Basic Occupational Safety and Health (BOSH) Training

Fire Safety

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Unit 2 - Occupational Safety
Module 6: Fire Safety

In this Module, we will talk about fire safety. Having a fire in the workplace is one of the most
highly preventable situations IF and only IF we follow all the safety regulations and use our
common sense as well as our awareness in looking out for possible fire hazards. It may seem
too common for some thus, we often overlook these fire safety tips, and before we know it,
everything will have gone up in smoke. To prevent all this from happening, do take this
module seriously for your sake as well as that of your loved ones.

This module aims to introduce you to the chemistry and behavior of fire and principles of fire
prevention and control. The triangle of fire demonstrates how fire occurs and the principles
of extinguishing fire. Fire is caused by variety of factors, all of which can be prevented and
controlled. Most fires start small and can be controlled through immediate response and
knowledge of extinguishing medium.

Prevention and control of the hazards from fire should be a part of the safety program in
each workplace, and even in your own home.

Objectives

Working on this module should help you to

• describe principles of fire occurrence and extinguishment using the fire
triangle model
• enumerate the five principles of fire prevention and control

Fire is a chemical reaction between a flammable or combustible material and

oxygen. This process converts the flammable or combustible materials and
oxygen into energy. Other by-products of fire include light, smoke and other
gases. Many of these gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen bromide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, etc. are toxic to humans.

The Fire Triangle and the Fire Tetrahedron

The fire triangle and the pyramid of fire illustrate the elements necessary
for fire to start and the methods of extinguishment. Each side represents
an essential ingredient for fire. The three elements are Fuel, Oxygen and
Heat. When a fire starts, a fourth element, which is the chemical reaction
itself, is necessary for flame propagation. The four-sided figure is called the
Fire Tetrahedron.

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 • Fuel: Any material that will burn is classified as fuel.
Identify examples of fuel you can find in your workplace.
Do you know the difference between a flammable or combustible substance?

Flammable substance – is a substance having a flashpoint below 100 °F (37.8 °C) and vapor
pressure not exceeding 20 psia at 100 °F. Examples of flammable substances with their
flashpoint are shown below:

Flashpoint
Flammable substances °F °C
Gasoline -45 -42.8
Ether -49 -45
Acetone 0 -17.8
Alcohol 55 12.8

Combustible substance – is a substance having a flashpoint at or above 100 °F (37.8 °C).

Flashpoint
Combustible substances °F °C
Fuel Oil 100 37.8
Kerosene 100 37.8
Quenching Oil 365 185.0
Mineral Oil 380 193.3

Flashpoint - the lowest temperature at which fuel begins to give off flammable vapors and
form an ignitable mixture in air.

Which is more dangerous: a substance with low flashpoint or a substance with a high
flashpoint?
Answer: The lower the flashpoint, the more dangerous a substance is.

• Oxygen
From our definition of FIRE, we need oxygen which combines with fuel while burning.
Normally, the air has 21% oxygen and 78% while nitrogen.

• Heat – completes the chemistry of fire

Even if found together, fuel and oxygen will not burn. An example is a piece of paper. This
fuel is exposed to oxygen in the air but will not burn. Why? Because we need to introduce
the third element which is Heat.

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It is when we heat up the piece of paper sufficiently that it will start to burn.

What we form with these three elements is called the Fire Triangle. This model shows us that
to have fire we need three elements. And if these elements are combined at the right
proportion, we will have fire.

I. How to extinguish a fire?

The fire triangle demonstrates the principles of extinguishing fire. If we remove any of the
three legs of the triangle, we will be able to extinguish the fire.

A. Removing fuel
Taking away fuel from a fire is difficult and often times dangerous. However, there are
examples that can be employed in controlling fire such as:

- LPG tank flame at the nozzle of the valve is best extinguished by

shutting off the valve. When there is no fuel supply the flame will
die out.
- Flammable liquid storage tanks can be arranged so that contents
can be pumped to an empty tank in case of fire.
- Fire lanes cut in forests prevents conflagration
- Grasses and undergrowth are burned ahead of an advancing bush
fire so that when the main fire reaches these burnt areas, there is
no more fuel to feed the fire.

