UNIT-V

5.1 Cement
 Hot end of medium-sized modern cement kiln, showing tyres, rollers and drive
gear

Cement kilns are used for the pyroprocessing stage of manufacture ofPortland and
other types of hydraulic cement, in which calcium carbonatereacts with silica-bearing
minerals to form a mixture of calcium silicates.

Over a billion tonnes of cement are made per year, and cement kilns are the heart of
this production process: their capacity usually defines the capacity of the cement plant.

A typical process of manufacture consists of three stages:

 grinding a mixture of limestone and clay or shale to make a fine "rawmix" (see
Rawmill);

 heating the rawmix to sintering temperature (up to 1450 °C) in a cement kiln;

 grinding the resulting clinker to make cement (seeCement mill).

 In the second stage, the rawmix is fed into the kiln and gradually heated by
contact with the hot gases fromcombustion of the kiln fuel.

 Successive chemical reactions take place as the temperature of the rawmix rises:

 70 to 110 °C - Free water is evaporated.400 to 600 °C - clay-like minerals are

decomposed into their constituent oxides; principally SiO2 and Al2O3.
Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) decomposes to calcium carbonate, MgO and CO2.

 650 to 900 °C - calcium carbonate reacts with SiO2 to form belite (Ca2SiO4).

 900 to 1050 °C - the remaining calcium carbonate decomposes to calcium

oxide and CO2.

 1300 to 1450 °C - partial (20–30%) melting takes place, and belite reacts with
calcium oxide to form alite (Ca3O·SiO4).
Typical clinker nodules

 Alite is the characteristic constituent of Portland cement. Typically, a peak

temperature of 1400–1450 °C is required to complete the reaction.

 The partial melting causes the material to aggregate into lumps or nodules,
typically of diameter 1–10 mm. This is called clinker.

 The hot clinker next falls into a cooler which recovers most of its heat, and cools
the clinker to around 100 °C, at which temperature it can be conveniently
conveyed to storage.

 The cement kiln system is designed to accomplish these processes .

5.1.1 The wet process and the dry process

 The wet process suffered the obvious disadvantage that, when the slurry was
introduced into the kiln, a large amount of extra fuel was used in evaporating the
water.

 Furthermore, a larger kiln was needed for a given clinker output, because much
of the kiln's length was used up for the drying process. On the other hand, the
wet process had a number of advantages.

 Wet grinding of hard minerals is usually much more efficient than dry grinding.
When slurry is dried in the kiln, it forms a granular crumble that is ideal for
subsequent heating in the kiln. In the dry process,

 it is very difficult to keep the fine powder rawmix in the kiln, because the fast-
flowing combustion gases tend to blow it back out again.

 It became a practice to spray water into dry kilns in order to "damp down" the
dry mix, and thus, for many years there was little difference in efficiency
between the two processes, and the overwhelming majority of kilns used the wet
process.

 By 1950, a typical large, wet process kiln, fitted with drying-zone heat
exchangers, was 3.3 x 120 m in size, made 680 tonnes per day, and used about
0.25–0.30 tonnes of coal fuel for every tonne of clinker produced.

 Before the energy crisis of the 1970s put an end to new wet-process installations,
kilns as large as 5.8 x 225 m in size were making 3000 tonnes per day.

Preheaters
  In the 1930s, significantly, in Germany, the first attempts were made to redesign
the kiln system to minimize waste of fuel.

 This led to two significant developments:

 the grate preheater

 the gas-suspension preheater.

Grate preheaters

 The grate preheater consists of a chamber containing a chain-like high-

temperature steel moving grate, attached to the cold end of the rotary kiln.

 A dry-powder rawmix is turned into a hard pellets of 10–20 mm diameter in a

nodulizing pan, with the addition of 10-15% water.

 The pellets are loaded onto the moving grate, and the hot combustion gases from
the rear of the kiln are passed through the bed of pellets from beneath.

 This dries and partially calcines the rawmix very efficiently.

 The pellets then drop into the kiln. Very little powdery material is blown out of
the kiln. Because the rawmix is damped in order to make pellets, this is referred
to as a "semi-dry" process.

