’s
---------------------- 2. Problem-managing
---------------------- 3. Exploration
4. Active listening
----------------------
5. People management
----------------------
---------------------- Suggested Reading
---------------------- 1. Guidance and Counselling – By S.K. Gupta, Mittal Publications.

2. Basic Counselling Skills – A Helper’s Manual. By Richard Nelson-Jones,
----------------------
Sage Publication.
---------------------- 3. Practical Approach to Counselling – By Margaret Hough, Pitman
Publication.
----------------------
4. The Skilled Helper – by Gerard Egan & Robert Reese, Cengage Learning
---------------------- India Pvt Ltd.
---------------------- 5. An Introduction to Counselling & Psychotherapy : From Theory to
Practice – by Andrew Reese.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Purpose, Goals and Types of Counselling
UNIT
5
Structure:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Purpose of Counselling
5.3 Goals of Counselling
5.4 Types of Counselling
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
Purpose, Goals and Types of Counselling 61

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
----------------------
• Explain the purpose of counselling
----------------------
• State goals of counselling
---------------------- • Explain the types of counselling
----------------------
---------------------- 5.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- Every human being come across challenges and stress that must be faced.
We all experience personal challenges or issues in our lives. We can deal with
----------------------
these by talking to friends or family, or trying to deal with things ourselves.
---------------------- There are times however, when issues are too much for us to manage on our
own, or can not be resolved by support of family and friends. Sometimes, we
---------------------- feel the need for assistance and support to manage the problems and find the
solutions. At such time seeking support and strategies from professional such as
----------------------
counsellor can be helpful. Traditionally in India such support was readily and
---------------------- easily available from family.
Besides this moral and emotional support was also available from
----------------------
teachers, friends, spiritual/religious gurus. In the present context particularly
---------------------- urban areas there is increasing speed in the pace of life, fragmentation of
families and socio religious support system and competitiveness. All these
---------------------- factors have led to the greater need of assistance to help individuals cope with
their problems. Consequently the field of guidance and counselling has evolves
----------------------
into a professional area. There are different aspects of life such as personal,
---------------------- educational, vocational, professional, marriage, growth and development at
workplace where the person requires assistance from the expert to deal with life
---------------------- problems and do successful adjustment with life situations.
---------------------- In this unit you will be able to understand the purpose and goals of counselling.
You will also develop an understanding about various types of counselling.
----------------------
---------------------- 5.2 PURPOSE OF COUNSELLING

---------------------- Through counselling, individuals are encouraged to think about their
problems and thus come to know the better understanding of the causes of the
---------------------- problems. As a result of this understanding individual commit himself to take
action that will solve his problem. The kind of action taken will be person’s
----------------------
own decision although it may be guided by the counsellor. Counselling means
---------------------- choice, not force. Counsellor may think that his advice is seems reasonable,
but sometimes it may not be appropriate to the particular circumstances of the
---------------------- person receiving advice. With counselling, it the concerned person who takes the
decision so that the solution adopted are likely to be appropriate. An appropriate
----------------------
solution will be one that the person can follow with successful results.
Following are some of the purposes of counselling. Notes
● To assist client in becoming aware of their emotional state so that they can
better understand their emotional state. ----------------------
● To assist client in learning to express their emotions safely (to themselves ----------------------
and to others) so that they can become aware of and protect their
boundaries. ----------------------
● To work with clients in separating their past from the present on an ----------------------
emotional level, so that they can experience their emotional response to
the world based on their present needs rather than past trauma being re- ----------------------
triggered and replayed.
----------------------
● To teach clients to address their present and genuine needs which will
involve in turn them feeling satisfied, frustrated and negotiating as ----------------------
opposed to repressing their needs.
● To provide information on matters that help the individual to do better ----------------------
adjustment in the society. ----------------------
● To establish the feeling of mutual understanding between the counsellor
and client. ----------------------
● Help the individual to make wise choices. ----------------------
● Help in adapting to the changes or new environment.
----------------------
● To encourage special talents and develop right attitude.
● To help individuals through temporary crisis during the different stages ----------------------
of life.
----------------------
Successful counselling relies on the counsellor client relationships. So the
purpose of counselling is to develop the relationship between counsellor and ----------------------
client which they never had.
----------------------
5.3 GOALS OF COUNSELLING ----------------------
Counselling goals may be simply classified in terms of counsellor goals ----------------------
and client goals, immediate and long range goals or therapy. Broadly speaking
counselling goals can also be separated in the following categories. ----------------------
1. Developmental goals ----------------------
These are those goals where the client is assisted in meeting or advancing ----------------------
his/her anticipated growth and development (i.e social, personal,
emotional, cognitive, physical wellness and so on). ----------------------
Facilitating behaviour change, improve client’s ability to establish and ----------------------
maintain relationships, enhance the client’s effectiveness and ability to
cope, promoting decision making process are some of the examples of ----------------------
developmental goals.
----------------------
2. Preventive goals
----------------------
These are the goals which are meant to help the client to avoid undesirable
outcomes. Preventive goals has the main focus on anticipation and ----------------------
avoidance of conflicts and problems for those facing stress in the future.
Notes Preventive counselling is used to stop problems before they start or to prevent
things from getting worse. Areas like ‘How to keep healthy’, ‘How to prepare for
---------------------- retirement’, or sessions on pre marital counselling are examples of preventive goals.
---------------------- 3. Enhancement goals
These goals identifies the special skills and abilities of the individual and
----------------------
counsellor helps the individual to enhance those abilities and skills for
---------------------- individuals development.
These goals focuses on intrinsic motivation by raising awareness of a problem,
----------------------
adjusting self defeating thoughts regarding the problem, and increasing
---------------------- confidence in ones’ ability to change are some of the examples of enhancement
goals. Instead of identifying the problem and telling the person in therapy
---------------------- what to do about it, the counsellor encourages the person what to do about it.
Therapist encourages the person in therapy to make self motivating statement
----------------------
that display a clear understanding of problem and resolve to change.
---------------------- 4. Remedial goals
---------------------- Remediation involves assisting the client to overcome and / or treat an
undesirable development. Remedial goals involves assisting a client to
---------------------- overcome and / or treat an undesirable development.
---------------------- 5. Exploratory goals
---------------------- Exploration represents goals appropriate to the examination of options,
testing of skills, and trying new and different activities, environments,
---------------------- relationships and so on.
---------------------- In this goal counsellor helps the client to see themselves objectively, help
them to see the pattern and why they respond to it in certain way, and make
---------------------- discoveries about themselves. Counsellor takes the client to the point where
they see their problem, why its a problem and that they can change it.
----------------------
6. Reinforcement goals
----------------------
It is used in those instances where clients need help in recognizing that what
---------------------- they are doing, thinking and / or feeling is okay. Reinforcement of the behaviour
means the goal is to get individual to do more of a desired behaviour. It is
---------------------- strengthening of a new response by its repeated association with a stimulus.
---------------------- 7. Cognitive goals
---------------------- It involves acquisition of the basic information about learning and
cognitive skills.
----------------------
These goals includes promotion of self awareness and emotional
---------------------- intelligence by teaching clients to ‘‘read’’ their emotions and distinguish
healthy from unhealthy feelings. It helps the clients to understand how
---------------------- distorted perceptions and thoughts contribute to painful feelings.
---------------------- 8. Physiological goals
---------------------- Physiology involves acquiring the basic understanding and habits for
good health. Getting benefits of physiological counseling can help sort
a diverse range of problem you face in your regular life. It will help you Notes
overcome the emotional problems you go through better. In many cases,
the counseling can provide relief faster compared to taking medication. ----------------------
9. Psychological goals ----------------------
Psychology aids in developing good social interaction skills, learning
----------------------
emotional control, developing a positive self-concept, and so on. The goal of
the counseling is to enable the individual to make critical decisions regarding ----------------------
alternative courses of actions without outside influence. Counseling will
help individuals obtain information and to clarify emotional concern that ----------------------
may interfere with or be related to the decision involved.
----------------------
Different individuals have different perceptions of what can be expected of
counseling. However there are five commonly named goals of counseling. ----------------------
1. Facilitating behaviour change ----------------------
The goal of counselling is to bring about change in behaviour that will ----------------------
Enable the client to be more productive.Goals can be measurable so that
client can measure that program. According to Rogers behaviour change ----------------------
is necessary result of the counselling process. All the specific behaviour
receive little or no emphasis during process. ----------------------
2. Improving relationship ----------------------

Many clients tend to have major problems relating to others due to poor ----------------------
self image. Inadequate social skills cause individuals to act defensively
in social relationships. The Counselor would then strive to help the ----------------------
client Improve the quality of their lives by developing more effective
----------------------
interpersonal relationships.
3. Facilitate client’s potential ----------------------
Counselors help individuals to cope with new situations and challenges. ----------------------
Individuals will inevitably run into difficulties in the process of growing
up. Most of them do not completely achieve all over their development ----------------------
tasks within a life time. All of the unique expectations and requirements ----------------------
imposed on individuals by others will eventually lead to problem.
Learning coping patterns, however may not always work. ----------------------
4. Promote decision making ----------------------
The goal of the counseling is to enable the individual to make critical
decisions regarding alternative courses of actions without outside ----------------------
influence. Counseling will help individuals obtain information and to ----------------------
clarify emotional concern that may interfere with or be related to the
decision involved. These individuals will acquire an understanding of ----------------------
their capabilities and interests. They will also come to identify emotions
and attitudes that could influence their choice and decisions. ----------------------
5. Enhance potential and enrich self development ----------------------

Counselling helps individuals to cope with new situations and challenges. ----------------------
It seeks to maximize an individual freedom by giving him or her control
Notes over their environment while analyzing responsiveness and reach to the
environment. Counselors help people to learn how to overcome problems
---------------------- and issues. Counselors also assist in overcoming sexual dysfunction, drug
addiction, gambling and obesity as well as anxiety, shyness and depression.
----------------------
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(source- https://br.pinterest.com/pin/783556035164679221/)
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---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.
---------------------- 1. What is the ultimate aim of counselling for the individual to attain?
---------------------- a. Self knowledge
b. Self direction
----------------------
c. Self understanding
---------------------- d. Self discovery
---------------------- 2. For effective non directive counselling session which of the following
will be most essential?
----------------------
a. Training of the counsellor
---------------------- b. Development of rapport with the client
---------------------- c. Expertise in using the test
d. Conversational fluency
----------------------
3. Counseling refers to ________________ .
---------------------- a. A Professional advice by Counselor
---------------------- b. An Advice by Elder
---------------------- c. Both A & B
d. All of the above.
----------------------

Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
● How I can reshape my future? Imagine how you might live your life
----------------------
in a way that both brings you happiness and would put a smile on
your face. ----------------------
----------------------
5.4 TYPES OF COUNSELLING
----------------------
Counselling can be categorized into following three types based on the
role of counsellor and the nature of counselling function. ----------------------
1. Directive counselling ----------------------
Directive counselling is counsellor oriented as the counselor plays a
----------------------
major role in solving the problem. The counsellor tries to establish good
relations through the friendship and assistance. In the the counsellor ----------------------
is very active and he expresses his ideas independently. The counselor
identifies, defines, diagnosis the problem and then provides a solution. ----------------------
The counselor has major role to play in directive counselling as he directs
thinking by informing, explaining,interpreting and advising the client. ----------------------
He evaluates the expression of the client. The counsellor in directive ----------------------
counselling performs following steps to counsel the client.
1. Analysis - The Counselor conducts analysis which enters collecting data ----------------------
from various sources so that problem of the client can be understood. ----------------------
Counsellor uses tools such as cumulative records, interview, anecdotal
records, autobiography, psychological tests to collect the data. Case ----------------------
history method is used to integrate the entire data about the client.
----------------------
● Synthesis - Counsellor puts the data together, summarize,organize
and interpret the collected data to know about the clients’ strength ----------------------
weakness and so on.
----------------------
● Diagnosis - Counsellor identifies the nature of the problem and
also what causes the problem. Counsellor discover the remedy ----------------------
and prescribe it to the client.
● Prognosis - Counsellor conducts a prognosis which involves ----------------------
predicting the development of the problem in the future. Both ----------------------
prognosis and diagnosis are cooperative processes in between
counsellor and client. ----------------------
● Counselling or treatment - It involves taking steps to help the
----------------------
client adjust to the problem and eventually overcoming it. In this
various questions are answered. Client answer these questions for ----------------------
himself such as, How I can make change in self? What can be its
alternate ?How the progress will occur in future? ----------------------
● Follow Up - In this step the evaluation of effectiveness of ----------------------
counselling procedure is done and in this it is observed what client
could achieve through counselling? Counsellor conducts follow up ----------------------

Notes of the client time to time and again when the client faces the same
type of problem.
---------------------- 2. Non Directive counselling
---------------------- Non directive counselling is a client centred counselling where the client
is allowed free expression and the counsellor only directs and guides. The
---------------------- function of the counsellor is to provide such an environment in which
---------------------- client is independent to grow so that he may become what he likes to
become. It revolves around the client. The counsellor ask a few questions
---------------------- to the client so that he can think of the possible solutions. The client
is encouraged to lead in conversation and to express his own feelings
---------------------- and ideas. The counsellor helps the client to complete his conversation.
---------------------- The counselor is an active participant who discusses problem with the
counselor and with the help of. The counselor arrives at a solution and
---------------------- takes a decision. The role of the counsellor is a passive one. The role of
the counsellor is to create an atmosphere where the client is able to work
---------------------- on his own and find solution to the problem. The counsellor makes his
---------------------- effort to develop rapport and mutual feelings of confidence in both the
parties. When the client is answering, he is encouraged to speak in detail
---------------------- through proper methods. The client feels that counsellor really respect
client’s ideas. In this emotional aspects of the client is more emphasized
---------------------- than the intellectual aspect.
---------------------- Following are the steps of Non directive counselling
---------------------- 1. Define the problem - First of all the counsellor should define the
problematic situation.
----------------------
2. Free expression of feelings - After the first step the client is made aware
---------------------- of the fact that he can express his feelings freely and the counsellor
approves his behaviour.
----------------------
3. Classification of positive and negative feelings- After the free expression
---------------------- of feelings by the client, the counsellor identifies his positive and negative
feelings and he classifies them.
----------------------
4. Development of insight - The counsellor goes on thinking regarding the
---------------------- clients’ new feelings along with the development of clients’ insight and he
goes on classifying all those new feelings.
----------------------
5. Termination of counselling situation - The counsellor looks for a point
---------------------- where he can terminate the counselling situation after all the above steps.
---------------------- 3. Eclectic Counselling
Sometimes, some counsellor agree neither directive or non directive
----------------------
counselling. In such situation the counsellor develops another type of
---------------------- counselling. This lies in between directive and non directive counselling.
This is called Eclectic counselling.
----------------------
In this type of counselling, counsellor is neither active or passive. In this
---------------------- type of counselling the needs of the person and personality are studied by

the counsellor. After this counsellor selects those techniques which are Notes
successful for a person. Eclectic counselling revolves around the use of
coordinative methods. In the process of counselling the counsellor may ----------------------
start with the directive counselling and and after sometime he can follow
non directive counselling method or vice versa as the situation demands. ----------------------
In this the technique is adopted according to the situation and client. ----------------------
The client and counsellor corporate and work actively in finding a solution
----------------------
of the problem. The process focuses on the personality and the needs of
the client and then finds technique that can be used to find a solution to ----------------------
the problem faced by the counselee. Some techniques that can be used in
this process may include reassurance, testing,case history and providing ----------------------
the essential information to the client so that problem can be solved. Steps
----------------------
involved in eclectic counselling are as follows.
1. Study of the needs and personality characteristic of the client - ----------------------
The counsellor gathers information regarding the characteristics of
----------------------
persons’ personality. Counsellor studies the needs and personality
of the client ----------------------
2. Selection of technique - The counsellor select the appropriate
----------------------
technique after consulting the client. Need based techniques are
used in accordance with the need of the person. ----------------------
3. Application of technique - The selected technique are applied to ----------------------
solve the problem. The techniques and the counselling process are
evaluated to know whether it has been effective or not. The utility ----------------------
of selected technique is observed in the context of client.
----------------------
4. Preparation of Counselling - Here preparation is done for guidance
and counselling. ----------------------
5. Seeking the opinion of client - The counsellor seeks the opinion ----------------------
of the client on whether the technique and counselling provided
having of help or not. ----------------------
There are many fields of counselling. Besides above types there are other ----------------------
types of counselling.
----------------------
1. Educational Counselling - It is concerned with helping the pupil in deciding
curriculum of study. In the context of various aptitude, capabilities and ----------------------
natural tendencies pupils can be helped through educational counselling.
In nut shell it helps the pupils in problems related to education. ----------------------
2. Vocational Counselling - Vocational counselling is that process in ----------------------
which a person is helped in selecting a proper vocation and preparing
for it. The decision regarding the vocation is serious affair and hence it ----------------------
needs special attention otherwise mal-adjustment and unhappiness can ----------------------
be the result.
3. Psychological Counselling - The solution of personal and emotional ----------------------
problems comes under psychological counselling. It is very essential ----------------------
to attend these problems otherwise affects the school education of the
Notes child. The lack of such counselling may create disturbed, unhappy and
unadjusted mental state. In psychological counselling the counsellor is
---------------------- just like a therapist or doctor who helps the client in the expression of his
suppressed needs, feelings and emotions through normal talk.
----------------------
4. Psycho therapeutic Counselling - It is a face to face relationship in which
---------------------- the psychologically trained individual consciously attempting by verbal
means to assist another person or persons to modify emotional attitude
----------------------
that are socially mal-adjusted and in which the subject is relatively aware
---------------------- of the personality reorganization through which he is going. Psycho
therapeutic counselling is very important in eliminating social mal-
---------------------- adjustment.
---------------------- 5. Clinical counselling - Clinical counselling is related to mal-adjustment
related to person’s normal functioning. In this direct relationship between
---------------------- the counsellor and client is involved. The problem is analyzed and efforts
are made to solve the problem. A person is helped who develops mal-
----------------------
adjustment and some problems in self expression.
---------------------- 6. Marriage counselling - These days marriage counselling has also started.
In this suggestions are made for the proper selection of life partner and
----------------------
the person is helped to the maximum. Married clients are helped to solve
---------------------- the problems of married life. Due to industrialization and urbanization
families shifts to urban areas and the family structure has also changed
---------------------- from joint family to nuclear family. They need counselling.
---------------------- 7. Placement counselling - Placement counselling means to help the client
in selecting the vocation according to his attitude, aptitude, and abilities.
---------------------- It helps the client in his appointment, in the occupation for which he
---------------------- possess abilities and from which he gets job satisfaction.
From these types of counselling we come to know that person faces
---------------------- problems in these spheres. The type of counselling depends upon the
---------------------- nature of problem but the areas of problem can not be restricted.
----------------------
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Notes
----------------------
----------------------
1. Ramesh approaches the class teacher and informs the schedule of
examination when announced makes him uneasy. Which type of ----------------------
counselling does this situation demands?
----------------------
a. Educational counselling
b. Vocational counselling ----------------------
c. Psychological counselling ----------------------
d. Clinical counselling
----------------------
2. In a school a class teacher daily talk with students about how to
make better usenof library/ reading room for improving the academic ----------------------
performance. She is providing which of the following?
----------------------
a. Personal guidance
b. Educational guidance ----------------------
c. Directive counselling ----------------------

d. Vocational counselling ----------------------
3. Which type of counselling can not be utilized in institution such as
school? ----------------------
a. Directive counselling ----------------------

b. Non directive counselling ----------------------
c. Eclectic counselling
----------------------
d. None of the above
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2
----------------------
● Make a list of problems you have faced recently, where you would
have felt much better after speaking with somebody about it. From ----------------------
the list categorize problems in following categories. Personal, social, ----------------------
academic. You need not disclose or share the problems with others
if you do not wish to. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes Summary
---------------------- ● Counseling is the heart of the counselor’s activity. It aims at helping the
clients understand and accept themselves as they are so that they are able
----------------------
to work towards realising their potential.
---------------------- ● Through counselling, individuals are encouraged to think about their
problems and thus come to know the better understanding of the causes of
----------------------
the problems. As a result of this understanding individual commit himself
---------------------- to take action that will solve his problem. The kind of action taken will be
person’s own decision although it may be guided by the counsellor.
----------------------
● Counselor seeks to identify and explore the client’s problem with the
---------------------- objective of establishing counseling goals. Goals need to be established
as it provides a sense of direction and purpose in the counseling process.
----------------------
---------------------- Self-Assessment Questions

---------------------- 1. What are the goals of counselling ?
---------------------- 2. Why it is important to have counselling goals ?

3. Discuss the types of Counselling with suitable examples.
----------------------
4. Differentiate between Directive and Non-Directive counselling.
----------------------
5. Why is Eclectic Counselling preferred to Directive and Non-Directive
---------------------- counselling?
---------------------- Answers to Check your Progress

---------------------- 1. c
---------------------- 2. b
3. a
----------------------

1. c
----------------------
2. b
----------------------
3. b
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Belkin, G.S. (1986). Introduction to Counseling. Brown Publishers
U.S.A. ----------------------
2. Coleman, H. L. (2009). Handbook of school counseling. Mahwah, NJ:
----------------------
Lawrence Erlbaum.
3. Gibson, M. Mitchell, M.H., Introduction to Counselling and Guidance. ----------------------
New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1986 ----------------------
4. Gibson, R.L. & Mitchell, M.H. (2005). Introduction to Counseling and
Guidance. Pearson Education ----------------------
5. Lakshmi, K.S. (2000). Encyclopaedia of Guidance and Counseling. Mittal ----------------------

Publications, New Delhi.
----------------------
6. Patri, V R. (2001). Counselling Psychology. Authorspress New Delhi.
Rao, S.N. (1995). Counseling and Guidance. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing ----------------------
Company Ltd. New Delhi.
----------------------
7. Sharma R. A. (2011) “Fundamaentals of Guidance & Couselling” R. Lall
Book Depot, Meerut, U.P ----------------------
8. Sharma R. N. (2008) “Vocational Guidance & Couselling” Surjeet ----------------------
publications, Delhi.
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Notes
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The Process of Counselling
UNIT
6
Structure:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Introduction to the Process of Counselling
6.3 Rapport Establishment and History Taking
6.3.1 Rapport Establishment
6.3.2 Effect of Building Rapport with Client
6.3.3 History Taking - Intake Interview
6.3.4 Purpose of Intake Interview
6.4 Consent Signing, Testing, Interpretation
6.4.1 What is Consent
6.4.2 Obtaining Self Consent
6.4.2.1 Consent for Minors
6.4.3 Psychological Testing
6.4.3.1 Selecting Appropriate Tests and Strategies:
6.4.3.2 Precautions to be Taken While Conducting Tests
6.4.4 Interpreting the Results
6.5 Conveying Results, Further Support
6.5.1 Importance of Conveying Results
6.6 Termination
6.6.1 What is Termination?
6.6.2 Information the Client and Gradually Spacing
6.6.3 Providing Closure
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
The Process of Counselling 75

Objectives
• Explain the significance of skills that are needed at each step of
counselling
• Evaluate the need for consent of the client before starting intervention
• Identify strategies that are effective and plan intervention
• Explore the need for closure of the intervention and termination of
sessions
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Counselling, as we have learnt in the earlier chapters, is in no way a simple
process of just talking about problems with your client. By now, you all know very
well that it is a complicated process and a step by step process, with the ultimate
goal of making the client get better and not just feel better. The process therefore
involves various steps starting from building a trusting relationship with the client,
so that they feel safe to discuss their problem with the counsellor. After gaining the
trust of the client and having a rapport, both the counsellor and counselee together
frame the goals and the timeframe of attainment of these goals. Planning strategies
for intervention and regular review of what is working and what is not, is the most
complicated yet satisfying step from a counselor perspective. This is because if
this goes right, the counselee would be totally benefitted and that is the ultimate
success of the counseling process. Once the goal is attained, it is equally crucial
that a proper closure is provided and the counseling sessions are terminated. A
Variable or regular interval follow-up to vene away the case, ensuring no relapse
nor any kind of transference and countertransference is extremely essential for the
success of the case. In this chapter, we attempt to understand in detail each of the
steps involved in the counseling process and significance of each step in ensuring
success of the counseling process.
6.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROCESS OF COUNSELING

Counselling typically helps in bringing the change. The process begins
with exploring the challenges a client faces before assisting them in resolving
developmental and situational difficulties.
You might have thought about the techniques such as comforting the
client, helping them to handle their emotional outbursts (crying/over sharing/
anxiety and so on), allowing them to vent and empty themselves, and giving
them solutions to their problems so that they try out these solutions and put an
end to their problems and remain happy.
In thinking so, you are right, since the ultimate goal is to see the client
satisfied and happy with your intervention. But is this the desirable process?

