Module 1 - Introduction to Economic

Development
Course Code: Econ 2 (Economic Development)
Module Code: 1.0 (Principles and Concepts)
Lesson Code: 1.1 (Introduction to Economic Development)
Sections: A, B, C & D

Economics Terminology of the Week:

scarcity - resources or products that aren’t available in unlimited quantities are scarce;
as scarcity of an item increases, so do prices.

I. MODULE OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this module, Econ 2 students will have been able to:

1. Understand the relationship between Economic Development and the entire

Economics discipline.
2. Explain the dynamics of development according to different perspectives.
3. Compare Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and the Sustainable
Development Goals (SGD).

II. BRIEF REVIEW:

In understanding economic development, a natural starting point is to begin by defining
the terms ‘Economics’ itself.
Definition of Economics – Economics is a social science subject that guides the
allocation of scarce resources to meet unlimited needs and wants of a given society.
Nearly every economist has at some point in the standard coursework been exposed to
a brief explanation that the origin of the word “economy” can be traced back to the Greek
word oikonomia (οικονομία ’ ), which in turn is composed of two words: oikos, which is
usually translated as “household”; and nemein, which is best translated as “management
and dispensation.” Thus, the cursory story usually goes, the term oikonomia referred to
“household management”.

Two Reasons Economics Come to Be: Limited/Scarce Resources versus Unlimited

Wants
Economics examines how people use their scarce resources in an attempt to satisfy their
unlimited wants. Would you like a grand new Porsche, a sea shore villa or a luxury ocean
journey aboard the Luxury Liner Hawaii? Would you like more free time, more sleeping
time and more money to spend? Who wouldn't? The problem is simply that the resources
available to satisfy these wants, or desires, are virtually limited. They are scarce.
Economic choices arise from scarcity. If it were not scarcity, we would never bother to
study economics, making choices in between, constructing economic structures and
market mechanisms to produce and distribute; and trying to maintain them work smoothly
and efficiently.
Consider a parcel of land. The parcel presents us with several alternative uses. We could
build a house on it. We could put a gas station on it. We could create a small park on it.
We could leave the land undeveloped in order to be able to make a decision later as to
how it should be used.
Suppose we have decided the land should be used for housing. Should it be a large and
expensive house or several modest ones? Suppose it is to be a large and expensive
house. Who should live in the house? If the Dela Cruz live in it, the Amore cannot. There
are alternative uses of the land both in the sense of the type of use and also in the sense
of who gets to use it. The fact that land is scarce means that society must make choices
concerning its use.
Virtually everything is scarce. Consider the air we breathe, which is available in huge
quantity at no charge to us. Could it possibly be scarce?
The test of whether air is scarce is whether it has alternative uses. What uses can we
make of the air? We breathe it. We pollute it when we drive our cars, heat our houses, or
operate our factories. In effect, one use of the air is as a garbage dump. We certainly
need the air to breathe. But just as certainly, we choose to dump garbage in it. Those two
uses are clearly alternatives to each other. The more garbage we dump in the air, the
less desirable—and healthy—it will be to breathe. If we decide we want to breathe cleaner
air, we must limit the activities that generate pollution. Air is a scarce good because it has
alternative uses.

Opportunity Cost Concept

It is within the context of scarcity that economists define what is perhaps the most
important concept in all of economics, the concept of opportunity cost. Opportunity cost
is the value of the best alternative forgone in making any choice.
The opportunity cost to you of reading the remaining pages of this module will be the
value of the best other use to which you could have put your time. If you choose to spend
P20.00 on a potted plant, you have simultaneously chosen to give up the benefits of
spending the P20.00 on snacks or a school supply or cellphone load.
The concept of opportunity cost must not be confused with the purchase price of an item.
Consider the cost of a college or university education. That includes the value of the best
alternative use of money spent for tuition, fees, and books. But the most important cost
of a college education is the value of the forgone alternative uses of time spent studying
and attending class instead of using the time in some other endeavor. Students sacrifice
that time in hopes of even greater earnings in the future or because they place a value
on the opportunity to learn. Or consider the cost of going to the doctor. Part of that cost
is the value of the best alternative use of the money required to see the doctor. But the
cost also includes the value of the best alternative use of the time required to see the
doctor. The essential thing to see in the concept of opportunity cost is found in the name
of the concept. Opportunity cost is the value of the best opportunity forgone in a particular
choice. It is not simply the amount spent on that choice.
Two Main Branches of Economics (Branches of Scope)

• Microeconomics (It is the analysis of economics in the micro or small level. It looks at
individuals, households and firms and the conditions under which they make buying,
consumption and production decisions.)
- Microeconomics studies how individual consumers and firms make
decisions to allocate resources. Whether a single person, a household, or
a business, economists may analyze how these entities respond to changes
in price and why they demand what they do at particular price levels.
- Microeconomics analyzes how and why goods are valued differently, how
individuals make financial decisions, and how they trade, coordinate, and
cooperate.
- Within the dynamics of supply and demand, the costs of producing goods
and services, and how labor is divided and allocated, microeconomics
studies how businesses are organized and how individuals approach
uncertainty and risk in their decision-making.

• Macroeconomics (It is the study of aggregate economic variables such as Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) growth, unemployment, inflation etc. It looks at the macro
level.)
- Its primary focus is recurrent economic cycles and broad economic growth
and development.
- It focuses on foreign trade, government fiscal and monetary policy,
unemployment rates, the level of inflation, interest rates, the growth of total
production output, and business cycles that result in expansions, booms,
recessions, and depressions.
- Using aggregate indicators, economists use macroeconomic models to help
formulate economic policies and strategies.

Minor Branches of Economics (Branches of Subject)

The list shown is not exhaustive, as there are other sub-disciplines of economics including
many that are upcoming – for example ‘space economics’ that deals with outer space.
Since these other sub-disciplines are not the subject of this course, there is no further
mention of them.
• Behavioral economics is grounded in empirical observations of human behavior,
which have demonstrated that people do not always make what neoclassical
economists consider the “rational” or “optimal” decision, even if they have the
information and the tools available to do so.

For example, why do people often avoid or delay investing in exercising, even if
they know that doing those things would benefit them? And why do gamblers often
risk more after both winning and losing, even though the odds remain the same,
regardless of “streaks”?

By asking questions like these and identifying answers through experiments, the
field of behavioral economics considers people as human beings who are subject
to emotion and impulsivity, and who are influenced by their environments and
circumstances.

