MTH1303 Elementary Mathematics III

Lecture Note

Adamu Yusuf Inuwa Koki

Department of Mathematical Sciences
Bayero University Kano

June 27, 2018

Contents

0.1 Course Outline

• Function of a real-variable.
• Limit and Continuity.
• The derivative as a limit of a rate of change.
• Techniques of Differentiation.
• Application Of differentiation.
• Integration as an inverse of differentiation.
• Methods of integration.
• Definite integrals
• Application of integration to areas and volume.

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Chapter 1

Function of a real-variable

1.1 Introduction
The distance d traveled by an athlete running with a constant speed of 20m/s in
(a) 3s is d = (20 × 3)m = 60m.
(b) 7s is d = (20 × 7)m = 140m
(c) ts is d = (20 × t)m = 20tm
We can see that from above that the distance d traveled by the athlete depends on the time t he spends while running
(i.e. d = 20t). Similarly the area A of a square room depends on the room’s width l i.e., A = l 2 . In this kind of situations
where the value of a giving quantity say y depends on the value of another variable quantity say x, we say that y is a
function of x and we write it as,
y = f (x)
The letter x is called the independent variable, y is called the dependent variable, and the symbol f is representing the
function.

1.2 Definitions and Examples

1.2.1 Function
A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule(relation) which assign to every element x ∈ X a unique element y ∈ Y . That
is, ∀x ∈ X, ∃y ∈ Y such that y = f (x).
The set X in the above definition is called the Domain D( f ) of the function f and the set Y is called the Co-domain of
f . An element x ∈ X is called a Pre-image, while the element y ∈ Y such that y = f (x) for some pre-image x ∈ X is called
the Image of x. The collection of all such images is called the Range R( f ) of the function f .

1.2.2 Examples
1. Let X be the set of all married men in Kano, Y be the set of all married women in Kano and Z be the set of all
human beings. Consider the following relations;
(a) f1 defined from X to Y ( f1 : X → Y )by ”Mr. A is the husband of lady B”.
f1 is not a function because the uniqueness requirement of a function is not satisfied as we can find so many
men in Kano, who have more than one wife.
(b) f2 : Y → X defined by
”Lady A is the wife of Mr. B”.
The above relation f2 is a function, since it satisfies all the requirements (bolded words) of a function. That is;
i. Every; Since all the women in the set Y (domain) are married, so they are all related to someone in set X
(co-domain).
ii. Unique; Because a woman can only marry (legally) one man in Kano.

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 (c) f3 : Z → Z defined by
”Mr. A is the son of Mr. B”.
f3 is also a function, because
i. every human being in Z (domain) has a (biological) father in Z (co-domain), (everyX) and
ii. no body can have more than one (biological) father (uniqueX).
(d) f4 : Z → X defined by
”Lady A is the wife of Mr. B”.
f4 is not a function since not all human beings are women! So the first requirement (every) of a function is
violated.
(e) and lastly, f5 : Y → Z defined by
”Lady A is the mother of Mr. B”.
f5 is not a function also, because there are many married women who have no offspring, hence the first
requirement (every) of a function is violated.
Then f2 and f3 can roughly be seen as functions while f1 , f4 and f5 are not.
2. Consider the following rules, f6 to f8 .
f6 f7 f8
X Y X Y X Y

a a a
1 1 1
b b b
2 2 2
c c c

Then only f6 is a function, while f7 and f8 are not.

3. Let y = f (x) and consider the following formulas defined on the given subsets X,Y of R.
(a) y = x, X =Y =R (b) x2 + y2√= 9 X = [0, 3], Y = R
2 2
(c) y + x = 9, X = [0, 3], Y = [0, 3] (d) y = 9 − x2 , X =Y =R
Here only the formulas in (a) and (c) satisfy the definition of a function. (The function y = x is called the identity
function.)

Observe that the only difference between f2 and f4 in example (1) is their domain of definition, while in example (3),
(b) and (c) differ only in their co-domain. This means that, giving any rule of assignment f it can be made to be a function
by defining it on a suitable domain and co-domain.

1.2.3 Quiz 1-2

When the domain and co-domain of a functions are subsets of R then the function f is said to be a real-valued function.
Note that:
• Through out this course we are going to restrict our discussion only to the real valued functions.
• Consequently we will primarily be concerned with the task of finding the largest possible domain for any giving
relation on the set of real numbers.

1.2.4 Domain of a real-valued function D( f )

This is the subset of R which contains all possible values of x, where the definition of the function f make sense. That is,

D( f ) = {x ∈ R : y = f (x), is defined}.

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1.2.5 Range of a real-valued function R( f )
This is the subset of R which contains all the values of f (x), such that x ∈ D( f ). That is,

R( f ) = {y ∈ R : y = f (x), x ∈ D( f )}.

1.2.6 Examples
Use the following functions and answer the next three questions.

(a) f (x) = 2x; 2

(g) f (x) = ;
x
(b) f (x) = ex ;
√ 21
(c) f (x) = x; (h) f (x) = ;
x2 − 3
√
(d) f (x) = 3 − x;
√ (i) f (x) = log3 (2x + 4);
(e) f (x) = 1 − x2;
31
(f) f (x) = lnx (j) f (x) = √ .
1+x
1. Find the domain of the functions in (a)−(j) above.
Solutions: To find the domain of any function f we can use the following simple steps
• Step 1: Just look at the expression and see what it contains (square-roots, division, trig. functions, e.t.c.)
• Step 2: If the expression contains
(a) only a polynomial P(x) or sin(P(x)) or cos(P(x)) or e(P(x)) or n P(x) (n odd) or a linear combination of
p

them, then the domain is set of all real numbers (R).

(b) logarithmic function, for example lnx = loge x, then the domain is R minus all real numbers x′ s that will
make the argument of the logarithmic function less than or equal to zero.For example, if f (x) = loga L(x)
where a ∈ R , then
D( f ) = {x ∈ R : L(x) > 0}.
(c) division without any square-root, then the domain is R minus all real numbers x′ s that will make the value
N(x)
of the denominator zero. For example, if f (x) = , then
D(x)
D( f ) = {x ∈ R : D(x) 6= 0}.
(d) square-root without any division, then the domain is R minus ′
p all real numbers x s that will make the
content of the square-root negative. For example, if f (x) = S(x), then
D( f ) = {x ∈ R : S(x) ≥ 0}.
(e) division and square-root, then the domain is R minus all real numbers x′ s minus all real x′ s that will make
the value of the denominator zero or the content of the square root(s) negative.
Now;
(a) Here we can see that, the function y = f (x) is a simple polynomial, hence its domain is the set of all real
numbers. Since if you take any real number x and multiply it by 2, the result (2x = y) is also a real number.
Thus f (x) = 2x is well-defined for any x ∈ R.
That is,
D( f ) = R.
(b) Here, f (x) = ex , so according to step 2(a), its domain is the set of all real numbers. Since for any real number
x, the value of ex is a real number. Thus, f (x) = ex is well-defined for any x ∈ R.
That is,
D( f ) = R.
√
(c) In this example, the function
√ y = x contains a square root, so its content (x) must not be negative, (i.e., x ≥ 0).
If x is negative then x will not be a real number. Therefore

D( f ) = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0}
= [0, ∞).