Are you providing enough opportunities to your client to get into depth of their
presenting problems? As a counselor, what is the amount of freedom that you
are supposed to give to the client in setting their own goals and achieving them
within a time frame mutually agreed upon? Do you think it is important to
study the problem of the client with unconditional positive regard? And how
important is it to provide an intervention that is effective for a long period of
time, so that the client would be able to handle similar and other issues, without
having to visit a counselor, each time they face any problematic situation?
Though the end product of any counseling sessions is to help client get
better at handling their problems, it is more often an independent process, where
all the work is done by the client and the counselor plays the facilitator and
moderator of the process, where the counselee comes up with possible solutions
and also identifies the most feasible one.
Once that is done, it is again the counselee who is responsible to act and
move towards the goal. There may be some obstacles on the path, and that is
where the counselor needs to motivate the client to keep going and that they
ain’t alone.
In this chapter we shall be examining all these points in relevant details so
that you would get a clear picture of the counseling process and the intricacies
involved in the process. We also need to take care of the ethical considerations
and ensure complete privacy of the individual.
Counseling is not a one session process, where you meet your client
once and provide solutions for all their problems. This is just a common man’s
understanding of the counseling sessions. Counseling is a step by step process
involving several sessions ranging from a minimum of 8 12 sessions to more,
depending upon the intensity of the problem and the response of the client to the
interventions planned by the counselor.
The following are the five main steps involved in counseling:
1. Relationship building
2. Assessing the problem
3. Setting goals and agreeing upon a time frame
4. Identifying and choosing the most appropriate strategy to the presenting
problem
5. Termination and follow-up.
Let us now look into details of each of these steps and study the skills that
need to be practiced to become a seasoned counsellor.

Activity 1
● Take a minute to reflect upon the techniques to make the counseling

process a successful endeavour. Make a report on it.
6.3 RAPPORT ESTABLISHMENT AND HISTORY TAKING

6.3.1 Rapport Establishment:
In any relationship, it is important to build a trusting bond between two
individuals. So also, in the process of counseling, it is essential that respect
and mutual trust is established between the counselor and the counselee. Being
compassionate, empathetic and non-judgmental is easier said than done. But
once these are established, the counselee would feel emotionally safe and
cared for, which is crucial for the counselee to open up and discuss their issues
without any inhibitions and self doubt. It is the compatibility established that
determines the achievements of the goals set for each stage in the counseling
process.
1. Communication skills in counseling
● Expression - This is related to how the counselor puts across their
thoughts to the client in a neutral and balanced manner. This involves
presenting the facts related to the presenting problem of the counselee,
without appreciating or criticizing the client for what they are. At the
same time, the counselor also has to understand both verbal and non-
verbal expressions of the client, which may vary in proportion, but have
important implications in the area of counseling.
● The facial expressions such as smile,biting or twitching of lips,
biting nails, animated, alert or deadpan expression, twitching nose,
raising eyebrows, widening eyes and lips could tell us a lot about
the feelings of the client.
● Body posture, movements and gestures
● Tone of voice, pitch, pace, loudness, spacing and choice of words,
language, pauses, fluency and silence.
It is also important to remember that the client can reveal significant
information only when they trust the counselor. Thus, strength and effectiveness
of the counseling sessions invariably depends on the level of trust and feeling
emotionally safe and this happens when rapport is established.
● Listening- Any conversation or communication involves one or more
persons speaking one at a time to one or more listeners, to convey the
message and build healthy bonds. The counselor - counselee bond is also
of a similar kind. In all communications, listening is a significant part.
There are three different types of listening:

● Superficial listening - When the listener listens to the speaker
preoccupied with their own issues, and paying only partial attention
to the speaker, it is superficial listening. In such a scenario, there is
some discomfort and lack of trust on both sides.
● Selective listening - In this type,the listener listens and grasps only
the information they are keen to hear. The receiver may also add
their own conclusions and interpretations to the information, based
on their past experiences and heuristics.This is superficial listening
and is harmful especially in the counseling settings.
● Attentive or active listening- Here the listener or the receiver of
information stays neutral in intent and tries to understand the content
from a neutral perspective, without drawing conclusions or taking
sides. Voice tone, gestures, silences, pauses and pace of speech all these
are the observable part of listening. These give us an insight into the
thought process of the client and their state of heightened emotions.
Activity 2
● Observe yourself next time when someone is talking to you and note
down the following:
● Did you ask them to repeat themselves when you have not understood
something they said?
● How were you listening and attending to them physically?
● Can you write down some areas where you think you need
improvement?
● Responding:
Most times, when people listen, they are simultaneously trying to frame
a reply to whatever they are hearing. This creates a communication gap,
since the listener is not actively listening, since they are busy thinking
about how to respond or what to reply. In a counseling relationship,
this could be detrimental. A counselor has to listen to the client, to
understand the problem from the client’s perspective and not to spurt out
a few sentences of general advice. A crucial necessity in the process of
counselling is responding. People generally use five kinds of responses:
● Evaluative Response: In this, a judgment or an opinion is conveyed.
“I do not want you to behave the way you do. I want you to behave
better and do what I say.”
● Interpretative Response: This intends to convey the meaning of
the information shared by the speaker. “You mean to say that your
behavior is justified in the given situation?”
● Supportive Response: In this, there is an attempt made to comfort
or reassure the speaker by “Have patience, this too shall pass!”

● Probing Response: Responses that tend to gather more information
through follow up questions, leading to a discussion with the
speaker to get the details of the event or the situation. “Can you
please tell me what actually happened immediately after they left?”
“What else do you think about it?” “How do you think that we can
plan to resolve your problem?”
● Understanding Response: This happens when the response comes
after reflecting on what is said. The responder communicates to the
respondent that their feelings are well- taken and understood in the
truest sense. “I understand the pain you are going through, when
you are unable to achieve your goals, in spite of putting in your best
efforts. I hope things get better soon.”
Generally people respond in the order: Evaluative, Interpretative,
Supportive, Probing and understanding. But in a counseling relationship, it
is essential to follow the reverse order - Understanding, probing, supportive,
interpretive and evaluative. It is important to respond in such a way that the
client feels understood and cared for, their feelings validated.
● Reacting
As important it is to respond to the client, it is equally important to
know and understand how the client is responding. Especially reactions
to the probing questions or evaluative questions. Close attention needs
to be paid to the facial expressions, gestures, voice intonation and body
language of the client. This helps in encouraging the client to become
vocal with their thoughts and fears, and confront them, with the help of the
counselor. Silences and over explanation are enough cues to understand
the discomfort of the counselee, if any.
● Defensive reaction-The client may become overtly explaining,
feels that they are being judged, the counseling sessions might lose
effectiveness.
● Withdrawal reaction: In situations when the client feels threatened
or misunderstood, they may withdraw and choose not to share
information, that could be crucial to the case. Even in this situation,
the counselling sessions may go ineffective or reduce effectiveness.
It is therefore important that the counsellor carefully observes the client,
and listens attentively to the client and at the same time notices every
detail of the non-verbal cues given out by the client and note them down,
for the purpose of further analysis.
2. Developing Empathy
Differing from sympathy, empathy involves seeing the problem from the
client’s point of view, however trivial it might appear to the counselor.
Expressing empathy provides assurance to the client that there is someone
who can understand what they are going through. Empathy is all about
sensing the client’s world and feeling the emotions they are experiencing

at that point of time. Communication of empathy involves attentive
listening, paraphrasing information the client has shared, asking for
details and clarifications.
● Attentiveness - Listening attentively, paying attention to all the
details including pauses and silences, which convey a lot of subtle
information.
● Paraphrasing - This ensures that the counselor understands
exactly what the client is trying to say, without any adulteration and
misinterpretations.
● Reflecting- Rephrasing the feelings as put forward by the client,and
look for any underlying messages to seek further clarifications,
● Pacing- Keeping in pace with the client’s way of experiencing
when they share information or issues related. This also involves
matching the language of the client and conveying the message, so
that the client understands exactly what the counselor is trying to
say and vice versa.
3. Genuineness
This implies showing genuine concern and care towards the client and the
problems faced by them. This can be expressed by a nod, leaning forward
to listen with more involvement, facial expressions, hand gestures,
occasional Hmm.. and eye-contact.
● Self disclosure-The counsel or may choose to share some of their life
experiences, to make the client feel at home and that a trust is established.
But at the same time, it is to be kept in mind that too much self-disclosure
might put off the client and there is always a chance that the information
can be misused. Self disclosure is effective only when shared at the right
time, in relation to the appropriate content and context, which the client
is mentioning about.
● Immediacy - A skill to convey genuineness, immediacy is used to describe
the present feelings as experienced by the counselor and the client during
the session, and bring them up during discussion. This skill is used to
bring the conversations back to track, when the client seems to digress
from the main point. This can be used during the later part of sessions
when due to reasons best known to the client, they might withdraw and
choose not to share any more information. In this situation, the counselor
might feel stuck up and use immediacy as an icebreaker to move further
in the counseling process. “I am disappointed with your silence. And we
are going nowhere trying to stay silent.” could be a statement made to
bring the client to open up during the sessions.
4. Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR)
● Verbal behaviors - A word of appreciation, encouragement and enhancing
responses tend to build self confidence among the clients and they feel
unconditional regard for them.

● Non-verbal behaviors - A smile, grin, and well-intended touch, speaking
in a soft voice, facial expression, eye contact, relaxed posture are all
welcoming and calming gestures, where the client feels at home and feels
free to discuss their issues.
6.3.2 Effect of building rapport with clients
It is when the counselor and counselee find each other in harmony with
each other, the client feels safe to disclose the underlying issues behind
the presenting problem. Building trust and remaining unconditionally
positive towards the client, helps clients to retrospect and reflect upon
their core issues which need urgent attention and intervention. Becoming
aware of the core issues, the counselor and client can together work
out the ways and means to overcome them and enable clients to work
on becoming the best version of them. All this is possible when the
counselor and counselee are related with mutual respect, understanding,
liking, warmth, caring bond and a sense of emotional security. Ensuring
confidentiality is utmost important to help clients look into their issues
with a non-judgmental perspective and get a hang of the conflict seeded
deep within and minimize this conflict.
Fill in the blanks.

1. ___________ is not a one session process, where you meet your client
once and provide solutions for all their problems.
2. In the process of ___________, it is essential that respect and mutual
trust is established between the counsellor and the counselee.
3. ___________ is related to how the counsellor puts across their
thoughts to the client in a neutral and balanced manner.
4. When the listener listens to the speaker preoccupied with their
own issues, and paying only partial attention to the speaker, it is
___________ listening.
5. It is when the counsellor and counselee find each other in harmony
with each other, the client feels safe to ___________ the underlying
issues behind the presenting problem.

Activity 2
Given below is a list of basic communication skills in the counselling

process.
Rate yourself on a scale of 1 to 5 on these skills and reflect on which skills
you are good at, and what you need to be better at.
1. Noting down important information shared by the client.
2. Pay equal attention to words, gestures and voice intonation, while
listening attentively.
3. Listen to all aspects of the message, both verbal and non-verbal, but
not jumping to conclusions.
4. Evaluating and interpreting a client’s behavior as an important part of
the communication process.
Avoid misunderstanding due to interpretation by avoiding expectations,
needs and opinions.
6.3.3 History taking - Intake Interview

This is the second step in the counselling process. There are no distinct
boundaries between the first and second step, since rapport building happens
when the counselor gets to know more about the client and the client on the
other hand, is willing for self disclosure.
Data collected through interview Purpose/study of the data
Identification Data
Address and number of occupants in Know about the location, surroundings
the house. of the client, environment to which
the client is exposed, and living
conditions (like shared apartment/
own house/small- large-joint family
and so on)
Contact details (Parents/primary To be used by the counselor to contact,
caregivers in case of minors) in case of need, only with the consent
of the client.
Age/Date of birth To know if the client is legally a
minor or is mature enough to provide
information that can be relied on.
Occupation (Class studying in: in How the client keeps themselves
case of students) occupied and what they do to earn a
living.

Information related to the problem (Presenting problem)
How much does the presenting This information has to be recorded
problem interfere with the day to day as reported by the client themselves.
functioning of the client? How? It is preferred verbatim, so that the
What does the client think about the problem can be analysed better and
problem? it What does the client think about
How does the client tend to react to the would enable the counselor to
the problem situation? get to the core of the problem and
Since how long has the client been help clients heal from it, instead of
experiencing this problem? providing symptomatic treatment.
How often does the client find
themself in the problem?
When did the client first realise that
this is a problem?
What are the events as identified by
the client that lead to the problem?
When, usually, does the problem
occur? With whom?
What are the things that take place
before and after the problem?
What is the reason for the client to
seek the counseling/therapy session?
Client’s present life situation
A typical day in the life of the client Know the activities, hobbies, interests,
(take down in all details provided by social and religious activities,
the client) vocational and educational status of
the client
Family data
Age and occupation of parents/ Socio-economic status
primary caregivers
Details of birth order and siblings/ Status and kind of treatment at home
other people they live with (in case of
foster homes/adoption)
Any known history of chronic/ Family history of the illness
prolonged mental illness in the family
Mobility status of the family, places Socio-cultural exposure of the client

they moved to and how long did the
family stay in each place?

Background Information (personal)
Medical History
Educational Background
Work experience (In case of non-
minor)
Relationships with opposite sex
Previous experiences with therapy/
counseling sessions Substance abuse
(if any)
Description of client (Behavior, appearance etc. )
How does the client carry themselves? Note physical appearance, clothes,
hairdo, grooming, posture, gesture,
mannerisms, words regularly used,
replete gestures, degree of interest,
enthusiasm shown during the session.
Openness of the client Level and ease of expression, language
and thought fluency, level of alertness
(lazy to excited), interest in talking
about the problem or otherwise, logica
and realistic remarks and narration.
Other behaviors that need to be temperament, behavior characteristics,
observed and noted are: other problems faces in addition
to the presenting problem, time
management and overall personality
Behaviours Behavioural traits such as -
fidgeting, nail-biting, stammering or
hyperactive/aggressive behaviours
Strategies Other problems faced and coping
strategies and peer support, as
mentioned by the client.
Mechanisms Escape mechanisms such as day
dreaming, missing classes/tests,
making excuses, blaming others.
Personal traits Autonomy, initiative, focus on
the goals, self discipline, social
competencies and skills
6.3.4 Purpose of intake interview
Intake interview begins with collecting the demographic details of the
client, along with their medical status, socio-economic-cultural background,
details of the parents, primary caregivers and other members of the family, who
stay together. This extends to getting to know the environment in which the
client plays and the school they go to. All these details could provide a hunch

to the underlying issues, which manifest as presenting problems. In addition
to this, the intake interview provides a chance to the counselor to observe the
client closely and note down all the subtler behaviors and non-verbal gestures.
All these give better insights into getting to the core of the presenting problem.
This is important, since giving a symptomatic treatment is in no way helpful to
the client. The issues are resolved only when the client becomes aware of inner
conflicts and considers to heal them, and the counselor has to help them with the
process.
6.4 CONSENT SIGNING, TESTING, INTERPRETATION

6.4.1 What is consent?
There are times when as a counselor, you might face situations where
the parents or caregivers might approach you to counsel their ward, without
revealing that it is actually a therapeutic process that is going on. Such cases are
unethical. It is essential that the client, be it minor or an adult, has to be fully
aware of the counseling sessions and agree to be a part of it, willingly. Taking
consent from the client and parents and primary caregivers - in case of minors is
an important and ethical part of the counseling process. Professional counseling
differs largely from elders giving some advice or providing readymade
solutions to the problems a client is facing. It is therefore essential that there is
no deception in the process and that the client is willing to receive the therapy.
It is only when the client recognizes their problem as a problem, a counselor can
help them find ways and means to handle their issues and emerge safely out of
it, physically, emotionally, and mentally. Obtaining consent and maintaining a
record of it is mandatory before the start of any counseling session.
6.4.2 Obtaining self consent
A proforma to obtain an informed consent from the client as well as their
caregivers or parents, incase of minors, is given below. Please note that this is
just a sample profarma, and it can be changed to include other clauses which
you wish to add.

Informed Consent
Name: ________________________________ Gender: _____
Class & Section: ________________________________

Date: _________________________
CONSENT
Date: ___________________________
Dear _____________________________
You have been identified by your teacher/by me/by yourself, as having
some adjustment difficulty. I would like to help you. We can discuss and
try to find better ways of adjustment.
Whatever we discuss will remain between us. It will be held confidential.
I would like to work with you, with your consent. I would be happy if
you consent to the same.
Thank you,
(Counselor)
Consenting Student:
6.4.2.1 Consent for minors

Proforma for obtaining consent from parents/primary caregivers Parents,
primary caregivers/referring teacher/self, consent must be obtained from all the
people involved before the start of the session. However, conversation between
the client and counsellor is completely confidential and in case any sort of
disclosure is inevitable, it has to be done only with a written permission from
the client, even if the client is a minor.

Request for Consent
Name: ______________________________ Gender:_______
Class & Section: __________________________
Date: ____________
CONSENT
Date: _____________
Dear _____________________________
Your ward has been identified by their teacher/by me/by themselves/by

you, as having some adjustment difficulty. I would like to help them.
We can discuss and try to find better ways of adjustment.
Whatever we discuss will remain between us. It will be held confidential.
I would like to work with your ward, with your consent. I would be happy
if you consent to the same.
Thank you,
(Counselor)
Parent/Primary Caregivers
6.4.3 Psychological testing

After obtaining the necessary consent and having the first meeting with
the client, during the intake interview, a counsellor is now equipped with all the
information needed to look closely into the presenting problem of the client.
A critical analysis of the information, might show some patterns of certain
behaviors and additional information to understand the underlying problems
which project as presenting problems. For example - if the client is a bully and
is referred by the teacher for counseling, bullying is the presenting problem -
which needs to be described in all relevant yet minute details. The underlying
problem might be that the child was once a victim of bullying and the feelings of
resentment and insecurities are projected in their act of troubling others. Once
inferred, this has to be confirmed through some psychological psychometric
tests which have to be necessarily tested and standardized. What tests are to be
administered completely depends upon the observations made and needs of the
counselee, as decided by the counselor and agreed upon by both.

6.4.3.1 Selecting appropriate tests and strategies:
Selecting psychological tests that provide insights into the client’s core
thoughts and emotions plays an important role in interpreting the client’s
disposition and overall presentation of self. Tests need to be carefully selected
and administered only if it is absolutely inevitable. Administering tests for sake
of them, might just prove detrimental to the counselee.
Selection of strategies to be used in the intervention is to be planned
well in advance and explained to the client. The progress at each stage of
the intervention is to be reported, interpreted and conclusions drawn therein
would help to plan further course of action. If the strategy appears working and
the client shows signs of improvement, this can be continued and if not, the
counselor has to use some other strategy to help the client.
6.4.3.2 Precautions to be taken while conducting tests
1. Age and culture appropriate tests must be administered otherwise the
results might be incorrect.
2. The complete test must be administered in one session, keeping the time
as per the requirements of the tests.
3. The client needs to be fully aware of the fact that the psychometric tests
are to know the client better and that there are no right or wrong answers.
4. The client must be encouraged to respond as per the first thought that
comes to their mind, without thinking much logically about any items.
5. The success of the test is indicated in identifying the core issues and
once this is done, the healing becomes a natural process, with some pain
involved. This is to be conveyed to the client.
6.4.4 Interpreting the results
The next important step in the counseling process is interpreting the results
of any psychometric test administered to the client. Since the main purpose
of any psychological testing is to get a better understanding of a person’s
behavioural disposition. Once the relevant test is administered, interpretation
of the test scores comes into play. In this process, the test scores are analysed
to draw meaningful conclusions that help the counselor draw a conducive plan
of further action for the client. Once the interpretation is done, the next step is
conveying these results to the client.
6.5 CONVEYING RESULTS, FURTHER SUPPORT

Interpretation of results of the psychological, might not be of much use
in isolation, but they start to make more sense when interpreted with reference
to the information collected during the intake interview. A complete analysis
and detailed study of all the information has to be made by the counselor before
drawing any conclusions. The conclusions need to be supported by factual
data as provided by the client and other people who work in close proximity
to the client. The assessed parameters in the historical and biological context
of the client help counselors to identify the strategies that can be used for
intervention.
The results have to be put across to the client in the most subtle manner,
neither normalizing them nor highlighting them. The language has to be a more
neutral language and conveyed with utmost care. It has also to be conveyed
to the client where they stand and what is the scope of their improvement or
moving towards making a positive progress, in handling their issues.
6.5.1 Importance of conveying results:
It is the responsibility of the counselor to convey the results of the
psychometric tests and the interventions planned for the client. The intervention
is always planned by the client, under discussion and guidance of the counselor.
This makes the process more effective as the client is completely involved in
the process of getting better, and most importantly, the client is aware and is
acceptable of the issues they deal with. This awareness and acceptance makes
the counsei]ling interventions more receptive and hence yield effective and
long term outcomes. All the reports and the time to time progress of the client,
at the end of each session, has to be conveyed to the client and follow-up action
must be charted out in agreement with the client.
6.6 TERMINATION
However good and useful the sessions might seem to go on, there is always
a need to bring it to an end and close the counseling loop. It is mandatory that the
client does not become dependent on the counselor. In a counseling relationship,
most times the client starts enjoying the attention they get. So, at a later phase,
they might just prolong the sessions, just to get to talk and feel listened to and
cared for. This dependency is undesirable in the counseling process. It is therefore
important that the counselor plans the sessions in such a way that the case is
terminated as soon as the client starts reflecting and develops self dependency.
6.6.1 What is termination?
The last and final stage of the counseling process is termination. It marks
the end of the counseling alliance made with the client. The aim of the counseling
process is to help and guide clients to GET BETTER and not just FEEL BETTER.
So, once the client shows signs of coming to terms with their issues and learns to
accept and deal with them, it is important that the client gets time to sit with their
learnings, reflections and feelings and process them. Termination happens when
the counselor is satisfied about the progress of the client.
Termination can also happen when something unexpected takes place,
like the client suddenly decides not to turu-up for the counseling sessions, or
due to some reasons, is not able to continue with the sessions and in the worst
case, an abrupt ending or even death.
6.6.2 Informing the client and gradually spacing out the sessions
The criterion for a successful counseling is successful termination of the
case. As soon as the clients report some significant gains from the counseling
process, termination needs to be planned. The process starts preparing the client
for closure, spacing out the sessions. For example, if initially, you had three
sessions per week, you can slowly reduce it to two or one per week. A 40 minute
ideal session can be cut down to 20 to 25 minutes per session. You can also start
telling the client that we are now close to completing the process and can stop
them altogether soon.