 The grate preheater is also applicable to the "semi-wet" process, in which the
rawmix is made as a slurry, which is first de-watered with a high-pressure filter,
and the resulting "filter-cake" is extruded into pellets, which are fed to the grate.
In this case, the water content of the pellets is 17-20%.

Gas-suspension preheaters

 The key component of the gas-suspension preheater is the cyclone. A cyclone is a

conical vessel into which a dust-bearing gas-stream is passed tangentially. This
produces a vortex within the vessel.

 The gas leaves the vessel through a co-axial "vortex-finder". The solids are
thrown to the outside edge of the vessel by centrifugal action, and leave through
a valve in the vertex of the cone.

 Cyclones were originally used to clean up the dust-laden gases leaving simple
dry process kilns.
  If, instead, the entire feed of rawmix is encouraged to pass through the cyclone, it
is found that a very efficient heat exchange takes place: the gas is efficiently
cooled, hence producing less waste of heat to the atmosphere, and the rawmix is
efficiently heated.

 This efficiency is further increased if a number of cyclones are connected in

series.

Ancillary equipment

 Essential equipment in addition to the kiln tube and the preheater are:

 Cooler

 Fuel mills

 Fans

 Exhaust gas cleaning equipment.

Coolers

 A pair of kilns with satellite coolers in Ashaka, Nigeria Sysy

 Early systems used rotary coolers, which were rotating cylinders similar to the
kiln, into which the hot clinker droppe.

 The combustion air was drawn up through the cooler as the clinker moved
down, cascading through the air stream. In the 1920s, satellite coolers became
common and remained in use until recently.

 These consist of a set (typically 7–9) of tubes attached to the kiln tube. They have
the advantage that they are sealed to the kiln, and require no separate drive.
From about 1930, the grate cooler was developed.

 This consists of a perforated grate through which cold air is blown, enclosed in a
rectangular chamber.

 A bed of clinker up to 0.5 m deep moves along the grate.

 These coolers have two main advantages: they cool the clinker rapidly, which is
desirable from a quality point of view (to avoid that alite, thermodynamically
unstable below 1250 °C, revert to belite and free CaO on slow cooling), and,
 because they do not rotate, hot air can be ducted out of them for use in fuel
drying, or for use as precalciner combustion air.

 The latter advantage means that they have become the only type used in modern
systems .

Fuel mills

Fuel systems are divided into two categories.

 Direct firing

 Indirect firing

 In direct firing, the fuel is fed at a controlled rate to the fuel mill, and the fine
product is immediately blown into the kiln.

 The advantage of this system is that it is not necessary to store the hazardous
ground fuel: it is used as soon as it is made.

 For this reason it was the system of choice for older kilns. A disadvantage is that
the fuel mill has to run all the time: if it breaks down, the kiln has to stop if no
backup system is available.

 In indirect firing, the fuel is ground by an intermittently run mill, and the fine
product is stored in a silo of sufficient size to supply the kiln though fuel mill
stoppage periods.

 The fine fuel is metered out of the silo at a controlled rate and blown into the
kiln.

 This method is now favoured for precalciner systems, because both the kiln and
the precalciner can be fed with fuel from the same system.

 Special techniques are required to store the fine fuel safely, and coals with high
volatiles are normally milled in an inert atmosphere (e.g. CO2).

Fans

 A large volume of gases has to be moved through the kiln system. Particularly in
suspension preheater systems, a high degree of suction has to be developed at
the exit of the system to drive this.
  Fans are also used to force air through the cooler bed, and to propel the fuel into
the kiln. Fans account for most of the electric power consumed in the system,
typically amounting to 10–15 kW·h per tonne of clinker.

Gas cleaning

 The exhaust gases from a modern kiln typically amount to 2 tonnes (or 1500
cubic metres at STP) per tonne of clinker made.

 The gases carry a large amount of dust—typically 30 grams per cubic metre.
Environmental regulations specific to different countries require that this be
reduced to (typically) 0.1 gram per cubic metre, so dust capture needs to be at
least 99.7% efficient.

 Methods of capture include electrostatic precipitators and bag-filters. See also

cement kiln emissions.