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 (d) Here also, we have a square root in the expression of f (x), so its content must not be less than zero, that is,
3 − x ≥ 0. Therefore,

D( f ) = {x ∈ R : 3 − x ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3 ≥ x}
= (−∞, 3].

(e) In this example, we have a square root in the expression of f (x), so its content must not be less than zero, that
is, 1 − x2 ≥ 0. Therefore,

D( f ) = {x ∈ R : 1 − x2 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (1 + x)(1 − x) ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : 1 + x ≥ 0 & 1 − x ≥ 0 or 1+x≤ 0 & 1 − x ≤ 0}(how?)
= {x ∈ R : −1 ≤ x & x≤1 or 1≥x & x ≤ −1}
= {x ∈ R : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1}(how?)
= [−1, 1].

(f) Here f (x) contains a logarithmic function, so the value of its argument must be (strictly) greater than zero.
Hence,

D( f ) = {x ∈ R : x > 0}
= (0, ∞).

(g) In this example, we have a division in the expression of f (x), so the denominator (x) must not be equal to zero
(division by zero is undefined i.e., it make no sense!). Therefore,

D( f ) = {x ∈ R : x 6= 0}
= R − {0}
= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

(h) Here also, we have a division in the expression of f (x), so its content must not equal zero, that is, x2 − 3 6= 0.
Therefore,

D( f ) = {x ∈ R : x2 − 3 6= 0}
√
= {x ∈ R : x 6= ± 3}
√
= R − {± 3}
√ √ √ √
= (−∞, − 3) ∪ (− 3, 3) ∪ ( 3, ∞).

(i) In this example, f (x) contains a logarithmic function, so the value of its argument must be (strictly) greater than
zero. Hence,

D( f ) = {x ∈ R : 2x + 4 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x > −2}
= (−2, ∞).

(j) Here, the function f contains both a square root and a division in its expression, so the denominator must not
be equal to zero and the content of the square root must be nonnegative. Therefore,

D( f ) = {x ∈ R : x2 − 3 6= 0}
√
= {x ∈ R : 1 + x 6= 0 and 1 + x ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : 1 + x 6= 0 and 1 + x ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : 1 + x > 0}(how?)
= {x ∈ R : x > −1}
= (−1, ∞).

2. Find without simplification the image of the following points in each of the functions in (a)−(j) above.

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 √ −2π
(i) x = 2; (ii) x = 7; (iii) x = 5 ; (iv) x = a; (v) x = x + h.

Solutions: To find the image of a point x0 under a given map f (x), we simply replace x by x0 in the expression of
f if x0 ∈ D( f ), otherwise x0 has no image under f .
(a) Here f (x) = 2x, therefore

(i) f (2)
√= 2(2);√ (iii) f (− −25 π ) = 2(− 25π ); (v) f (x + h) = 2(x + h).
(ii) f ( 7) = 2( 7); (iv) f (a) = 2(a);

(b)−(j) Exercises.
3. Simplify the answers you obtain in Example 2 above. Solutions:

(a) From Example 2 above we have,

(i) f (2) = 2(2) = 4;

√ √ √
(ii) f ( 7) = 2( 7) = 2 7; (iv) f (a) = 2(a) = 2a;
(iii) f ( −25 π ) = 2( −25 π ) = − 45π , (v) f (x + h) = 2(x + h) = 2x + 2h.

(b)−(j) Exercises.

4. Find the range of each of the functions in (a)−(j) above.

5. Find the domain and the range of the following functions and evaluate them at the indicated points.
 √  (
x − 3, x > 0; tan x, x > π; ln 3x , x > −3;
(a) i f (x) = ii g(x) = iii h(x) =
x2 + 4, x ≤ 0. x, x ≤ π. x2 −3
5+x , x < −4.
 √ 
 x − 3, x>0  2 − x, x≥0
(b) i f (x) = 4, x = 0, f (4π ), f ( −3π ) , ii h(x) = f (2), f (−23).
 √
4 cos x, x<0 x − 50, x≤0


1.3 Algebra of Functions

1.3.1 Sum, Difference, Products and Quotient of functions
Let f and g be functions with domains D( f ) and D(g) respectively. Then, the
• sum of the two functions denoted by h = f + g is defined as:

h(x) = ( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), where x ∈ D( f ) ∩ D(g).

• difference between the two functions denoted by h = f − g is defined as:

h(x) = ( f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x), where x ∈ D( f ) ∩ D(g).

• product of the two functions denoted by h = f · g is defined as:

h(x) = ( f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x), where x ∈ D( f ) ∩ D(g).

f
• quotient of the two functions denoted by h = g is defined as:
 
f f (x)
h(x) = (x) = , where x ∈ D( f ) ∩ D(g) and g(x) 6= 0.
g g(x)

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1.3.2 Examples
√
Given that f (x) = sin x, g(x) = sec x, h(x) = 3 − x and p(x) = ln 4x, find:
1. (a) ( f + g)(x). (b) (h − g)(x). (c) ( f .p)(x). (d) ( hg )(x).
2. (a) ( f + g)(3π ). (b) (h − g)(2t). (c) ( f .p)(4b). (d) ( gh )(10).
3. the domains of the functions in Example 1 above.

1.3.3 Composition of functions

Let f and g be two functions, then the composition of the function f with g denoted by f ◦ g is defined by,

( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)).

The domain of f ◦ g = {x ∈ R : x ∈ D(g) such that g(x) ∈ D( f )}.

Note that: The composition f ◦ g is not necessarily the same as g ◦ f .

1.3.4 Examples
√
1. Consider the functions, f (x) = |x|, g(x) = 2x2 − 3, h(x) = x and p(x) = ex + 6 sin x. Find,

(a) f ◦ g. (b) h ◦ f . (c) f ◦ h. (d) h ◦ g. (e) p ◦ g ◦ h.

√ 2x
2. Given the functions m(x) = x2 + 3x, n(x) = |5x| , r(x) = ln 6x and q(x) = 6 csc 5x. Find

(a) r ◦ m. (b) r ◦ n. (c) q ◦ n ◦ m. (d) m ◦ r ◦ m. (e) q ◦ m ◦ r ◦ n.