1. Intake interview begins with collecting the demographic details of
the client, along with their medical status, socio-economic-cultural
background, details of the parents, primary caregivers and other
members of the family, who stay together.
2. It is not essential that the client, be it minor or an adult, has to be fully
aware of the counseling sessions and agree to be a part of it, willingly.
6.6.3 Providing closure

Sometimes the client may not be ready for the closure and might start
developing some projective symptoms when close to termination. In such
cases, it is advisable to provide closure with occasional followup sessions, once
a week or two, before terminating the sessions altogether. Providing closure is
essential so that the counselor- counselee relationship comes to an end and they
part their ways. Goodbyes are essential along with the assurance that, in case
the client needs some help in future, you, as a counselor, would be available to
them, providing them a healthy closure.
Summary
● In this unit, we revisited the complete process of counseling, in a nutshell.
The chapter gives a brief overview of the steps to be followed in the
process. Counselling is therefore a gradual process, and every step right
from building the counselling relationship during the intake interview
to agreeing upon interventions and short-term and long-term goals to
periodic reviews and termination of the case, has its own importance. A
relationship of mutual trust accelerates the counselling process and the
client is much benefited from it. As the sessions proceed, self disclosure
and immediacy come to play and this is where the counsellor needs to
take charge of the situation to see that the discussion is not diagressed.
Bringing it back to handle the presenting problem through identifying
and coping with the core issue is often steered by the counsellor. Once
the client shows signs of getting better at reflecting and managing their
issues, it is time for termination of the case. This has to be carefully done

and follow-up sessions need to be scheduled for clients who find difficulty
with the termination. The case may terminate abruptly due to several
reasons and that is normal. The counselor has to accept the decision of
the client or the situation that led to the abrupt ending and close the case.
Keywords
● Counseling Process: Counseling Process is a step by step process
involving several sessions ranging from a minimum of 8 12 sessions to
more, depending upon the intensity of the problem and the response of
the client to the interventions planned by the counselor.

Fill in the blanks.
1. Counselling is not a one session process, where you meet your client once
and provide solutions for all their problems.
2. In the process of counselling, it is essential that respect and mutual trust
is established between the counsellor and the counselee.
3. Expression is related to how the counsellor puts across their thoughts to
the client in a neutral and balanced manner.
4. When the listener listens to the speaker preoccupied with their own issues,
and paying only partial attention to the speaker, it is superficial listening.
5. It is when the counsellor and counselee find each other in harmony with
each other, the client feels safe to disclose the underlying issues behind
the presenting problem.

State True or False:
True
False

1. “Relationship building is the most important stage in the counseling
process.” Justify your argument in 200 to 250 words.
2. After going through the module, can you identify the obstacles that
could create gaps in effective communication between the counselor and
counselee? Write five points.
3. Immediacy and self disclosure are needed at different times in the
counselling process. When and how do you intend to use them effectively
in your counseling practice?
4. Why is the stage of termination as important as the relationship building
stage? Explain in 200 words, with one example.
5. Paraphrasing and reflecting skills are listed under active listening skills.
Do you agree with it? Discuss your points in 250 to 300 words.
Suggested Reading
1. (n.d.). Basic Counselling Skills: A Student Guide. Retrieved October 11,

2021, from Basic Counselling Skills A Student Guide
2. (n.d.). Basic Counselling Skills - Mental Health Innovation Network.
Retrieved October 13, 2021, from Basic Counselling Skills
3. (n.d.). COMMUNICATION AND COUNSELING - WHO | World
Health.... Retrieved October 11, 2021, from COMMUNICATION AND
COUNSELING
4. (n.d.). Barnard Philip, Counseling Skills I: Listening and attending,
Springer_BW_Titel-Collection_2015.pdf - Uni Ulm. Retrieved October
11, 2021, from Counseling Skills I: Listening and Attending
5. (n.d.). LISTENING AND RESPONDING EFFECTIVELY - Sage
Publications. Retrieved October 11, 2021, from LISTENING AND
RESPONDING EFFECTIVELY
6. (n.d.). UNIT 1 INTERVIEW, CASE HISTORY AND TESTING -
eGyanKosh. Retrieved October 12, 2021, from UNIT 1 INTERVIEW,
CASE HISTORY AND TESTING
7. (n.d.). What is Psychological Testing? Testing - Utah Neuropsychological....
Retrieved October 13, 2021, from What is Psychological Testing? Testing
8. (n.d.). Termination During the Counseling Process: Function, Timing....
Retrieved October 13, 2021, from Termination During the Counseling
Process: Function, Timing & Related Issues - Video & Lesson Transcript
9. (2019, May 7). Evaluation and termination stage in Counseling -
article1000.com. Retrieved October 13, 2021, from Evaluation and
termination stage in Counseling – article1000.com

Techniques of Guidance
UNIT
Structure:
7.1
7.2
Introduction
Cumulative Records
7
7.3 Anecdotal Records
7.4 Case Study
7.5 Case Conference
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
Techniques of Guidance 95
Notes
Objectives
----------------------
----------------------
• Describe cumulative records, anecdotal records
---------------------- • Explain case study
----------------------
----------------------
7.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
As we have seen in previous chapters, counselling is a dynamic and
---------------------- purposeful relationship between two people who approach to mutually defined
problems where the counselee gets aid for self-determined resolution of his or
----------------------
her problems. The counselee expresses his or her concerns openly and learns to
---------------------- develop precise behaviour goals, acquires social skills and develops courage and
self-confidence to implement desired new behaviour in an accepting, trusting
---------------------- and safe relationship. The basic purpose of student counselling is to help the
student to know himself better in terms of his interests, abilities, aptitudes and
----------------------
his relationship to possible opportunities available. Helping the student for
---------------------- most appropriate planning for educational and vocational spheres of life is the
ultimate goal of guidance and counselling. Effective guidance is impossible
---------------------- without such records.
---------------------- The general principles for recording data are:
1. Record facts. Do not depend on your memory. Record of these facts
----------------------
should be available to all individuals involved in guidance and
---------------------- counselling.
---------------------- 2. Keep accurate records. Accuracy of records is a must as it is related to its

interpretation and utility.
---------------------- 3. Record only those facts that will be used in future. Recording all the facts
---------------------- is time consuming for the teacher and the counselling who will be reading
these for further actions and planning. Judge the values of facts before
---------------------- recording them.
---------------------- 4. Economy of space is essential for records. Simple and easy to understand
codes may be used for records.
----------------------
5. Significance of facts should be seen obviously on the basis of the
---------------------- records. Arrangement of these facts should be done in such a way that
it should show significance of the facts. Graphical presentation of facts
---------------------- is also useful to get the impression at a glance and highlight important
points.
----------------------
6. Keep all the facts about the individual together. For achieving the goals of
---------------------- counselling, we need to use some systematic procedures and techniques.
In this unit, we are going to discuss the important techniques.
----------------------

7.2 CUMULATIVE RECORDS Notes
This is one of the most commonly used techniques of guidance today. ----------------------
This term was not used before 1925. Cumulative record denotes a large ----------------------
record with successive additions. These records are kept years after years
regarding significant aspect of a students’ life. A cumulative record is a collection ----------------------
of information about a student and constitutes a picture of his development-
physically, academically and socially. As these records are giving year to year ----------------------
record, they can give a clear picture of changes in individual’s life. As the child ----------------------
grows older, there is changing pattern of interests, personality, behaviour and
interpersonal relations. Isolated facts are unreliable and mean little. Generally, ----------------------
the following information is taken in to account according to Downing-
----------------------
1. Personal data - name and address and related information
----------------------
2. Family data
3. Health data ----------------------
4. Learning- aptitude test results, achievement test results ----------------------
5. Grades earned ----------------------
6. Special school activities
----------------------
7. Special interests achievements and talents
----------------------
8. Out of school interests, achievements and talents
9. Entry and withdrawal records ----------------------
10. Educational and vocational plans ----------------------
11. Follow up record ----------------------
According to Segel, the items to be included in any cumulative record can
be classified in some categories. The most frequent items are- ----------------------
1. Academic achievement ----------------------

2. School progress in various aspects ----------------------
3. Attendance
----------------------
4. Entrance and withdrawal
----------------------
5. Home conditions and family history
6. Test results like intelligence ----------------------
7. Social and character rating ----------------------

8. Health status ----------------------
Single facts if studied in isolation do not mean anything and especially the
----------------------
relation between various facts also can not be interpreted clearly. Like for example
the child who was not well did not achieve as usual is understandable or the child ----------------------
who is transferred to from rural area to urban may show emotional problems
can be interpreted in a better way. That is why facts should be studied together. ----------------------
Notes These records are kept for the whole educational life of the students.
Cumulative record helps the teacher to function more effectively. Cumulative
---------------------- records include basic information, which is useful to understand trend of
development.
----------------------
As each guidance worker can develop his own cumulative record sheet,
---------------------- different forms of cumulative record having various different items are available.
However, if there is a particular fixed type, give and take of information becomes
----------------------
easier.
---------------------- Cumulative record is in a way a technique to pull all the facts together that
are essentially relevant as a sound basis of guidance. This information should
----------------------
be recorded by a trained teacher and kept confidential.
---------------------- As per the basic principles of psychology, we should not compare any
individual child with any other child. If at all we want to compare the child’s
----------------------
achievement with some standard, we can compare it with child’s own past
---------------------- achievement. Cumulative record gives an opportunity to do it at a glance.
We can also find out the intra individual differences like ups and downs of
---------------------- achievements in various subjects through years. Graphs plotted to show various
types of growth and development along with achievements show differences in
----------------------
that. We are capable of predicting the future of the child.
---------------------- Some cumulative records take into consideration subject wise
---------------------- achievements, trait wise description of behaviour. It depends on the awareness
of the school authorities and importance given to various points.
---------------------- Cumulative record accepts the concept of the student as a developing
---------------------- organism. It is like a motion picture of development of the individual. It bridges
the gap between understanding of the individual from one stage of education
---------------------- to other like primary, secondary, college and university. Data is available in
chronological level. Cumulative record gives reliable and objective information
---------------------- worth considering for guidance and counselling. It is the indicator of school’s
---------------------- desire to understand every student. Causes of their difficulties and indicators of
the opportunities and experiences necessary for their development are obviously
---------------------- seen from cumulative records. Some cumulative records also include anecdotal
records. For judging any anecdotal record we must see that where it –
----------------------
● Contains all relevant items necessary to judge all sided development of
---------------------- student
---------------------- ● Organised as a growth records and show trends of development
● Is vivid and dynamic
----------------------
● Present the test results in comparative and meaningful way.
---------------------- ● Interpreted the information by a person who knows the child
---------------------- ● Is convenient and clear
Confidentiality of these records should be maintained. Anyone, who
----------------------
is not mature enough to understand this, should not be allowed to read the
---------------------- information. No confidential record should be attached to the file. Only name

of the individual having that information should be written. Uses of cumulative Notes
record are as follows:
----------------------
1. Guiding individuals’ development by achieving self-understanding by the
student and understanding the student by the counsellor. ----------------------
2. Identifying talents and limitations
----------------------
3. Detecting maladjustment
----------------------
4. Dealing with personal problems and crises
5. Making plans placements and referrals. ----------------------
6. Case conferences with parents and experts ----------------------

7 Making the teacher child conscious ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. Cumulative record is one of the most commonly used techniques of
guidance today. ----------------------
2. Cumulative record denotes a large record with successive additions. ----------------------
3. These records are kept years after years regarding significant aspect
----------------------
of a students’ life.
4. A cumulative record is a collection of information about a student and ----------------------
constitutes a picture of his development-physically, academically and
----------------------
socially.
5. Cumulative record does not help the teacher to function effectively ----------------------
and does not include basic information, which is useful to understand ----------------------
trend of development.
----------------------
Activity 1 ----------------------
----------------------
● Prepare a cumulative record for primary and secondary school
students. ----------------------
----------------------
7.3 ANECDOTAL RECORDS
----------------------
Anecdotal records are also equally useful for guidance and counselling.
----------------------
Cooperation of the whole staff is essential for anecdotal record. It is related
to some behaviour of the student. It was first published in 1928 by American ----------------------
Council of Education. Anecdotal record is defined as a specialised form of
incidental observation. It is a description of child’s behaviour and personality in ----------------------
terms of frequent, brief and concrete observations of pupil made and recorded
----------------------
by a teacher. It is a report of significant episodes in the life of a student. These
Notes episodes are from daily life of a student. It is in a way a word picture of the
student in action. Teacher may take into account only striking behaviour of the
---------------------- student and not the one that is characteristic of the individual. Anecdotal report
s a report of facts done accurately and objectively as well as dispassionately.
---------------------- Facts and opinions should not be mixed. Let us take for example a common
---------------------- behavioural pattern.
‘Sameer came late today. He was looking tired and uneasy. His uniform
----------------------
was untidy and hair unkept. He is a lazy boy.’
---------------------- Here the last sentence is an opinion may or may not be true. The anecdotal
report should be written in a systematic way in three parts.
----------------------
1. It should include objective report of what took place. It should be brief
---------------------- and clear.
---------------------- 2. Interpretation should be separated from facts.
---------------------- 3. Recommendations should be written so that the guidance worker may get
the perception of teacher.
---------------------- If someone wants to get only objective information the expert may read
---------------------- only first part. Keeping anecdotal record is a continuous process. We are not
supposed to use information from any single anecdotal record. Many anecdotal
---------------------- records written by different teachers should be interpreted together. Along with
negative incidents, we must also consider positive behaviour of the individual.
---------------------- It is recommended that anecdotal record should be kept for each and every
---------------------- student.
Flexibility is one of the most important features of anecdotal record.
----------------------
Hence, it is not necessary to have a standardised format of anecdotal record.
---------------------- By and large, anecdotal records are written by teachers, as they get more
opportunities to observe the students. As many anecdotal records as possible
---------------------- should be written to gain better insight in individual’s life and problems. If there
is nothing striking about a child, then actually that child needs close attention to
----------------------
understand more about his actual problems and life in general. May be that this
---------------------- child needs more help.
Anecdotal record does not require a particular fixed format and elaborate
----------------------
forms. Even a small card or half sheet of paper is enough to write an anecdotal
---------------------- record.
---------------------- Date Place Incidence Comment

Date Place Incidence Comment
----------------------
Date Place Incidence Comment
----------------------
Like that, many anecdotal records can be written together. The teacher
---------------------- is to write anecdotal records by the end of the day. Various anecdotal records
written by different teachers are brought together, compared and used for
---------------------- further interpretations and for conferences. As reading all the anecdotal records
and making them meaningful is time consuming, monthly summaries should be
----------------------
written by the counsellor.

There are few limitations of anecdotal record. Basically, it is useful only if it Notes
is written accurately and objectively. Faulty observations and partial descriptions
along with biased focused observations will be of no use. It is a difficult job for ----------------------
many teachers to write objective reports but it should be as objective as an x
ray. If it is used to justify teacher’s behaviour, it becomes useless. Hence, if the ----------------------
teacher thinks that there is any emotional reaction then the teacher should not ----------------------
write anything about that incident. If we interpret any single piece of behaviour
without knowing the context, it will lead to misinterpretations. So, background ----------------------
information and information about context must be given in short. For example,
in a group, we behave in a different way and in a different style when we go for ----------------------
a trip. ----------------------
Small number of anecdotal records should not be used for final
----------------------
interpretation. There may be some temporary cause behind a particular type of
behaviour, which may vanish in due course of time. Anecdotal records should ----------------------
not stress unfortunate behaviour patterns. If at all it is necessary to record some,
we have to keep them as confidential records. Even if there is something wrong ----------------------
about students’ behaviour, no impression should be crystallised.
----------------------
Anecdotal records are valuable as they give us a picture of unconstrained
behaviour in natural diverse situations. As a consequence, it gives specific and ----------------------
exact description of personality. Teachers’ attention is attracted to all students
----------------------
depending on their behaviour. Different teachers are writing for the same student
indicating their observations leading to all sided study of the individual. ----------------------
This data is available for the school to see if many students are facing
----------------------
similar problems. If that information is interpreted properly, insight in problems
regarding school policies can be achieved. If this data is shared with students ----------------------
they can get better self understanding. They can use this information for self
appraisal. Improvement about curriculum, study habits of students and student ----------------------
teacher relations can be achieved with this data.
----------------------
If similar anecdotal records are kept by all educational institutes, it
becomes easy to forward the information to the next institute as the student ----------------------
enters in a new institute. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
---------------------- Multiple Choice Multiple Response.

1. Anecdotal report is a report of facts done
----------------------
i. Accurately
----------------------
ii. Objectively
---------------------- iii. Chronologically
---------------------- iv. Intellectually
---------------------- 2. Anecdotal observations are of no use if they are
i. Faulty
----------------------
ii. Biased
----------------------
iii. Partially described
---------------------- iv. Objective
---------------------- 3. Anecdotal report should be written in systematic way in these parts:
---------------------- i. It should include objective report of what took place
ii. Interpretation should be separated from facts
----------------------
iii. Recommendations written by the teacher
----------------------
iv. Related to some mistake of student
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2
----------------------
● Classify the given information into facts, opinions and biases.
----------------------
● Kishori was shouting loudly when I entered the classroom of grade 7
---------------------- A. She was arguing with a group of students and was trying to explain
why her friend Yashada should not be expected to clean the ground
---------------------- with other students. Kishori is aggressive and wants to dominate
others. She is a problem child. As she comes from a broken family,
----------------------
she has emotional problems. She is always interested in unnecessarily
---------------------- protecting her friend Yashada who has a slight problem of polio.
----------------------
7.4 CASE STUDY
----------------------
Case study has its origin in medicine and specially psychiatry. It is
---------------------- a report on an intensive investigation of many important aspects of a social
---------------------- unit; an individual, a group, a community or an institute. Records of case study
are available since 4000 B.C. From that time it has been in vogue for various
---------------------- purposes indifferent fields like social work, law, medicine, education, industry

and so on. Allport has given the definition of case study to indicate that it aims Notes
at depicting qualitatively uniqueness of the individual case.
----------------------
Case study is based on the fundamental principle that no one is insignificant.
According to Traxler and North ‘it is a detailed study of an individual for the ----------------------
purpose of bringing about better adjustment.’ Wolman has given the definition as
‘case study is the story of the person.’ Case study is concerned with everything ----------------------
that is significant in development of the individual. It is a deep and intensive
----------------------
probe in the interaction between the factors that produce growth and change.
According to Young, case study is a method of exploring and analysing the life ----------------------
of a social unit.
----------------------
All relevant information is collected from different sources. It is not only
collection of information but synthesis and interpretation of information. It is ----------------------
an all-inclusive study of an individual in which the investigator brings to bear
all his skills and methods to gather enough information about the individual to ----------------------
permit one to understand how he functions as a unit of the society. Generally,
----------------------
case study is used for these purposes:
● For research purpose ----------------------
● For diagnosis and treatment of special problems ----------------------
● Helping any normal individual for better development
----------------------
● For instructional purpose.
Case study helps the counsellor to develop his or her efficiency. Case ----------------------
studies provide basis for staff conferences and for securing advice of other ----------------------
experts on the case. Case studies are very useful for counselling interviews.
If the same case is sent to another counsellor, case study proves to be the best ----------------------
document to help the new counsellor.
----------------------
The researcher collects as much of information as he can in the given
time and available sources of data. The individual himself is the most important ----------------------
source of information about the problem, his perception about it, nature of
----------------------
circumstances, his feelings, attitudes, desires, goals, aspirations and such
other things. We can obtain information about his abilities, aptitudes, interest, ----------------------
personality with the help of various psychological tests and other techniques
like projective techniques. The individual is the only one who can give accurate ----------------------
information regarding his childhood experiences and perceptions. This is
----------------------
essential for understanding how individual’s current attitudes and behaviour
have developed. Similar information regarding the individual can be collected ----------------------
from the parents, siblings, friends, relatives, teachers, doctors and others like
neighbours. ----------------------
There is no fixed way in which any case study can be conducted because ----------------------
the information collected depends upon importance given to different aspects
of human life. Case study of a ten-year-old child will be substantially different ----------------------
from the case study of a fifteen-year-old student. If the child has any special
----------------------
problem, the case study will highlight causes, degree and implications of these
problems for example, if the child has got hearing loss the why, how much ----------------------

Notes and causing what type of difficulties are the major issues to be included in the
case study. In such a case study health prior to during and after birth are also
---------------------- discussed in details with the mother of the concerned student. If the student is
normal, these things will be considered in short. In short, the points included
---------------------- in any case study depend on various hypotheses framed by the counsellor and
---------------------- nature of problems the individual is facings. Generally, the following points are
included in case study as common enquiry.
----------------------
1. Identifying data
---------------------- 2. Statement of the problem
---------------------- 3. Developmental history
---------------------- 4. Medical history

5. Family background
----------------------
6. Legal history
----------------------
7. Educational history
---------------------- 8. Present state of adjustment
---------------------- 9. Individual’s routine life.
---------------------- We will have to remember that these are not the only items and ideal items
for case study. We have to think about different items for each individual’s case.
---------------------- Let us take for example if we have to prepare a case study of a child who is
functioning at a level of mild mental retardation. In this case, we have to take
---------------------- developmental history in detail. We have to include:
---------------------- a. Prenatal period and birth-mother’s health during pregnancy, pathological
and other reports at the time of pregnancy, infections and accidents if any,
---------------------- attitude of the mother towards pregnancy, birth-normal or instrumental,
---------------------- premature, difficult, delayed labour, etc. birth weight, injury to the baby
at the time of birth, family’s attitude towards the baby and mother attitude
---------------------- towards baby’ sex.
---------------------- b. Infancy history-early relationship with mother, father, and other family
members, predisposition towards nervous disorders, motor development,
---------------------- developmental milestones, communication and self help.
---------------------- c. Intellectual development-results of various tests administered, special
talents and disabilities, any other achievements, behavioural signs of
---------------------- superiority or inferiority.
---------------------- d. Speech development: delayed speech, other speech defects, their effect on
child’ personality and social adjustment, family’s attitude towards it.
----------------------
e. Emotional development: independent dependent behaviour, initiative and
---------------------- responsibility, overdependence and details of overdependence. Confident
and anxious behaviour, self-confidence and happiness, general fearfulness,
---------------------- shyness anxieties, night terrors, traumatic experiences and similar other
---------------------- things. Cooperative hostile behaviour. Trust in parents and others.
Compliance. Temper-tantrums, aggression, cruelty, non-compliance.
Emotional balance – well balanced, overemotional or apathetic, elation Notes
or depression, fluctuation of moods.
----------------------
f. Social development: nature and relationship with persons, social
experiences, friendships, group memberships, leadership, group ----------------------
affiliation, adjustment to groups, community involvement, troublesome
to others, social competence and confidence. ----------------------
As we have done with developmental history, we have to take care of one ----------------------
aspect of individual’s life we have to take into account all important points in
the family, educational history, medical history, individual’s life and present ----------------------
state of adjustment. We must always remember that case study is not oriented
----------------------
towards labelling any individual but to help the individual for utilising the
potentials to the fullest extent. ----------------------
This is just a sort of illustration as to how many detailed aspects regarding
----------------------
the individual can be considered in a case study as per necessity.
After collecting relevant information, interpretation should be done using ----------------------
all skills and knowledge, and recommendations for treatment follow. ----------------------
For writing a case study, accurate and objective account of dynamic
picture of the individual should be given as completely as possible. Loose ----------------------
generalisations and overdependence on memory should be avoided. It leads to ----------------------
false records, unintentional omissions and false interpretations. The counsellor
must avoid projecting his own ideas, experiences and values while interpreting ----------------------
any problem of the case. Unnecessary dramatisation also is detrimental to
objective analysis of information. ----------------------
Critical empathy should be developed by the counsellor to appropriately ----------------------

interprete the information for case study. It means that while understanding the
individual’s feelings, the counsellor should have the capacity to identify himself ----------------------
with the counselee but while interpreting the data he should not be emotionally ----------------------
involved in the problems of the counselee. At that time the counsellor should be
objective. ----------------------
According to Traxler, every case study implies treatment. So any case ----------------------
study should include interpretation, recommendations and reports of follow up.
Steps for conducting a case study may be summarised as follows: ----------------------
1. Plan the case study ----------------------
2. Collect the data based on interview and testing ----------------------
3. Collect the data from other sources
----------------------
4. Eliminate irrelevant items
----------------------
5. Interpret that data impersonally
6. Make a short report ----------------------
7. Write the case directly and in simple language. ----------------------
For school children, it is necessary to collect information from school ----------------------
records. The items, which contribute something to the understanding of the