Kiln fuels

 Used tires being fed mid-kiln to a pair of long kilns

 Fuels that have been used for primary firing include coal,petroleum coke, heavy
fuel oil,natural gas, landfill off-gas and oil refinery flare gas.

 High carbon fuels such as coal are preferred for kiln firing, because they yield a
luminous flame.

 The clinker is brought to its peak temperature mainly by radiant heat transfer,
and a bright (i.e. high emissivity) and hot flame is essential for this.

 In favorable circumstances, high-rank bituminous coal can produce a flame at

2050 °C. Natural gas can only produce a flame of, at best 1950 °C, and this is also
less luminous, so it tends to result in lower kiln output.

Kiln control
 Online X-ray diffraction with automatic sample feed for free calcium oxide
measurement

 The objective of kiln operation is to make clinker with the required chemical and
physical properties, at the maximum rate that the size of kiln will allow, while
meeting environmental standards, at the lowest possible operating cost.
  The kiln is very sensitive to control strategies, and a poorly run kiln can easily
double cement plant operating costs.

 Formation of the desired clinker minerals involves heating the rawmix through
the temperature stages mentioned above.

 The finishing transformation that takes place in the hottest part of the kiln, under
the flame, is the reaction of belite (Ca2SiO4) with calcium oxide to form
alite (Ca3O·SiO4):

Ca2SiO4 + CaO → Ca3SiO5

Also abbreviated in the cement chemist notation (CCN) as:

C2S + C → C3S

 Tricalcium silicate is thermodynamically unstable below 1250 °C, but can be

preserved in a metastable state at room temperature by fast cooling: on slow
cooling it tends to revert to belite (Ca2SiO4) and CaO.

 If the reaction is incomplete, excessive amounts of free calcium oxide remain in

the clinker. Regular measurement of the free CaO content is used as a means of
tracking the clinker quality.

 As a parameter in kiln control, free CaO data is somewhat ineffective because,

even with fast automated sampling and analysis, the data, when it arrives, may
be 10 minutes "out of date", and more immediate data must be used for minute-
to-minute control.
Cement kiln emissions
 Emissions from cement works are determined both by continuous and
discontinuous measuring methods, which are described in corresponding
national guidelines and standards.

 Continuous measurement is primarily used for dust, NO xand SO2, while the
remaining parameters relevant pursuant to ambient pollution legislation are
usually determined discontinuously by individual measurements.

 The following descriptions of emissions refer to modern kiln plants based on dry
process technology.

Carbon dioxide

 During the clinker burning process CO2 is emitted. CO2 accounts for the main
share of these gases.

 CO2 emissions are both raw material-related and energy-related. Raw material-
related emissions are produced during limestone decarbonation (CaCO3) and
account for about 60% of total CO2 emissions.

Dust

 To manufacture 1 t of Portland cement, about 1.5 to 1.7 t raw materials, 0.1 t coal
and 1 t clinker (besides other cement constituents and sulfate agents) must be
ground to dust fineness during production.

 In this process, the steps of raw material processing, fuel preparation, clinker
burning and cement grinding constitute major emission sources for particulate
components.

 While particulate emissions of up to 3,000 mg/m3 were measured leaving the

stack of cement rotary kiln plants as recently as in the 1950s, legal limits are
typically 30 mg/m3 today, and much lower levels are achievable.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

 The clinker burning process is a high-temperature process resulting in the

formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx).

 The amount formed is directly related to the main flame temperature (typically
1850–2000 °C). Nitrogen monoxide (NO) accounts for about 95%, and nitrogen
 dioxide (NO2) for about 5% of this compound present in the exhaust gas of rotary
kiln plants.

 As most of the NO is converted to NO 2 in the atmosphere, emissions are given as

NO2 per cubic metre exhaust gas.

 Without reduction measures, process-related NOx contents in the exhaust gas of

rotary kiln plants would in most cases considerably exceed the specifications of
e.g. European legislation for waste burning plants (0.50 g/m 3 for new plants and
0.80 g/m3 for existing plants).

 Reduction measures are aimed at smoothing and optimising plant operation.