3. Evaluate the composite functions in Examples (1) & (2) above at the following points

(a) x = 1 (b) x = 2 (c) x = ln cos 4π

4. Find the domains of the functions in Example (1) and (2) above.

1.4 Types of functions

1.4.1 Even and Odd functions
A function f with domain(D( f )) is said to be;
• An Even function if f (−x) = f (x) ∀x ∈ D( f ).
• An Odd function if f (−x) = − f (x) ∀x ∈ D( f ).

1.4.2 One-to-one functions

A function f (x) is one-to-one (1 − 1) on a domain D if f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 in D.

1.4.3 Example
1. Check whether the following functions are even, odd or neither.
2
(a) f (x) = 5. (b) f (x) = 3x3 − 14x. (c) f (x) = x42x−14 .
(d) f (x) = 312x
sec x
. (e) f (x) = |x3 | cos x. (f) f (x) = 12x2 − sin x.
2. Which of the following functions are one-to-one and which are not?
3
(a) y = 3x (b) f (x) = 2x (c) y = 12x2 (d) y = sin x
√
(e) y = 3e x (f) y = x (g) y = x3 .
3. For each of the functions in Example 1.3.4, check whether it is an even, odd function or neither. Which of them are
also 1-1.

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1.4.4 Inverse Function
Let f be a one-to-one function on a domain D with range R. The Inverse f −1 is defined by
f −1 (b) = a if f (a) = b.
The domain of f −1 is R and it’s range is D.
Note that:- f −1 mean ” f inverse” the (−1) is not an exponent, and f −1 (x) does not mean 1
f (x)
i.e. f −1 (x) 6= 1
f (x)
.

1.4.5 Increasing and Decreasing functions

Let f be a function with domain D. Then f is said to be,
• an increasing function if
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .

• a decreasing function if
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .

Note that:-
• If a function f is increasing/decreasing, then f is 1 − 1 and so it has an inverse.
• Not all one-to-one functions are increasing or decreasing. For example f (x) = 1x .

1.4.6 Examples
1. Which of the following functions are increasing/decreasing, 1 − 1 and which are not.
1 3
(a) y = x2 (b) y = 1+x (c) y = e 4 x
2. Find the inverse of the following functions.
x+3 1
(a) y = x2 x ≤ 0 (b) y = 2x−3 (c) y = 3x+1 .
(d) y = e 3x (e) y = log3 x.
3. For each of the function in Example (2) above, show that
(a) ( f ◦ f −1 )(x) = x (b) ( f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x.

Note that:- The results obtained Example (3a) and (3b) above are generally true for any function f and it’s inverse
f −1 . Thus to show that a function g is the inverse of the function f , it is enough to show that

( f ◦ g)(x) = x and (g ◦ f )(x) = x ∀x ∈ D

1.5 Graphical representation of a Function

1.5.1 Graph of a function f
Let f be a function with domain D, it’s graph consists of the points in the cartesian plane, whose co-ordinates are the
input-output pairs for f . In set notation the graph is

{(x, f (x)) : x ∈ D}

The graph of a function f gives us an important picture of it’s behaviors. If (x, y) is a point on the graph, then y = f (x)
is the height of the graph above the point x. The height may be positive or negative depending on the sign of f (x).

1.5.2 Examples
1. Find the domain of the following functions and graph
√ them. x
(f) y = 1x .
p
(a) y = 5 − 2x (b) y = 1 − 2x − x2 (c) y = −x. (d) y = |x| (e) y = |x|

2. Graph the following functions.

1
  
x, 0≤x≤1 x, x<0 x, x ≤ 0
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) = (c) f (x) = |x| =
2 − x, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 x3 , x ≥ 0. −x, x ≥ 0

8
1.5.3 Vertical line test for a function
Recall that a function f can have only one value f (x) for each x in it’s domain D D, hence no vertical line can intersect
the graph of f at more than one point. For example in the following figure, (a) is not a graph of a function while (b) is a
graph of a function.

(a) (b)

L1L2 L3 L4 L5 L1 L5 L3 L4 L2

1.5.4 Examples
Which of the following graphs are graph of a function of x?

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

1.5.5 Horizontal line test for a one-to-one function

A function y = f (x) is 1 − 1 if and only if its graph intersect each horizontal line at most once. For the function y = f1 (x)
in figure (a) below is a 1 − 1 function, while the function y = f2 (x) in figure (b) is not.

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 L5
(a) y = f1 (x) (b)
L5 y = f2 (x)
L4 L4

L3 L3

L2 L2

L1 L1

1.5.6 Examples
Which of the following functions graphed below, are 1 − 1, and which are not?

(a) (b)

y = 0.5x3 y = x4

−2
(c) (d) y= x
y = |x|

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Chapter 2

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

2.1 Definitions and Examples

2.1.1 Definition
Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x0 , except possibly at x0 itself, if f (x) is arbitrarily close to L (i.e., we can
make f (x) as close to L as we like) for all x sufficiently close to x0 , we say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches
x0 , and we write
lim f (x) = L.
x→x0

2.1.2 Examples
1. Evaluate the following limits.
x2 − 36 5x3 + 8y2
(a) lim (4x − 5) (b) lim 4s(3s + 5) (c) lim (d) lim
x→0 s→ 12 x→6 x − 6 x→0 3y4 − 16y2

2. Simplify the following limits

2y + 5 2 2
+ z−2 1 + 3ex
(a) lim (b) lim z+2 (c) lim
y→3 4y5 + 3y + 3 z→0 z x→± ln 3 1 + ex

3. Find the following limits or explain why they don’t exist.

x 4s sin 5s x 4−x
(a) lim (b) limπ (c) lim (d) lim √
x→0 |x| s→ 2 (3s + 5) coss x→6 x − 6 x→4 5 − x2 + 9
f (x + h) − f (x)
4. Find lim . Where;
h→0 h
(a) f (x) = x (b) f (x) = |x| (c) f (x) = 5x

5. Redo example 2.1.2 (4) above with;

5
(a) f (x) = x2 (b) f (x) = 0.5x3 (c) f (x) = x

2.1.3 Limit Laws

If L, M, c and k are real numbers and

lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M, then

x→c x→c

1. lim( f (x) + g(x)) = L + M, (Sum Rule).

x→c

2. lim( f (x) − g(x)) = L − M, (Difference Rule).

x→c

3. lim(k · f (x)) = k · L, (Constant Multiple Rule).

x→c

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 4. lim( f (x) · g(x)) = L · M, (Product Rule).
x→c

f (x) L
5. lim = , M 6= 0, (Quotient Rule).
x→c g(x) M
6. lim[ f (x)]n = Ln n ∈ N, (Power Rule).
x→c
p √
n 1
7. lim n f (x) = L = L n , n ∈ N, (Root Rule).
x→c
(if n is even we assume L > 0.)