This characterization draws a contrast to traditional economic models that have

treated people as purely rational actors—who have perfect self-control and never
lose sight of their long-term goals—or as people who occasionally make random
errors that cancel out in the long run.

Several principles have emerged from behavioral economics research that have
helped economists better understand human economic behavior. From these
principles, governments and businesses have developed policy frameworks to
encourage people to make particular choices.

Key people: Gary Becker, Amos Tversky, Daniel Kahneman, Richard Thaler,
Robert J. Shiller,
• Environmental economics is the study of the cost-effective allocation, use, and
protection of the world's natural resources. It focuses on how they use and manage
finite resources in a manner that serves the population while meeting concerns
about environmental impact.

This helps governments weigh the pros and cons of alternative measures and
design appropriate environmental policies.

The basic theory underpinning environmental economics is that environmental

amenities (or environmental goods) have economic value and there are costs to
economic growth that are not accounted for in more traditional models.

Environmental goods include things like access to clean water, clean air, the
survival of wildlife, and the general climate. Although it is hard to put a price tag on
environmental goods, there may be a high cost when they are lost. Environmental
goods are usually difficult to fully privatize and subject to the tragedy of the
commons.

Destruction or overuse of environmental goods, like pollution and other kinds of

environmental degradation, can represent a form of market failure because it
imposes negative externalities. Environmental economists analyze the costs and
benefits of specific economic policies that seek to correct such problems, and they
may run theoretical tests or studies on the possible consequences of these
policies.

Key people: Garrett Hardin, E.F. Schumacher, Arthur Pigou.

• Energy economics is the field that studies human utilization of energy resources
and energy commodities and the consequences of that utilization. In physical
science terminology, “energy” is the capacity for doing work, e.g., lifting,
accelerating, or heating material. In economic terminology, “energy” includes all
energy commodities and energy resources, commodities or resources that
embody significant amounts of physical energy and thus offer the ability to perform
work.

Energy commodities - e.g., gasoline, diesel fuel, natural gas, propane, coal, or
electricity – can be used to provide energy services for human activities, such as
lighting, space heating, water heating, cooking, motive power, electronic activity.
Energy resources - e.g., crude oil, natural gas, coal, biomass, hydro, uranium,
wind, sunlight, or geothermal deposits – can be harvested to produce energy
commodities.

Energy economics studies forces that lead economic agents – firms, individuals,
governments – to supply energy resources, to convert those resources into other
useful energy forms, to transport them to the users, to use them, and to dispose of
the residuals. It studies roles of alternative market and regulatory structures on
 these activities, economic distributional impacts, and environmental
consequences. It studies economically efficient provision and use of energy
commodities and resources and factors that lead away from economic efficiency.

• Industrial Economics is the study of firms, industries, and markets. It looks at firms
of all sizes – from local corner shops to multinational giants such as WalMart or
Tesco. And it considers a whole range of industries, such as electricity generation,
car production, and restaurants.

When analyzing decision making at the levels of the individual firm and industry,
Industrial Economics helps us understand such issues as:
- the levels at which capacity, output, and prices are set;
- the extent that products are differentiated from each other;
- how much firms invest in research and development (R&D)
- how and why firms advertise

Industrial Economics also gives insights into how firms organize their activities, as
well as considering their motivation. In many micro courses, profit maximization is
taken as given, but many industrial economics courses examine alternative
objectives, such as trying to grow market share.

There is also an international dimension – firms have the option to source inputs
(or outsource production) overseas. As such, while industrial economics more
frequently uses skills and knowledge from micro courses, macroeconomic
concepts are sometimes employed.

One of the key issues in industrial economics is assessing whether a market is

competitive. Competitive markets are normally good for consumers (although they
might not always be feasible) so most industrial economics courses include
analysis of how to measure the extent of competition in markets. It then considers
whether regulation is needed, and if so the form it should take. There is again an
international dimension to this, as firms that operate in more than one country will
face different regulatory regimes.

• Agricultural economics is a study of the allocation, distribution, and utilization of

the resources used, along with the commodities produced, by farming. Agricultural
economics plays a role in the economics of development, for a continuous level of
farm surplus is one of the wellsprings of technological and commercial growth.

In general, one can say that when a large fraction of a country’s population
depends on agriculture for its livelihood, average incomes are low. That does not
mean that a country is poor because most of its population is engaged in
agriculture; it is closer to the truth to say that because a country is poor, most of
its people must rely upon agriculture for a living.
 The rapid expansion coupled with the essential role of food in our society has
generated a field of economics solely dedicated to observing and predicting trends
within the agriculture market landscape. Basic macro and micro-economic
principles apply to farming, as do the existence of externalities such as climate
change and nutritional health.

Interesting trends in the agricultural market pertain to the decrease in cost for the
actual farming aspects and an increase in costs for the distribution and sales
system. This is largely a result of technological progress greatly reducing the need
for human labor in the production of agricultural goods, weighting the costs more
heavily on the human resources side of the equation.

• Labor economics is the study of the labor force as an element in the process of
production. The labor force comprises all those who work for gain, whether as
employees, employers, or as self-employed, and it includes the unemployed who
are seeking work. Labor economics involves the study of the factors affecting the
efficiency of these workers, their deployment between different industries and
occupations, and the determination of their pay.

The economist cannot study the capabilities, jobs, and earnings of men and
women without taking account of psychology, social structures, cultures, and the
activities of government. Indeed, these forces often play a more conspicuous part
in the field of labor than do the market forces with which economic theory is mainly
concerned. The most important reason for this arises from the peculiar nature of
labor as a commodity. The act of hiring labor, unlike that of hiring a machine, is
necessary but not sufficient for the completion of work. Employees have to be
motivated to work to an acceptable standard, and the employment contract is, in
effect, open-ended. This may be no problem when employees are weak and easily
replaced, but the more skilled, organized, and indispensable they are, the more
the care that must be given to creating an institutional setting that will win their
compliance and meet their notions of fairness.

A second major reason for looking beyond straightforward labor market forces is
the often highly imperfect nature of the industrialized labor market. The majority of
jobs are occupied by the same employees for many years, and only a small
minority of employees quits their jobs in order to move to a comparable job that is
better paid. Studies in a number of countries have all revealed substantial variation
in the level of pay offered for the same job by different firms in the same local labor
market. This sluggishness of labor market response is particularly notable for more
skilled labor and for labor employed by firms in strong product market positions.
The main thrust of competition in many instances comes not through the labor
market but through the product market, with an employee’s pay being determined
less by what the job is than by who the employer is.

