6.

1: Energy and Metabolism

Skills to Develop
Explain what metabolic pathways are and describe the two major types of metabolic pathways
Discuss how chemical reactions play a role in energy transfer

Scientists use the term bioenergetics to discuss the concept of energy flow (Figure 6.1.1) through living systems, such as
cells. Cellular processes such as the building and breaking down of complex molecules occur through stepwise chemical
reactions. Some of these chemical reactions are spontaneous and release energy, whereas others require energy to proceed.
Just as living things must continually consume food to replenish what has been used, cells must continually produce more
energy to replenish that used by the many energy-requiring chemical reactions that constantly take place. All of the
chemical reactions that take place inside cells, including those that use energy and those that release energy, are the cell’s
metabolism.

Figure 6.1.1 : Most life forms on earth get their energy from the sun. Plants use photosynthesis to capture sunlight, and
herbivores eat those plants to obtain energy. Carnivores eat the herbivores, and decomposers digest plant and animal
matter.

Metabolism of Carbohydrates
The metabolism of sugar (a simple carbohydrate) is a classic example of the many cellular processes that use and produce
energy. Living things consume sugar as a major energy source, because sugar molecules have a great deal of energy stored
within their bonds. The breakdown of glucose, a simple sugar, is described by the equation:
C H O +6 O → 6 CO + 6 H O + (energy)
6 12 6 2 2 2

OpenStax 6.1.1 12/4/2021 https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/1850

Carbohydrates that are consumed have their origins in photosynthesizing organisms like plants (Figure 6.1.2). During
photosynthesis, plants use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide gas (CO2) into sugar molecules, like glucose
(C6H12O6). Because this process involves synthesizing a larger, energy-storing molecule, it requires an input of energy to
proceed. The synthesis of glucose is described by this equation (notice that it is the reverse of the previous equation):
6 CO + 6 H O + (energy) → C H O +6 O
2 2 6 12 6 2

During the chemical reactions of photosynthesis, energy is provided in the form of a very high-energy molecule called
ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, which is the primary energy currency of all cells. Just as the dollar is used as currency to
buy goods, cells use molecules of ATP as energy currency to perform immediate work. The sugar (glucose) is stored as
starch or glycogen. Energy-storing polymers like these are broken down into glucose to supply molecules of ATP.
Solar energy is required to synthesize a molecule of glucose during the reactions of photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, light
energy from the sun is initially transformed into chemical energy that is temporally stored in the energy carrier molecules
ATP and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). The stored energy in ATP and NADPH is then used later
in photosynthesis to build one molecule of glucose from six molecules of CO2. This process is analogous to eating
breakfast in the morning to acquire energy for your body that can be used later in the day. Under ideal conditions, energy
from 18 molecules of ATP is required to synthesize one molecule of glucose during the reactions of photosynthesis.
Glucose molecules can also be combined with and converted into other types of sugars. When sugars are consumed,
molecules of glucose eventually make their way into each living cell of the organism. Inside the cell, each sugar molecule
is broken down through a complex series of chemical reactions. The goal of these reactions is to harvest the energy stored
inside the sugar molecules. The harvested energy is used to make high-energy ATP molecules, which can be used to
perform work, powering many chemical reactions in the cell. The amount of energy needed to make one molecule of
glucose from six molecules of carbon dioxide is 18 molecules of ATP and 12 molecules of NADPH (each one of which is
energetically equivalent to three molecules of ATP), or a total of 54 molecule equivalents required for the synthesis of one
molecule of glucose. This process is a fundamental and efficient way for cells to generate the molecular energy that they
require.

Figure 6.1.2 : Plants, like this oak tree and acorn, use energy from sunlight to make sugar and other organic molecules.
Both plants and animals (like this squirrel) use cellular respiration to derive energy from the organic molecules originally
produced by plants. (credit “acorn”: modification of work by Noel Reynolds; credit “squirrel”: modification of work by
Dawn Huczek)

Metabolic Pathways
The processes of making and breaking down sugar molecules illustrate two types of metabolic pathways. A metabolic
pathway is a series of interconnected biochemical reactions that convert a substrate molecule or molecules, step-by-step,
through a series of metabolic intermediates, eventually yielding a final product or products. In the case of sugar
metabolism, the first metabolic pathway synthesized sugar from smaller molecules, and the other pathway broke sugar
down into smaller molecules. These two opposite processes—the first requiring energy and the second producing energy—

OpenStax 6.1.2 12/4/2021 https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/1850

are referred to as anabolic (building) and catabolic (breaking down) pathways, respectively. Consequently, metabolism is
composed of building (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism).