Notes problem, should be given importance but that information also should not be
interpreted with out considering background information and holistic view of
---------------------- personality. Writing tentative diagnosis and treatment plans is a must.
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. Case study has its origin in ______ and specially psychiatry.
----------------------
2. ______ is based on the fundamental principle that no one is
---------------------- insignificant.
---------------------- 3. Case study is concerned with everything that is significant in ______
of the individual and it is a deep and intensive probe in the interaction
---------------------- between the factors that produce growth and change.
---------------------- 4. Case study helps the ______ to develop his or her efficiency. Case
studies
----------------------
5. The ______ must avoid projecting his own ideas, experiences and
---------------------- values while interpreting any problem of the case.
----------------------
---------------------- Activity 3
---------------------- Identify a student in your school who has been achieving low in academics
but otherwise looks and behaves like a normal child. Frame various
---------------------- hypothesis about his exact problem and, on the basis of the same, prepare a
---------------------- case study outline for that student, depending on what do you think are the
most probable reasons for his problems. Some ideas that can be generated
---------------------- are:
---------------------- 1. The child is lazy.
2. The child dislikes studies
----------------------
3. The child’s relations with the teacher are not good
----------------------
4. Child is not happy about his parents
---------------------- 5. Child’s intelligence or aptitudes are poor.
---------------------- Frame some more ideas and a proforma of case study to cover all information
necessary to verify all of them.
----------------------
----------------------
7.5 CASE CONFERENCE
----------------------
Case conference brings together all the professional school workers
---------------------- dealing with the child so that they may exchange information and make plans
for enhancing the pupil’s opportunities. In school setting case conference may
---------------------- be attended by school nurse, various teachers involved in teaching the child, the

principle and all other experts concerned about child’s problem. Parents also Notes
are invited to attend the case conference. This group reviews all the information
available to them and try to understand each other’s perception of the problem. ----------------------
They can discuss various angles of the problem clarify each other’s queries
and together decide further plans and future referrals. The case that is in school ----------------------
we can think of a student- is also allowed to interact with all these experts ----------------------
for some time and is asked to leave when final interpretation takes place. The
counsellor takes the final responsibility of this conference and plays the role ----------------------
of a chairperson. He is the one who is to consider all opinions and views and
help the experts to arrive at a common decision and plan. This is a golden ----------------------
opportunity to have wholesome picture of the individual child. ----------------------
One more technique is dissemination of information, which is essentially
----------------------
a group approach of vocational guidance. Here we are interested in giving
relevant information regarding options available to the students in various fields ----------------------
of education and occupation. We can organise an exhibition of various charts
showing information about what all branches of knowledge are open after ----------------------
completing tenth or completion of secondary school. This information must
----------------------
include every thing which may be essential to actually enquire about the course
i.e. prerequisite about percentage of marks or performance in entrance, address ----------------------
of the institute, names of the contact person, his or her e mail address, fees
structure, number of years for which the course will continue, opportunities for ----------------------
job after completing that course and information about teachers and general
----------------------
status of the institute.
----------------------
Activity 4 ----------------------
----------------------
● After completing 12th in Science stream, what all options are available
to our students? Give five options available in your city. Jot down the ----------------------
points about which information essentially should be given.
----------------------
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
● Records – cumulative and anecdotal- both are useful for giving clear and ----------------------
objective information about the counselee. These records should be kept
for each individual. ----------------------
● Case study makes the counsellor aware about details of relevant facts, ----------------------
perceptions and experiences of the individual. They are useful for
understanding the individual and his problem. That leads to better ----------------------
assistance given to individual for solving his or her own problem.
----------------------
● All these three techniques are extremely useful for giving information
about the counselee, which is not measured by any standardised test. ----------------------
● Getting insight into individual’s problems becomes easy because of the
----------------------
flexibility and dynamic nature of these techniques.

Notes ● The forth-important aspect that we have discussed is case conference.
This the ultimate use of all information that is collected with the help of
---------------------- all record and case study.
---------------------- ● All the experts can contribute their own views regarding what intervention
is necessary for improvement of the child’s life.
----------------------
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
● Potentials: Hidden qualities of an individual, which need special
---------------------- attentionfor development and use.
---------------------- ● Anecdote: A short, interesting event, which is not a regular routine
activity but something special out of the way.
---------------------- ● Case: In this concerned context, case is any individual child that is studied
---------------------- in depth and given assistance for better development and use of potentials.
----------------------
---------------------- 1. Discuss the cumulative records.

2. What precautions should be taken while preparing an anecdotal record?
----------------------
3. Discuss the procedure of conducting a case study. Critically evaluate
---------------------- utility of a case study for guidance and counselling.
---------------------- 4. Write two anecdotal and cumulative records for students from your
institute.
----------------------
5. Conduct a case study of any student and find out the ways and means to
---------------------- understand him or her in a better way as well as of solving his problems.
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- 1. True
---------------------- 2. True
---------------------- 3. True
4. True
----------------------
5. False
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Check your Progress 2 Notes
Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
----------------------
1. Anecdotal report is a report of facts done
----------------------
i. Accurately
ii. Objectively ----------------------
2. Anecdotal observations are of no use if they are ----------------------
i. Faulty ----------------------
ii. Biased
----------------------
iii. Partially described
----------------------
3. Anecdotal report should be written in systematic way in these parts:
i. It should include objective report of what took place ----------------------
ii. Interpretation should be separated from facts ----------------------

iii. Recommendations written by the teacher ----------------------
----------------------
1. Case study has its origin in medicine and specially psychiatry. ----------------------
2. Case study is based on the fundamental principle that no one is insignificant. ----------------------
3. Case study is concerned with everything that is significant in develpoment
of the individual and it is a deep and intensive probe in the interaction ----------------------
between the factors that produce growth and change. ----------------------
4. Case study helps the counsellor to develop his or her efficiency. Case
----------------------
studies
5. The counsellor must avoid projecting his own ideas, experiences and ----------------------
values while interpreting any problem of the case.
----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading ----------------------
1. Gupta, M. 2003. Effective Guidance and Counselling: Modern Methods ----------------------
and Techniques. Jaipur, Mangaldeep Publications.
----------------------
2. Kottler J.A. and Kottler, A. 2000. Counseling Skills For Teachers,
California, Corvin Press. ----------------------
3. Merrill, K W. and others. 2006. School Psychology for Twenty First
----------------------
Century: Foundations and Practices. The Guilford Press.
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
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Psychometric Assessment in Guidance
UNIT
Structure:
8.1
8.2
Introduction
Nature of Psychological Tests
8
8.3 Tests of Abilities
8.4 Achievement and Aptitude Tests
8.5 Personality Estimates and Interest Inventory
8.6 Projective Techniques
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
Psychometric Assessment in Guidance 111

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
----------------------
• Discuss nature of psychological testing
---------------------- • Describe tests of abilities
---------------------- • Explain difference and uses of achievement and aptitude tests
---------------------- • Elaborate characteristics of personality estimates
• Critically evaluate uses and limitations of projective techniques
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- 8.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- Effective guidance depends upon accurate and comprehensive information
about the counselee. The principle of individual differences is the basic idea
----------------------
behind psychological testing. We need to have objective information which is
---------------------- not biased and which will be useful for understanding the individual and taking
some decisions about his future. It is a systematic way of evaluating individual’s
---------------------- status as compared to normal population.
---------------------- Psychological tests are used for measuring personality, abilities and
aptitudes as well as attitudes and interests.
----------------------
Training is essential for using psychological tests and interpreting
---------------------- their results. There are different types of tests, which are to be administered
in different style and interpreted in specific ways. Guidance and counselling
---------------------- largely depends upon use of psychological tests.
----------------------
8.2 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
----------------------
Eysenck’s encyclopaedia of psychology defines psychological testing as
---------------------- a routine scientific method of studying one or more empirically defined traits
in order to draw quantitative conclusions on relative importance of particular
----------------------
features in the individual. A psychometric test measures some aspects of
---------------------- psychological functioning to provide a score, which can be objectively compared
with others and enables prediction concerning future performance.
----------------------
A psychological test is a devise to determine presence or absence, quality
---------------------- or quantity of a trait, ability, characteristics, skill, knowledge or habit. It consists
of carefully selected sample of work that a normal individual is supposed to do
---------------------- more or less effectively during different developmental stages. It is essential
to remember that no psychological test can measure innate capacity of the
----------------------
individual. All psychological tests measure effect of developed abilities, which
---------------------- are resulting from interaction of life experiences with innate abilities. The test
material, instructions and test situation must be standardised for each subject
---------------------- to be confronted with same or identical conditions, so that his own behaviour

is the only thing that varies. In this way inter-individual comparability is Notes
guaranteed. It is the relative position of the individuals that is more meaningful
and information regarding others’ status is essential for that. Norms are provided ----------------------
by standardised tests to compare individual’s performance with other normal
individuals. Any standardised test has to be reliable, valid and must have norms ----------------------
as well as a systematic prescribed way for administration. Reliability refers to ----------------------
the consistency of results when the same test is given to the same individual
again and again. In a way, this is accuracy of results. Validity indicates whether ----------------------
the test measures what it intents to measure. There are various ways and methods
to measure reliability and validity. Reliability can be measured by using – ----------------------
1. Test retest reliability technique by repeating the same test ----------------------

2. Split half reliability by halving the test. ----------------------
Three different validation types are commonly used. They are-
----------------------
1. Criterion related validity for example by comparing test results with
criterion performance or other measures. ----------------------
2. Content validity-if no practical objective criteria, then content of the test ----------------------
are to be evaluated
----------------------
3. Construct validity focuses on practical diagnostic relevance of the test.
----------------------
Standardisation includes precise instructions to be given to the counselee
as well as prior arrangement of the material to be used for testing purpose. It ----------------------
also gives the administrator clear directions as to how scoring and interpretation
of the test results should be done. ----------------------
a. There are various types of standardised tests like- ----------------------
b. Verbal and nonverbal tests ----------------------
c. Individual and group tests
----------------------
d. Speed and power tests
----------------------
e. One dimensional and multidimensional tests
Limitations of psychological tests also need to be considered. Some ----------------------
important limitations are-
----------------------
a. Psychological tests usually yield a score that has to be interpreted
with reference to certain norms. If the norms given are for a specific ----------------------
population and the counselee belongs to some other type, then the norms
----------------------
are not applicable to him. Say for example, we want to test intelligence
of a hearing-impaired child; we are not supposed to use the test that is ----------------------
developed for normal healthy children. The basic reason is the norms are
of not applicable to understand the child’s relative standing and what is ----------------------
normal for him.
----------------------
We can also take another example of an achievement test in English that
is developed for British children, will be of no use to determine if an ----------------------
Indian child has average proficiency in English and his status among ----------------------
Indian children.

Notes b. No test can give us complete all sided picture of individuals abilities,
interests or aptitudes. Hence, if the consequences are serious it becomes
---------------------- a must to use more than one tests. If the counsellor thinks that the
child he is treating is having borderline intelligence, before arriving at
---------------------- any conclusion, he should administer at least two tests of intelligence
---------------------- covering different aspects like verbal and non-verbal tests. There is every
possibility that child’s intelligence is better in nonverbal aspects and that
---------------------- is why he is lagging behind in studies. However, the child may not be
having below average intelligence.
----------------------
c. Sophisticated statistical as well as psychometric training is essential for
---------------------- interpreting test results. Without this training, test results will be grossly
misunderstood. Like for example if a child is getting a raw score of 75 in
----------------------
a test of intelligence a lay person will think that it is a good score because
---------------------- it is equal to 75% in any other examination. Actually, it is to be seen as
below average intelligence as it may be below 1 standard deviation. One
---------------------- more thing is general understanding of mathematics cannot be applied
to psychological tests. For example, the difference between intelligence
----------------------
quotient of 80 and 100 is not equal to that of 120 and 140. Their qualitative
---------------------- meaning also has to be carefully considered.
Test results sometimes may not be able to give objective facts. This may
----------------------
be because of –
---------------------- ● Limitations of the test-is the test fairly constructed is an important
question. It should not be biased and more weightage should not be given
----------------------
in favour of any one community or region or any specific population. It
---------------------- should be culture free.
● Subjective factors affecting performance of the individual like lack of
----------------------
motivation
---------------------- ● Limitations of test administrator like lack of proper training
---------------------- ● Limitations of the environment like lot of disturbance
No assessment should be considered as permanent or stable as abilities
---------------------- are constantly changing. Periodic use of similar tests is essential to keep a track
---------------------- of changes that are taking place in the individual. Though psychological tests
are used for prediction it is necessary to understand that there is a vast difference
---------------------- in day to life situation and sample behaviour or aspects studied in psychological
tests, prediction may not be perfect.
----------------------
Any overreaction or over enthusiasm may be detrimental. It is the
---------------------- responsibility of the counsellor to select appropriate test. Projective tests
or specific tests of like test of creativity are difficult to score and interpret.
----------------------
Performance of any individual depends on individual’s attitudes and objectives
---------------------- of the counselee. If the individual’s aim is to create favourable impression
then he may give socially desirable answers and try to hide his true responses.
---------------------- However, if the individual wants to enhance insight about oneself then he will
give true candid responses and will not distort his orientation. Sometimes the
----------------------

items are so culture specific that the individual may not be able to understand Notes
its real sense. The same words are used to denote different things in different
cultures. Let us take one example. The word like privacy may suggest something ----------------------
else in India and in America. The response given by any individual depends
upon how he makes the word meaningful and what is the context. Due care ----------------------
must be taken to avoid such errors which may lead to inaccurate results. ----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. A _________ test is a devise to determine presence or absence, quality
or quantity of a trait, ability, characteristics, skill, knowledge or habit. ----------------------
2. All _________ tests measure effect of developed abilities, which are ----------------------
resulting from interaction of life experiences with innate abilities.
3. Any _________ test has to be reliable, valid and must have norms as ----------------------
well as a systematic prescribed way for administration. ----------------------
4. _________ refers to the consistency of results when the same test is
----------------------
given to the same individual again and again
5. _________ indicates whether the test measures what it intends to ----------------------
measure.
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
● Sonu was identified as a child having marginal intelligence and a slow ----------------------
learner after administering a standardised test of intelligence. He has
been given a different treatment by teachers and others in school. ----------------------
This year, he stood first in his class in the first term end examination
----------------------
and it was a shock to everybody. What may be the fact? What do you
think must have happened? Generate different hypotheses regarding ----------------------
possible causes of these mismatching facts.
----------------------
----------------------
8.3 TESTS OF ABILITIES
----------------------
Intelligence is extremely complex and complicated concept, which
covers a whole range of abilities natural and acquired which are related to ----------------------
every achievement in human life. There are many ways in which intelligence
is conceptualised. Intelligence is an abstract idea. It is defined as a capacity to ----------------------
acquire and apply knowledge. Some researchers have given various ways to
----------------------
classify intelligence. As a consequence, different ideas and types of intelligence
are used in various tests. Some are dependent on general intelligence; some ----------------------
others are based on specific aspects of intelligence, some measure verbal and
some others are oriented towards nonverbal intelligence. Fluid and crystallised ----------------------

Notes intelligence, adaptive capacity, learning, abstract thinking, rational thinking,
dealing effectively with the environment are some important ideas associated
---------------------- with intelligence testing. Thorndike had suggested three types –concrete,
abstract and social intelligence where the first is related to actual situations and
---------------------- material, second is related to ability to respond to words, ideas and symbols and
---------------------- the third is regarding handling human relations and adjustment to social life.
Let us consider only one definition of intelligence. Salter in 1982 has defined
---------------------- intelligence as ‘intelligence is goal directed adaptive behaviour which involves
the abilities to profit from experience, solve problems, reason and successfully
---------------------- meet challenges and achieve goals. If a test is based on the definition that
---------------------- intelligence is capacity of solving problems, the test will be having different
types of problems. There are different ways to measure intelligence like verbal,
---------------------- nonverbal or performance tests.
---------------------- Tests of intelligence are being used since 1909 by psychologists and
educationists. Tests are used to estimate capacity as well as actual attainment of
---------------------- an individual at given time. Ability tests are present oriented
---------------------- You must have seen some intelligence tests including wide variety of
types of items. Some commonly used types are:
----------------------
1. Verbal abilities- information and general knowledge
---------------------- a. Verbal relations and classifications
---------------------- b. Verbal fluency like anagrams
---------------------- c. Word finding and word making.
2. Numerical abilities-
----------------------
a. Number code
----------------------
b. Computation
---------------------- c. Numerical reasoning
---------------------- 3. Spatial abilities-
---------------------- a. Space relations
b. Space imagination
----------------------
4. Perceptual
----------------------
a. Identification of repeated numbers
---------------------- b. Mirror reading
---------------------- 5. Inductive reasoning
---------------------- a. Code writing
b. Letter series
----------------------
6. Memory
----------------------
a. Memory of words
---------------------- b. Guessing words

Tests of intelligence have been very popular and hence used and misused Notes
for decades. However, as there are many misconceptions about intelligence
tests they are criticised heavily. No counsellor depends only on intelligence test ----------------------
results but considers information about aptitudes, achievements, interests, other
personality traits, general information about environment and similar other ----------------------
things. Labelling is never the aim of intelligence testing and any counselling ----------------------
should be oriented towards utilising every potential of the individual.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. Intelligence is not extremely complex and complicated concept,
which covers a whole range of abilities natural and acquired which ----------------------
are related to every achievement in human life.
----------------------
2. Intelligence is not an abstract idea and it is defined as a capacity to
acquire and apply knowledge. ----------------------
3. Tests of intelligence have been very popular and hence used and ----------------------
misused for decades.
4. No counsellor depends only on intelligence test results but considers ----------------------
information about aptitudes, achievements, interests, other personality ----------------------
traits, general information about environment and similar other things.
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2
----------------------
Enumerate five activities in day to life, which are associated with intelligence
----------------------
and labelled as each of the following:
1. Concrete intelligence (related to concrete material) ----------------------
2. Abstract intelligence (verbal and symbolic) ----------------------
3. Social intelligence (adjustment to social life) ----------------------
----------------------
8.4 ACHIEVEMENT AND APTITUDE TESTS
----------------------
Achievement tests are used to find what has been learned that means what
skills and knowledge has been developed after a period of study or exercise. ----------------------
They are specifically designed to study the effect of a particular course of ----------------------
instructions and training. It is useful to decide the degree to which individual
has progressed towards attending a desirable goal or mastery of a subject. On ----------------------
the basis of this it is decided as to whether the individual is ready to take the
next step and how his achievement compares with others of the same level like ----------------------
students from the same standard. It is also possible to compare individual’s ----------------------

Notes present achievements with his own past achievements. This is the best practice
to motivate the individual.
----------------------
Standardised achievement tests are composed of empirically selected
---------------------- material, which has definite directions for use, adequately determined norms
and satisfactory reliability and validity. They are used for many purposes. Some
---------------------- important uses are-
---------------------- a. Assignment of grades
b. Remedial teaching program for identifying students having special needs
----------------------
and disabilities and measurement of their progress
---------------------- c. Learning aid to reveal weakness, give direction and motivate the learner.
---------------------- d. Adapting instructions to individual needs – to find out specific needs of
the learner on the basis of what he already knows.
----------------------
e. Evaluation of quality of teaching and forming educational goals
----------------------
f. Feedback to the teacher
---------------------- g. Quality control of school-comparison of students with those coming from
other institutes.
----------------------
h. Classification and placement of students in divisions of various ability
---------------------- levels
---------------------- i. Selection of individuals for various courses and activities
---------------------- j. Accreditation, mastery and certification

Aptitudes are potential abilities. They are associated with predicting
----------------------
future achievements and abilities. Since World War I, aptitude tests are being
---------------------- used. Today aptitude tests are essentially used in guidance and counselling
in schools. Careful psychological analysis of relevant activities is essential
---------------------- for success of any aptitude test. Aptitude tests range from general aptitude
to multiple aptitude batteries and very specific aptitude tests. The difference
----------------------
between achievement tests and aptitude tests is that of degree of uniformity
---------------------- of previous experience. Achievement tests measure the effect of a specific
standardised set of experiences as for example computer programming. On the
---------------------- other hand, aptitude tests measure cumulative effect of life experiences that
means learning under uncontrolled conditions. Some aptitudes are affected
----------------------
more by the environmental influences. No individual is uniformly strong or
---------------------- weak in all aptitudes. On the other hand, there are intra individual differences
and these tests are useful to understand them. So, there are inter and intra
---------------------- individual differences in aptitude that are measured with aptitude tests. Aptitude
test generally predicts the subsequent performance or estimate the extent to
----------------------
which the individual will be able to successfully complete a training course on
---------------------- the other hand achievement tests measure what the individual can do at that
time as a result of the courses that he has completed. In case of achievement
---------------------- tests, content validity becomes more important and in case of aptitude tests
predictive criterion oriented validity becomes essentially significant.
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
1. These are used to find out what skills and knowledge has been
----------------------
developed after a period of study or exercise.
i. Projective tests ----------------------
ii. Psychological tests ----------------------
iii. Achievement tests ----------------------
iv. Standardised tests
----------------------
2. Training is essential for using psychological tests and interpreting
their ----------------------
i. Records ----------------------
ii. Testing
----------------------
iii. Results
----------------------
iv. Processes
----------------------
Activity 3 ----------------------
----------------------
Sumit is a talented student who gets more than 90% marks in every
examination. His parents are strict and authoritarian. After completing ----------------------
12th standard, his parents want him to take engineering as his career. So, ----------------------
Sumit had to appear for centralised entrance test including evaluation of
intelligence and aptitudes. His score is pretty low. Now Sumit will not be ----------------------
able to get admission to engineering. Try to explain at least four possible
reasons behind his low performance. ----------------------
----------------------
8.5 PERSONALITY ESTIMATES AND INTEREST ----------------------