Technically, staged combustion and Selective Non-Catalytic NO Reduction
(SNCR) are applied to cope with the emission limit values.

 High process temperatures are required to convert the raw material mix to
Portland cement clinker.

2 CO + 2 NO → 2 CO2 + N2.

Hot tertiary air is then added to oxidize the remaining CO.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

 Sulfur is input into the clinker burning process via raw materials and fuels.
Depending on their origin, the raw materials may contain sulfur bound as sulfide
or sulfate.

 Higher SO2 emissions by rotary kiln systems in the cement industry are often
attributable to the sulfides contained in the raw material, which become oxidised
to form SO2 at the temperatures between 370 °C and 420 °C prevailing in the kiln
preheater.

 Most of the sulfides are pyrite or marcasite contained in the raw materials.
Given the sulfide concentrations found e.g. in German raw material deposits,
SO2 emission concentrations can total up to 1.2 g/m3 depending on the site
location.

 In some cases, injected calcium hydroxide is used to lower SO2 emissions.

Carbon monoxide (CO) and total carbon

  The exhaust gas concentrations of CO and organically bound carbon are a
yardstick for the burn-out rate of the fuels utilised in energy conversion plants,
such as power stations.

 By contrast, the clinker burning process is a material conversion process that

must always be operated with excess air for reasons of clinker quality. In concert
with long residence times in the high-temperature range, this leads to complete
fuel burn-up.

 The emissions of CO and organically bound carbon during the clinker burning
process are caused by the small quantities of organic constituents input via the
natural raw materials (remnants of organisms and plants incorporated in the
rock in the course of geological history).

 These are converted during kiln feed preheating and become oxidized to form
CO and CO2.

 In this process, small portions of organic trace gases (total organic carbon) are
formed as well.

 In case of the clinker burning process, the content of CO and organic trace gases
in the clean gas therefore may not be directly related to combustion conditions.

5.2 Glass
 Glass is a type of wearable technology with an optical head-mounted display
(OHMD).

 It was developed by with the mission of producing a mass-market ubiquitous

computer.

 Glass displays information in a smartphone-like hands-free format. Wearers

communicate with the Internet via natural language voice commands.
Glasses
 Glasses, also known as eyeglasses (formal) or spectacles, are frames bearing
lenses worn in front of the eyes.

 They are normally used for vision correction. Safety glasses are a kind of eye
protection against flying debris or against visible and near visible light or
radiation.

 Sunglasses allow better vision in bright daylight, and may protect one's eyes
against damage from high levels of ultraviolet light.

 Specialized glasses may be used for viewing specific visual information (such as
stereoscopy). Sometimes glasses are worn simply for aesthetic or fashion
purposes.

Corrective

 Seattle skyline as seen through a corrective lens, showing the effect of refraction
Corrective lenses are used to correct refractive errors by bending the light
entering the eye in order to alleviate the effects of conditions such as
nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (Hypermetropia) or astigmatism.

 Another common condition in patients over forty years old is presbyopia, which
is caused by the eye's crystalline lens losing elasticity, progressively reducing the
ability of the lens to accommodate (i.e. to focus on objects close to the eye).

 Corrective lenses are made to conform to the prescription of an ophthalmologist

or optometrist. A lens meter can be used to verify the specifications of a pair of
glasses.
Typical pair of single vision glasses
 Single vision lenses correct for only one distance. If they correct for far distance,
the person must accommodate to see clearly up close.

 If the person cannot accommodate, the may need a separate pair of single vision
glasses for near distances, or else use a multifocal lens (see below).

Over the counter reading glasses

 Ready-made reading glasses go by many names, including over the counter

glasses, ready readers, cheaters, magnifiers, non-prescription readers, or generic
readers.

 They offer clearer vision to people with presbyopia and hyperopia. They are
typically sold in retail locations such as pharmacies and grocery stores, but are
also available in book stores and clothing retailers.

 They are available in common reading prescriptions in strengths ranging from

+0.75 to +3.50 diopters.

 These glasses do not take into account the mathematics of the wearer's distance
prescription, often causing the distance to become blurry unless they are
removed.