B. Removing oxygen
Oxygen cannot be eliminated completely so what one can do is:

1. Separate it from the fire through smothering the burning area with
a non-combustible material – this is called “suffocating the fire.”

Examples:
- If there are oil spills, you can cover it with wet
blanket or you can throw sand or soil on it.
- Covering with foam
- Smothering it with inert gas

2. Reduce the concentration of oxygen below the concentration

necessary to support combustion. This is accomplished by
discharging carbon dioxide or other inert gases into the fire.

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Example:
Light candle and cover with glass until the candle dies

Light candle with inverted glass on top of the candle, then lower the glass until the middle of
the candle as illustrated below. Flame will also be extinguished as in the first example.

From the above illustrations, extinguishment using the oxygen side of the triangle can be
accomplished by totally eliminating oxygen or by reducing the concentration of oxygen
below the level that will support combustion.

C. Removing heat

If we reduce the heat below the kindling point or flashpoint, we stop the release of
combustible vapors and gases and extinguish the fire. To achieve this, it is necessary to
remove the heat at a greater rate than the total heat that is being evolved from the fire. The
most common agent used is water or incorporated in foam.

Example:
- After cooking barbeque we normally put off the
charcoal using water applied directly to the flame.

D. Interrupting the chain reaction

In order for fire to propagate continuously, there must be uninhibited and continuous chain
reaction. Speed up the process and an explosion results.

Interrupt the chain reaction by inhibiting the oxidation process and the production of
flammable vapors that react with oxygen, then we extinguish the fire.

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Example:
- Use of dry chemicals extinguishes fire with this
principle.

In summary, control of fires can be accomplished by removing one of the sides of the triangle
and/or inhibiting the chain reaction.

II. Classification of fires

There are four classes of fires, categorized according to the kind of material that is burning.
For the first three classes of fires, there are two sets of color-coded icons commonly used.
One or both kinds of icons appear on most fire extinguishers to indicate the kinds of fire
against which the unit is intended to be used.

There is only one icon used to indicate the fourth (class D) kind of fire. Class D fires involve
uncommon materials and occur in fairly specialized situations. Note that any given fire can
fall into more than one class; a fire that involves both burning paper and kitchen grease
would be a Class AB fire.

Knowing the classification of fires is important for the speedy extinguishment and safety of
the fire fighters. Using the wrong extinguishing medium may cause the fire to spread and
endanger the fire fighters.

Class A fires are those fueled by materials that, when

they burn, leave a residue in the form of ash, such as
paper, wood, cloth, rubber, and certain plastics.

Class B fires involve flammable liquids and gasses, such

as gasoline, paint thinner, kitchen grease, propane, and
acetylene.

Fires that involve energized electrical wiring or

equipment (motors, computers, panel boxes) are Class
C fires. Note that if the electricity to the equipment is
cut, a Class C fire becomes one of the other three types
of fires.
Class D fires involve combustible metals such as
magnesium, sodium, titanium, and certain
organometallic compounds such as alkyl lithium and
Grignard reagents.

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 Fire that involves combustible cooking fuels such as
K vegetable or animal oils and fats.

III. Principles of fire prevention and control

A. Prevent the outbreak of fire

We prevent fire by preventing the combination of the three elements at the right proportion.
Ordinarily, oxygen is the most difficult of the three factors to control, since it is in the air and
is a necessity of life. But fuel and heat can be controlled. Therefore the simplest control
measures will have to do with fuel and heat. Actually, control in this sense merely means
keeping them separated.

It will be good to examine the hazards from which most fires originate. These are
sometimes described as causes of fire.

Causes of Fire
(NSO 2007)
Electrical (28.9%) Static electricity (1.0%)
Open flames (torch) (10.5%) Electrical machines (1.0%)
Unattended cooking (5.3%) Fireworks (0.7%)
Lighted candles or oil lamp (4.3%) Chemicals (0.5%)
Cigarette butts/smoking (3.1%) Bomb Explosion (0.1%)
Spontaneous combustion (2.4%) Lightning (0.1%)
Lighted matchstick or (2.1%) Unknown, others (40.0%)
lighter
LPG explosion (1.2%)

Common causes of fires:

 Electricity

Hazards of electricity involve electrocution and fire. Usually, fire is caused by overheating,
arcs and sparks.