2.1.4 Theorem

sin θ
lim = 1.
θ →0 θ

2.1.5 Examples
1. Suppose that lim f (x) = 7 and lim g(x) = 3, find
x→c x→c
f (x) · g(x) f (x)2
(a) lim p . (b) lim .
x→c 3
5g(x) − f (x) x→c 3g(x)

f (x) − 5
2. If lim = 1, find lim f (x).
x→4 x−2 x→4

3. Find the following Limits.

(a) lim sin θ cot 2θ . sin x

θ →0 (b) lim .
x→0 sin 2x

4. Compute the following limits.

4x2 − 3x + 2 sinx 4 tan 4x

(a) lim . (b) lim .
x→0 12x x→0 x2 cot 3x

5. Simplify the following limts.

sin 6x cos 5x 4x cot 3x
(a) lim . (b) lim .
x→0 2x cot5x x→0 sin2 x cot2 3x

6. Evaluate the following limits.

e2x − 1 (ln x)2 − 1

(a) lim . (b) lim .
x→0 ex − 1 x→e ln x − 1

7. Evaluate the following limits.

√
2x sin−1 ex
(a) lim √ ; (d) lim ;
x→0 sin 2 x x→−∞ ex
cos x
sin ln x (e) limπ ;
(b) lim ; x→ 2 sin(cos x)
x→1 ln x
x tan−x
(c) lim −1 ; (f) lim ;
x→0 sin x x→0 x

2.1.6 Definition
Let f (x) be defined on the interval about (c, b), where c < b, suppose that f (x) is arbitrarily close to L1 as x approaches c
from within that interval, then we say f has a hand-right limit L1 at c, and we write

lim f (x) = L1 .
x→c+

12
2.1.7 Definition
Let f (x) be defined on the interval about (a, c), where a < c, suppose that f (x) is arbitrarily close to L2 as x approaches c
from within that interval, then we say f has a left-right limit L2 at c, and we write

lim f (x) = L2 .
x→c−

2.1.8 Examples
1. Find the following one-sided limits.
lim f (x) and lim f (x), where
x→2+ x→2−
x

2 + 1, x>2
f (x) =
3 − x, x≤2

2. Evaluate the following one-sided limits.

lim f (x) and lim f (x), where
x→1+ x→1−
1 − x2 ,

x>1
f (x) =
3, x<1

3. Consider the function f (x) defined by

 √
 61 − x2, 1 < x < 5;
f (x) = 6, 5 ≤ x < 8;
4x + 12 8 < x < 11


Find the followings;

(a) f (1). (b) f (5). (c) f (8). (d) f (11).

(e) lim f (x). (f) lim f (x). (g) lim f (x). (h) lim f (x).
x→1+ x→5 x→8 x→11−

2.1.9 Theorem
A function f (x) has a limit L at c i f and only i f it has a right-hand and left -hand limits there and these one sided limits
are the same. i.e,
lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L
x→c x→c+ x→c−

2.1.10 Sandwich Theorem

Suppose that g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x in an open interval containing c, except possibly at x = c, itself. Suppose also
that
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L.
x→c x→c

Then,
lim f (x) = L.
x→c

Note that:
The above theorem is also valid for one-sided limits.

2.1.11 Examples
1. Given that
1 x2 1 − cosx 1
− ≤ ≤ , for all values of x close to zero.
2 24 x2 2
1 − cosx
Find lim
x→0 x2

13
 2. Given that p p
5 − 2x2 ≤ f (x) ≤ 5 − x2, for − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Find lim f (x)
x→0

3. Consider the function

x sin( 1x ),

x > 0;
f (x) =
3, x ≤ 0.
Find lim f (x)
x→0+

4. Evaluate the following limits;

 
(a) lim |x| sin
1
; (c) lim ex sin (x2 + 12); (e) lim (1 − tanhx) cos x;
x→−∞ x→∞
x→0 x  
1
(b) lim e−x cos x; (d) lim |x − 1| cos ; (f) lim esin x−x .
x→∞ x→1 1−x x→∞

5. Let f be a bounded function, i.e., there are constants M and N such that M ≤ f (x) ≤ N for all x ∈ D( f ). Use
sandwich theorem to show that
lim f (x) sin x = 0.
x→0

2.1.12 Limits at Infinity

1. Evaluate the following limits:
√ √ √
11
p
(a) lim (d) lim (x − x2 + 16) (h) lim 3x( 3x + 4 − 3x)
x→∞ x x→∞ x→∞
(e) lim e−x .
1 + x2 x→−∞ 1 + 3ex
(b) lim x3 − 2x + 3 (i) lim
x→−∞ x2 x→±∞ 1 + ex
(f) lim
x→−∞ x2 + 4
1 + 4(3x)
 
(c) lim 2 +
sin x
. 3x2 + 4x + 3
(g) lim 2 (j) lim
x→∞ x x→−∞ 4x − 12x + 14 x→±∞ 1 + 2(3x)

2.2 Continuity
2.2.1 Definition
A function y = f (x) is said to be continuous at a point x = c in it’s domain if and only if
i f (c) exist.
ii lim f (x) exist.
x→c

iii lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c

The function y = f (x) is said to be continuous if it’s continuous at all the points in its domain. The function f is said to
be discontinuous there exist a point x0 in its where it is not continuous.

2.2.2 Examples
1. Show that the following functions are continuous at the given points.
(a) f (x) = 2.
 sin x x = 4 (b) f (x) = 22x3 − 4 x =−1
, x =
6 0 x2 + 12, x≤5
(c) f (x) = x , x = 0. (c) f (x) = , x = 5.
1, x=0 37, x≥5
2. Show that the following functions
 are discontinuous.
1 x + 1, x 6= 2
(a) f (x) = x . (b) f (x) =
4, x = 2.
3. Check whether the following function are continuous at the origin.

14
 sin 6x cos 5x tan 4x

x cos x , x 6= 0; x > 0;

(a) f (x) =  ,
6, = 0. (b) g(x) = 5, x = 0;
 4x cot 3x
sin2 x cos2 x
, x < 0.

4. Are the functions in example 2.1.8 continuous?

5. For what values of a is the following function continuous?
 2
5x + 7, x > 7;
f (x) =
6ay, y≤7

6. For what values of a and b is the following function continuous?


 5ax + 6b, x ≤ 0;
f (x) = x2 + 4a − 5b, 0 < x ≤ 2;
5x + 4, 2 < x.