Evolution Connection: Evolution of Metabolic Pathways

Figure 6.1.3 : This tree shows the evolution of the various branches of life. The vertical dimension is time. Early life
forms, in blue, used anaerobic metabolism to obtain energy from their surroundings.
There is more to the complexity of metabolism than understanding the metabolic pathways alone. Metabolic
complexity varies from organism to organism. Photosynthesis is the primary pathway in which photosynthetic
organisms like plants (the majority of global synthesis is done by planktonic algae) harvest the sun’s energy and
convert it into carbohydrates. The by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen, required by some cells to carry out cellular
respiration. During cellular respiration, oxygen aids in the catabolic breakdown of carbon compounds, like
carbohydrates. Among the products of this catabolism are CO2 and ATP. In addition, some eukaryotes perform
catabolic processes without oxygen (fermentation); that is, they perform or use anaerobic metabolism.
Organisms probably evolved anaerobic metabolism to survive (living organisms came into existence about 3.8 billion
years ago, when the atmosphere lacked oxygen). Despite the differences between organisms and the complexity of
metabolism, researchers have found that all branches of life share some of the same metabolic pathways, suggesting
that all organisms evolved from the same ancient common ancestor (Figure 6.1.3). Evidence indicates that over time,
the pathways diverged, adding specialized enzymes to allow organisms to better adapt to their environment, thus
increasing their chance to survive. However, the underlying principle remains that all organisms must harvest energy
from their environment and convert it to ATP to carry out cellular functions.

Anabolic and Catabolic Pathways

Anabolic pathways require an input of energy to synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones. Synthesizing sugar
from CO2 is one example. Other examples are the synthesis of large proteins from amino acid building blocks, and the
synthesis of new DNA strands from nucleic acid building blocks. These biosynthetic processes are critical to the life of the
cell, take place constantly, and demand energy provided by ATP and other high-energy molecules like NADH
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADPH (Figure 6.1.4).
ATP is an important molecule for cells to have in sufficient supply at all times. The breakdown of sugars illustrates how a
single molecule of glucose can store enough energy to make a great deal of ATP, 36 to 38 molecules. This is a catabolic
pathway. Catabolic pathways involve the degradation (or breakdown) of complex molecules into simpler ones. Molecular
energy stored in the bonds of complex molecules is released in catabolic pathways and harvested in such a way that it can
be used to produce ATP. Other energy-storing molecules, such as fats, are also broken down through similar catabolic
reactions to release energy and make ATP (Figure 6.1.4).
It is important to know that the chemical reactions of metabolic pathways don’t take place spontaneously. Each reaction
step is facilitated, or catalyzed, by a protein called an enzyme. Enzymes are important for catalyzing all types of biological
reactions—those that require energy as well as those that release energy.

OpenStax 6.1.3 12/4/2021 https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/1850

 Figure 6.1.4 : Anabolic pathways are those that require energy to synthesize larger molecules. Catabolic pathways are those
that generate energy by breaking down larger molecules. Both types of pathways are required for maintaining the cell’s
energy balance.

Summary
Cells perform the functions of life through various chemical reactions. A cell’s metabolism refers to the chemical reactions
that take place within it. There are metabolic reactions that involve the breaking down of complex chemicals into simpler
ones, such as the breakdown of large macromolecules. This process is referred to as catabolism, and such reactions are
associated with a release of energy. On the other end of the spectrum, anabolism refers to metabolic processes that build
complex molecules out of simpler ones, such as the synthesis of macromolecules. Anabolic processes require energy.
Glucose synthesis and glucose breakdown are examples of anabolic and catabolic pathways, respectively.

Glossary
anabolic
(also, anabolism) pathways that require an input of energy to synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones

bioenergetics
study of energy flowing through living systems

catabolic
(also, catabolism) pathways in which complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones

metabolism
all the chemical reactions that take place inside cells, including anabolism and catabolism

Contributors and Attributions

Connie Rye (East Mississippi Community College), Robert Wise (University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh), Vladimir
Jurukovski (Suffolk County Community College), Jean DeSaix (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill), Jung
Choi (Georgia Institute of Technology), Yael Avissar (Rhode Island College) among other contributing authors.
Original content by OpenStax (CC BY 4.0; Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-
c72...f21b5eabd@9.87).

OpenStax 6.1.4 12/4/2021 https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/1850