Key people: Knut Wicksell

 • Population economics or demographic economics is the application of economic
analysis to demography, the study of human populations, including size, growth,
density, distribution, and vital statistics.

Aspects of the subject include marriage and fertility, the family, divorce, morbidity
and life expectancy/mortality, dependency ratios, migration, population growth,
population size, public policy, the demographic transition from "population
explosion" to (dynamic) stability or decline.

Other concerns include measuring value of life and the economics of the elderly
and the handicapped and of gender, race, minorities, and non-labor discrimination.

• Econometrics is an area of economics where statistical and mathematical methods

are used to analyze economic data. Individuals who are involved with
econometrics are referred to as econometricians.

Econometricians test economic theories and hypotheses by using statistical tools

such as probability, statistical inference, regression analysis, frequency
distributions, and more. After testing economic theories, econometricians can
compare the results with real data and observations, which can be helpful in
forecasting future economic trends.

The purpose is to use statistical modeling and analysis in order to transform

qualitative economic concepts into quantitative information that individuals can
use. For example, policymakers can use the information to create new fiscal and
monetary policies to stimulate the economy.

Suppose that policymakers are creating a new policy to increase the number of
jobs in order to improve the unemployment rate and boost the economy.
Econometricians test if this hypothesis will be true or not by using statistical
models.

Key people: Jan Tinbergen

It should be noted however that there do exist a number of overlaps between and amongst
these sub-disciplines. As an example, some of the topics we will cover in this course will
also include aspects of environmental economics and agricultural economics sub
disciplines (and more others).
III. DISCUSSION PROPER:
After having briefly discussed some foundational aspects (just a few of them) of
Economics, we can now get our focus back to the definition of economic development.
But, we need to discuss first the nature of development.
Because the term development may mean different things to different people, it is
important that we have some working definition or core perspective on its meaning.
Without such a perspective and some agreed measurement criteria, we would be unable
to determine which country was actually developing and which was not.
A. Amartya Sen's View of Development as Freedom
According to 1998 Nobel prize winner, Amartya Sen, freedom is both the primary
objective of development, and the principal means of development. The human being is
an engine of change.
Sen is both the first Indian and the first Asian to win the Nobel prize for economics. In
winning the Nobel prize, Sen was praised by the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences
"for his contributions to welfare economics" and for restoring "an ethical dimension" to the
discussion of vital economic problems.
According to Sen, development is enhanced by democracy. Compared to dictatorships,
oligarchies, monarchies and aristocracies, in which the people have little or no say in who
is elected and how the government is run, a democracy is often said to be the most
challenging form of government, as input from those representing citizens determines the
direction of the country. The basic definition of democracy in its purest form comes from
the Greek language: The term means “rule by the people.”

A democracy must include:

- A system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair
elections;
- Active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life;
- The protection of human rights of all citizens;
- A rule of law in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.
- Protection of human dignity

Democracy is a means for the people to choose their leaders and to hold their leaders
accountable for their policies and their conduct in office.

The people decide who will represent them, and who will head the government at the
national and local levels. They do so by choosing between competing parties in
regular, free and fair elections. Government is based on the consent of the governed.

In a democracy, the people are sovereign—they are the highest form of political
authority. Power flows from the people to the leaders of government, who hold power
 only temporarily. The people are free to criticize their elected leaders and
representatives, and to observe how they conduct the business of government.

Elected representatives at the national and local levels should listen to the people and
respond to their needs and suggestions. Elections have to occur at regular intervals,
as prescribed by law. Those in power cannot extend their terms in office without
asking for the consent of the people again in an election.

For elections to be free and fair, they have to be administered by a neutral, fair, and
professional body that treats all political parties and candidates equally. All parties
and candidates must have the right to campaign freely, to present their proposals to
the voters both directly and through the mass media. Voters must be able to vote in
secret, free of intimidation and violence. Independent observers must be able to
observe the voting and the vote counting to ensure that the process is free of
corruption, intimidation, and fraud. There needs to be some impartial and independent
tribunal to resolve any disputes about the election results.

This is why it takes a lot of time to organize a good, democratic election. Any country
can hold an election, but for an election to be free and fair requires a lot of
organization, preparation, and training of political parties, electoral officials, and civil
society organizations who monitor the process.

In terms of protecting human rights, such rights, especially freedom of the press,
speech, assembly, and so forth increase the likelihood of honest, clean, good
government.

Democracy also expands human freedom (political freedom, economic facilities,

social opportunities, transparency and security). It is “the enhancement of freedoms
that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”. Hence “development
requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor
economic opportunities as well as systemic social deprivation, neglect of public
facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states”.