Overheating happens when there is overloading of system, short circuit and poor insulation.
These are caused by improper wiring connection/practice, tampering with safety devices
such as fuse and circuit breakers, and old and poorly maintained electrical installation.

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 • Control
- conduct regular inspection and maintenance of electrical
installation
- employ trained and licensed electrician
- follow Philippine Electrical Code and Occupational Safety
and Health Standards

Arcs and sparks normally happen when one opens or closes a circuit. The danger arises when
arcs and sparks occur in a flammable or explosive atmosphere which could result to
explosion.

To control arcs and sparks, use explosion proof equipment or intrinsically safe devices.

 Mechanical heat

Heated surfaces on furnaces, flues, heating devices and light bulbs can cause fires if
flammable or combustible materials are close enough to absorb sufficient heat to cause
combustion. Care should be taken to ensure that all such devices are properly installed,
especially with respect to clearance and barrier materials.

 Friction sparks

Friction generates heat. Excessive heat generated by friction causes a very high percentage
of industrial fires. Fire usually results from:
• overheated power-transmission bearings and shafting from
poor lubrication and excessive dust
• jamming of work material during production
• incorrect tension adjustment of belt-driven machinery. If the
belt is too tight or too loose, excessive friction could develop

• Control
▪ Preventive maintenance program to keep bearings well
oiled and do not run hot. And keep accumulation of
flammable dust or lint on them to a minimum.
▪ Keep oil holes of bearings covered to prevent dust and
gritty substances from entering the bearings.

 Open flames

Carelessly discarded cigarettes, pipe embers, and cigars are a major source of fire. Prohibit
smoking, especially in woodworking shops, textile mills, four mills, grain elevators, and places
where flammable liquids or combustible products are manufactured, stored or used.

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 • Control
▪ providing a "No Smoking Area" at specified times where
supervision can be maintained.
▪ marking areas where exposure is severe with conspicuous
“No Smoking” signs, prohibiting employees from even
carrying matches, lighters and smoking material of any
kind

 Spontaneous heat (auto-ignition)

Spontaneous ignition results from a chemical reaction where there is a slow generation of
heat from oxidation of organic compounds that, under certain conditions, is accelerated until
the ignition temperature of the fuel is reached.

It is a condition usually found only in quantities of bulk material packed loosely enough, with
large amount of surface to be exposed to oxidation, yet without adequate air circulation to
dissipate heat.

 Welding and cutting sparks

Hazardous sparks such as globules of molten, burning metal or hot slag are produced by both
welding and cutting operations. Sparks from cutting, particularly oxy-fuel gas cutting, are
generally more hazardous than those from welding because the sparks are more numerous
and travel greater distances.

• Control time for welding and cutting:

▪ Move combustibles a safe distance away - 35 ft.

horizontally or
▪ Move work to a safe distance
▪ Protect the exposed combustibles with suitable fire
resistant guards and provide a trained fire watcher with
extinguishing equipment readily available
▪ Cover openings in walls, floors or ducts should be if within
35 ft of the work.
▪ Implement "Hot Work Permit System"

 Generation of static charge

Static Electricity is electricity at rest. It is formed by the contact and separation of dissimilar
materials. Examples that produce static electricity:
• flow of fluid through a pipe
• agitation and mixing
• splash filing

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Static spark created may cause ignition of flammable vapors, dust and fibers. Also, a worker
could be injured through accidental reaction caused by static spark shock.

• Control

Bonding and grounding are key control measures for fire related to static electricity. Bonding
is done to eliminate a difference in static charge potential between objects. The purpose of
grounding is to eliminate the difference in static charge potential between an object and
ground. Bonding and grounding are effective only when the bonded objects are conductive.

