111 Week 2 Worksheet

Week 2 Worksheet
1.) What is Equilibrium Potential and the Resting Potential? What cellular
components are responsible for establishing the Resting Potential?
Equilibrium Potential is the membrane potential at which two fluxes become equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction, causing no net movement of the ion. Resting Potential
is the membrane potential at which neurons have a potential difference across their plasma
membranes, with the inside of the cell negatively charged with respect to the outside at rest.
The cellular components responsible for establishing the Resting Potential are the uneven
distributions of ions, such as Na+ and K+, between the inside and outside of the cell and the
differences in membrane permeabilities to different ions.
2.) What are the functions of Schwann Cells and oligodendrocytes? Give an example of
a condition arising due to death of oligodendrocytes.
The function of Schwann Cells is to myelinate the axons of the peripheral nervous system
(PNS) neurons. The function of oligodendrocytes is to myelinate the axons of the central
nervous system (CNS) neurons. An example of a condition rising due to death of
oligodendrocytes is multiple sclerosis. Multiple sclerosis is a disease in which the immune
system thinks that the oligodendrocytes are infections and attacks the oligodendrocytes and
their myelin, causing nerve cell damage and therefore signals/messages are unable to get
through as efficiently/get through at all. Multiple sclerosis causes symptoms such as vision
loss, pain, fatigue, and impaired coordination.
3.) Explain what is happening within the neuron at each step each step of the action
potential diagram shown below.
1. Steady resting membrane potential is near K+ equilibrium potential because there
are more open K+ channels than Na+ channels (these K+ channels are leak
channels)
2. A depolarizing stimulus occurs and the initial depolarization stimulates the opening
of some voltage-gated Na+ channels, causing further entry of Na+ that adds to the
local membrane depolarization and leading the local membrane to be brought to
threshold potential.
3. Rapid depolarization of the membrane potential occurs due to the initial
depolarization causing a positive feedback loop—Na+ entry causes depolarization,
which opens more voltage-gated Na+ channels and thus cause more Na+ entry.
4. Membrane potential reaches peak value and stops membrane depolarization as the
Na+ permeability rapidly decreases due to the Na+ channels are inactivated. In
addition, the opening of voltage-gated K+ channels are delayed.
5. Voltage-gated K+ channels open, causing increased K+ flux out of the cell rapidly
and repolarization of the membrane back to a negative potential.
6. Return of the membrane to a negative potential causes Na+ channels to return from
inactivated state to closed state (without opening) and K+ channels to also return to
the closed state but relatively slowly. As a result, after an action potential, K+
membrane permeability remains above resting levels and the membrane is
transiently hyperpolarized.
7. Closure of voltage-gated K+ channels returns the membrane potential to its resting
value.
4.) Compare and contrast electrical and chemical synapses.
Electrical synaptic transmissions are faster than chemical synaptic transmissions due to the
electrical synapses directly propagating current from the presynaptic to postsynaptic cell as
they are joined by gap junctions. In chemical synapses, there is a brief synaptic delay
between the arrival of an action potential at a presynaptic terminal and the membrane
potential changes in postsynaptic cells as there is a synaptic cleft in between them. As a
result, you can typically find electrical synapses in systems requiring quick responses while
chemical synapses are found in systems that require less urgent responses.
Electrical synapses are also simpler, smaller, and less abundant than chemical synapses.
Nerve impulses are transmitted as electrical signals in electrical synapses while nerve
impulses are transmitted as chemical signals by means of neurotransmitters.
5.) List the neurotransmitters discussed in class, their effect, function and other
pertinent details. Indicate which are catecholamines.
1. Acetylcholine (ACh) is a major neurotransmitter in the PNST at the neuromuscular