For Sen, “capability deprivation” is a better measure of poverty than low income. The
ultimate goal of development is to create conditions that enable individuals to have
meaningful choices and opportunities. He contends that development is a process that
allows people to exercise their agency, enabling them to participate actively in shaping
their own lives.
B. Todaro and Smith’s View of Development using the Three Core Values
According to Todaro and Smith (2015), there are three core or universal values that are
used as conceptual basis and practical guideline for understanding the inner meaning of
development. These values represent common goals sought by all individuals and
societies, and they relate to fundamental human needs that find their expression in almost
all societies and cultures at all times.
• Sustenance: The Ability to Meet Basic Needs. All people have certain basic needs
without which life would be impossible. These life-sustaining basic human needs
include food, shelter, health, and protection. When any of these is absent or in
critically short supply, a condition of “absolute underdevelopment” exists. A basic
function of all economic activity, therefore, is to provide as many people as possible
with the means of overcoming the helplessness and misery arising from a lack of food,
shelter, health, and protection.
• Self-Esteem: To Be a Person. Self-esteem means sense of worth and self-respect,
of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. All peoples and societies
seek some basic form of self-esteem, although they may call it authenticity, identity,
dignity, respect, honor, or recognition. As Denis Goulet put it, “Development is
legitimized as a goal because it is an important, perhaps even an indispensable, way
of gaining esteem.”
• Freedom from Servitude: To Be Able to Choose. Freedom here is to be understood
in the sense of emancipation from alienating material conditions of life and from
social servitude to nature, other people, misery, oppressive institutions, and dogmatic
beliefs, especially that poverty is predestination. Freedom involves an expanded
range of choices for societies and their members together with a minimization of
external constraints in the pursuit of some social goal we call development.
What then is Economic Development?
The study of economic development is one of the newest, most exciting, and most
challenging branches of the broader disciplines of economics and political economy.
Although one could claim that Adam Smith was the first “development economist” and
that his Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, was the first treatise on economic
development, the systematic study of the problems and processes of economic
development in Africa, Asia, and Latin America has emerged only over the past five
decades or so. Although development economics often draws on relevant principles and
concepts from other branches of economics in either a standard or modified form, for the
most part it is a field of study that is rapidly evolving its own distinctive analytical and
methodological identity.
Other Definitions of Development Economics:
“Development economics is a branch of economics that focuses on improving fiscal,
economic, and social conditions in developing countries” (Bird, 2019).
This is only one definition. As cited by Mackenzie and Puffhausen (2017), the teaching
content for economic development varies from one college or university to another,
although there are a number of commonalities that cut across. In the same vein, there
would be several other definitions of Economic Development but this should suffice. To
properly define this discipline, there is a need to trace the two schools of thought:
traditional view and the new economic view.
A. Traditional Economic Measures
In strictly economic terms, development has traditionally meant achieving sustained rates
of growth of income per capita to enable a nation to expand its output at a rate faster
than the growth rate of its population. Levels and rates of growth of “real” per capita gross
national income (GNI) (monetary growth of GNI per capita minus the rate of inflation) are
then used to measure the overall economic well-being of a population—how much of real
goods and services is available to the average citizen for consumption and investment.
Economic development in the past has also been typically seen in terms of the planned
alteration of the structure of production and employment so that agriculture’s share of
both declines and that of the manufacturing and service industries increases.
Development strategies have therefore usually focused on rapid industrialization, often at
the expense of agriculture and rural development.
With few exceptions, such as in development policy circles in the 1970s, development
was until recently nearly always seen as an economic phenomenon in which rapid gains
in overall and per capita GNI growth would either “trickle down” to the masses in the form
of jobs and other economic opportunities or create the necessary conditions for the wider
distribution of the economic and social benefits of growth. Problems of poverty,
discrimination, unemployment, and income distribution were of secondary importance to
“getting the growth job done.” Indeed, the emphasis is often on increased output,
measured by gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP).
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a crucial economic indicator that measures the
monetary value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders. In the
context of the Philippines, understanding and analyzing GDP offer valuable insights into
the country's economic health and overall development.
Gross National Product represents the total market value of all goods and services
produced by the residents of a country, both domestically and abroad, within a specific
time frame. Unlike Gross Domestic Product (GDP), GNP includes the income earned by
a country's citizens and businesses from foreign investments and excludes the income
earned by foreign residents within the country's borders.
B. The New Economic View of Development
During the 1970s, economic development came to be redefined in terms of the reduction
or elimination of poverty, inequality, and unemployment within the context of a growing
economy. “Redistribution from growth” became a common slogan.
Economic Development was conceived as a multidimensional/multifaceted process
involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and national institutions,
as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the
eradication of poverty.
Social structure is the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions whereby human
beings in a society interact and live together. Social structure is often treated together
with the concept of social change, which deals with the forces that change the social
structure and the organization of society.
A commonly used pneumonic to remember the different groups is D.R.C.A.G.E.S.
(Disability, Religion, Class, Age, Gender, Ethnicity and Sexuality).
1. Disability. The evolution of societal attitudes, policies, and infrastructure has
significantly influenced the progress and development in terms of disability over
the years. This essay delves into the historical context, examining how
perspectives towards individuals with disabilities have transformed, the strides
made in accessibility and inclusion, and the ongoing challenges that persist in the
pursuit of a more equitable society.
In the past, individuals with disabilities were often marginalized and subjected to
discrimination. Social attitudes were marked by misconceptions, stigmas, and a
lack of understanding about the capabilities of people with diverse abilities. This
societal bias translated into limited educational opportunities, restricted
employment options, and inadequate infrastructure, all of which impeded the full
participation of individuals with disabilities in various aspects of life.
In the Philippines, disability is one of the social issues affecting a portion of the
Philippines' population. To ensure the equality and rights of disabled persons,
there are Philippine laws and policies that were passed regarding persons with
disabilities (PWDs). There are also numerous non-government organizations that
seeks to encourage and help improve the wellbeing of people with disabilities.
The recognition of PWDs is stated in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Article XIII,
Section 13 states that "[t]he State shall establish a special agency for disabled
person for their rehabilitation, self-development, and self-reliance, and their
integration into the mainstream of society." The established agency was named
the National Council on Disability Affairs or NCDA. The National Council on
Disability Affairs (NCDA), formerly National Council for the Welfare of Disabled
Persons or NCWDP, is the government body which focuses on the activities,
issues, and concerns that are related to PWDs in the country. Their priority is to
track and perform laws to ensure the protection of PWDs' political and civil rights.
They also handle the annual "International Day of Persons with Disabilities in the
Philippines" held every December 3 to advocate the rights and privileges of PWDs.
Some of the laws concerning PWDs include Republic Act No 7277 (Magna Carta
for Disabled Persons), Batas Pambansa Blg. 344 (Accessibility Law), Republic Act
6759 (White Cane Act) and ILO Convention No. 159 (Vocational Rehabilitation of
Persons With Disability).
a. Republic Act No. 7277 - This law, the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons, is "an
act providing for the rehabilitation, self-development and self-reliance of
disabled persons and their integration into the mainstream of society and for
other purposes." It outlines the rights and privileges of disabled persons and
the prohibition on discrimination of PWDs. It was ratified on March 24, 1992.
b. Batas Pambansa Blg. 344 - The Accessibility Law is an act enhancing the
mobility of disabled persons that requires buildings, institutions, establishments
and public utilities to install some facilities and other devices. This law requires
 the installation of sidewalks, ramps and railings for the PWDs in public spaces.
It was ratified on December 7, 1982.
c. Republic Act 6759 - The White Cane Act declares August 1 of every year as
White Cane Safety Day in recognition of the visually impaired PWDs' need for
assistance and as a reminder for the public of their duty to care for and respect
them. The act was ratified on September 18, 1989.
d. Republic Act No. 10754 - The Republic Act No. 10754 is an expansion of the
benefits and privileges of PWDs in the Philippines as an amendment to the
Magna Carta for Disabled Persons. It highlights the basic and societal benefits
and privileges of PWDs. It was signed on December 1, 2016
The list of disabilities in the Philippines encompasses a broad spectrum of conditions that
affect individuals’ physical, sensory, intellectual, and mental functioning. Recognizing
these illnesses is essential to provide appropriate support, accommodations, and services
to enhance the quality of life and promote the inclusion of persons with disabilities in
society. Today, the following disabilities are highlighted for appropriate interventions:
a. Deaf or Hard of Hearing - refers to people with hearing loss, ranging from mild
to severe. Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is the complete or
partial loss of the ability to hear from one or both ears with a hearing threshold
of 26 dB or greater, averaged at frequencies of 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 kilohertz.
Individuals with this condition face communication difficulties and may require
assistive devices or communication aids to enhance their hearing abilities.
b. Intellectual Disability - characterized by a significantly reduced ability to
understand new or complex information and to learn and apply new skills.
Individuals with intellectual disabilities may have limitations in intellectual
functioning, adaptive behavior, and social skills. They require specialized
support and interventions to facilitate their learning and daily functioning.
c. Learning Disability - refers to individuals who, although normal in sensory,
emotional, and intellectual abilities, exhibit disorders in perception, listening,
thinking, reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic. These difficulties in specific
areas of learning can significantly impact a person’s educational progress and
overall academic performance. Individuals with learning disabilities often
require individualized educational strategies and accommodations to optimize
their learning potential.
d. Mental Disability - encompasses disabilities resulting from organic brain
syndrome and/or mental illnesses, including psychotic or non-psychotic
disorders. Conditions such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major
depressive disorder, and anxiety disorders fall under this category. People with
mental disabilities may require a range of treatments, therapies, and support
services to manage their condition and improve their overall well-being.
e. Physical Disability - refers to a restriction of ability due to any physical
impairment that affects a person’s mobility, function, endurance, or stamina to
sustain prolonged physical ability and dexterity to perform tasks skillfully. The
causes of physical disabilities can be hereditary or acquired from trauma,
infection, surgical or medical conditions. The following disorders are included
under this category: musculoskeletal or orthopedic disorders, neurological
 disorders, cardiopulmonary disorders, pediatric and congenital disorders.
Individuals with physical disabilities may require assistive devices, physical
therapy, or accessibility modifications to enhance their independence and
quality of life.
f. Psychosocial Disability - includes any acquired behavioral, cognitive,
emotional, or social impairment that limits one or more activities necessary for
effective interpersonal transactions and daily living. This category
encompasses conditions such as autism spectrum disorders, attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and other psychiatric conditions.
Individuals with psychosocial disabilities may benefit from therapy, counseling,
and support services to manage their condition and participate fully in society.
g. Speech and Language Impairment - refers to one or more speech or language
disorders, including voice, articulation, rhythm, and the receptive and
expressive processes of language. Conditions such as stuttering, dysarthria,
apraxia, and specific language impairment fall under this category. Individuals
with speech and language impairments may require speech therapy and
assistive communication devices to improve their communication skills.
h. Visual Disability - refers to individuals with impairment of visual functioning
even after treatment and/or standard refractive correction. The criteria for visual
disability include visual acuity in the better eye of less than 6/18 for low vision
and 3/60 for blindness, or a visual field of less than 10 degrees from the point
of fixation. People with visual disabilities may require visual aids, orientation,
mobility training, and accessibility accommodations to navigate their
environment effectively.
i. Cancer - according to RA 11215 is now considered as disability. Cancer refers
to a genetic term for a large group of diseases that can affect any part of the
body. It is characterized by the rapid creation of abnormal cells that grow
beyond their usual boundaries, invade adjoining parts of the body, and spread
to other organs. The Republic Act 11215 provides support for individuals with
cancer, including access to medical treatments, financial assistance, and other
necessary services.
j. Rare Disease – according to RA 10747 is also now considered as disability.
Rare Disease refers to disorders such as inherited metabolic disorders and
other diseases with rare occurrence. These conditions are recognized by the
Department of Health (DOH) upon recommendation of the National Institutes
of Health (NIH). However, catastrophic forms of more frequently occurring
diseases are excluded from this category. Individuals with rare diseases often
require specialized medical care, access to rare disease registries, and support
networks to manage their condition effectively.
The Philippine government, along with various organizations and stakeholders, continues
to work towards the empowerment and welfare of individuals with disabilities, ensuring
their rights and opportunities for a fulfilling life.
2. Religion. Religion functions as a multifaceted social structure that shapes
individuals' identities, relationships, and behaviors within society. It provides a
sense of community, meaning, and purpose, while also serving as a source of
social cohesion, moral guidance, and cultural continuity. Religion influences
various aspects of social life and plays a central role in shaping the dynamics of
human societies across time and cultures.