Highly flammable or combustible materials – Take care that the following materials are
not stored with machinery or near any type of electrical or heat source.
Highly flammable materials may include:
• Hay and straw
• Bedding material (especially sawdust and shredded newspaper)
• Cobwebs, dust, and grain dust
• Horse blankets
• Paint
• Fertilizer
• Pesticides and herbicides

Accelerants - Accelerants are substances that increase the speed at which a fire spreads. All
accelerants are highly flammable or combustible, but not all highly flammable or
combustible materials are accelerants. Accelerants must be stored in approved containers
and properly labeled as such (plastic milk bottles do not qualify as approved containers for
storing chemicals). An updated list of all chemicals in the workplace should be maintained.
The list should include the name of the chemical, date purchased, the quantity of the
chemical, and the place of storage on the farm. This list should be kept in a safe, handy place
such as an office (not in the building where the products are stored). In case of a fire, the list
should be given to the fireperson in charge to

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aid the fire department in knowing what potential toxic fumes or explosions may result
and how best to contain the situation.
Common accelerants include:
• Gasoline
• Kerosene
• Oil
• Aerosol cans

Ignition sources - An ignition source is something that can cause an accelerant or

flammable material to ignite or smolder.
Examples of ignition sources are:
• Cigarettes and matches
• Sparks from welding machines and machinery (trucks, tractors,
mowers)
• Motors
• Heaters
• Electrical appliances
• Electrical fixtures and wires
• Batteries
• Chemicals which may react with each other or with water or
dampness

B. Provide for early detection of fire

Except for explosions, most fires start out as small ones. At the initial stage, extinguishing a
fire seldom presents much of a problem. Once the fire begins to gain headway, it may
develop into conflagration of disastrous proportions. Fire can be more easily controlled if
detected early. It is critical that fire be extinguished in the first five minutes.

Detection serves to:

▪ warn the fire brigade to start extinguishing procedure
▪ warn occupants to escape

Means of detection include:

▪ human observer
▪ automatic sprinklers
▪ smoke, flame and heat detectors

a. Smoke detectors
▪ Monitor changes within the area
▪ Provide early warning
▪ Changing stages in the development of fire
▪ When smoke is produced

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 b. Heat detectors

▪ Fixed temperature types – which responds when

the detection element reaches a predetermined
temperature
▪ Rate-of-rise temperature – which respond to an
increase in heat at a rate greater than some
predetermined value.

c. Flame detectors

▪ Infra-red – sensing elements responsive to radiant

energy outside the range of human vision; useful in
detecting fire in large areas, e.g. storage areas
▪ Ultra-violet – sensing elements responsive to
radiant energy outside the range of human vision

C. Prevent the spread of fire

Once a fire is discovered, it is of prime importance to confine it to the smallest area possible
- that is, to prevent its spread. This can be accomplished by details of construction and by
safe practices, but neither is sufficient alone. An understanding of the means by which heat
is transmitted will be of value in taking the necessary steps to prevent the spread of fire.

These are the three (3) methods of heat transfer and how it can be controlled

▪ Conduction is the transfer of heat from molecule to molecule. Thermal

conductivity is important in terms of fire spread. A steel girder passing
through an otherwise fireproof wall may cause fire spread by conducted
heat.

▪ Convection is caused by movement of heated gasses produced by any

burning material or by heated air rising to the upper limits of the space in
which it is contained. During a fire in a building convection currents convey
combustion gases up through stairways or lift shafts, spreading the fire to
other parts of the building.

▪ Radiation is the transfer of heat in straight rays.

Control

Barriers are one means of control that will limit the area of a fire or at least retard its spread.
Examples are: firewalls, fire doors, shutters or louvers, fire stops, baffles, fire dampers, fire
windows, parapets, dikes and enclosures of vertical openings

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 D. Provide for prompt extinguishment

In providing for prompt extinguishment, the two categories of fire extinguishers should be
kept in mind – permanent or “built-in” extinguishers and portable fire extinguishers.

▪ Permanent or "built-in" fire extinguishers

Examples include:
- standpipe and hose
- automatic sprinkler system
- fire hydrant
- fire pump
- fire truck
- automatic extinguishing system

▪ Portable extinguishers

These are used extensively to lessen the danger from fire. After such a system is installed, its
proper maintenance and regular inspection is suggested to ensure its usefulness when
needed.