junction and in the brain. ACh release causes contraction of smooth muscles,
dilation of blood vessels, increase in bodily secretions, and slowing down of heart
rate. There are two types of receptors:
•nicotinic, a ligand gated Na+/K+ channel
•muscarinic, more complex (can bring about long term changes)
2. Catecholamines are biogenic amines containing a catechol ring (6-carbon ring with
2 adjacent hydroxyl groups) and an amine group, derived from tyrosine. The body
releases catecholamines in response to emotional or physical stress. Catecholamines
are responsible for the body's “fight-or-flight” response.
•dopamine
•norepinephrine
•epinephrine (usually a hormone)
•adrenergic neurons most found in brain stem
3. Serotonin is a neuromodulator derived from tryptophan that has an excitatory
effect on pathways involved in muscle control and an inhibitory effect on pathways
that mediate sensation. In addition to their contributions to motor activity and sleep,
serotonergic pathways also function in the regulation of food intake, reproductive
behavior, and emotional states such as mood and anxiety.
•high concentration of serotonergic neurons in brainstem
•important in temperature regulation, sensory perception, onset of sleep, control of
mood.
•multiple receptor types (inhibitory or excitatory)
4. Glycine is the major amino acid neurotransmitter released from inhibitory
interneurons in the spinal cord and brainstem. It binds to ionotropic receptors on
postsynaptic cells, which is a Cl- channel, that allow Cl- to enter, preventing them
from approaching the threshold of firing action potentials.
5. Glutamate is an amino acid neurotransmitter that is the most common excitatory
neurotransmitter in the CNS.
6. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the major inhibitory transmitter in the brain.
It is a modified form of glutamate. It functions to reduce neuronal excitability by
inhibiting nerve transmission.
7. Neuropeptides are composed of 2 or more amino acids linked together by peptide
bonds. There are lots of them but their physiological functions are not all known.
Can act as either neurotransmitter or neuromodulator and can interact with either
ionotropic or metabotropic receptors. They are broken down by peptidases located
in neuronal membranes. Best known neuropeptides are probably the endorphins
and enkephalins.
6.) Name the drugs covered in lecture that alter synaptic transmission. What receptors
do they target, which are agonists, which are antagonists, and what are their effects?
1. Valium is a drug that can mimic a neurotransmitter and is an agonist of GABA

receptors.
2. Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) inhibitors and Prozac are drugs that target clearance
of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. MAO inhibitors are used to treat
depression as they increase the amount of norepinephrine and dopamine in a
synapse by slowing their metabolic degradation through inhibiting activity of the
monoamine oxidase (MAO) enzymes that break down these catecholamines. Prozac
is also used to treat depression by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin into the
presynaptic cell.
3. Curare and Strychnine are drugs/toxins that can bind to receptors but not active
them and are therefore antagonists. Curare is an antagonist of the ACh receptor,
binding to it but not activating it, which causes paralysis. Strychnine is an
antagonist of the GABA receptor, binding to it but not activating it.
4. Botulin toxin and Black Widow venom are drugs/toxins that interfere with
neurotransmitter synthesis or release. Botulin toxin blocks ACh release while Black
Widow venom causes massive ACh release.
7.) Given a cell with an extracellular [Ca2+] = 1 mM

Intracellular [Ca2+] = 0.0001 mM
What is the driving force on calcium when membrane is depolarized to +50 mV?
Will calcium enter or leave the cell?
E(ca2+) = 61/2 * log (1/0.0001) = +122 mV → +50 mV - +122 mV = -72 mV

The driving force on calcium when the membrane is depolarized to +50 mV is -72 mV,
meaning that calcium will enter the cell.

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Week 2 Worksheet

4.) Compare and contrast electrical and chemical synapses.

1. Acetylcholine (ACh) is a major neurotransmitter in the PNST at the neuromuscular

1. Valium is a drug that can mimic a neurotransmitter and is an agonist of GABA

7.) Given a cell with an extracellular [Ca2+] = 1 mM

E(ca2+) = 61/2 * log (1/0.0001) = +122 mV → +50 mV - +122 mV = -72 mV

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