Religion often involves a set of shared beliefs and values that members of a
religious community adhere to. These beliefs and values shape individuals'
understanding of the world, their place in it, and their moral and ethical principles.
They provide a common framework for interpreting experiences, making sense of
the unknown, and guiding behavior.

Religious communities serve as important social units where individuals come

together to worship, engage in rituals, and participate in collective activities.
Membership in a religious community often provides individuals with a sense of
belonging, identity, and solidarity. It fosters social cohesion and strengthens
interpersonal bonds through shared experiences, traditions, and rituals.

Religion establishes social norms and practices that regulate individual and
collective behavior within religious communities. These norms may govern various
aspects of life, including moral conduct, interpersonal relationships, family
dynamics, and community interactions. Religious rituals, ceremonies, and
observances play a central role in reinforcing these norms and fostering social
integration among community members.

Religious institutions often prescribe specific roles, responsibilities, and

hierarchies within religious communities. Clergy, religious leaders, and authorities
play pivotal roles in guiding and governing religious practices, interpreting religious
texts, and providing spiritual guidance to community members. These hierarchical
structures help maintain order, discipline, and continuity within religious
organizations.

Religion functions as a mechanism of social control by promoting conformity to

established norms, values, and ethical principles. It provides a moral framework
that influences individual behavior and fosters a sense of accountability to both the
religious community and divine authority. Through shared beliefs and rituals,
religion promotes social cohesion, solidarity, and mutual support among
community members.