Portable fire extinguishers are also called first-aid fire extinguishers since they are intended
to be used for incipient fires. They contain a limited supply of an extinguishing medium.
These appliances are designed for use on fires of specific classes.

• Requirements for effective use of fire extinguishers:

1. Of the approved type

- must have a seal of PS mark for locally made, and UL mark for
imported ones

2. The right type for each class of fire that may occur in the area

3. In sufficient quantity
- The number of fire extinguishers must be computed according to
the floor area, the degree of hazard of fire that may occur and
the class of fire.

4. Located where they are easily accessible for immediate use and
the location is kept accessible and clearly identified.

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 5. Mounting of fire extinguishers (Rule 1944.05 Portable
Extinguisher)

a. Extinguishers with a gross weight not exceeding 18 kg (40 lbs.)

should be installed not more than 5 ft (1.5 m) above the floor.
b. Extinguishers with a gross weight greater than 18 kg (40 lbs.)
except wheeled type extinguishers, should be installed not more
that 3.5 ft (1 m) above the floor
c. In no case must the clearance between the bottom of the
extinguishers and the floor be less than 4 inches.

6. Maintained in operating condition

• Inspection - a "quick check" that visually determines whether the

fire extinguisher is properly placed and will operate. Inspection
must be done at least monthly or more to be effective

Checkpoints during inspection should include:

- location
- free of obstruction
- opening instructions
- seal and tamper indications
- weight
- physical appearance
- pressure gauge
- maintenance tag

• Maintenance - as distinguished from inspection means a

complete and thorough examination of each extinguisher

Extinguishers should be subjected to maintenance not more than one year apart or when
specifically indicated by an inspection

The three basic items to be checked are:

- mechanical parts
- extinguishing agent
- expelling means

7. Operable by the area personnel who are properly trained to use

them effectively and promptly.

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In the absence of modern fire extinguishers, the following can be used to stop fire in its initial
stage.

• For A fire - water is the best.

• For B fire - a metal cover, wet sack, towel, cloth, or blanket will do. Sand
and soil are very useful
• For C fire - the main switch is the first consideration. Pull it down to cut off
the current. What is useful on A & B can also be useful here.

Remember the PASS - word

P - pull the pin
A - aim low
S - squeeze the lever above the handle
S - sweep from side to side

E. Provide for prompt and orderly evacuation of personnel

Once a fire is discovered in a building, the first and foremost step is the prompt evacuation
of all personnel to a safe place. People should be trained on orderly evacuation through fire
drills. Exits that will empty the ordinary structure in ample time to prevent loss of life or injury
should be also a primary concern.

Exit requirements for life safety in case of fire:

• at least two ways out remote from each other
• additional exits according to number of persons and relative fire danger
• evacuation drills well planned, frequently practiced (at least twice a
year)
• exits are well-marked, clear, unobstructed and well lighted
• correct exit design
• regular exit drills
• makeshift fire escapes are often dangerous

IV. General fire safety precautions

• Smoking should never be permitted in any storage area, tack room or lounge.
“No-Smoking” signs should be posted in these areas and at all exterior
entrances. Butt cans should be provided as an incentive to extinguish all
cigarettes.
• Exit doors should be clearly marked.
• Aisles should be raked or swept clean at all times. Vacuum up cobwebs and dust
regularly. Wipe dust/dirt off light fixtures, outlet covers, switches and panel
boxes

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 • Weeds, twigs, and other trash should be kept mowed or picked up from
around the outside of the building.
• Paper storage should not be near lights, fans, electrical boxes, heaters or
outlets.
• Flammable substances should be kept elsewhere outside the building.
• Vehicles and machinery should be stored in a separate building.
• A fire hose and buckets should be available and kept for the purpose of
extinguishing class A fires rapidly.
• Practice fire drills should be held so employees and boarders are familiar with
their responsibilities should a real fire occur.

V. Lightning protection

• Buildings should be equipped with professionally installed lightning rods of

copper or aluminum. The system should be properly grounded.
• All pipes, water systems, electrical systems and telephone lines should also be
grounded.
• Contact a professional company for proper maintenance and installation.