INVENTORY ----------------------
Personality is a broad term, which includes many things. Commonly it is ----------------------
used to indicate three things-
----------------------
a. Combination of physical and mental characteristics, aptitudes, interest,
ideals, aspirations and similar other things. ----------------------
b. Structure and pattern of total behaviour of the individual
----------------------
Social and psychological impact one makes on others.
----------------------
c. Combination of first two definitions is comparatively more satisfactory.
----------------------

Notes For estimating personality, the observation of counselee’s behaviour in
different situations becomes necessary. What he does, how he acts is observed.
---------------------- There are two methods-one is atomistic method and other is global method.
According to first method, bits of information are interpreted after combining
---------------------- them. This information is collected from parents, friends and teachers as well as
---------------------- guidance workers. Autobiographies and other records like anecdotal records are
also useful. Systematic and objective evaluation is stressed. Problem checklists,
---------------------- scales are used where many a times unexpected problems are noticed through
this type of data. Global method is involved in totality of personality. Here
---------------------- projective techniques are used to understand personality. Techniques like
---------------------- sociometry also tell many things about the individual’s social interactions.
Interest is essentially an important aspect of personality. There are many
----------------------
types of interests, like intellectual, physical, cultural, social, occupational,
---------------------- recreational and so on. It is a feeling of liking that is associated with a reaction
to specific thing or situation. As it is a subjective feeling, we cannot measure it
---------------------- objectively and have to depend on individual’s report. We must remember that
interest is a stimulant, which enhances achievement only when enough abilities
----------------------
are present but only interest may not be sufficient for achievements.
---------------------- Siddhi was interested in becoming a doctor right from childhood. Her
aptitude for mathematics is very high and performance also is ultimate in
----------------------
mathematics. Her aptitude for descriptive subjects is not so high. She is a talented
---------------------- and sincere student. However, she could complete the degree of medicine in
second class and could not get admission to any of the postgraduate courses.
----------------------
Interest may be intrinsic or extrinsic. A student will strive hard to get
---------------------- good grades and after completion of the course forget about subject matter.
This is extrinsic interest as the interest is related to external reward or outcome
---------------------- of the activity. It is associated with social status, money or a job opportunity.
Intrinsic interest on the other hand is centred on the activity itself. A child who
----------------------
has intrinsic interest in swimming will practice swimming even when there is
---------------------- no competition of swimming. The activity itself is rewarding. Deep layers of
personality like values, temperament and needs are directly related to interest.
---------------------- Interests are measured with the help of various inventories.
---------------------- For finding out interests of students, we can:
---------------------- a. Ask them as to what they would like to do: Many times, students interests
are temporary or they may express interest in a particular activity only
---------------------- to please the person who is asking or may depend on partial information
without having any experience in the field.
----------------------
b. Analyze various activities that the individual is doing- this is a better
---------------------- indicator of interest if the child is free to select his own activities. Many
a times, what the individual does depends on parents’ wish or availability
---------------------- of resources and other similar determinants. A child who is interested in
---------------------- playing musical instruments may not get a chance to learn any and as a
consequence, does not get an opportunity to participate in social gathering
---------------------- like musical concert.

c. Use interest tests and inventories-self report questionnaires are very Notes
popular to measure interests. Most of the available standardised tests are
tests of vocational interests. Simple activity preference as well as analysis ----------------------
of responsibilities is done in these measures. Subjective estimates of the
degree of interest or liking are to be reported by the counselee. ----------------------
There are some limitations of these interest measurements. First of all, any ----------------------
given inventory will not be able to assess every interest of the individual. Some
----------------------
limited spheres of interest, which are more important in that given community,
are measured by such inventories. There is lot of overlap between interest ----------------------
patterns of many vocations. Hence due care should be taken before using this
data for vocational guidance. Students’ interests are changing and restricted to ----------------------
the activities that are known to them and they have experienced. However, it
----------------------
gives an opportunity to the individual to review and analyse his interests and to
find out more about various activities as well as occupations regarding which he ----------------------
knows very little. It leads to an enriching experience for the growing individual.
The teacher should utilise this opportunity to motivate the students. ----------------------
One more commonly used information is regarding adjustment of ----------------------
the counselee. Adjustment inventories cover many aspects of individual’s
adjustment. In case of students, the areas covered are school and educational ----------------------
adjustment, home and family adjustment, health adjustment, social adjustment,
----------------------
personal and emotional adjustment. Many adjustment inventories are available
having norms for different age groups. They are very useful for counselling and ----------------------
counselling as they point out the exact area of maladjustment and gives specific
direction for interview and other activities. ----------------------
Use of autobiography is also worth considering as it is a group technique, ----------------------
which is comparatively cheap. It is not a substitute for objective tests but
supplementary to the objective data as it makes that data more meaningful. ----------------------
Some experiences which are not easily expressed in face-to-face interaction are
----------------------
expressed in this technique. The individuals are requested to write about their
aspiration, life experiences, happiness and problems or general about oneself. It ----------------------
gives clear idea as to what is important for the individual
----------------------
Activity 4 ----------------------
----------------------
Enlist your own interests in various areas, arrange them hierarchically and
indicate if the interest is intrinsic or extrinsic. ----------------------
1. Academics
----------------------
2. Sports
----------------------
3. Recreation
4. Social work. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes 8.6 PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
---------------------- Motivation and personality traits, which are hidden and often unsuspected
by the individual himself, are of interest to the counsellor for understanding the
---------------------- individual. Projective techniques are psychological procedures that claim to
disclose basic underlying personality structure and motivation of the counselee
----------------------
having him organise, respond to deal with stimuli in free unlimited way where
---------------------- there is nothing right or wrong. Even in fifteenth century, Leonardo Da Vinci
had used inkblots to stimulate imagination. Stimuli used in projective techniques
---------------------- are inkblots, pictures or any other ambiguous stimuli. The most well known
projective techniques are Rorschach inkblot test and Thematic Apperception
----------------------
Technique. The counselee is supposed to write down a story on the basis of a
---------------------- series of pictures and interpret or tell what he can perceive out of an inkblot.
Sometimes even the picture drawn by young children or their play activities also
---------------------- enhance counsellor’s understanding regarding many problem areas as parent
child relations. Interpretation of projective technique is a complicated affair,
----------------------
which requires a lot of training and practice. Projection of innermost thoughts
---------------------- and ideas is achieved by this method. The simplest example is that of incomplete
statement. The individual child is supposed to complete some statements:
----------------------
● The saddest movement of my life is __________________
---------------------- ● I love my mother because __________________
---------------------- As projective techniques utilise ambiguous stimuli, there is no right and
wrong answers and interpretation is extremely difficult it is heavily criticised.
---------------------- Use of projective techniques is comparatively limited.
---------------------- Some important tests commonly used for guidance and counselling are
given below. For measuring various characteristics only few tests are given here
---------------------- as examples, however, thousands of tests are available now a days.
---------------------- For measuring intelligence:
---------------------- 1. Raven’s progressive matrices
2. Wechsler adult intelligence scale
----------------------
3. Stanford-Binet intelligence scale
---------------------- For measuring aptitudes:
---------------------- 1. Differential aptitude tests
2. General Aptitude Test Battery
----------------------
3. Musical Aptitude Profile
---------------------- For measuring achievement in various subjects:
---------------------- 1. California Achievement Tests
---------------------- 2. Peabody Test of Individual Achievement
For measuring personality:
----------------------
1. Children’s Personality Questionnaire
---------------------- 2. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

Notes
----------------------
1. _________________ techniques are psychological procedures that
----------------------
claim to disclose basic underlying personality structure.
2. The most well known ________________ techniques are Rorschach ----------------------
inkblot test and Thematic Apperception Technique.
----------------------
3. Sometimes even the _____________ drawn by young children or their
play activities also enhance counsellor’s understanding regarding ----------------------
many problem areas as parent child relations. ----------------------
4. _______________ of projective technique is a complicated affair,
which requires a lot of training and practice. ----------------------
5. As ____________ techniques utilise ambiguous stimuli, there is no ----------------------

right and wrong answers and interpretation is extremely difficult it is
heavily criticised. ----------------------
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
● Objective measurement of human traits is essential for guidance and ----------------------
counselling. As we are dealing with human beings, there is no permanent
trait and some changes are naturally taking place as the individual grows ----------------------
and develops. Heredity and environment are contributing to various abilities
----------------------
and aptitudes as well as personality traits of any individual. Though tests
are extremely useful, the data should be used carefully with caution and in ----------------------
combination with other data available about the individual. Performance of
the counselee not only depends upon his abilities but also on motivation, ----------------------
health, prior training and knowledge, skills of the counsellor to administer
----------------------
the test and many other things. There are thousands of tests available in the
market and it becomes essential to take a wise decision about selection of ----------------------
test, which will serve the purpose appropriately.
----------------------
● Psychometric properties of the test are important criteria along with
availability and suitability of norms for the given counselee or a group ----------------------
of counselees should be considered. Evaluation of the test with reference
to culturally loaded items makes the picture clearer. All the findings ----------------------
should be used for motivating the counselee and enhancing adjustment
----------------------
of the counselee. The advantages and disadvantages should be considered
carefully. No test should be used by the counsellor without proper training. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes Keywords
----------------------
● Validity: A virtually important term in psychological testing. A test is
---------------------- valid when it actually measures the characteristics it is supposed to.
● Reliability: Degree of accuracy of measurement regardless of what is
---------------------- being measured.
---------------------- ● Norms: Quantitative statements on the degree of development of a given
feature in an individual with reference to comparable results from others
---------------------- in order to determine the relative position of the individual on the scale.
----------------------

---------------------- 1. Discuss uses and limitations of psychological tests.
---------------------- 2. Describe various types of psychological tests used in guidance.
---------------------- 3. What are the essential features of a standardised psychological test?

4. What are the differences between achievement and aptitude tests?
----------------------
5. Describe in brief nature of human intelligence.
----------------------
---------------------- Answers to Check your Progress

---------------------- Fill in the blanks.
1. A psychological test is a devise to determine presence or absence, quality
----------------------
or quantity of a trait, ability, characteristics, skill, knowledge or habit.
---------------------- 2. All psychological tests measure effect of developed abilities, which are
---------------------- resulting from interaction of life experiences with innate abilities.
3. Any standardised test has to be reliable, valid and must have norms as
---------------------- well as a systematic prescribed way for administration.
---------------------- 4. Reliability refers to the consistency of results when the same test is given
to the same individual again and again.
----------------------
5. Validity indicates whether the test measures what it intends to measure.
----------------------

----------------------
1. False
----------------------
2. False
---------------------- 3. True
----------------------

Check your Progress 3 Notes
----------------------
1. These are used to find out what skills and knowledge has been developed
after a period of study or exercise. ----------------------
iii. Achievement tests ----------------------
2. Training is essential for using psychological tests and interpreting their ----------------------
iv. Processes
----------------------

1. Projective techniques are psychological procedures that claim to disclose
----------------------
basic underlying personality structure
2. The most well known projective techniques are Rorschach inkblot test ----------------------
and Thematic Apperception Technique.
----------------------
3. Sometimes even the picture drawn by young children or their play activities
also enhance counsellor’s understanding regarding many problem areas ----------------------
as parent child relations. ----------------------
4. Interpretation of projective technique is a complicated affair, which
requires a lot of training and practice. ----------------------
5. As projective techniques utilise ambiguous stimuli, there is no right ----------------------

and wrong answers and interpretation is extremely difficult it is heavily
criticised. ----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Eysenck, H.J. 1975. Encyclopedia of Psychology. Suffolk: Richard Clay ----------------------
Ltd.
2. Hamblin, D.H. The Teacher and Counselling (1978. London: Billing and ----------------------
Sons. ----------------------
3. Jones A.J. (Revised by Steffler, B and Stewart, N. R.) 1970. Principles of
Guidance. Bombay: Tata McGraw Hill. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Referral and Transference
UNIT
Structure:
9.1
9.2
Definition of Referral, Purpose of Referral
Impact of Referral on Client and Counsellor
9
9.3 Definition and Concept of Transference and Counter-transference, Types
of Transference
9.4 Difference Between Transference and Counter-transference
9.5 Examples of Referral and Transference
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
Referral and Transference 127

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
----------------------
• Explain the referral process and its purpose.
---------------------- • Elaborate the impact of referral on the client and the counselor.
---------------------- • Explain the concepts of transference, Counter-transference
---------------------- • Identify different types of transference.
• To understand the difference between transference and counter
---------------------- transference.
----------------------
---------------------- 9.1 DEFINITION OF REFERRAL, PURPOSE OF REFERRAL

---------------------- The act of officially sending someone to a person or an authority that is
qualified to deal with them is called as reference. For example, Legal aid or any
---------------------- kind of professional help, can often provide referral to other type of agencies. In
counselling, a referral should be considered when you believe that your client’s
----------------------
problems go beyond your own experience or expertise. It can also so be done when
---------------------- you feel uncomfortable helping your client with some issues. The act of directing
a patient to a therapist, physician, institution, etc for revaluation, consultation or
---------------------- treatment is called as referral. Making a referral at the appropriate time is part of
the professional conduct for counsellors in practice.
----------------------
Clients coming from all walks of life can present with many difficulties.
---------------------- Each client is unique. One of the counsellors’ ethical obligations is to work
---------------------- within the competencies and the job description. Sometimes, it so happens,
that the client needs help with other issues such as medical help, debt, or legal
---------------------- difficulties. This is where the referral is useful. The client should never feel
that help is not available to them. .So if the client asks for help in any legal
---------------------- matter, then a referral is made to the appropriate legal professional who can be
---------------------- of the help to him. Sometimes when the client needs medical intervention then
he is referred to the appropriate medical doctor, if patient has severe mental
---------------------- health issues, a trained medical doctor is the one to help him. If the client is
under the influence of any substance like alcohol or drugs, he should be referred
---------------------- to an expert in this area.The procedure should be a smooth journey from one
---------------------- professional helper to another so that all the aspects of the client’s problems or
difficulties can be dealt with.
---------------------- So a referral can be defined as a practice of helping the client to find
---------------------- expert assistance that he needs and which the Counselor or the therapist cannot
provide to him. Directing the client to another counselor or therapist who has
---------------------- higher level of training or some special expertise related to the clients need is
involved in this process.
----------------------
Referral is when the Counselor makes recommendations as to where
---------------------- else the client might seek treatment for him. It is important to note that being

referred to; may lead to the client experiencing some difficult emotions. Hence, Notes
before the referral, it is extremely important to explain the decisions and the
reasons clearly and calmly to the client. What the client might gain from the ----------------------
referral must be made clear. The Counselor may also help the client to work
through their reaction regarding the referral. ----------------------
Purpose of referral – ----------------------

At some point, the client may challenge your ability to provide counselling. ----------------------
At some point you will begin to work with the client who challenges your ability to
provide compassionate counseling. it may be possible for you and the client to work ----------------------
together to overcome this difficulty, or providing a reference to another counselor
----------------------
or therapist, may be best for both you and the person you are working with. Ending
the therapy maybe a difficult decision to make for both the therapist and the client. ----------------------
Situations in which you want to consider it necessary to refer the client to
----------------------
another professional are –
1. If the client will be better served by another Specialist – ----------------------
They would be better served by a specialist when individuals come to ----------------------

therapy for issues they are experiencing such as depression and anxiety
or grief. Individuals may seek help from the therapist for things they do ----------------------
not understand. As the therapy progresses, deeper issues that underlies ----------------------
symptoms can we see may have mental health challenges that you have
no training to address. For example, personality disorder, psychosis etc ----------------------
are the conditions which require specialised treatment. The client may
need medical treatment to resolve some of their issues. ----------------------
2. If continuing therapy poses an ethical risk – ----------------------

The therapist may realise that the individual that he is working with has ----------------------
different beliefs and values then himself. For example, they have different
religious beliefs, sexual orientation, belong to a different political party, ----------------------
etc. It may happen that these differences may challenge the therapists
----------------------
ability to provide compassionate care. According to the code of ethics, the
therapist should be able to separate the personal the life and convictions, ----------------------
setting them aside while counselling. The needs of the client are of
utmost importance. Letting your discomfort or your differences affect ----------------------
the therapeutic relationship and eventually its success. If you use these
----------------------
values as the reason to refer the client to another professional, he may
feel rejected or abandoned. This perceived rejection may cause problems ----------------------
while continuing the therapy with another counselor. Instead of ending
the therapy, the Counselor may try to talk to his own therapist about the ----------------------
difficulties if he is unable to work with his clients. Even then if he is
----------------------
unable to work with the client then reference may be in the best interest
of both the therapist and client. ----------------------
3. If the client is not benefitting from therapy –
----------------------
The therapeutic process is not always easy for the therapist or for the
individual seeking help. There may be sessions where the progress seems ----------------------

Notes to stop or the client may report some sort of setback. If this continues,
then the therapist has to think whether therapy is serving the client or
---------------------- not. In the therapeutic process and the relationship it is required that
there is participation from both sides. The therapist can offer very little
---------------------- when the client doesn’t actively participate in the therapy. Having an
---------------------- open conversation about the sessions may reveal things regarding this
situation. The therapist may ask questions to check where therapy is going
---------------------- or whether the client is having trouble with some part of the process. The
therapist may have to think about this if the person that he is working
---------------------- with.
---------------------- ● seems unwilling to discuss certain aspects of the situation.
---------------------- ● shows little or no interest in taking efforts and putting in work into
therapy.
---------------------- ● is consistently late or doesn’t show up for therapy.
---------------------- Some clients may no longer benefit from therapy. This happens when a
significant progress has been made in the therapeutic process. Some of
---------------------- the issues that the client wanted to resolve have been addressed and the
---------------------- client has made positive changes and also developed coping strategies
that they may need to maintain the present state of well-being. Having
---------------------- a conversation regarding these could help the therapist determine if
the client has got what he needed from therapy. Some clients you may
---------------------- feel ready to end therapy but may not know how to bring up the issue
---------------------- themselves.
4. Alternatives to Referrals –
----------------------
Many experts in the area of counselling ethics advice waiting to refer a
---------------------- client until the therapist has tried all other options. When the therapist
makes the decision to refer a client, it is important to consider his reasons
----------------------
for making the referral. The therapist has to ask himself whether it is
---------------------- because of the lack of knowledge. Therapists are generally expected
to update their knowledge, continue their education and develop the
---------------------- counselling abilities throughout their career. They must undergo training
regarding various mental health concerns or cultural competencies.
----------------------
Seeking the support of colleagues and supervisors or seniors may help
---------------------- the therapist to gain this insight regarding the reason for referral. They
could also help the therapist by giving a second opinion on a difficult
----------------------
situation of the client. Sometimes it is helpful to have the point of view
---------------------- or perspective of someone who has a similar kind of training but with no
direct involvement in the therapeutic process. It is also very important
---------------------- to practice self care when working with people whom you are not
comfortable with or if you feel overly challenged by them. Relaxation
----------------------
techniques and mindfulness exercises can help you regarding this. It is
---------------------- also important to take time for yourself outside of work. Maintaining
a good work life balance can help you deal with these occupational
---------------------- challenges that overwhelm you. Therapists may also benefit from

therapy. A co-counselor can help you regarding this. If the therapist is Notes
struggling to deal with his emotions when helping the client in a difficult
situation this is very helpful. ----------------------
5. Type of Therapy offered – ----------------------
When the type of therapy that the counselor offers is not suitable for the
----------------------
client and if the counselor or therapist believes that a different approach
would be more beneficial for the client then a referral can be considered. ----------------------
6. Concerns of Safety –
----------------------
When the counselor is working on his own and if the client is very aggressive
or threatening, then the counselor may refer the client to an agency or ----------------------
institute where the therapist may have better safety arrangements. ----------------------
7. Unable to work with the client because of personal issues –
----------------------
Sometimes the counselor/therapist is going through some problems in
his own personal life. He may work well with the number of clients with ----------------------
many difficulties but with the clients who have problems that are close to
the counselors own difficulties, then the counselor may find it difficult to ----------------------
work with the client. In such cases, the counsellor may make the decision ----------------------
to refer the client to another counselor to deal with the problems they are
facing. ----------------------
When should an individual be referred to a mental health professional or ----------------------
counselor? If the individual shows any of the following kind of behavior –
----------------------
● Threats of harm to either self or others.
● if the individual shows an inability to follow through on ----------------------
responsibilities.
----------------------
● if the individual is unable to cope and repeatedly seeks help from
others. ----------------------
● if the person feels burdened or overwhelmed by his problems. ----------------------
● if symptoms of depression, insomnia, feelings of guilt, inability to
concentrate, etc are seen. ----------------------
● significant loss or trauma ----------------------
● disordered thoughts or speech ----------------------
● substance abuse
----------------------
● emotional distress
It is very important that the clients are not taken by surprise about the ----------------------
referral. It could feel like rejection and also lead them to believe that their
----------------------
problems are very complex and are also therefore difficult to solve. So preparation
for the reference should be done and must be discussed with the client. It must ----------------------
be conveyed to the client right from the start when it is being considered. The
client must be informed regarding the strengths and the different areas that the ----------------------
other professional is trained in and how it will help the client. The client has to
----------------------
me made aware from the beginning that referral is not threatening but that it is a

Notes genuinely helpful action that will support them in getting the right kind of help
at the right time.
----------------------
----------------------

---------------------- 1. Making a referral at the appropriate time is not part of a professional
conduct for counsellors in practice.
----------------------
2. Referrals happen when at some point, the client may challenge
---------------------- therapists ability to provide counselling.
---------------------- 3. In the therapeutic process and the relationship it is not necessary that
there is participation from both sides.
----------------------
4. Referral is not made if the person feels burdened or overwhelmed by
---------------------- his problems.
5. It is very important that the clients are not taken by surprise about the
----------------------
referral.
----------------------
---------------------- 9.2 IMPACT OF REFERRAL ON CLIENT AND COUNSELLOR