 If the wearer has little to no need for correction in the distance, may work quite
well for seeing better during near vision tasks. But if the person has a need for
correction in the distance, it is less likely that they will be perfectly effective.

Progressive

 Progressive addition or varifocal lenses provide a smooth transition from

distance correction to near correction, eliminating segment lines and allowing
clear vision at all distances.
  The lack of any abrupt change in power and the uniform appearance of the lens
gives rise to the name "no-line bifocal".

Adjustable focus

 Adjustable or variable focus dynamically adjusts focal length, typically allowing

clear vision at any distance.

 It is especially useful for treating the loss of accommodation common in

presbyopia.

Safety

 Safety glasses with side shields. Safety glasses are worn to protect the eyes
during a variety of tasks.

 They are made with shatter-resistant plastic lenses to protect the eye from flying
debris and can shield the eyes from hazardous splatters such as blood or
chemicals.

 There are also safety glasses for welding, which are styled like wraparound
sunglasses, but with much darker lenses, for use in welding where a full sized
welding helmet is inconvenient or uncomfortable.

 These are often called "flash goggles", because they provide protection from
welding flash. Nylon frames are usually used for protection eyewear for sports
because of their lightweight and flexible properties.

 Sunglasses provide improved comfort and protection against bright light and
often against ultraviolet (UV) light. Photochromic lenses, which are
photosensitive, darken when struck by UV light.

 The dark tint of the lenses in a pair of sunglasses blocks the transmission of light
through the lens.
5.2.1 3D glasses
 The illusion of three dimensions on a two dimensional surface can be created by
providing each eye with different visual information.

 3D glasses create the illusion of three dimensions by filtering a signal containing

information for both eyes.

 The signal, often light reflected off a movie screen or emitted from an electronic
display, is filtered so that each eye receives a slightly different image.

 The filters only work for the type of signal they were designed for.

 Anaglyph 3D glasses have a different colored filter for each eye, typically red
and blue or red and green.

 A polarized 3D system on the other hand uses polarized filters. Polarized 3D

glasses allow for color 3D, while the red-blue lenses produce an image with
distorted coloration. An active shutter 3D system uses electronic shutters.

 Head-mounted displayscan filter the signal electronically and then transmit

light directly into the viewers eyes.

Magnification (bioptics)

 Glasses can also provide magnification that is useful for people with vision
impairments or specific occupational demands. An example would be bioptics
or bioptic telescopes.

 They may take the form of self-contained glasses that resemble goggles or
binoculars, or may be attached to existing glasses.

Yellow-tinted computer/Gaming glasses

 These glasses, worn during computer use, are said to help minimize strain on the
eyes and reduce fatigue.
  Eyewear of this kind is generally used by gamers, game designers, graphic artists
and multi-media software users.[26]

Spectacle frame (Ophthalmic frame)

 The ophthalmic frame is the part of a pair of spectacles which is designed to hold
the lenses in proper position.

 Ophthalmic frames come in a variety of styles, sizes, materials, shapes, and

colours.

Temple types

 Skull Temples: bend down behind the ears, follow the contour of the skull and
rest evenly against the skull

 Library Temples: generally straight and do not bend down behind the ears. Hold
the spectacles primarily through light pressure against the side of the skull

 Convertible Temples: used either as library or skull temples depending on the

bent

 Riding Bow Temples: curve around the ear and extend down to the level of the
ear lobe. Used mostly on athletic, children’s, and industrial safety frames;

 Comfort Cable Temples: similar to the Riding bow but constructed from coiled,
metal, flexible cable

5.2.2 Reducing lens thickness

 Crude relationship between lens size and its thickness for the same radius of
curvature.

 Notice that in addition to its smaller surface area, the small lens is also much
thinner and so is much lighter.
  Note that the greatest cosmetic improvement on lens thickness (and weight) is
had from choosing a frame which holds physically small lenses.

 The smallest of the popular adult lens sizes available in retail outlets is about
50mm across.

 There are a few adult sizes of 40mm and although they are quite rare, can reduce
lens weight to about half of the 50mm versions.