7. For what value of a is the following function contiuous?

 sin x
f (x) = x , x 6= 0;
a, x = 0.

15
Chapter 3

Differentiation

3.1 Introduction
In Example 2.1.2 (4) & (5) we have seen that the following limit,

f (x + h) − f (x)
lim
h→0 h
exist for some functions, and it doesn’t exist for others. This special limit gives us many important information about the
function f (x) when it does exist. For example the slope(gradient) of the function, maximum and minimum values of the
function and much more.

3.2 Definitions and Examples

3.2.1 Definition
dy
The derivative of a function y = f (x) at a point x0 , denoted by f ′ (x0 ) or dx x=x0 is

dy f (x0 + h) − f (x0)
f ′ (x0 ) = \x=x0 = lim .
dx h→0 h
Provided the limits exist.
The derivative dy
dx of a function y = f (x) is also equal to the slope of the graph of f (x), i.e., the slope of the tangent
to the curve y = f (x) at x = x0 , and the equation of the tangent is given by y − y0 = m(x − x0 ), where m = f ′ (x0 ) and
y0 = f (x0 ).

3.2.2 Examples
1. find the slopes the following curves at the given points. Then find an equation for the line tangent to the curve there.
(a) y = x2 + 2, (2, 5). (b) y = x − 4x3 (1, −3).

3.2.3 Definition of the Derivative

dy
The derivative of a function y = f (x) with respect to the variable x (w.r.t x), is the function f ′ (x) = dx = y′ whose value at
x is
dy f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = = lim .
dx h→0 h
Provided the limits exist.

3.2.4 Examples
1. Differentiate. √
(a) y = k. (b) y = x + 1. (c) y = x.

16
3.2.5 Quiz
dy
Find dx , where y = x2 + 10.

3.2.6 Rules of Differentiation

1. Power Rule: Let n ∈ R and y = xn , Then,
dy
= nxn−1 .
dx
2. Constant Multiple Rule:Let u be a differentiable function of x, and c is a constant, suppose that y = cu. Then,
dy du
=c .
dx dx
3. Sum Rule: Suppose that u and v are differentiable functions of x, and if y = u + v. Then,
dy du dv
= + .
dx dx dx
4. Product Rule: Suppose that u and v are differentiable functions of x, and if y = uv. Then,
dy du dv
= v +u .
dx dx dx
5. Quotient Rule: Suppose that u and v are differentiable functions of x, and if y = uv . Then,

dy v du − u dv
= dx 2 dx .
dx v
6. Chain Rule: Let y be a differentiable function of u, where u is a differentiable function of x, i.e. y = f (u(x)). Then,
dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx

3.2.7 Theorems
Let u be a differentiable function of x, and if:
dy
1. y = sin u, then dx = cos u · du
dx .
dy
2. y = cos u, then dx = − sin u · du
dx .
dy
3. y = ln u, then dx = 1u · du
dx .
dy
4. y = eu , then dx = eu · du
dx .
dy
5. y = au , a > 0, then dx = au ln a · du
dx .
dy 1
6. y = loga u, a > 0, a 6= 1, then dx = u ln a · du
dx .

3.2.8 Examples
Differentiate the followings function.
1. (a) y = x30.1 . (b) y = 10x−12. (c) y = 3ex . (d)y = 6 sint.
2. (a) y = 5x3 − 3t 5. (b) y = 4 cosx + 10 sinx. (c) y = 3ex − 6 lnx.
3. (a) y = (3 − x2)(x4 − 5x2 + x − 3). (b) y = x3 ex . (c) y = 6t 2 sint.
4+7x2 et
4. (a) x = tan θ . (b) y = csc x. (c) y = 2+x . (d) y = 6 cost .

5. (a) y = (7x − 3x2)8 . (b) y = sec(tan 10x). (c) y = 3e3x cos 6x2 . (d) y = 6xx .
3 √
6. (a) y = ln kx, k constant. (b) y = ln(sec(ln 4x). (c) y = 3x . (d) y = 6 x .
(e) y = log3 (1 + θ ln 3). (f) y = log5 e3x .
7. (a) y = sin−1 ax. (b) y = cos−1 ( bx ). (c) y = tan−1 (ax)

17
3.2.9 Quiz
Differentiate y = 2x sin 4x.

3.3 Implicit Differentiation

Consider the following functions.

1. x2 + y2 − 49.
2. xy + sin x2 y = 0
3
3. xy + 2 x2 y3 − 7 yx − yx + 8 = 0
p

The above equations defined an implicit relation f (x, y) = 0 between the variable x, and y, where in some instances
we can put the equation f (x, y) = 0 in the form y = f (x) as in equation (1) above, while in some situation like in example
(2) and (3) we may not able to put the equation f (x, y) = 0 in the form y = f (x).
To differentiate an implicit function of x and y we apply the following procedures.
• Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a differentiable function of x.
dy dy
• Collect the terms with dx on one side of the equation and solve for dx .

3.3.1 Examples
Differentiate the following equations.
2x−y2
1. (a) x2 y + 3xy3 = 6. (b) x3 = x+3y . (c) y cos( 3y ) = 1 − 2x2y3 .

2. (a) e2x = sin(4y − 6x). (b) tan(xt) = 13 . (c) y cos 3y = 12 + x2 sin 4y.
3. (a) 2xy + 3π x siny = 6π . (b) x3 = 2x sec(π x − y). (c) y2 cos2 3y − sin2x = 3.

3.4 Higher Derivatives

Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function, then it’s derivative f ′ (x) is also a function. If it happens that f ′ is also differen-
tiable then we can differentiate f ′ to obtain another function of x, which we will denote by y′′ = f ′′ (x) and we call it the
second derivative of y. It has many representation like,
d 2y d dy dy′
y′′ = f ′′ (x) = = ( ) = , and so-on.
dx2 dx dx dx
The nth −derivative of y is defined the same way for any positive integer n and it is denoted by,
dy(n−1) d n y
y(n) = = n.
dx dx

3.4.1 Examples
1. Find the first and second derivative of the following functions
(a) y = x3 + 3x − 7 (b) y = csc x (c) y = e7x .
2. Find y′′ , if
2
(a) y = −2 sin 6x. (b) xy2 + x2 = 3 (c) y2 = ex + 2x.
d4y −6
3. Show that if y = ln x, then dx4
= x4
.
4. Find the derivatives of all orders for the following functions.
(a) y = x4 − 7x3 + 4x + 5 (b) y = cos 6x. (c) y = e4x .