---------------------- If the counselor decides with the help of a seniors/supervisors that referral
is the right course of action, then it is very important to plan ahead for this.
---------------------- Before telling the client about the specific plan to refer them, the counselor
---------------------- must make sure that he knows
● where he will refer to
----------------------
● he is familiar with the referral processes including the documentation
---------------------- needed and
---------------------- ● he has as checked the waiting time and availability of the new professional
Unless the situation justifies, do not break client confidentiality. In
---------------------- cases where the client is likely to inflict self harm or harm others, there is
knowledge of criminal activity, etc. the information may be transferred to the
----------------------
other professional. In such situations take the clients prior consent (preferably
---------------------- written).
---------------------- Being referred to may lead the client to experiencing difficult emotions.
The counselor must be ready to explain his decision and the reasons clearly and
---------------------- calmly. The counselor must also explain to the client how the referral will help
him. The counselor must also help the client to work through their emotions.
----------------------
If there is a waiting period till the professional or the service that the client
---------------------- is referred to, then the counselor will have to offer the client some sessions
during this waiting. These holding sessions are important so that the client is not
---------------------- left unsupported during the gap. Even though the counselor is unable to help the
---------------------- client fully with their issues, his ability and willingness to be with them as they

wait, bring them the core conditions to support them during this time would be Notes
of an invaluable help to them.
----------------------
It is important for the therapist to allow himself time to reflect on and
process the experience of referring the client. The therapist must ensure that the ----------------------
professional decision to refer does not lead to feelings of incompetence. The
therapist may also feel emotions relating to loss or how the client had reacted ----------------------
when the need for referral was raised. This process is a good opportunity for the
----------------------
therapist for self reflection and personal development, enhancing his own self
awareness and growth. ----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. Being referred to, may lead the client to experiencing difficult
______________. ----------------------
2 During the ________________ period, then the counselor will have ----------------------
to offer the client some holding sessions.
----------------------
3. The therapist must ensure that the professional decision to refer does
not lead to feelings of __________________. ----------------------
----------------------
9.3 DEFINATION AND CONCEPT OF TRANSFERENCE
----------------------
AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE, TYPES OF
----------------------
TRANSFERENCE
----------------------
Transference is nothing but redirection of feelings about a specific person
on to someone else. It refers to the client’s projection of the feelings about to ----------------------
someone else on to their therapist. For example, a patient who has a lost a parent
as a child may look to the therapist for unconditional love and acceptance. While ----------------------
the therapist may genuinely care for the patient, it may not feel like enough. The ----------------------
therapist will fall short of what his or her patient believes he/she needs. The
patient may then feel hurt and perhaps angry and deeply disappointed. ----------------------
Counter-transference is a redirection of the therapists’ feelings towards ----------------------
the client. From the above example, the therapist whose patient looks to the
therapist as a parental substitute, feels disappointed, may make the therapist ----------------------
feel misunderstood and perhaps coerced by the patient.
----------------------
Transference and counter-transference both, can take many different
forms. They can be difficult to perceive and individuals therapists have different ----------------------
approaches to address these issues. Transference and counter-transference both
----------------------
are fundamental aspects of every therapeutic relationship and the awareness
of them by both the therapist and the client are crucial for successful work. ----------------------
Transference and counter-transference offer the opportunity to talk with
the client about the patterns of interpretation and relationships with other ----------------------

Notes meaningful people in their life. Articulation of a patients’ patterns of interacting
needs to be observed and understood. Because these patterns are connected with
---------------------- familial relationships, the therapists’ ability to recognise and understand them is
important. The old and often rigid patterns of interaction need to be understood
---------------------- and recognized. They must be discussed in the therapy sessions. The process of
---------------------- of analysing and talking about his old patterns can help the patient gradually see
how he or she participates in other meaningful relationships. Also the therapists’
---------------------- own self awareness and observation, willingness to talk about what is going on
between them are important in the ongoing therapeutic process.
----------------------
Recognizing transference and counter-transference gets easier and
---------------------- better with time and experience. The longer we work with an individual,
the more we are able to see the patterns of emotions and the interpersonal
----------------------
dynamics within the therapeutic relationship. As transference often come
---------------------- from development experiences including trauma, it is important to be gentle,
caring, non judgemental. The pace of rapport development, strengthening the
---------------------- connection with the client, will allow the therapist to explore transference
sensitively and in a way that promotes healing.
----------------------
Transference can be very difficult to recognize because it is dependent on
---------------------- the ability of the therapist to see whether the clients’ response is in the present
moment or whether it is being influenced by some internal beliefs and blueprint
----------------------
about the relationship.
---------------------- Communicating about transference to the client can be tricky. Every
therapist has his own way of doing it. Often it is helpful to give psycho-
----------------------
education about what transference is and ask about the therapeutic relationship.
---------------------- The therapist can also ask about what else they are experiencing, or when else
they have experienced a particularly strong emotion, or whether they have
---------------------- noticed a dynamic in the therapeutic relationship. Encouraging feedback and
asking about the experience regarding the relationship and establishing a mutual
----------------------
understanding with them also helps. It may not be always easy for the client to
---------------------- share about their feelings about the therapist. Many at times, the client himself
may not be aware about his feelings or beliefs. By facilitating a dialogue, the
---------------------- therapist can help his client to recognise how they are relating to the therapeutic
relationship.
----------------------
One of the biggest anxieties of the therapists is about dealing with counter-
---------------------- transference. Dealing with counter-transference starts with becoming aware of
---------------------- it. Being aware of your own state of mind can help the therapist differentiate
and recognise the impact that the client may be having on him. It is important to
---------------------- identify your interpersonal tendencies in order to be mindful of how they might
impact the therapeutic relationship.
----------------------
Mindfulness helps the therapist to be more attuned when counter-
---------------------- transference is occurring. Practicing being in the present can help the therapist
to notice when his emotions or bodily experiences shift or become intense. For
---------------------- example, if the therapist is holding his breath, it means that he has shifted his
---------------------- feelings from the present to being anxious, annoyed, etc.

Self-soothing and self-regulation are important. Use sensory integration Notes
and breath work to self regulate. It is important that the therapist remembers
that he doesn’t have to share his own story at the moment. But, he can show ----------------------
the client a depth of empathy that someone else not going through the same
experience might miss. ----------------------
Experiencing counter-transference is normal. The client that the ----------------------

therapist encounters will remind him of the others that he has met in his life.
----------------------
Acknowledging this fact will help the therapist to keep his perspective. Actively
participating in the therapeutic relationship means that the therapist will hold ----------------------
many ideas at once and also create space for the clients experiences also. The
client may trigger emotions or memories during the session. Taking deep breaths ----------------------
or pausing before responding to ensure that the response is appropriate will
----------------------
help. If the response is the reaction to the therapists’ own feelings then it may
damage the relationship. Slowing down and being conscious of the thoughts ----------------------
and emotions is helpful. Also, once the session is over, the therapist should
bring to notice and talk about this to his superiors/seniors or colleagues for ----------------------
feedback and processing.
----------------------
Many therapist share what they are experiencing with the client. They may
share their observations in a way that facilitates exploration and collaboration ----------------------
with the client by doing this in a non judgemental manner. It is very important
----------------------
that the therapist understands that it is not mandatory for him to do anything
about counter- transference. It is simply about being aware of your own feelings ----------------------
and not be ruled by them. When you are comfortable with your own feelings,
you are free to allow other thoughts and emotions to come. The less resistant ----------------------
we are about our own feelings the more capable we become to accept those of
----------------------
others.
A therapist can gain insight into a client’s thought patterns and behavior ----------------------
through transference if they can identify when it is happening and understand
----------------------
where it is coming from. Transference usually happens because of behavioral
patterns created within a childhood relationship. ----------------------
There are different categories of transference – positive, negative and ----------------------
sexualized.
1. Positive transference – enjoyable and happy aspects of past relationships ----------------------
are projected onto the therapist. This can allow the client to see the ----------------------
therapist as caring, wise, and empathetic, etc. This is beneficial for the
therapeutic process. ----------------------
2. Negative transference – anger, hate or hostile feelings are projected onto ----------------------
the therapist. While it sounds detrimental or damaging for the therapeutic
process, if the therapist recognizes and acknowledges this, it can become ----------------------
an important topic of discussion and allow the client to examine emotional
responses. ----------------------
3. Sexualized transference – when a client feels attracted to their therapist. ----------------------

This can include feelings of intimacy, sexual attraction, reverence,
----------------------
romantic or sensual emotions.

Notes Different types of transference include
1. Maternal transference - Associating the therapist with a mother figure
----------------------
who is seen as loving, influential, nurturing, or comforting. This type of
---------------------- transference can generate trust or negative feelings, depending on the
relationship the client had with their mother.
----------------------
2. Paternal transference - Seeing the therapist as a father figure who is
---------------------- powerful, wise, authoritative, and protecting. This may evoke feelings of
admiration or agitation, depending on the relationship the client had with
---------------------- their father.
---------------------- 3. Sibling transference - Can reflect dynamics of a sibling relationship and
often occurs when a parental relationship is lacking.
----------------------
4. Non-familial transference - Happens when clients idealize the therapist
---------------------- and reflect stereotypes that are influencing the client. For example, a priest
is seen as holy, and a doctor is expected to cure and heal ailments.
----------------------
5. Sexualized transference - Occurs when a person in therapy has a sexual
---------------------- attraction to their therapist. This is an all-consuming attraction toward the
therapist and can be detrimental to the therapeutic alliance and client’s
---------------------- progress.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
1. ________ is nothing but redirection of feelings about a specific person
----------------------
on to someone else.
a. Referral ----------------------
b. Counter – transference ----------------------
c. Transference ----------------------
d. Rapport
----------------------
2. Transference and counter-transference offer the opportunity to talk
with the client about the patterns of ________ and relationships with ----------------------
other meaningful people in their life.
----------------------
a. Behavior
----------------------
b. Interpretation
c. Analysing ----------------------
d. friendships ----------------------
3. Recognizing transference and counter-transference gets easier and ----------------------
better with time and _______ .
----------------------
a. Money
b. Techniques ----------------------
c. Trust ----------------------
d. Experience ----------------------
4. One of the biggest anxieties of the therapists is about dealing with
__________. ----------------------
a. counter-transference ----------------------
b. emotions ----------------------
c. low self confidence
----------------------
d. conflicts
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes 9.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSFERENCE AND
COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE
----------------------
---------------------- Transference counter–transference

It is from client to therapist It is from the therapist to the client
---------------------- It is act of conveying or moving It is the transfer of the therapist’s own
---------------------- from one place to another unconscious feelings to the patient. It is
the unconscious or instinctive emotion
---------------------- felt towards the patient
---------------------- This the process in which the emo- It is the therapists displacement and the
tions or desires originally felt for one emotional involvement in the therapeu-
---------------------- person are transferred to the therapist tic process
are transferred to the therapist
----------------------
It is an act of passing it to another It is an emotional reaction to the client
----------------------
---------------------- 9.5 EXAMPLES OF REFERRAL AND TRANSFERENCE

---------------------- Examples of referrals –
---------------------- 1. When the clients needs legal aid
2. The client is facing financial problems and needs help and guidance for that.
----------------------
3. The client may have issues with substance/internet addiction and other
---------------------- problems which needs help from experts in that field.
---------------------- 4. The counselor is unable to deal with the clients issues because of either
lack of knowledge or his own issues.
----------------------
5. The kind of therapy he offers is not suited for the client’s personality or
---------------------- his problems.
---------------------- Examples of transference -

1. You may meet a new person and immediately see a physical resemblance to
----------------------
your ex-spouse. You then attribute mannerisms of your ex to this new person.
---------------------- 2. You observe characteristics of your father in a new boss. You attribute
fatherly feelings to this new boss. They can be good or bad feelings.
----------------------
3. Transference in therapy happens when a patient attaches anger, hostility,
---------------------- love, adoration, or a other possible feelings onto their therapist or doctor.
---------------------- 4. Opponent — If the client is transferring feelings associated with an
adversarial relationship, such as a troubled relationship with a parent
---------------------- or sibling, the client will argue, become defensive, and may oppose
---------------------- recommendations the therapist makes.
5. Guru — The client may view the therapist as an all-wise figure on a higher
---------------------- spiritual plane. In this case, the therapist can do no wrong in the client’s
---------------------- eyes.

6. Ideal lover — If the client has experienced difficult romantic relationships Notes
or if they’ve failed to establish romantic relationships, the client may be
prone to developing a romantic or erotic association with the therapist. ----------------------
7. The client admires therapist and tells him that he reminds him of his best ----------------------
friend/parent/teacher.
----------------------
8. The client displaces anger on the therapist while talking about an abusive
parent and making generalised statements like all men are like that. ----------------------
9. The clients places unrealistic demands on the therapist.
----------------------
10 A client may become furious with the therapist when he tries to discuss
homework assignment. She fells that she is a grown up and should not be ----------------------
given homework. ----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. Referral is done if the kind of ___________________ offered is not
suited for the client’s personality or his problems. ----------------------
2. You observe characteristics of your father in a new boss. You attribute
----------------------
_____________ to this new boss. They can be good or bad feelings.
3. The client may view the therapist as an all-wise figure on a higher ----------------------
spiritual plane called as ___________________. ----------------------
4. ___________________ in therapy happens when a patient attaches
anger, hostility, love, adoration, or a other possible feelings onto their ----------------------
therapist or doctor. ----------------------
5. The client displaces anger on the therapist while talking about an
----------------------
___________________ parent.
----------------------
Activity 1 ----------------------
----------------------
● With the people that you have built a rapport with (Refer to the activity
in Unit 3) refer those who have issues to the appropriate experts. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Notes Summary
---------------------- ● Sending a client to a person or an authority that is qualified to deal with
them is called as reference or referral. In counselling, a referral should
----------------------
be considered when you believe that your client’s problems go beyond
---------------------- your own experience or expertise. Many situations make referrals the best
course of action to help the client. When the client is referred to another
---------------------- professional, a proper procedure has to be followed. The client has to be
prepared to go to another counselor.
----------------------
● Transference and counter-transference both are fundamental aspects of
---------------------- every therapeutic relationship and the awareness of them by both the
therapist and the client are crucial for successful work. Transference and
----------------------
counter-transference offer the opportunity to talk with the client about the
---------------------- patterns of interpretation and relationships with other meaningful people
in their life. Transparent is nothing but redirection of feelings about a
---------------------- specific person on to someone else. It refers to the client’s projection of the
feelings about to someone else on to their therapist. Counter-transference
----------------------
is a redirection of the therapists’ feelings towards the client. Recognizing
---------------------- transference and counter-transference gets easier and better with time and
experience. The longer we work with an individual, the more we are able
---------------------- to see the patterns of emotions and the interpersonal dynamics within the
therapeutic relationship.
----------------------
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
● Referral - can be defined as a practice of helping the client to find expert
----------------------
assistance that he needs and which the Counselor or the therapist cannot
---------------------- provide to him.
● Transference - redirection of feelings about a specific person on to
---------------------- someone else. It refers to the client’s projection of the feelings about to
---------------------- someone else on to their therapist.
● Counter-transference – it is a redirection of the therapists’ feelings
---------------------- towards the client.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. What is a referral? Explain with situations in which it is done.
----------------------
2. How does a referral impact the client?
---------------------- 3. What is transference? Explain with examples.
---------------------- 4. What is counter-transference? Explain with examples.
----------------------

Answers to Check your Progress Notes
1. False ----------------------
2. True
----------------------
3. False
----------------------
4. False
5. True ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. Emotions
2. Waiting ----------------------
3. Incompetence ----------------------
----------------------
1. c. Transference ----------------------
2. b. interpretation ----------------------
3. d. experience ----------------------
4. a. counter-transference
----------------------
1. therapy
----------------------
2. fatherly feelings
----------------------
3. Guru
----------------------
4. Transference
5. Abusive ----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Basic Counselling Skills – A Helper’s Manual. By Richard Nelson-Jones,
Sage Publication ----------------------
2. Practical Approach to Counselling – By Margaret Hough, Pitman ----------------------

Publication
----------------------
3. Referral and Termination Issues for Counsellors – by Anne Leigh
----------------------
4. Transference – by John Bowie,
5. Transference – by Soltis Christine ----------------------
----------------------

Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
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----------------------
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----------------------
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----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

Ethics and Legal Issues in Counselling in India and
Abroad UNIT
Structure:
10.1 Ethical Practices of Psychological Counselling

10
10.2 Ethical Codes and Guidelines
10.3 Rights of Person who Seeks the Counselling – Dimensions of
Confidentiality
10.4 Fidelity: Honouring the Trust Placed in the Counsellor
10.5 Dual Relationships in Counselling Practices
10.6 Case study
Summary
Keywords
Suggested Reading
Ethics and Legal Issues in Counselling in India and Abroad 143

Notes
Objectives
----------------------
----------------------
• Explain ethical practices of Psychological Counselling
---------------------- • Describe ethical codes and guidelines
---------------------- • Understand dual relationships in Counselling Practices
----------------------
10.1 ETHICAL PRACTICES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
----------------------
COUNSELLING
----------------------
The treatment of mental and emotional disorders through the use of
---------------------- psychological techniques designed to encourage communication of conflicts
and insight into problems, with the goal being relief of symptoms, changes
----------------------
in behaviour leading to improved social and vocational functioning, and
---------------------- personality growth is called Psychological counselling.
---------------------- ● The practice of being trustworthy: It is important for the Counsellor to

honour the trust that has been shown in the рrасtitiоner (It is аlsо known
---------------------- as fidelity) Being trustworthy is regarded as fundamental to understanding
and resolving the issues that are ethical. Counsellors who аdорt this
---------------------- рrinсiрle: асt in ассоrdаnсe with the trust рlасed in them; take efforts to
---------------------- ensure that person who seeks the counselling’’ requirements are those that
have reаsоnаble рrоsрeсts of being fulfilled; honour their agreements and
---------------------- рrоmises; regard соnfidentiаlity аs аn оbligаtiоn аrising frоm the сlient’s
trust; restriсt аny disсlоsure оf соnfidentiаl infоrmаtiоn аbоut сlients tо
---------------------- furthering the рurроses fоr whiсh it wаs оriginаlly disсlоsed.
---------------------- ● Autonomy: It is concerned with the respect for the patient’s right to be
sovereign. This principle emphasises the importance of developing a
---------------------- patient’s ability to be self-directing inside medical aid and every aspect
---------------------- of life. Counsellors who respect their customers’ autonomy: guarantee
accuracy in any advertising or data given before of services offered; ask
---------------------- for freely given and adequately enlightened consent; emphasise upon the
value of voluntary participation within the services being offered; interact
---------------------- in specific catching before of any commitment is given by the patient;
---------------------- defend confidentiality; defend secrecy; usually create any disclosures of
conditional on the consent of the person concerned; and informing the
---------------------- patient before of estimated conflicts of interest or as shortly as potential
when such conflicts become significant. It signifies resрeсt fоr the сlient’s
---------------------- right tо be self- governing. This рrinсiрle highlights the imроrtаnсe оf
---------------------- develорing а сlient’s ability tо be self-directing within therарy аnd аll
аsрeсts оf life. Counsellors whо resрeсt their сlients’ аutоnоmy: ensure
---------------------- ассurасy in аny advertising оr infоrmаtiоn given in аdvаnсe оf serviсes
оffered; seek freely given аnd аdequаtely infоrmed соnsent; emрhаsise
---------------------- the vаlue оf vоluntаry раrtiсiраtiоn in the serviсes being оffered; indulge
144
into exрliсit соntrасting in аdvаnсe оf аny соmmitment by the сlient; Notes
рrоteсt рrivасy; рrоteсt соnfidentiаlity; nоrmаlly mаke аny disсlоsures
оf соnfidentiаl infоrmаtiоn соnditiоnаl оn the соnsent оf the рersоn ----------------------
соnсerned; аnd infоrm the сlient in аdvаnсe оf foreseeable соnfliсts оf
interest оr аs sооn аs роssible аfter suсh соnfliсts beсоme арраrent. ----------------------
● Beneficence: It is a commitment to enhance the patient’s wellness. The ----------------------

principle of beneficence refers to acting in the best interests of the patient
depending on professional assessment. It focuses attention to working ----------------------
acutely within one’s limits of competence and providing services on ----------------------
the basis of adequate training, knowledge or experience. The object of
ensuring that the patient’s best interests are achieved requires systematic ----------------------
and specific monitoring of practice and outcomes by the best means that
are available. It is considered important that research and systematic ----------------------
reflection shall inform about practice. There is a mandate to use regular ----------------------
and on-going supervision to enhance the quality of the services provided
and also to commit for updating practice by continuing professional ----------------------
development. Any mandate to act in the best interests of a patient may
become paramount when working with person who seeks the counselling ----------------------
whose capacity for autonomy is diminished because of immaturity, ----------------------
impatience, lack of understanding, extreme distress, serious disturbance
or other significant personal constraints. ----------------------
● Non-maleficence: It means a commitment for avoiding harm to the ----------------------
patient. Non-maleficence includes: avoiding any sexual, financial, and
emotional or any other form of exploitation of patient; avoiding any sort ----------------------
of incompetence or malpractice or defrauding act; not providing services
when unfit to do so because of illness, personal circumstances or state of ----------------------
intoxication. The counsellor has an ethical responsibility to strive to tackle ----------------------
any type of harm caused to a patient even if the harm is not avoidable or not
intended. Holding appropriate form of insurance may help in restitution. ----------------------
Counsellors have to fulfil personal and professional responsibility to
challenge, where appropriate, the incompetence or malpractice of others; ----------------------
and to contribute to any investigation, inquiry and/or adjudication ----------------------
concerning professional practice which lies below that of a reasonably
competent counsellor and/or risks bringing discredit upon the profession. ----------------------
Counsellors strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to
do no harm. In their professional actions, Counsellors seek to safeguard ----------------------
the welfare and rights of those with whom they interact professionally ----------------------
and other affected persons, and the welfare of animal subjects of research.
When conflicts occur among Counsellors’ obligations or concerns, they ----------------------
attempt to resolve these conflicts in a responsible fashion that avoids
or minimizes harm. Because Counsellors’ scientific and professional ----------------------
judgments and actions may affect the lives of others, they are alert to ----------------------
and guard against personal, financial, social, organizational, or political
factors that might lead to misuse of their influence. Counsellors strive to ----------------------
be aware of the possible effect of their own physical and mental health on
their ability to help those with whom they work. ----------------------

145
Notes ● Justice: It implies the fair and impartial treatment of all person who seeks
the counselling and the provision of adequate services. The principle of
---------------------- justice requires to be just and fair to all person who seeks the counselling
and respecting their human rights, self-respect and dignity. It directs
---------------------- attention to considering conscientiously any legal requirements and
---------------------- obligations, and remaining alert to potential conflicts between legal and
ethical obligations. Justice in the distribution of services requires the
---------------------- ability to determine impartially the provision of services for person who
seeks the counselling and the allocation of services between people who
---------------------- seek the counselling. A commitment to fairness requires the ability to
---------------------- appreciate differences between people and to be committed to equality of
opportunity, and avoiding discrimination against people or groups contrary
---------------------- to their legitimate personal or social characteristics. Counsellors have a
duty to strive to ensure a fair provision of counselling and Psychological
---------------------- counselling services, accessible and appropriate to the needs of potential
---------------------- person who seeks the counselling. Counsellors recognise that fairness and
justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions
---------------------- of counselling and to equal quality in the processes, procedures, and
services being conducted by Counsellors. Counsellors exercise reasonable
---------------------- judgment and take precautions to ensure that their potential biases, the
---------------------- boundaries of their competence, and the limitations of their expertise do
not lead to or condone unjust practices.
---------------------- ● Self-respect: It is the fostering of counsellor’s self-knowledge and
---------------------- care for self The principle of self-respect means that the counsellor
appropriately applies all the above principles asentitlements for self.
---------------------- This includes seeking counselling or therapy and other opportunities for
personal development as required. There is an ethical responsibility to
---------------------- use supervision for appropriate personal and professional support and
---------------------- development, and to seek training and other opportunities for continuing
professional development. Safeguarding against financial liabilities
---------------------- arising from work undertaken usually requires obtaining appropriate
insurance. The principle of self-respect encourages active engagement
---------------------- in life-enhancing activities and relationships that are not dependent on
---------------------- relationships in counselling or Psychological counselling.
● Fidelity and Responsibility: Counsellors establish relationships of trust
---------------------- with those with whom they work. They are aware of their professional
---------------------- and scientific responsibilities to society and to the specific communities in
which they work. Counsellors uphold professional standards of conduct,
---------------------- clarify their professional roles and obligations, accept appropriate
responsibility for their behaviour, and seek to manage conflicts of interest
---------------------- that could lead to exploitation or harm. Counsellors consult with, refer
---------------------- to, or cooperate with other professionals and institutions to the extent
needed to serve the best interests of those with whom they work. They are
---------------------- concerned about the ethical compliance of their colleagues’ scientific and
professional conduct. Counsellors strive to contribute a portion of their
---------------------- professional time for little or no compensation or personal advantage.
146
● Integrity: Counsellors seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and Notes
truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of counselling. In these
activities Counsellors do not steal, cheat or engage in fraud, subterfuge, ----------------------
or intentional misrepresentation of fact. Counsellors strive to keep their
promises and to avoid unwise or unclear commitments. In situations in ----------------------
which deception may be ethically justifiable to maximize benefits and ----------------------
minimize harm, Counsellors have a serious obligation to consider the
need for, the possible consequences of, and their responsibility to correct ----------------------
any resulting mistrust or other harmful effects that arise from the use of
such techniques. ----------------------
● Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity: Counsellors respect the dignity ----------------------
and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to confidentiality,
confidentiality, and self-determination. Counsellors are aware that special ----------------------
safeguards may be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of persons ----------------------
or communities whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision
making. Counsellors know about respecting cultural, individual, and role ----------------------
differences, including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race,
ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, ----------------------
language, and socioeconomic status, and consider these factors when ----------------------
working with members of such groups. Counsellors try to eliminate the
effect on their work of biases based on those factors, and they do not ----------------------
knowingly participate in or condone activities of others based upon such
prejudices. ----------------------
● Making the misuse of Counsellor’s Work: If counsellors learn about ----------------------
misuse or misrepresentation of their work, they need to take reasonable
steps to correct or minimize the misuse or misrepresentation. ----------------------
● Conflicts that arise between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other ----------------------
Governing Legal Authority: If counsellor’s ethical responsibilities
conflict with law, regulations, or other governing legal authority, ----------------------
Counsellors clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their ----------------------
commitment to the Code of ethics, and take reasonable steps to resolve
the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards ----------------------
of the Code of ethics. Under no circumstances may this standard be used
to justify or defend violating human rights. ----------------------
● Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands: If the demands ----------------------
of an organization with which Counsellors are affiliated or for whom they
are working are in conflict with this Code of ethics, Counsellors clarify ----------------------
the nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Code of
----------------------
ethics, and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with
the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Code of ethics. Under ----------------------
no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend violating
human rights. ----------------------
● Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations: When Counsellors believe ----------------------
that there may have been an ethical violation by another Counsellors, they
attempt to resolve the issue by bringing it to the attention of that individual, ----------------------