 See the diagram opposite, for a simplified graphical explanation of how smaller
sizes with the same radius of curvature can greatly reduce thickness.

 The curves on the front and back of a lens are ideally formed with the specific
radius of a sphere.

 This radius is set by the lens designer based on the prescription and cosmetic
consideration.

Ophthalmic material property tables

 Reflected light calculated using Fresnel reflection equation for normal waves
against air on two interfaces. This is reflection without an AR coating.

 Compilations of manufacturer material data can be found at opticampus,

firstvisionmedia, and eyecarecontacts. Additional information on branding can
be found ateyetopics.

 Indices of refraction for a range of materials can be found in the List of indices of
refraction.

Lens coatings

 The effects of an anti-reflective coating applied (as seen on the bottom picture) as
compared to regular eyeglass lens (notice how the reflection of the photographer
in the top lens is clearly visible)
  Anti-reflective coatings help to make the eye behind the lens more visible. They
also help lessen back reflections of the white of the eye as well as bright objects
behind the eyeglasses wearer (e.g., windows, lamps).

 Such reduction of back reflections increases the apparent contrast of

surroundings. At night, anti-reflective coatings help to reduce headlight glare
from oncoming cars, street lamps and heavily lit or neon signs.

Ultraviolet protection

 A UV coating is used to reduce the transmission of light in the ultraviolet

spectrum. UV-B radiation increases the likelihood of cataracts, while long term
exposure to UV-A radiation can damage the retina.

 DNA damage from UV light is cumulative and irreversible. Some materials, such
as Trivex and Polycarbonate naturally block most UV light, that is they have UV
cutoff wavelengths just outside the visible range, and do not benefit from the
application of a UV coating.

Crown glass (optics)

 This article is about crown glass as used in optics. For the window glass, see
Crown glass (window).

 Crown glass is a type of optical glass used in lenses and other optical
components. It has relatively low refractive index (≈1.52) and low dispersion
(with Abbe numbers around 60).

 Crown glass is produced from alkali-lime (RCH) silicates containing

approximately 10% potassium oxide and is one of the earliest low dispersion
glasses.

Rose Colored Glasses

  The arrangement and delivery were praised as being classy, while the critics felt
that the overall emotion of the song gave Rowland the best chance of achieving
US chart success.

 "Rose Colored Glasses" was released on June 28, 2010 across some parts of
Europe, and a day later in the United States and Canada, where it was intended
to be one of the album's two lead singles.

 An accompanying 3-D concept music video, directed by John "Rankin" Wadell

was released, featuring atmospheric visuals and mood-lit scenes including
streamers, doves, and rose petals. Reception for the video was positive, praising
its simplicity and noting the stunning visuals and variety of outfits worn by
Rowland.

5.2.3 Lead glass

 Lead glass is a variety of glass in which lead replaces the calcium content of a
typical potash glass.

 Lead glass contains typically 18–40 weight% lead(II) oxide (PbO), while modern
lead crystal, historically also known as flint glass due to the original silica source,
contains a minimum of 24% PbO.

 Lead glass is desirable owing to its decorative properties.

 The term lead crystal is, by technicality, not an accurate term to describe lead
glass, as glass, an amorphous solid, lacks a crystalline structure.

 The use of the term lead crystal remains popular for historical and commercial
reasons. It is retained from the Venetian wordcristallo to describe the rock crystal
imitated by Murano glassmakers.

 Lead crystal glassware was formerly used to store and serve drinks, but due to
the potential health risks of lead, this is rare nowadays.
  One alternative material is crystal glass, in which barium oxide, zinc oxide, or
potassium oxide are employed instead of lead oxide. Lead-free crystal has a
similar refractive index to lead crystal, but it is lighter and it has less dispersive
power.

 Only glass products containing at least 24% of lead oxide may be referred to as
"lead crystal". Products with less lead oxide, or glass products with other metal
oxides used in place of lead oxide, must be labeled "crystallin" or "crystal glass".

Properties

 The addition of lead oxide to glass raises its refractive index and lowers its
working temperature and viscosity.

 The attractive optical properties of lead glass result from the high content of the
heavy metal lead.