While religion often embodies traditional values and practices, it is also subject to
social change and adaptation in response to evolving societal dynamics. Religious
traditions may reinterpret sacred texts, revise rituals, and adapt to new cultural
contexts to remain relevant and meaningful to contemporary adherents. Religious
communities may also advocate for social justice, human rights, and ethical
causes in response to pressing social issues.
Religious development has undergone significant changes from the past to the
present, influenced by various factors including social, cultural, technological, and
political shifts. Here are some key changes:
a. Diversity and Pluralism: In the past, many societies were characterized by
homogeneity in religious beliefs and practices, often dominated by one or a few
major religions. However, in the present day, there is increased religious
diversity and pluralism due to globalization, migration, and increased
interaction between different cultures and belief systems. This has led to
greater acceptance of religious differences and the coexistence of multiple faith
traditions within the same society.

b. Secularization: Historically, religion played a central role in shaping individual

and societal values, governance, and cultural norms. However, with the rise of
secularism and modernization, there has been a decline in the influence of
religion in many aspects of public and private life. Secular values such as
individual autonomy, rationality, and scientific inquiry have become more
prominent, leading to a decrease in religious adherence and the
marginalization of religion from certain spheres of society.

c. Technology and Communication: Advances in technology, particularly the

internet and social media, have transformed the way people engage with
religion. These platforms have facilitated the dissemination of religious
teachings, the formation of online religious communities, and the sharing of
religious experiences across geographical boundaries. Technology has also
enabled individuals to access a wealth of religious information and resources,
empowering them to explore and practice their faith in new ways.

d. Religious Authority and Leadership: Traditional sources of religious authority,

such as clergy and religious institutions, have faced challenges to their
legitimacy and influence in the contemporary era. Increasingly, individuals are
seeking spiritual guidance and community outside of traditional religious
structures, turning to alternative forms of leadership and religious expression.
This decentralization of authority has empowered individuals to interpret and
practice religion according to their own beliefs and values.

e. Gender and LGBTQ+ Inclusivity: The role of women and LGBTQ+ individuals
in religious communities has evolved significantly over time. While many
religious traditions have historically marginalized these groups and perpetuated
gender-based and sexual orientation-based discrimination, there has been a
growing movement towards greater inclusivity and equality within religious
institutions. Women and LGBTQ+ individuals are challenging traditional gender
roles and advocating for their rights within religious communities, leading to
changes in religious practices and interpretations.

f. Environmental and Ethical Concerns: In response to global environmental

challenges and ethical dilemmas, many religious traditions are reevaluating
their teachings and practices to promote sustainability, social justice, and
compassion towards all living beings. There is a growing recognition of the
interconnectedness of humanity and the natural world within religious
 discourse, inspiring religious communities to take action to address issues such
as climate change, poverty, and inequality.

3. Class. Class is a fundamental social structure that shapes individuals' life chances,
opportunities, and social experiences within society. It encompasses economic,
social, and cultural dimensions, influencing access to resources, power dynamics,
and social status. Understanding class dynamics is essential for analyzing patterns
of inequality, social stratification, and social change within contemporary societies.

Class primarily refers to an individual's economic position within society. It

encompasses factors such as income, wealth, occupation, and access to resources.
Class distinctions often delineate individuals into different socioeconomic
categories, such as the working class, middle class, and upper class, based on their
relative levels of wealth and income.

Class is closely associated with social status and prestige, reflecting broader
patterns of social inequality and hierarchy. Individuals from higher social classes
typically enjoy greater prestige, social recognition, and access to exclusive social
networks, while those from lower social classes may experience stigma,
marginalization, and limited opportunities for social mobility.

Class is not solely determined by economic factors but also encompasses cultural
capital, including education, knowledge, skills, and cultural tastes. Individuals from
higher social classes often possess cultural capital that confers social advantages
and facilitates upward mobility within society. Cultural capital influences access to
educational opportunities, professional networks, and prestigious occupations.

Class is closely intertwined with power dynamics within society. Individuals from
higher social classes often wield greater political, economic, and social influence
due to their access to resources, networks, and institutional privileges. Class
disparities in power and influence can perpetuate social inequality and shape
patterns of resource distribution, decision-making processes, and public policies.

Class intersects with other social structures, including race, ethnicity, gender, and
age, to shape individuals' life experiences and opportunities. Intersectionality
recognizes that individuals may occupy multiple social positions simultaneously,
each of which interacts to produce distinct patterns of privilege and disadvantage.
For example, individuals from marginalized racial or ethnic groups may face
compounded barriers to social mobility and economic advancement due to
intersecting systems of discrimination and inequality.

Class structures are dynamic and subject to change over time through processes of
social mobility. Social mobility refers to individuals' ability to move up or down the
socioeconomic ladder within their lifetime or across generations. While some
societies exhibit high levels of social mobility and meritocracy, where individuals can
achieve success through talent and effort, others may be characterized by
entrenched class systems that limit opportunities for upward mobility and perpetuate
intergenerational inequality.

The development of social class structures has undergone significant changes from
the past to the present, influenced by various historical, economic, political, and
social factors. Here are some key changes in class development over time:

a. Feudalism to Industrialization: In pre-industrial societies, class structures were

often characterized by feudal systems, where individuals were stratified based
on their hereditary status, land ownership, and relationship to the ruling
aristocracy. The transition to industrialization brought about profound changes
in class dynamics, as economies shifted from agrarian to industrial production.
This period saw the emergence of new social classes, such as the bourgeoisie
(capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class), based on individuals' roles
within industrial capitalism.
b. Rise of the Middle Class: The industrial revolution and the expansion of
capitalism led to the rise of the middle class, comprised of professionals,
entrepreneurs, managers, and skilled workers. The middle class became
increasingly important in shaping economic, political, and cultural life,
contributing to the growth of urbanization, consumer culture, and democratic
ideals. The expansion of education and the growth of white-collar professions
further facilitated the growth of the middle class in the 20th century.
c. Post-World War II Welfare States: In the aftermath of World War II, many
Western countries implemented welfare state policies aimed at reducing social
inequalities, providing social protections, and promoting economic stability.
These policies, including social security, healthcare, education, and labor
rights, contributed to the expansion of the middle class and the improvement
of living standards for working-class populations. The welfare state model
helped mitigate some of the stark class disparities prevalent during the early
industrial period.

The Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) in 2020 showed income
class brackets in the country, which government uses to categorize families into
social classes. According to the study, the largest income group in terms of
households and persons are the low income (but not poor), while—no surprise—
the rich made up the least with 143,000 households and 360,000 persons. In the
study, PIDS identified social classes according to the following income brackets:

a. Poor - Below P10,957.00 monthly income

b. Low-income but not poor - P10,958.00 to P21,914.00 monthly income
c. Lower middle - P21,915.00 to P43,828.00 monthly income
d. Middle - P43,829.00 to P76,66.00 monthly income
e. Upper middle - P76,670.00 to P131,484.00 monthly income
f. Upper middle but not rich - P131,485.00 to P219,140.00 monthly income
g. Rich - P219,141.00 and above monthly income
4. Age. Age serves as a multifaceted social structure that shapes individuals' identities,
relationships, and opportunities across the life course. Understanding age dynamics
is essential for addressing age-related inequalities, promoting social inclusion, and
fostering intergenerational solidarity within diverse and aging societies.

Age structures the human life course into distinct developmental stages, each
characterized by unique physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes. These
stages typically include infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle
adulthood, and older adulthood. Each stage is associated with specific tasks,
transitions, and social expectations that individuals are expected to navigate as they
age.

Age plays a crucial role in socialization processes, through which individuals learn
cultural norms, values, and behaviors associated with their age group and social
context. Social roles and expectations vary across the life course, influencing
individuals' identities, relationships, and social interactions. For example, children
may be socialized to depend on adults for guidance and support, while adults are
expected to assume roles of responsibility, autonomy, and productivity.
Age structures patterns of intergenerational relationships and interactions within
families, communities, and societies. These relationships involve exchanges of
support, caregiving, knowledge, and resources between individuals of different age
groups. Intergenerational solidarity and reciprocity contribute to the transmission of
cultural values, traditions, and social capital across generations, fostering continuity
and cohesion within communities.

Age intersects with other dimensions of social stratification, such as class, race,
gender, and ethnicity, to shape individuals' life chances, opportunities, and
experiences. Ageism, discrimination based on age, can manifest in various forms,
including stereotypes, prejudice, and unequal treatment of individuals based on their
age. Age-related inequalities may affect access to employment, healthcare,
education, housing, and social participation, particularly for marginalized and
vulnerable groups.

Recognizing the diverse needs and preferences of individuals across the life course,
societies may implement age-friendly policies and initiatives aimed at promoting
social inclusion, health equity, and well-being for people of all ages. Age-friendly
environments prioritize universal design, accessibility, and age-sensitive services
and infrastructure to accommodate the diverse needs and capabilities of individuals
at different stages of life.

Age as a social structure has evolved significantly from the past to the present,
influenced by changes in demographics, cultural norms, economic conditions, and
technological advancements
a. Traditional Societies and Lifespan: In traditional societies, age often played a
significant role in defining social roles, responsibilities, and expectations.
Individuals progressed through distinct life stages, such as childhood, youth,
adulthood, and old age, each associated with specific rites of passage, rights,
and obligations. Lifespan was relatively shorter compared to contemporary
times, and older adults typically held positions of authority and wisdom within
their communities.

b. Industrialization and Demographic Shifts: The industrial revolution brought

about profound changes in demographic patterns and family structures.
Urbanization, improved healthcare, and advancements in technology led to
significant increases in life expectancy and declines in mortality rates. As a
result, societies experienced demographic shifts characterized by aging
populations and rising numbers of older adults.

c. Emergence of the Concept of Adolescence: The concept of adolescence as

a distinct life stage between childhood and adulthood emerged in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries. Industrialization and urbanization created new
opportunities and challenges for young people, necessitating the
development of educational systems, youth labor laws, and social welfare
programs to support their transition to adulthood.

d. Social Security and Retirement: The 20th century witnessed the

establishment of social security systems and retirement programs aimed at
providing financial assistance and support for older adults. Social security
benefits, pensions, and retirement age policies helped alleviate economic
hardships and promote well-being among older populations. Retirement
became increasingly viewed as a desirable stage of life characterized by
leisure, travel, and recreational activities.

e. Longevity and Active Aging: Advances in healthcare, nutrition, and medical

technology have contributed to unprecedented increases in life expectancy
and improvements in health outcomes across the lifespan. Many older adults
today lead active and productive lives, engaging in employment,
volunteerism, lifelong learning, and community participation well into their
later years. The concept of active aging emphasizes the importance of
maintaining physical, cognitive, and social well-being throughout the aging
process.

f. Digital Age and Intergenerational Dynamics: The digital age has transformed
intergenerational relationships and communication patterns. Older adults are
increasingly embracing technology and digital devices to connect with family
members, access information, and participate in online communities. Digital
literacy and technology training programs have become important initiatives
to bridge the digital divide and empower older adults to navigate the digital
landscape.
 g. Ageism and Stereotypes: Despite advancements in healthcare and social
policies, ageism, discrimination based on age, remains a pervasive issue in
contemporary societies. Negative stereotypes and misconceptions about
aging can contribute to social exclusion, marginalization, and unequal
treatment of older adults in employment, healthcare, and social settings.
Efforts to challenge ageist attitudes and promote intergenerational
understanding are essential for fostering inclusive and age-friendly
communities.

5. Gender. Gender functions as a fundamental social structure that shapes individuals'

identities, roles, relationships, and opportunities within societies. Gender is a socially
constructed concept that encompasses the roles, behaviors, expectations, and
identities that societies attribute to individuals based on their perceived sex. While
sex refers to biological characteristics such as anatomy and physiology, gender is
culturally and historically specific, varying across different cultures and time periods.

Societies establish gender roles, norms, and expectations that dictate how
individuals should behave, dress, and interact based on their perceived gender
identity. These gender roles are often culturally prescribed and reinforced through
socialization processes, media representations, and institutional practices. Gender
roles may include expectations related to caregiving, household responsibilities,
career choices, and emotional expression.

Gender stratification refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities,

and power between individuals based on their gender identity. Gender inequality
manifests in various forms, including disparities in education, employment, income,
healthcare, political representation, and access to decision-making positions.
Patriarchal systems and structures often privilege men and marginalize women,
perpetuating systemic gender-based discrimination and oppression.

Gender intersects with other dimensions of social identity, such as race, ethnicity,
class, sexuality, and disability, to shape individuals' experiences of privilege and
oppression. Intersectionality acknowledges the complex interplay of multiple social
identities and power dynamics, highlighting the unique challenges faced by
marginalized and intersecting communities. Intersectional approaches to gender
analysis recognize the diversity and complexity of gender identities and experiences
beyond binary constructs.