147
Notes if an informal resolution appears appropriate and the intervention does
not violate any confidentiality rights that may be involved.
---------------------- ● Reporting Ethical Violations: If an apparent ethical violation has
---------------------- immensely harmed or is likely to substantially harm a person or organization
and is not appropriate for informal resolution under Standard Informal
---------------------- relations and ethical violations, or is not resolved properly in that fashion,
Counsellors take further action appropriate to the situation. Such action
---------------------- might include referral to state or national committees on professional
---------------------- ethics, to state licensing boards, or to the appropriate institutional
authorities. This standard does not apply when an intervention would
---------------------- violate confidentiality rights or when Counsellors have been retained to
review the work of another Counsellors whose professional conduct is in
---------------------- question.
---------------------- ● Cooperating with Ethics Committees: Counsellors co-operate in ethics
investigations, proceedings. In doing so, they address any confidentiality
---------------------- issues. Failure to cooperate is itself an ethics violation. However, making
---------------------- a request for deferment of adjudication of an ethics complaint pending the
outcome of litigation does not alone constitute non-cooperation.
---------------------- ● Inappropriate Complaints: Counsellors do not file or encourage the
---------------------- filing of ethics complaints that are made with reckless disregard for or
wilful ignorance of facts that would disprove the allegation.
---------------------- ● Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents:
Counsellors do not deny persons employment, advancement, admissions
----------------------
to academic or other programs, tenure, or promotion, based solely upon
---------------------- their having made or their being the subject of an ethics complaint.
This does not preclude taking action based upon the outcome of such
---------------------- proceedings or considering other appropriate information.
----------------------
10.2 ETHICAL CODES AND GUIDELINES
----------------------
The American Psychological Association’s (APA) Ethical Principles
---------------------- of Counsellors/ Counsellors and Code of Conduct (also known as the Code
of ethics) consists of an Introduction, a Preamble, five General Principles
---------------------- (A-E) and specific Ethical Standards. The Introduction discusses the intent,
---------------------- organization, procedural considerations, and scope of application of the Code
of ethics. The Preamble and General Principles are aspirational goals to guide
---------------------- Counsellors toward the highest ideals of counselling. Although the Preamble
and General Principles are not themselves enforceable rules, they should be
---------------------- considered by Counsellors in arriving at an ethical course of action. The Ethical
---------------------- Standards set forth enforceable rules for conduct as Counsellors. Most of the
Ethical Standards are written broadly, in order to apply to Counsellors in varied
---------------------- roles, although the application of an Ethical Standard may vary depending on
the context.
----------------------
This Code of ethics applies only to Counsellors’ activities that are part of
---------------------- their scientific, educational, or professional roles as Counsellors. Areas covered
148
include but are not limited to the clinical, counselling, and school practice of Notes
counselling; research; teaching; supervision of trainees; public service; policy
development; social intervention; development of assessment instruments; ----------------------
conducting assessments; educational counselling; organizational consulting;
forensic activities; program design and evaluation; and administration. This ----------------------
Code of ethics applies to these activities across a variety of contexts, such as ----------------------
in person, postal, telephone, Internet, and other electronic transmissions. These
activities shall be distinguished from the purely private conduct of Counsellors, ----------------------
which is not within the purview of the Code of ethics.
----------------------
The processes for filing, investigating, and resolving complaints of
unethical conduct are described in the current Rules and Procedures of the APA ----------------------
Ethics Committee. APA may grant sanctions on its members for violations of
----------------------
the standards of the Code of ethics, including termination of APA membership,
and may notify other bodies and individuals of its actions. Actions that violate ----------------------
the standards of the Code of ethics may also lead to the imposition of sanctions
on Counsellors or students whether or not they are APA members by bodies ----------------------
other than APA, including state psychological associations, other professional
----------------------
groups, counselling boards, other state or federal agencies, and payors for
health services. In addition, APA may take action against a member after his ----------------------
or her conviction of a felony, removal or suspension from an affiliated state
psychological association, or suspension or loss of licensure. When the sanction ----------------------
to be imposed by APA is less than removal, the 2001 Rules and Procedures do
----------------------
not guarantee an opportunity for an in-person hearing, but generally provide
that complaints will be resolved only on the basis of a submitted record. ----------------------
The Code of ethics is intended to provide guidance for Counsellors and
----------------------
standards of professional conduct that can be applied by the APA and by other
bodies that choose to adopt them. The Code of ethics is not intended to be a ----------------------
basis of civil liability. Whether a Counsellors has violated the Code of ethics
standards does not by itself determine whether the Counsellors is legally liable ----------------------
in a court action, whether a contract is enforceable, or whether other legal
----------------------
consequences occur.
The modifiers used in some of the standards of this Code of ethics (e.g., ----------------------
reasonably, appropriate, potentially) are included in the standards when they
----------------------
would
1. allow professional judgment on the part of Counsellors, ----------------------
2. eliminate injustice or inequality that would occur without the modifier, ----------------------
3. ensure applicability across the broad range of activities conducted by ----------------------
Counsellors, or
----------------------
4. guard against a set of rigid rules that might be quickly outdated. As
used in this Code of ethics, the term reasonable means the prevailing ----------------------
professional judgment of Counsellors engaged in similar activities in
similar circumstances, given the knowledge the Counsellors had or should ----------------------
have had at the time.
----------------------

149
Notes In the process of making decisions regarding their professional behaviour,
Counsellors must consider this Code of ethics in addition to applicable laws
---------------------- and counselling board regulations. In applying the Code of ethics to their
professional work, Counsellors may consider other materials and guidelines
---------------------- that have been adopted or endorsed by scientific and professional psychological
---------------------- organizations and the dictates of their own conscience, as well as consult with
others within the field. If this Code of ethics establishes a higher standard of
---------------------- conduct than is required by law, Counsellors must meet the higher ethical
standard. If Counsellors’ ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations,
---------------------- or other governing legal authority, Counsellors make known their commitment
---------------------- to this Code of ethics and take steps to resolve the conflict in a responsible
manner in keeping with basic principles of human rights.
----------------------
Civil and Criminal Liability
---------------------- In this unit, we will learn about the legal aspects of counselling. Being
well informed about the legal issues is very important for the counsellor
----------------------
because being uninformed could result in serious consequences for the
---------------------- individual and the profession. We will be discussing civil and criminal
liability, malpractice, premature termination, the rights of minors, and the
---------------------- counsellor’s role in court.
---------------------- There are two types of liability for the counsellor to be concerned about.
Civil liability is an instance where the counsellor commits a wrong against
---------------------- an individual that may be unprofessional but not illegal. Civil liability gives a
patient the ability to sue for damages or personal injury. The patient should have
----------------------
suffered harm or injury due to the negligence or incompetence of the counsellor,
---------------------- to treat it as a civil offence. Civil liability is the most common suit against a
counsellor and is common in cases of malpractice. Civil liability usually results
---------------------- in financial awards to the patient if the suit has merit.
---------------------- Criminal liability, on the other hand, is illegal behaviour that causes
damage to someone or something. The penalties for these offenses could result
---------------------- in fines and/or imprisonment and loss of licensure. Often, criminal liability is
---------------------- filed when it involves situations such as sexual relationships with underage or
unwilling person who seeks the counselling, practicing without a license, or
---------------------- anything else that would be considered illegal.
---------------------- Malpractice
Malpractice is a type of civil lawsuit that can be filed against a professional
---------------------- for practicing in a manner that leads to injury to a patient. Malpractice suits
---------------------- often occur because the counsellor was negligent or did not follow the proper
procedures. Counsellors are expected to abide by legal standards and adhere to
---------------------- ethical codes of their profession in providing due care for their person who seeks
the counselling. The best defence against becoming involved in a malpractice
---------------------- suit is to practice quality patient care and adhere to the legal statutes and ethical
---------------------- codes of the profession. Counsellors who are sued for malpractice must defend
themselves before a jury or judge.
----------------------
150
To be successful in a malpractice suit, four elements must exist: Notes
1. A professional relationship between counsellor and patient existed
----------------------
2. Counsellor acted negligently or failed to follow standard of care
----------------------
3. Patient must have suffered harm or injury
4. There must be a legally demonstrated causal relationship between ----------------------
counsellor’s negligence and the damage or injury claimed by the patient ----------------------
The most frequent reasons for malpractice suits are:
----------------------
● Sexual boundary violations
● Nonsexual multiple relationships ----------------------
● Insurance and fee problems ----------------------
● Child custody ----------------------
● Breach of confidentiality
----------------------
● Practicing beyond level of competence
● Inadequate diagnosis ----------------------
● Negligent record keeping ----------------------
● Impairment
----------------------
Another area of possible malpractice case is premature termination,
when the counselling process ends early without previous preparation or plan ----------------------
for follow up on the part of the counsellor. Person who seeks the counselling
are required to be involved in making decisions about when to end treatment. ----------------------
When both patient and counsellor agree it is time to end, there is a low risk of ----------------------
malpractice case.
----------------------
Abandonment is another issue. This is when the counsellor becomes
unavailable to the patient without warning; for instance, not following up ----------------------
on hospitalized person who seeks the counselling, being unreachable in case
of emergencies, or scheduling vacations without provisions for a substitute ----------------------
counsellor while the patient is still seeing the counsellor.
----------------------
Expert and Lay Witnesses in Court
----------------------
Another area where a counsellor should to be mindful about the possible
legal consequences is when serving as an expert witness. Expert witnesses must ----------------------
be considered legal experts and demonstrate the mastery of research in all areas
in which they claim to be an expert. Often, expert witnesses have little or no ----------------------
connection to the patient and should remain neutral.
----------------------
The expert witness’s job is to provide information and help the court
resolve issues; it is not to advocate for someone. Since there are no specific ----------------------
guidelines of what an expert is, the witness’s expertise may be challenged by ----------------------
others. The expert witnesses should come to court prepared to prove their ability
and with an opinion in the case at hand. ----------------------
Lay witnesses, on the other hand, are in direct contact with the patient and ----------------------
have served as the counsellor prior to involvement of the legal system. Their

151
Notes role is to relay information in the case, but only information which they are
required to release. Giving opinions are not recommended because you may be
---------------------- giving information you are not qualified to give, which could negatively affect
the relationship with the patient. Person who seeks the counselling might file
---------------------- a malpractice suit if the counsellor provides confidential information beyond
---------------------- what is required by law.
Counsellors should consult with a lawyer to determine if they have
----------------------
privileged communication and how much information they may have to
---------------------- disclose. The counsellor should have already informed the patient up front
concerning the possibility of being subpoenaed to court. Counsellors are most
---------------------- likely to be a lay witness when they are a school counsellor, counsellor to a
child or adolescent, and in cases not covered by privileged communication.
----------------------
---------------------- 10.3 RIGHTS OF PERSON WHO SEEKS THE COUNSELLING

---------------------- – DIMENSIONS OF CONFIDENTIALITY
Respecting person who seeks the counselling’ confidentiality and
----------------------
confidentiality are fundamental requirements for keeping trust and respecting
---------------------- patient autonomy. The professional management of confidentiality concerns
the protection of personally identifiable and sensitive information from
---------------------- unauthorised disclosure. Disclosure may be authorised by patient consent or
the law. Any disclosures of patient confidences should be undertaken in ways
----------------------
that best protect the patient’s trust and respect patient autonomy.
---------------------- Communications made on the basis of patient consent do not constitute
---------------------- a breach of confidentiality. Patient consent is the ethically preferred way of
resolving any dilemmas over confidentiality.
---------------------- Exceptional circumstances may prevent the counsellor from seeking
---------------------- patient consent to a breach of confidence due to the urgency and seriousness of
the situation, for example, preventing the patient causing serious harm to self
---------------------- or others. In such circumstances the counsellor has an ethical responsibility
to act in ways which balance the patient’s right to confidentiality against the
---------------------- need to communicate with others. Counsellors should expect to be ethically
---------------------- accountable for any breach of confidentiality.
1. Confidentiality: It is the patient’s ethical duty to protect private patient
---------------------- communication. Confidentiality is a complicated concept because of its
---------------------- exceptions and because it effects both legal and ethical situations. In most
situations, the counsellor is expected to maintain confidentiality. Counsellors
---------------------- should always try to maintain confidentiality because it will affect the
relationship the patient has with the counsellor. The counsellor should let
---------------------- the patient know prior to beginning therapy when confidentiality has to
---------------------- be broken and that this will not happen unless absolutely necessary. The
counsellor should always get this consent from the patient in writing. The
---------------------- counsellor should breach confidentiality in cases where the patient is a threat
of danger to themselves or others, property, or suspected child abuse. In
---------------------- cases where the counsellor is not covered by privileged communication, as in
152
school counselling, the counsellor may have to testify in court and produce Notes
records. Counsellors need approval from person who seeks the counselling in
cases where interns are being supervised or where a counsellor is consulting ----------------------
with another counsellor. An intern should not use a patient name and should
protect the patient anonymity in any way they can. The patient can share ----------------------
confidential information at any time. Breaching confidentiality in the absence ----------------------
of an exception could result in ethical and legal sanctions, including loss of
license, certifications, and a possible malpractice suit. Counsellors have a ----------------------
primary obligation and take reasonable precautions to protect confidential
information obtained through or stored in any medium, recognizing that the ----------------------
extent and limits of confidentiality may be regulated by law or established by ----------------------
institutional rules or professional or scientific relationship.
----------------------
Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality:
a. Counsellors discuss with persons (including, to the extent feasible, ----------------------
persons who are legally incapable of giving informed consent and
----------------------
their legal
1. the relevant limits of confidentiality and ----------------------
2. the foreseeable uses of the information generated through ----------------------
their psychological activities.
----------------------
b. Unless it is not feasible or is contraindicated, the discussion of
confidentiality occurs at the outset of the relationship and thereafter ----------------------
as new circumstances may warrant.
----------------------
c. Counsellors who offer services, products, or information via
electronic transmission inform person who seeks the counselling/ ----------------------
patients of the risks to confidentiality and limits of confidentiality.
----------------------
2. Recording: Before recording the voices or images of individuals to
whom they provide services, Counsellors obtain permission from all ----------------------
such persons or their legal representatives. Minimizing Intrusions on
----------------------
Confidentiality:
a. Counsellors include in written and oral reports and consultations, only ----------------------
information germane to the purpose for which the communication is made.
----------------------
b. Counsellors discuss confidential information obtained in their work
only for appropriate scientific or professional purposes and only ----------------------
with persons clearly concerned with such matters. ----------------------
3. Disclosures:
----------------------
a. Counsellors may disclose confidential information with the
appropriate consent of the organizational patient, the individual ----------------------
patient/patient, or another legally authorized person on behalf of
the patient/patient unless prohibited by law. ----------------------
b. Counsellors disclose confidential information without the consent ----------------------

of the individual only as mandated by law, or where permitted by
----------------------
law for a valid purpose such as to

153
Notes 1. provide needed professional services;
2. obtain appropriate professional consultations;
----------------------
3. protect the patient/patient, Counsellors, or others from harm;
---------------------- or
---------------------- 4. obtain payment for services from a patient/patient, in which
instance disclosure is limited to the minimum that is necessary
---------------------- to achieve the purpose.
---------------------- 4. Consultations: When consulting with colleagues,
---------------------- 1. Counsellors do not disclose confidential information that reasonably

could lead to the identification of a patient/patient, research
---------------------- participant, or other person or organization with whom they have a
confidential relationship unless they have obtained the prior consent
---------------------- of the person or organization or the disclosure cannot be avoided,
---------------------- and
2. they disclose information only to the extent necessary to achieve
---------------------- the purposes of the consultation.
---------------------- Use of Confidential Information for Didactic or Other Purposes:
Counsellors do not disclose in their writings, lectures, or other public media,
----------------------
confidential, personally identifiable information concerning their person who
---------------------- seeks the counselling/patients, students, research participants, organizational
person who seeks the counselling, or other recipients of their services that they
---------------------- obtained during the course of their work, unless
---------------------- 1. they take reasonable steps to disguise the person or organization,
---------------------- 2. the person or organization has consented in writing, or

3. there is legal authentication for doing so.
----------------------
A licensed counsellor has many legal issues to consider. Breaching
---------------------- confidentiality becomes necessary when the counsellor has a duty to warn or
an ethical duty to protect the patient and others from harm. The counsellor
---------------------- must take measures to protect the patient or anyone they may put in danger.
---------------------- This breach of confidentiality is allowed, in order to inform family members,
persons threatened, or the authorities when a person puts themselves or
---------------------- others in danger. It also may be necessary to have the person hospitalized or
involuntarily committed when they may harm themselves. It is important that
---------------------- the counsellor evaluate the situation accurately. Counsellors are responsible
---------------------- for notifying potential victims of violence to others or their property. Over
reacting may do damage to the patient, and at the least cause damage to
---------------------- the relationship between counsellor and patient. The counsellor could face
a malpractice suit for breaching confidentiality if it was not necessary for
---------------------- people’s safety. Failure to report when the counsellor should may also result
---------------------- in lawsuits and legal consequences.
----------------------
154
Reporting Child Abuse Notes
In addition to duty to warn, counsellors have a mandated responsibility
----------------------
to report cases of suspected abuse or neglect to a government agency.
Confidentiality is overridden by the need to protect the child. Although all states ----------------------
have statutes regarding the duty to report, the statutes may differ, so it is the
responsibility of the counsellor to find out what their state requires. Mandatory ----------------------
abuse reporting laws have protective clauses that protect counsellors who report
----------------------
suspected abuse in good faith, or who believes it occurred. The laws also vary
by state regarding the duty to report past abuses that are no longer happening. ----------------------
10.4 FIDELITY: IT MEANS HONOURING THE TRUST ----------------------

PLACED IN THE COUNSELLOR ----------------------
● Counsellors have a responsibility to protect person who seeks the ----------------------

counselling when they have good reason for believing that other
Counsellors are placing them at risk of harm. ----------------------
● They should raise their concerns with the counsellor concerned in the ----------------------
first instance, unless it is inappropriate to do so. If the matter cannot
be resolved, they should review the grounds for their concern and the ----------------------
evidence available to them and, when appropriate, raise their concerns ----------------------
with the counsellor’s manager, agency or professional body.
● If they are uncertain what to do, their concerns should be discussed with ----------------------
an experienced colleague, a supervisor or raised with this Association. ----------------------
● All members of this Association share a responsibility to take part in
its professional conduct procedures whether as the person complained ----------------------
against or as the provider of relevant information. ----------------------
● The practice of counselling and Psychological counselling depends on
gaining and honouring the trust of person who seeks the counselling. ----------------------
Keeping trust requires:
----------------------
1. attentiveness to the quality of listening and respect offered to person
who seeks the counselling ----------------------
2. culturally appropriate ways of communicating that are courteous ----------------------
and clear
----------------------
3. respect for confidentiality and dignity
4. careful attention to patient consent and confidentiality ----------------------
● Person who seeks the counselling should be adequately informed about ----------------------
the nature of the services being offered. Counsellors should obtain
----------------------
adequately informed consent from their person who seeks the counselling
and respect a patient’s right to choose whether to continue or withdraw. ----------------------
● Counsellors should ensure that services are normally delivered on the
basis of the patient’s explicit consent. Reliance on implicit consent is ----------------------
more vulnerable to misunderstandings and is best avoided unless there ----------------------