 The high atomic number of lead also raises the density of the material, since lead
has a very high atomic weight of 207.2, versus 40.08 for calcium. The density of
soda glass is 2.4 g/cm3 (0.087 lb/cu in) or below, while typical lead crystal has a
density of around 3.1 g/cm3 and high-lead glass can be over 4.0 g/cm3 or even
up to 5.9 g/cm3.

Lead glazes

 The fluxing and refractive properties valued for lead glass also make it attractive
as a pottery or ceramic glaze.

 Lead glazes first appear in first century BC to first century AD Roman wares,
and occur nearly simultaneously in China.

 They were very high in lead, 45–60% PbO, with a very low alkali content, less
than 2%. From the Roman period, they remained popular through the Byzantine
 and Islamic periods in the Near East, on pottery vessels and tiles throughout
medieval Europe, and up to the present day.

 .The second method involves mixing the lead compound with silica, which is
then placed in suspension and applied directly.

 The third method involves fritting the lead compound with silica, powdering the
mixture, and suspending and applying it.

 The method used on a particular vessel may be deduced by analysing the

interaction layer between the glaze and the ceramic body microscopically.

Lead crystal

 Lead oxide added to the molten glass gives lead crystal a much higher
index of refraction than normal glass, and consequently much greater
"sparkle" by increasing specular reflection and the range of angles of total
internal reflection.

 Ordinary glass has a refractive index of n = 1.5; the addition of lead

produces an index of refraction of up to 1.7.

 This heightened refractive index also raises the correlating index of

dispersion, which measures the degree to which a medium separates light
into its component spectra, as in a prism.

 This increase in refractive index from 1.5 to 1.7 significantly increases the
amount of light reflected (by a factor of 1.68 for light reflecting in the
normal direction; see Fresnel equations).

 In cut glass, which has been hand- or machine-cut with facets, the presence
of lead also makes the glass softer and easier to cut. Crystal can consist of
up to 35% lead, at which point it has the most sparkle.

Makers of lead crystal objects include

Safety

 Leaded crystal wineglasses and decanters are generally not considered to pose a
significant health risk, provided that these items are washed thoroughly before
use, that beverages are not stored in these containers for more than a few hours,
and provided that they are not used by children.

 It has been proposed that the historic association of gout with the upper classes
in Europe and America was, in part, caused by their extensive use of lead crystal
decanters to store fortified wines and whisky

Model Question Paper

Periyar University Salem
B.Sc. Chemistry
SKILL BASED ELECTIVE COURSE -VI
Industrial Chemistry-I Code:17UCHS06
Time : Three hours. Maximum: 75 marks
Section – A (10 x 2 = 20 Marks)
Answer all the questions
1. What is RDX?
2. Give the preparation of picric acid?
3 Which chemical is used in dehairing from hides and skins?
4. Mention the toxic metals present in tannery effluents?
5. How is impure aluminium refined?
6. Write the uses of caustic soda and sodium perchlorate
7. Mention some solvents used for making paints.
8. Define a paint
. 9. Write the composition of Lead glass.
10. What are the main constituents of cement?
Section B ( 5 x 5 = 25 Marks)
Answer All Questions
11. a) Explain rocket propellants. (or)
b) Write notes on i) cordite ii) gun powder
12. a) How are hides and skins of animals preserved in Tanning Industry? (or)
b) Explain curing of hides and skins of animals in tannery industry.
13. a) How is chlorine produced in large scale? (or)
b) How is caustic soda prepared in large scale? 86
14. a) Distinguish varnish and paint. (or)
b) What are the requirements of a good paint?
15. a) How is cement prepared by dry process? (or)
b) How is optical glass prepared?
Section C (3 x 10 = 30 Marks)
Answer any three questions
16. Give the preparation of the following explosives. i) TNT ii) Dynamite iii)
Nitroglycerine
17. a) How are the treated tannery hides dyed?
b) Discuss the effluent treatment of tannery industry.
18. a) Write note on solar cells. b) Write note on fuel cells.
19. a) Write the preparation of washing soaps. b) Write a note on corrosion inhibitors.
20. Explain the setting of cement with equation. 87