3.4.2 Quiz
Find the derivatives of all order for the function y = sin 2x.

18
Chapter 4

Applications Of The Derivative

4.1 Tangents and Normals

The tangent to a curve y = f (x) at a point (x0 , y0 ) is the straight line which touches the curve at the point (x0 , y0 ), its
dy
equation is given by y − y0 = m(x − x0 ) where m = dx /x=x0 ,y=y0 . The normal line is the line which is perpendicular to the
tangent of the curve at the point (x0 , y0 ). The equation of the normal is given by y − y0 = − m1 (x − x0 ).

4.1.1 Examples
1. Find the equations for the lines that are tangent and normal to the following curve at the given points.
(a) x2 + 3y2 = 28, (1, 3) (b) ex + y3 = 2, (0, 1) (c) (x − 2y)2 = 3x + 4, (0, 1)
2. Find the points on the curve y = tan x, −π /2 < x < π /2, where the normal line is parallel to the line y = −x/2.
3. Show that the normal line at any point of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 passes through the origin.

4.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule

4.2.1 Theorem (L’Hôpitals Rule)
Suppose that f (a) = g(a) = 0, that f and g are differentiable on an open interval I containing a and that g′ (x) 6= 0 on I, if
x 6= a.
Then
f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′ ,
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

assuming that the limit on the right side this equation exist.
Note that:
• The above theorem is also valid for the indeterminate form ∞
∞.
0 ∞
• Sometimes the indeterminate forms ∞ · 0 and ∞ − ∞ can be handled by using algebra to convert them to a 0 or ∞
form.

4.2.2 Theorem
Suppose that lim ln f (x) = L.
x→a
Then
lim f (x) = lim eln f (x) = eL
x→a x→a

Here a may be either finite or infinite.

19
4.2.3 Examples
1. Evaluate the following limits.
x+2 sin 6x 1 − cosx
(a) lim 2 (b) lim (c) lim
x→−2 x − 4 x→0 x x→0 x2
2. Use L’Hôpital’s rule to find the following limits.
3sin x − 1 ln(x + 1)
(a) lim (b) lim x2 e−x (c) lim
x→0 x x→∞ x→∞ log2 x

3. Evaluate the followings.

1 π
(a) lim x sin (b) lim (ln 2x − ln(x + 1)) (c) limπ (x − ) sec x
x→∞ x x→∞ x→ 2 2

4. Find the following Limits.  x

1 1 x+2
(a) lim x 1−x (b) lim (1 + x) x (c) lim
x→1+ x→0+ x→∞ x−1

4.3 Related Rates

4.3.1 Examples
1. Find if x = y3 − y and dy
dx
dt dt = 5.
dy
p
2. Suppose that L = x2 + y2 , dx
dt = −1, dt = 3, find
dL
dt when x = 3 and y = 12.
3. A cube’s surface area is increasing at the rate of 72 in/sec. At what rate is the cube’s volume increasing when the
edge length is x = 3 in?
4. The length l of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 2 cm/sec while the width w is increasing at the rate of 2
cm/sec. When l = 12 cm and w = 5 cm, find the rate of change of (a) the area (b) the perimeter and (c) the lengths
of the diagonals of the rectangle. Which of this quantities are increasing, and which are decreasing?
5. A light shines from the top of a pole 50 ft high. A ball is dropped from the same height a point 30 ft away from the
light. How fast is the shadow of the ball moving along the ground 1/2 sec later?
(Assume the ball falls a distance s = 16t 2 ft in t sec.)
6. A spherical balloon is inflated with helium at the rate of 100π ft3 /min. How fast is the balloon’s radius increasing
at the instant the radius is 5 ft? How fast is the surface area increasing?
7. A balloon is rising vertically above a level, straight road at a constant rate of 1 ft/sec. Just when the balloon is 65
ft above the ground, a bicycle moving at a constant rate of 17 ft/sec passes under it. How fast is the distance s(t)
between the bicycle and balloon increasing 3 sec later?
8. The coordinates of a particle in the metric xy-plane are differentiable functions time t with dx/dt = −1 m/sec and
dy/dt = −5 m/sec. How fast is the particle distance from the origin changing as it passes through the point (5, 12).

4.4 Maxima and Minima

4.4.1 Definition
Let f be a function with domain D. Then f has an absolute maximum value on D at a point c. if

f (x) ≤ f (c), ∀x ∈ D.

And it has an absolute minimum value on D at c. if,.

f (x) ≥ f (c), ∀x ∈ D.

Maximum and Minimum values of a function are also called extreme values of f , They are also referred to as global
maximum and minimum.
Note that: Functions with the same formulas can have different extrema, defending on their domain.

20
 1. (a) y = |x|, D = (−∞, ∞). (b) y = |x|, D = [0, 1].
(c) y = |x|, D = (0, 1]. (d) y = |x|, D = (0, 3).
2. (a) y = x, D = (−∞, ∞). (b) y = x, D = [0, 1].
(c) y = x, D = (0, 1]. (d) y = x, D = (0, 3).

4.4.2 Local Extrema

• A function y = f (x) is said to have a local maximum value at a point c in it’s domain D if f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x ∈ D,
lying in some open interval containing c.
• A function y = f (x) is said to have a local minimum value at a point c in it’s domain D if f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x ∈ D,
lying in some open interval containing c.

4.4.3 Theorem (The first derivative test for local extreme values)
If f has a local maximum or minimum value at an interior points on its, and if f ′ is defined at c, then

f ′ (c) = 0.

4.4.4 Critical Points

An interior point of the domain of a function y = f (x) where f ′ (x) is zero or undefined is called a critical point.
To find the extreme values of a function y = f (x), we simply evaluate f at all critical points and end points and then
take the largest and smallest of these values.

4.4.5 Examples
1. Find the absolute maximum of the following functions.
√ √
(a) y = 32 x − 5, −2 ≤ x ≤ 3 (b) y = 5 − x2, 5≤x≤0
(c) y = sin θ , − π2 ≤ θ ≤ 56π
2. Find the absolute minimum of the following functions.
2
(a) y = xe−5x , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (b) y = −3x 3 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 8
π 3π
(c) y = cos θ , −3 ≤θ ≤ 2
3. Find all the critical points of each of the following points.
x2
(a) y = x2 − 6x + 7 (b) y = x(4 − x)3 (c) y = x−2 y = tan θ

4.4.6 Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous on [a, b], and differentiable on (a, b). If
• f ′ (x) > 0 at each x ∈ (a, b) then f is increasing on (a, b).
• f ′ (x) < 0 at each x ∈ (a, b) then f is decreasing on (a, b).