155
Notes are sound reasons for doing so. Overriding a patient’s known wishes
or consent is a serious matter that requires adequate and reasoned
---------------------- justification. Counsellors should be prepared to be readily accountable to
person who seeks the counselling, colleagues and this Association if they
---------------------- override a patient’s known wishes.
---------------------- ● Situations in which person who seeks the counselling pose a risk of
causing serious harm to themselves or others are particularly challenging
---------------------- for the counsellor. These are situations in which the counsellor should
---------------------- be alert to the possibility of conflicting responsibilities between those
concerning their patient, other people who may be significantly affected,
---------------------- and society generally. Resolving conflicting responsibilities may require
due consideration of the context in which the service is being provided.
---------------------- Consultation with a supervisor or experienced counsellor is strongly
---------------------- recommended, whenever this would not cause undue delay. In all cases,
the aim should be to ensure for the patient a good quality of care that is as
---------------------- respectful of the patient’s capacity for self-determination and their trust as
circumstances permit.
----------------------
● Working with young people requires specific ethical awareness and
---------------------- competence. The counsellor is required to consider and assess the balance
between young people’s dependence on adults and carers and their progressive
---------------------- development towards acting independently. Working with children and
---------------------- young people requires careful consideration of issues concerning their
capacity to give consent to receiving any service independently of someone
---------------------- with parental responsibilities and the management of confidences disclosed
by person who seeks the counselling.
----------------------
● Counsellors should normally be willing to respond to their patient’s
---------------------- requests for information about the way that they are working and any
assessment that they may have made. This professional requirement
---------------------- may not apply if it is considered that imparting this information would
---------------------- be detrimental to the patient or inconsistent with the counselling or
psychotherapeutic approach previously agreed with the patient. Person
---------------------- who seeks the counselling may have legal rights to this information and
these need to be taken into account.
----------------------
● Counsellors must not abuse their patient’s trust in order to gain sexual,
---------------------- emotional, financial or any other kind of personal advantage. Sexual
relations with person who seeks the counselling are prohibited. ‘Sexual
---------------------- relations’ include intercourse, any other type of sexual activity or
sexualised behaviour. Counsellors should think carefully about, and
----------------------
exercise considerable caution before, entering into personal or business
---------------------- relationships with former person who seeks the counselling and should
expect to be professionally accountable if the relationship becomes
---------------------- detrimental to the patient or the standing of the profession.
---------------------- ● Counsellors should not allow their professional relationships with person
who seeks the counselling to be prejudiced by any personal views they
----------------------
156
may hold about lifestyle, gender, age, disability, race, sexual orientation, Notes
beliefs or culture.
● Counsellors should be clear about any commitment to be available to ----------------------
person who seeks the counselling and colleagues and honour these ----------------------
commitments.
----------------------
10.5 DUAL RELATIONSHIPS IN COUNSELLING
----------------------
PRACTICES
----------------------
● Unfair Discrimination
----------------------
In their work-related activities, Counsellors do not engage in unfair
discrimination based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, ----------------------
culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability,
socioeconomic status, or any basis proscribed by law. ----------------------
● Sexual Harassment ----------------------
Counsellors do not engage in sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is
----------------------
sexual solicitation, physical advances, or verbal or nonverbal conduct
that is sexual in nature, that occurs in connection with the Counsellor’s ----------------------
activities or roles as a Counsellors, and that either
----------------------
1. is unwelcome, is offensive, or creates a hostile workplace or
educational environment, and the Counsellors knows or is told this ----------------------
or
----------------------
2. is sufficiently severe or intense to be abusive to a reasonable person
in the context. Sexual harassment can consist of a single intense or ----------------------
severe act or of multiple persistent or pervasive acts.
----------------------
● Other Harassment
Counsellors do not knowingly engage in behaviour that is harassing ----------------------
or demeaning to persons with whom they interact in their work based on ----------------------
factors such as those persons’ age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity,
culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or ----------------------
socioeconomic status.
----------------------
● Avoiding Harm
a. Counsellors take reasonable steps to avoid harming their person ----------------------
who seeks the counselling/patients, students, supervisees, research ----------------------
participants, organizational person who seeks the counselling, and
others with whom they work, and to minimize harm where it is ----------------------
foreseeable and unavoidable.
----------------------
b. Counsellors do not participate in, facilitate, assist, or otherwise
engage in torture, defined as any act by which severe pain or ----------------------
suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a
person, or in any other cruel, inhuman, or degrading behaviour that ----------------------
violates it. ----------------------

157
Notes ● Multiple Relationships
a. A multiple relationship occurs when a Counsellors is in a professional
---------------------- role with a person and
---------------------- 1. at the same time is in another role with the same person,
---------------------- 2. at the same time is in a relationship with a person closely
associated with or related to the person with whom the
---------------------- Counsellors has the professional relationship, or
---------------------- 3. promises to enter into another relationship in the future with
the person or a person closely associated with or related to the
---------------------- person.
---------------------- A Counsellor refrains from entering into a multiple relationship if
the multiple relationship could reasonably be expected to impair the
---------------------- Counsellor’s objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing his
or her functions as a Counsellors, or otherwise risks exploitation or harm
----------------------
to the person with whom the professional relationship exists.
---------------------- Multiple relationships that would not reasonably be expected to cause
---------------------- impairment or risk exploitation or harm are not unethical.
b. If a Counsellors finds that, due to unforeseen factors, a potentially
---------------------- harmful multiple relationship has arisen, the Counsellors takes
---------------------- reasonable steps to resolve it with due regard for the best interests
of the affected person and maximal compliance with the Code of
---------------------- ethics.
---------------------- c. When Counsellors are required by law, institutional policy, or
extraordinary circumstances to serve in more than one role in
---------------------- judicial or administrative proceedings, at the outset they clarify
role expectations and the extent of confidentiality and thereafter as
---------------------- changes occur.
---------------------- ● Conflict of Interest
---------------------- Counsellors refrain from taking on a professional role when personal,
scientific, professional, legal, financial, or other interests or relationships
---------------------- could reasonably be expected to
---------------------- 1. impair their objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing
their functions as Counsellors or
----------------------
2. expose the person or organization with whom the professional
---------------------- relationship exists to harm or exploitation.
---------------------- ● Third-Party Requests for Services

When Counsellors agree to provide services to a person or entity at the
---------------------- request of a third party, Counsellors attempt to clarify at the outset of the
service the nature of the relationship with all individuals or organizations
----------------------
involved. This clarification includes the role of the Counsellors (e.g.,
---------------------- counsellor, consultant, diagnostician, or expert witness), an identification
158
of who is the patient, the probable uses of the services provided or Notes
the information obtained, and the fact that there may be limits to
confidentiality. ----------------------
● Exploitative Relationships ----------------------
Counsellors do not exploit persons over whom they have supervisory,
evaluative or other authority such as person who seeks the counselling/ ----------------------
patients, students, supervisees, research participants, and employees. ----------------------
● Cooperation with Other Professionals
----------------------
When indicated and professionally appropriate, Counsellors cooperate
with other professionals in order to serve their person who seeks the ----------------------
counselling/patients effectively and appropriately.
----------------------
● Informed Consent:
----------------------
a. When Counsellors conduct research or provide assessment,
therapy, counselling, or consulting services in person or via ----------------------
electronic transmission or other forms of communication, they
obtain the informed consent of the individual or individuals ----------------------
using language that is reasonably understandable to that person
----------------------
or persons except when conducting such activities without
consent is mandated by law or governmental regulation or as ----------------------
otherwise provided in this Code of ethics.
----------------------
b. For persons who are legally incapable of giving informed
consent, Counsellors nevertheless ----------------------
1. provide an appropriate explanation,
----------------------
2. seek the individual’s assent,
----------------------
3. consider such persons’ preferences and best interests, and
4. obtain appropriate permission from a legally authorized ----------------------
person, if such substitute consent is permitted or required ----------------------
by law. When consent by a legally authorized person is not
permitted or required by law, Counsellors take reasonable ----------------------
steps to protect the individual’s rights and welfare.
----------------------
c. When psychological services are court ordered or otherwise
mandated, Counsellors inform the individual of the nature of the ----------------------
anticipated services, including whether the services are court ordered
----------------------
or mandated and any limits of confidentiality, before proceeding.
d. Counsellors appropriately document written or oral consent, ----------------------
permission, and assent.
----------------------
● Psychological Services Delivered to or Through Organizations
----------------------
a. Counsellors delivering services to or through organizations
provide information beforehand to person who seeks the ----------------------
counselling and when appropriate those directly affected by the
services about ----------------------

159
Notes 1. the nature and objectives of the services,
2. the intended recipients,
----------------------
3. which of the individuals are person who seeks the counselling,
----------------------
4. the relationship the Counsellors will have with each person
---------------------- and the organization,
---------------------- 5. the probable uses of services provided and information

obtained,
---------------------- 6. who will have access to the information, and
---------------------- 7. limits of confidentiality. As soon as feasible, they provide
information about the results and conclusions of such services
---------------------- to appropriate persons.
---------------------- b. If Counsellors will be precluded by law or by organizational
roles from providing such information to particular individuals or
----------------------
groups, they so inform those individuals or groups at the outset of
---------------------- the service.
c. Interruption of Psychological Services
----------------------
Unless otherwise covered by contract, Counsellors make reasonable
---------------------- efforts to plan for facilitating services in the event that psychological
---------------------- services are interrupted by factors such as the Counsellor’s illness,
death, unavailability, relocation, or retirement or by the patient’s/
---------------------- patient’s relocation or financial limitations.
---------------------- 10.6 CASE STUDY

----------------------
Case 1- THE PSYCHOTHERAPIES OF MARITAL DISHARMONY:
---------------------- Ram and Sudha was a couple in their early 40’s. Both are employed. The
---------------------- couple have two sons and one daughter. The family lived alone on an acre land
in a semi urban section of North East India. Both Ram and Sudha are from
---------------------- decent origin.
---------------------- The couple came to therapy with initial complaints of developments of

fear, separation anxiety, sleep disturbance, nightmares, sadness, loss of interest
---------------------- in normal activities, reduced concentration, decline in overall shared activities,
increased irritability, beating, screaming, abusing, violence, etc...
----------------------
Taking an account of the anxiety on Ram’s part, Sudha stated that her
---------------------- husband would come home from workplace every day and be preoccupied to
the television for hours. He had been having difficulty in sleeping and therefore
---------------------- experienced an edging during the day. This caused his distress leading to
---------------------- anxiety. She further stated that he was not being himself in recent months. She
was extremely concerned about his behaviour.
----------------------
To this, Ram explained that he and his office colleagues had gone to a
---------------------- farm yard on one occasion and he was accosted by a wild cat that lived in the
160
farm for many years. Ram had been to this farm very often and was aware of Notes
the cat’s irritable demeanour. And it was then that he realised after the day of
the encounter that his wife is actually much the same way. She can be nasty ----------------------
and mean as the wild cat. He further explained that Sudha had growled at him
for something he had forgot to do around the house. He said that her response ----------------------
caused him some ‘angst’ which he described as a nervous and edgy feeling that ----------------------
made him very uncomfortable.
----------------------
Ram was tall, dark, soft spoken. Sudha was tall, healthy and out-spoken,
saying what ever came to her mind. She had lost both her parents and siblings ----------------------
in a car accident.
----------------------
In the session, Sudha began talking about how she and her husband had
difficulty in their marriage for years. Now, recently their problems had worsened. ----------------------
Ram expresses that they were not happy with self and together and they got on
to each other’s nerves too easily. He claimed that Sudha was extremely negative ----------------------
and could be very nasty to him. He stated that at times she was ‘street angel’ and
----------------------
‘house devil’. Sudha felt that Ram was too passive, not speaking enough, and that
he ignored her. She could not remember the last time he was affectionate with her. ----------------------
To this Ram explained that ‘I just don’t feel motivated to be affectionate with her’.
----------------------
I suspected that this had to do with underlying anger that he harboured
against his wife and his lack of open affection was possibly his way of controlling ----------------------
or even punishing her.
----------------------
Over the course of several sessions, I learned that Ram had always struggled
with his wife’s dominance and her negative attitude. She was always sour about ----------------------
everything. He would just keep his mouth shut taking into consideration the tragic
events of her life. But now he was not able to take it anymore. He believed his ----------------------
reactions could help his wife to overcome her tragic losses. ----------------------
I arranged to meet the couple individually. However, Sudha preferred to
be with her husband in every session. Ram was open to the idea of allowing his ----------------------
wife to talk freely and individually. ----------------------
Therefore in the following combined session, Ram when asked what the
primary issue was, explained that he was not sure. He believed his wife had ----------------------
derived a lot of negative attitude from the tragedy. Ram had assumed the role of ----------------------
a caretaker in the home. In many ways his mother idolised him for taking care
of the family. He married Sudha willingly and made her a part of his family. ----------------------
He had also started to begun compulsive care taking for his wife. However,
he explained further that he had been going through anxiety for many years. ----------------------
He would go to work early and also opt for overtime. The anxiety however, ----------------------
continued to accumulate. He continued saying that his wife was a good woman
in many ways. She is always there for me. She is damn possessive about me. ----------------------
We also have a lot in common. We enjoy shopping but she is so negative and so
nasty at times that it goes right through me. ----------------------
These were some of his feelings towards his wife. On one hand, his ----------------------
feelings about the many fine wonders of the woman he loved but at the same
----------------------
time not being able to deal with her nasty approaches.

161
Notes I tried to get Ram to think a little bit about whether the nasty behaviours
exhibited by his wife might be the defence mechanism against certain aspects
---------------------- of her vulnerability.
---------------------- I was already planting a seed for him to alter his perception. In the
meantime, my plan was to explore what lay beneath Sudha’s attitude.
----------------------
In the following session, Sudha informed me that she was raised in a
---------------------- hostel by her uncle who was very rigid. Therefore, she had developed a rough
exterior in order to survive. When asked about the tragic event, she wailed
---------------------- and spoke aloud saying that she was the only individual who survived the car
accident. She witnessed both her parents and her elder and younger sibling
----------------------
die. She also explained that she wished she received timely help and saved her
---------------------- family.
Yes, I felt within me, this lady is stronger than me in this particular situation.
----------------------
Why? Yes, I believed she toughened and learned to survive. Her brash attitude
---------------------- had over a time become a knee-jerk reaction in the face of what she perceived to
be situations that warranted her defensiveness. When asked specifically about
---------------------- Chand she stated that he was a good man, very loving and honest individual.
But in many ways his mother put him on a pedestal and in a way, sheltered him
----------------------
too much. And she refused to do the same. In addition, she conceded that she
---------------------- struggled with depression, a condition that came up intermittently, particularly
since the death of her family members.
----------------------
We talked about whether she had really recovered from the death of her
---------------------- family members and she admitted that she had not. Tears rolled down her cheeks
and she looked hazed and worried.
----------------------
Later, Sudha admitted that she enabled Ram’s passive behaviour mostly
---------------------- unknowingly, but felt that she was being cheated particularly with respect to
lack of affection.
----------------------
The death of her family members was devastating to her. Unfortunately,
---------------------- she never talked about the tragic event after the funeral, instead hiding lot of her
feelings and grief.
----------------------
I felt this might be something that was percolating beneath the surface of
---------------------- their relationship perhaps contributing to the tension and probably needed to be
explored in the course of the therapy.
----------------------
The following conjoint sessions were arranged with special focus on
---------------------- family-of- origin in exploration.
---------------------- For recovery treatment restructuring in reframing of schemas that
contribute so much to the dysfunction and conflict.
----------------------
The counsellor helps the couple to explore their perception by introducing
---------------------- ways to slow down their thinking and to generate new evidence to support
changes in their thinking.
----------------------
The counsellor became more aware of attending to the couple’s needs,
---------------------- placing more focus on altering interactional patterns within the relationship.
162
The counsellor is in the process of helping the couple who is struggling Notes
an ingrained belief system...........To continue with a series of casework and
articles. ----------------------
Case 2- CASE OPINION OF AN ABUSED CHILD ----------------------
Sudhir, a 29 year old adult, was referred to me by a social worker who
----------------------
kept in mind that Sudhir’s life was at stake, the reason being her marriage being
called off two days prior to the scheduled date and the reasons being as stated ----------------------
below.
----------------------
The reluctant Sudhir was brought to me by her parents who are both high
school Maths and Science teachers and her brother an IT software professional ----------------------
who studied in a boarding school during his early developmental stages. Sudhir
herself was a graduate in Botany, Masters in Social Work and an MBA in human ----------------------
resources. The agitated parents were shocked to understand from the groom’s
----------------------
parents and the groom that their daughter’s character was questionable. They
further explained that Sudhir was already involved with a boy who was twice ----------------------
her age but she had no desire to marry him. They also produced letters and email
documents to substantiate their stand. They further stated that she maintained ----------------------
an email friend who was a divorcee and communicated sex and other topics
----------------------
which was unexpected from a girl of good background. They were surprised
that the parents were so unaware about their own child’s background. ----------------------
I interviewed the parents separately before meeting Sudhir. The reluctant ----------------------
Sudhir confided to me that every statement made by the groom’s party was
correct. She also agreed that her parents were not aware of the same and about ----------------------
many other facts that have occurred in her life. Sudhir reported that she was
meeting a Christain Tamilian boy who worked for the hospitality industry. ----------------------
She also maintained that they were physically involved and her disagreement ----------------------
to marry him in spite of him being there with her whenever she needed him.
She also confessed about the email friend and the contents of the email. She ----------------------
also mentioned about a boy who was a school mate who was aware of her
involvements and who made an untiring effort to correct her. Sudhir was a ----------------------
physically normal adult and the product of a normal pregnancy. However she ----------------------
wore clothes that covered her body and full hand even on a sunny and hot
day. The father was a recurrent alcohol abuser with a history of child and wife ----------------------
beating. However, when the couple patched up they would pack their bags and
move out for short vacations in and out of India leaving young Sudhir at the ----------------------
hands of family care providers. ----------------------
The case work included interviews with Sudhir’s teachers, principals,
friends and acquaintances to get as much information on her as possible. It was ----------------------
found that her grades had been excellent. They had never fallen from A’s to C’s ----------------------
and poorer. During one of the sessions an uncle tried to visit her at my clinic.
He seemed very much agitated at her consent to come in for counselling. I ran ----------------------
interference because no one is allowed to talk to the patient in the counselling
clinic except under controlled conditions with the clinic. Looking at my ----------------------
initiative, Sudhir was much more at ease with me but reserved in her demeanour. ----------------------

163
Notes She declined to talk, so I asked her to draw a picture. She drew a picture of a
tree. It was void of surroundings. The trunk was large with no curves. The
---------------------- leaves were black instead of green. From my reversed position it remarkably
resembled a penis with pubic hair. Her unconscious seemed to reveal the story
---------------------- that she couldn’t. After completing the drawing, Sudhir was more relaxed, and
---------------------- we spoke to each other through a stuffed animal which was kept beside my
table. When I touched the animals private part she became so disturbed and
---------------------- wanted to leave the clinic. She exhibited fear, exhaustion, anger, resentment,
difficulty in trusting adults and helplessness. Finally Sudhir broke down and
---------------------- reported that her uncle had been molesting her since she was six years old.
---------------------- In An Ethological Approach to Personality Development, John Bowlby
and Mary Ainsworth (1991) argue that attachment theory is “personality
----------------------
development based on the interaction of the child and the caregiver during
---------------------- infancy and early childhood” (Bowlby’s attachment theory integrates evolution,
ethnology, emotion regulation, and social cognition. The attachment theory
---------------------- system is posited as one of a variety of behavioural system that promote survival
and reproductive success. According to Broberg (2000), “The purpose of the
----------------------
system is to enhance the likelihood of protection, by maintaining proximity to
---------------------- the caregiver in response to real or perceived stress or danger”. In other words,
attachment is a biological and evolutionary system that forms close bonds
---------------------- between the child and caregiver (typically the mother), particularly during
times of stress or threat, that helps increase the odds of survival by ensuring
----------------------
parental care giving and protection.
---------------------- All infants form enduring emotional bonds or attachments with their
caregivers. These emotional bonds go beyond the need for basic survival needs
----------------------
like physical nourishment. The biological purpose of attachment protects infants
---------------------- from predators and maintains physical safety. So, too, attachment enables the
infant to feel secure when exploring his or her environment.
----------------------
An understanding of Sudhir’s needs of was basic to the provision of
---------------------- treatment and intervention. Psychiatric disorders are prevalent among such
children and adults. A study in London of adolescents in residential units found
---------------------- the rate of psychiatric disorders among this group (65 percent) much higher than
the rate of psychiatric disorders among the general adolescent population (15
----------------------
percent). The range of psychiatric problems among the adolescents in the care
---------------------- system included conduct disorder, over anxiety, depression, and unspecified
functional psychosis. The authors of the study concluded that these adolescents
---------------------- could be helped with the right type of treatment and intervention: “One of
the most worrying findings was that a significant number of adolescents were
----------------------
suffering from severe, potentially treatable psychiatric disorders which had
---------------------- gone undetected” (McCann et al., 1996, p. 1529).
---------------------- I feel ongoing parental problems related to substance abuse and fights
which lead to rejection of the child, temporary separation from the primary
---------------------- caregiver, and exposure to chaotic physical surroundings. (I refers to the
Counsellor).
----------------------
164
Notes
----------------------
State True or False. ----------------------
1. A counsellor is allowed to share personal details of a patient to a third
----------------------
party for consultation.
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
● The Code of ethics is intended to provide guidance for Counsellors and ----------------------
standards of professional conduct that can be applied by the APA and by
----------------------
other bodies that choose to adopt them. The Code of ethics is not intended
to be a basis of civil liability. ----------------------
● When Counsellors believe that there may have been an ethical violation by
----------------------
another Counsellors, they attempt to resolve the issue by bringing it to the
attention of that individual, if an informal resolution appears appropriate ----------------------
and the intervention does not violate any confidentiality rights that may
be involved. ----------------------
● A Counsellor refrains from entering into a multiple relationship if ----------------------
the multiple relationship could reasonably be expected to impair the
Counsellor’s objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing his ----------------------
or her functions as a Counsellors, or otherwise risks exploitation or harm
to the person with whom the professional relationship exists. ----------------------
----------------------
Keywords ----------------------
● Counselling: the provision of professional assistance and guidance in ----------------------

resolving personal or psychological problems.
----------------------
● Confidentiality: the state of keeping or being kept secret or private.
● Fidelity: faithfulness to a person, cause, or belief, demonstrated by ----------------------
continuing loyalty and support. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------

165
Notes
----------------------
1. What is the significance of fidelity in counselling?
---------------------- 2. Discuss about the Code of ethics for counsellors.
----------------------
----------------------
1. False
----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. https://www.freePsychological counsellingbooks.org/
----------------------
2. https://www.kobo.com/us/en/ebook/the-handbook-of-counselling-
---------------------- psychology
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BASICS OF

(FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY)

COURSE DESIGN AND REVIEW COMMITTEE

Published by Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning (SCDL), Pune

Copyright 2023 Symbiosis Open Education Society

Psychosocial counselling is a service provided by a skilled professional counsellor to an individual,

Unit No. Title Page No.

5 Purpose, Goals and Types of Counselling 65 - 78

6 The Process of Counselling 79 - 100

9 Referral and Transference 133 - 148

Human Development Process 1

---------------------- • Understand the concept of Human Development

---------------------- Understanding human development is a complex task. It covers the entire

2 Basics of Psychological Councelling

The pattern of development for all typically developed children is ----------------------

Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------

Human Development Process 7

● Organizational problems. ----------------------

1.6 PROFESSIONAL COUNSELLING ----------------------

10 Basics of Psychological Councelling

3. Counselors work with clients on strategies to overcome obstacles and ----------------------

Human Development Process 11

12 Basics of Psychological Councelling

Concepts of Guidance and Counselling 13

---------------------- 2.1 INTRODUCTION

14 Basics of Psychological Councelling

Guidance refers to the act or process of guiding. It is a process of ----------------------

Concepts of Guidance and Councelling 15

---------------------- “Guidance seeks to help an individual discover his own talents in

16 Basics of Psychological Councelling

Concepts of Guidance and Councelling 17

---------------------- - Lack of knowledge about effective learning strategies

18 Basics of Psychological Councelling

2. Proper choice of courses ----------------------

20 Basics of Psychological Councelling

C. It provides individual assistance in taking decisions ----------------------

Concepts of Guidance and Councelling 21

22 Basics of Psychological Councelling

Concepts of Guidance and Councelling 23

24 Basics of Psychological Councelling

In earlier days, occupation of an individual was by and large inherited ----------------------

5. Educational Growth ----------------------

Concepts of Guidance and Councelling 25

---------------------- c. Tell her to see career guidance counsellor

26 Basics of Psychological Councelling

Concepts of Guidance and Councelling 27

---------------------- Suggested Reading

3.1 Background and Overview of Historical Context of Psychological

History of Counselling and Counselling in India 29

---------------------- ● remedial or rehabilitative,

The term counselling was coined by Carl Rogers. Counselling ----------------------

History of Counselling and Counselling in India 31

---------------------- 5. Different settings in which counselling psychologist practice includes

---------------------- 3.2 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF

32 Basics of Psychological Councelling

History of Counselling and Counselling in India 33

---------------------- Ayurvedic approach to healing has detailed descriptions of how emotions

34 Basics of Psychological Councelling

a. Carl Rogers ----------------------