Summary and Conclusions

Remember:
• The Fire Triangle demonstrates how fire starts and how it could be
extinguished
• The principle of fire prevention and control programs involves prevention,
prompt action to extinguish the fire, and safe evacuation of occupants.
• With these principles in mind you can help
- Prevent fires in your workplace
- Safeguard your property
- Protect many lives

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A general note on fire safety:

If your clothing catches fire, it is a natural response to panic and run to the nearest shower
or fire blanket. Don't do it! Running will just fan the flames and increase the potential for
serious injury. The correct response is to Stop, Drop, and Roll on the ground to extinguish
the flames. Cover your face with your hands to protect your face and lungs. If one of your
colleagues catches fire, panics, and starts to run, tackle him or her and smother the flames.

The information given here is intended as an introduction to fires and fire extinguishers. It is
not a comprehensive reference. Be aware that fires are dangerous, and many aspects of fire
safety are not discussed here. For more in-depth information and hands-on training, contact
your local Fire Marshal's office.

Combustion
Combustion is a chemical reaction in which a fuel is rapidly oxidized. Three things are
required to sustain a fire:
• Oxygen (more properly, an oxidizing agent)
• Fuel (a reducing agent)
• Heat
Therefore, to kill a fire, you must deny the fire one or more of these three things. You
may:
• Exclude oxygen from the fire.
• Remove the fuel on which the fire is feeding.
• Lower the temperature.

Types of Fire Extinguishers

Fire extinguishers are categorized according to the substances that they contain and by class
of fire. Extinguishers are rated for use against only certain kinds of fires, and will carry an
ABCD marking to indicate the classes of fire against which they may properly be used. For
example, an extinguisher rated for class B and C fires is called (and marked) a type BC
extinguisher.

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A fire extinguisher should never be used on a class of fire for which it is not rated -- see
notes following the table.

Effective Discharge Classes of Fire

Type Mechanism
Range Duration A B C D
reduces 1 2 1
water 30-40 ft 60 sec
temperature
displaces 1
CO2 3-8 ft 8-30 sec
oxygen
dry 3
binds oxygen 5-20 ft 10-40 sec
chemical

Met-L-X smothers See Note 4 NA

Extinguisher rated for this type of fire Extinguisher not rated for this type of fire

Notes:
1. Fire extinguishers should never be used on classes of fires for which they are not
rated. In some cases (e.g. water used on a Class D fire), the extinguisher can
actually make the fire worse!
2. Never use water on a class C fire -- shock hazard.
3. Some dry-chemical extinguishers are rated BC, others are rated ABC. Those
rated BC contain sodium or potassium bicarbonate; those rated ABC contain
ammonium phosphate.
4. Extinguishing agents for class D fires are usually applied with a scoop or shovel.

Fire Extinguisher Operation

The information given here describes how a fire extinguisher should be used to fight a fire.
However, do not believe, because you have read this, that you know how to use a fire
extinguisher! If you really want to learn how to use a fire extinguisher properly (and you
should), you should seek out a hands-on training class in which you will have the opportunity
to put out some real fires using portable extinguishers.
To remember how to use a fire extinguisher, think of putting out the
fire as a test you must PASS.
Pull the locking pin.
Aim the nozzle at the base of the fire.
Squeeze the trigger all the way closed.
Sweep the extinguisher discharge side to side over the area of the fire.

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When should you fight a fire?

In the event of a fire, your personal safety is your most important concern. You
are not required to fight a fire. If all of the following conditions are met, then
you may choose to use a fire extinguisher against the fire. If any of the conditions
is not met, or you have even the slightest doubt about your personal safety, do
not fight the fire.

Attempt to use a fire extinguisher if and only if...

• The fire alarm has been pulled and fire department has been called.
• The fire is small and contained.
• You know your escape route and can fight the fire with your back to the exit.
• You know what kind of extinguisher is required.
• The correct extinguisher is immediately at hand.
• You have been trained in how to use the extinguisher.

We hope you’ll be better equipped, after studying this module, to keep fires
from happening in your surroundings.

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