4.4.7 Examples
1. Show that the following function is strictly increasing.
(a) y = 2x − 16 (b) y = x3 + ex
2. Find the open interval on which the following are increasing/decreasing.
(a) y = x2 (b) y = x3 + 2x2

4.4.8 Definition
The graph of a differentiable function y = f (x) is
• Concave Up on an open interval I if f ′ is increasing on I.
• Concave Down on an open interval I if f ′ is decreasing on I.

21
4.4.9 The Second Derivative Test for Concavity
Let y = f (x) be twice differentiable on an interval I.
• If y′′ > 0 on I, then the graph of f over I is concave up.
• If y′′ < 0 on I, then the graph of f over I is concave down.

4.4.10 Point of Inflection

A point where the graph of a function has a tangent line and where the concavity changes sign is called a point of inflection.

4.4.11 Theorem
At a point of inflection (c, f (c)) either f ′′ (c) = 0 or f ′′ (c) fails to exist.
Note that:
A point of inflection need not occur even if y′′ = 0 at a point x0 ∈ D( f ) for example if y = x4 , the y′′ = 12x2 , at x = 0, y′′ = 0
but y has a global minimum at x = 0 as y′′ does not changes sign at x = 0.

4.4.12 The Second Derivative test for local Extrema

• If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) < 0 then f has a local maximum at c.
• If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) > 0 then f has a local minimum at c.
• If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) = 0 then the test fails.

4.4.13 Examples
1. Identify the point of inflection, local maxima and minima of the functions below.
3 2 4
(a) y = x3 − x2 − 2x + 1 (b) y = x4 − 2x2 + 4
2. Identify the intervals where the function in example (1) above are concave up/down.

4.4.14 Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes

• A line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim f (x) = ±∞.

x→a+ x→a−

• A line y = b is called a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = b or lim f (x) = b.

x→∞ x→∞

4.4.15 Oblique Asymptote

f (x)
Let y = g(x)
be an improper rational function, such that the degree of f (x) is 1 greater than that of g(x). Suppose also that
f (x) c f (x)
g(x)
= ax + b + g(x) , then the line y = ax + b is called the oblique or slant line asymptote of the graph of y = g(x)
.

4.4.16 Examples
1. Find the horizontal asymptote of the following curves.
(a) y = ex (b) y = 2 + sinx x (c) y = x12
2. Find vertical asymptotes of the following curves.
(a) y = 1x (b) y = x28−4 x = ±2
3. Find the Oblique asymptote of the following curves.
x2 −3 x2 2
(a) y = 2x−4 (b) y = x−1 (c) y = x x−1

22
4.4.17 Quiz
1
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes curvesy = x−2

4.5 Curve Sketching

4.5.1 Procedures for curve sketching
• Identify where the extrema of f occurs.
• Find the intervals on which f is increasing and the intervals on which it is decreasing.
• Find where the graph of f is concave up and where it is concave down.

• Sketch the general shape of the curve y = f (x).

• Plot some specific points such as the local maximum and minimum points, points of inflections and intercepts, then
sketch the curve.

4.5.2 Examples
1. Sketch the following curves.
x2
(a) y = ex (b) y = x2 − 4x + 3 (c) y = x+1

4.6 Optimization
4.6.1 Examples
1. What is the smallest perimeter for a rectangle whose area is 16 in2 , and what are its dimensions?
2. Determine the dimension of the rectangle of the largest area that can be inscribed in the right angled triangle ABC
where a = 4, b = 5 and c = 3.
3. Find a positive number for which the sum of its reciprocal and four times its square is the smallest possible.
4. You are designing a rectangular poster to contain a 50 in2 of printing with a 4-in. margin at the top and bottom and
a 2-in. margin at each side. What overall dimensions will minimize the amount of paper used?
5. Find the volume of the largest right circular cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius 3.
6. It cost you c dollars each to manufacture and distribute backpacks. If the backpacks sells at x dollars each, the
number sold is given by
a
n= + b(100 − x),
x−c
where a and b are positive constants. What selling price will bring a maximum profit?

23
Chapter 5

Integration

5.1 Anti-Derivative
5.1.1 Definition
A function F is an anti-derivative of f on an interval I if F ′ (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ I.

5.1.2 Examples
Find the anti-derivative of each of the following functions.
(a) f (x) = 3x2 (b) g(x) = − sin x (c) h(x) = 3e3x + x ln1 4
The anti-derivatives we obtained above are not the only solutions to the given problems, for example F(x) = x3 is not the
only anti-derivative of f (x) = 3x2 , we have many like F1 (x) = x3 + 4, F2 (x) = x3 − 1.5, F3 (x) = x3 + 39 and so-on. Thus in
general we can see that the function F(x) = x3 +C where C is an arbitrary constant is a solution to the problem of finding
the ant-derivative of f (x) = 3x2 .

5.1.3 Theorem
If F is an anti-derivative of f on an interval I, then the most general anti-derivative of f on I is

F(x) + C.

Where C is an arbitrary constant.

5.1.4 Example
Find the general anti-derivative of each of the functions in the previous example.
The following tables gives a number of anti-derivatives for some important functions.
S/N Function General Anti-deriative
n 1 n+1
1 x n+1 x + C, n 6= −1
2 sin kx − 1k coskx + C, k 6= 0
1
3 coskx k sin kx + C, k 6= 0
2 1
4 sec kx k tan kx + C, k 6= 0
5 csc2 kx − 1k cotkx + C, k 6= 0
6 sec kx tan kx 1k sec kx + C, k 6= 0
7 csc kx cot kx − 1k csc kx + C, k 6= 0
1 kx
8 ekx k e + C, k 6= 0
1
9 x ln |x| +
Ckx
1
10 akx k ln a a + C, a > 0, a 6= 1, k 6= 0

5.1.5 Definition
The collection of all anti-derivatives of f is called the indefinite integral of f with respect to x, and is denoted by.
Z
f (x)dx

24
 R
The symbol is an integral sign, the function f is the integrand and x is the variable of integration.

5.1.6 Rules Of Integration

1. Sum, Difference Rule: Let f and g be integrable functions.Then
Z Z Z
( f (x) ± g(x))dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx

2. Constant Multiple Rule: Let f be integrable function, k ∈ R .Then

Z Z
k f (x)dx = k f (x)dx

5.1.7 Examples
1. Evaluate the following integrals.
R x2 +4
(b) 2x(1 − x−3)dx
R R
(a) (5 − 6x)dx (c) x dx
2. Integrate.
(a) sec5 xdx
R R R
(b) sin 10xdx (c) (cos 4x − sec9x + 23)dx
3. Evaluate.
(c) 12 (csc2 x − cscx cot x)dx (b) (2ex + 7e4x)dx (c) ((1.3)x − cos3x + 5)dx
R R R

5.2 Substitution Method

f (g(x))g′ (x)dx, when f (x) and g′ (x) are continuous
R
The substitution method allows us to evaluate integrals of the form
functions. The method is as follow:
⋆ Substitute u = g(x) and du = (du/dx) · dx = g′ (x)dx to obtain the integral
Z
f (u)du

⋆ Integrate with respect to u.

⋆ Replace u by g(x) in the result.

5.2.1 Examples
1. Integrate the following.
R R 4x3 R (1+√x) 31
(a) 7(7x − 1)dx (b) x4 +1
dx (c) √
2 x
dx

2. Evaluate the following integrals.

(a) x sin(2x2 )dx (b) (1 − cos 2t )2 sin 2t dt (c) 12(y4 + 4y2 + 1)(y3 + 2y)dy
R R R

3. Use the substitution method to evaluate the followings.

1 1 1
(b) x12 e x sec(1 + e x ) tan(1 + e x )dx
R 1
(a) (cos 7x)esin 7x dx sin θ1 cos θ1 d θ
R R
(c) θ2
R dx R log4 θ
(d) x ln x (e) θ dθ

5.2.2 Quiz
Evaluate the following integral.
8 ln 3 log3 x
Z
dx
x

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 R f ′ (x)
5.3 The integral f (x) dx

f ′ (x)
Z
dx = ln | f (x)|dx
f (x)

5.3.1 Examples
1. Evaluate
R
the following
R
integrals. R 4 cos θ
(a) tan xdx (b) cot2xdx (c) 3+2 sin θ d θ

2. Integrate
R the followings.
R
(a) sec xdx (b) csc 2xdx

5.4 Integration by Trigonometric Substitution

In
√ this method
√ we make √ the substitutions x = a tan θ , x = a sin θ , and x = a sec θ when dealing with integrals that involve
a2 + x2 , a2 − x2 and x2 − a2 respectively.

5.4.1 Examples
1. Evaluate the followings.
R√
(a) √dx 2 25 − t 2dt √ 5dx
R R
(b) (c)
9+x 25x2 −9

2. Integrate the followings.R

R 8dw
√ ex dx
(a) 2 2
(b) e2x +1
w 4−w

5.5 Integration by Parts

This method is very helpful when we want to simplify integrals of the form
Z
f (x)g(x)dx

when f (x) can be differentiated repeatedly and g(x) can be integrated integrated repeatedly without difficulty. The formula
of integration by part is given by Z Z
udv = uv − vdu.

1. Simplify the followings.

(b) t 3 et dt (c) x sec2 xdx (d) cos3 xdx
R R R R
(a) x cos xdx
2. Integrate the followings.
(c) ex sin xdx
R R R
(a) ln wdw (b) cos 2x sin 3xdx

5.6 Integral of Products of Sines and Cosines

Recall:The compound angle formulas are given by.

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cosA sin B (5.1)

sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cosA sin B (5.2)
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sinA sin B (5.3)
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sinA sin B (5.4)

(5.1) + (5.2) gives sin(A + B) + sin(A − B) = 2 sin A cosB (5.5)

(5.3) + (5.4) gives cos(A + B) + cos(A − B) = 2 cosA cos B (5.5)
(5.3) − (5.4) gives cos(A + B) − cos(A − B) = −2 sin A sin B (5.5)

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 These equations help us to evaluate the following integrals.
Z Z Z
sin mx cos nxdx, sin mx sin nxdx and cos mx cos nxdx.

Where,
1
Z Z
sin mx cos nxdx = (sin(m + n)x + sin(m − n))dx, (5.5)
2
1
Z Z
sin mx sin nxdx = − (cos(m + n)x + cos(m − n))dx, (5.6)
2
1
Z Z
cos mx cos nxdx = (cos(m + n)x + cos(m − n))dx, (5.7)
2

5.6.1 Examples
1. Evaluate.
R R R
(a) sin 3x cos 2xdx (b) sin 2x sin 2xdx (c) cos5x cos 7xdx
2. Integrate.
(a) sin2 t cos 3tdt
R R
(b) sin r cos r cos 3rdr.

5.7 Integrals of Powers of Sine and Cosine.

To evaluate integrals of the form sinm x cosn xdx, we consider the power m and n.
R

Case 1 If m is odd, we write m = 2k + 1, and we use the identity sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x, to obtain

sinm x = (sinx )k sin x = (1 − cos2 x)k sin x,

and we let u = cos x.

Case 2 If m is even and n is odd, then we write n as 2k + 1 and make the substitution u = sin x.
Case 3 If m and n are both even, then we use identities
1 − cos2x 1 + cos2x
sin2 x = , and cos2 x =
2 2
to reduce the integrand into one in lower powers of cos 2x.

5.7.1 Examples
1. Evaluate the following integrals.
(a) sin2 x cos3 xdx (b) sin3 x cos3 xdx (c) cos5 xdx
R R R

2. Integrate the following.

(a) sin2 x cos4 xdx (b) sin3 x cos2 dx (c) 16 sin2 x cos2 xdx
R R R

5.8 Other Trigonometric integrals

The identities such as 1+cosx
2 = cos2 x, and tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 are very useful in evaluating some integrals containing
trigonometric functions.
1. Integrate the following integrals.
q
1−cosx R √
(a) sec3 xdx
R R
(b) 2 dx (c) θ 1 − cos2θ d θ

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5.9 Integration by Partial fractions
1. Integrate.
R 6x+7 R 2s+2
(a) (x+2) 2 dx (b) (s2 +1)(s−1)3
ds

2. Evaluate.
R 7 x3 dx
(a) x2x−4 dx
R
(b) x2 +2x+1

3. Find the following integrals.

R 2 ds et dt cos ydy
(a) ss4 −1
R R
(b) e2t +3e t +2 (c) sin2 y+sin y−6

5.10 Definite Integral

Let f be continuous at every point in the [a, b] and if F is any anti derivative of f on [a, b], then
Z b
f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).
a

The number b is called the upper limit of integration, while a is called the lower limit of integration.
1. Simplify the following integrals.
(b) 4−3 ( 2x − 5)dx
R0 R Rπ
(a) −2 (2x + 5)dx (c) 0 (1 + cosx)dx
2. Find the values of the following integrals.
R 2 ln x 3π π
√xdx dx r3 sin 2rdr
R 2
R 2
(a) 1 x dx (b) π
2
(c) 0
3 1+x

3. Find the values of the following.

R √ x3
(a) 0π 1 − cos2 θ d θ
R1
(b) 1e ( √ dy
R
(c) 0 x2 +2x+1 dx
y 1+(ln y)2

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