Gender socialization refers to the process through which individuals learn and
internalize societal expectations and norms associated with their gender identity.
Gender socialization begins early in life and occurs through interactions with family
members, peers, media, educational institutions, and cultural practices. While
gender socialization can constrain individuals' choices and behaviors, individuals
also exercise agency in navigating and negotiating gendered expectations,
identities, and relationships.
Gender-based violence, including sexual harassment, intimate partner violence,
femicide, and other forms of gender-based discrimination, remains pervasive
worldwide. Gender-based violence is rooted in unequal power relations and
reinforced by cultural attitudes, norms, and systems that perpetuate gender
inequality and misogyny. Addressing gender-based violence requires
comprehensive strategies that challenge harmful gender norms, promote gender
equity, and hold perpetrators accountable.

Feminist movements and gender advocacy initiatives have played a pivotal role in
challenging patriarchal structures, advocating for gender equality, and advancing
women's rights and empowerment. Feminist activism encompasses a wide range of
approaches, including legal reform, policy advocacy, grassroots organizing,
awareness-raising campaigns, and cultural interventions. Feminist movements have
achieved significant gains in areas such as reproductive rights, workplace equality,
gender-based violence prevention, and political representation.

The concept and role of gender as a social structure have undergone significant
changes from the past to the present, influenced by historical, cultural, political, and
economic factors.

a. Traditional Gender Roles: In many traditional societies, gender roles were

often rigidly defined and based on biological sex. Men and women were
assigned distinct roles and responsibilities within families and communities,
with men typically holding positions of authority and dominance, while women
were relegated to domestic and caregiving roles. These gender roles were
reinforced through cultural norms, religious teachings, and societal
expectations.

b. Women's Rights Movements: The 19th and 20th centuries witnessed the
emergence of women's rights movements aimed at challenging gender
inequality and advocating for women's rights and empowerment. The first
wave of feminism focused on securing women's suffrage and legal rights,
such as property ownership and access to education. Subsequent waves of
feminism addressed a wide range of issues, including reproductive rights,
workplace equality, gender-based violence, and political representation.

c. Gender Identity and Expression: The understanding of gender has expanded

beyond binary notions of male and female to encompass a spectrum of
identities and expressions. The LGBTQ+ rights movement has played a
pivotal role in raising awareness about diverse gender identities, including
transgender, nonbinary, and gender-nonconforming individuals. Recognition
of gender diversity has led to increased visibility, acceptance, and legal
protections for gender minorities.
 d. Legal and Policy Changes: Legal and policy changes have been instrumental
in advancing gender equality and protecting the rights of women and
marginalized gender groups. Legislation addressing issues such as gender-
based discrimination, sexual harassment, equal pay, reproductive rights, and
marriage equality has contributed to greater gender equity and social justice.
International conventions and treaties, such as the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), have
provided a framework for promoting gender equality and women's rights
globally.

e. Workforce Participation and Economic Empowerment: Women's workforce

participation and economic empowerment have increased significantly in
recent decades. Changes in labor market dynamics, education policies, and
cultural attitudes have enabled women to pursue higher education, enter
male-dominated fields, and advance in their careers. However, gender
disparities persist in terms of pay equity, occupational segregation, and
leadership representation in corporate and political spheres.

f. Challenges to Patriarchal Norms: Patriarchal norms and structures continue

to be challenged by feminist movements, gender activists, and progressive
policymakers. Efforts to dismantle patriarchal systems involve challenging
traditional gender roles, challenging toxic masculinity, and promoting men's
involvement in caregiving and household responsibilities. Intersectional
approaches to feminism emphasize the interconnectedness of gender with
other forms of oppression, including race, class, sexuality, and disability.

g. Digital Age and Gender Dynamics: The digital age has introduced new
opportunities and challenges for gender equality. Digital technologies and
social media platforms have facilitated feminist organizing, activism, and
awareness-raising campaigns. However, online spaces can also be sites of
harassment, cyberbullying, and gender-based violence, particularly against
women and gender minorities. Addressing online misogyny and promoting
digital literacy are critical for creating safe and inclusive digital environments.

6. Ethnicity. Ethnicity serves as a significant social structure that organizes individuals

and communities based on shared cultural, historical, linguistic, and sometimes
religious characteristics. Ethnicity encompasses a shared sense of cultural identity
among individuals who identify with a common heritage, language, customs,
traditions, and symbols. Cultural practices, rituals, and symbols play a central role
in shaping ethnic identity and fostering a sense of belonging and solidarity among
ethnic groups.

Ethnicity provides individuals with a sense of group membership and belonging to a

larger community with shared experiences, values, and aspirations. Ethnic
communities serve as important social networks where individuals find support,
mutual assistance, and social cohesion through kinship ties, friendships, and cultural
affiliations.

Ethnicity establishes social boundaries that delineate insiders from outsiders within
societies. Ethnic groups may experience varying degrees of inclusion or exclusion
based on their perceived status, power, and privilege within broader social
hierarchies. Processes of inclusion and exclusion are shaped by historical legacies,
political dynamics, economic structures, and cultural norms.

Ethnicity intersects with other dimensions of social stratification, such as class,

gender, and race, to shape individuals' life chances, opportunities, and access to
resources. Ethnic stratification refers to the unequal distribution of social, economic,
and political resources across ethnic groups, resulting in disparities in income,
education, employment, healthcare, housing, and representation.

Ethnicity can be a source of both conflict and cooperation within societies. Ethnic
tensions may arise from competition over scarce resources, historical grievances,
political grievances, cultural differences, or perceived threats to identity and
autonomy. Ethnic conflict may manifest in forms of discrimination, prejudice,
violence, and social exclusion. Conversely, ethnic cooperation involves efforts to
bridge differences, promote interethnic dialogue, and build inclusive and pluralistic
societies.

Many societies embrace multiculturalism and diversity policies as strategies for

managing ethnic diversity and promoting social cohesion. Multiculturalism
recognizes the cultural diversity of societies and seeks to accommodate and
celebrate the contributions of diverse ethnic groups. Diversity policies may include
measures to protect minority rights, promote cultural exchange, provide language
support, and address systemic inequalities.

Ethnic identity is not fixed but rather a dynamic and negotiated process that evolves
over time and context. Individuals may navigate multiple ethnic identities and
affiliations based on their personal experiences, social networks, and life
circumstances. Ethnic identity formation involves processes of self-identification,
social categorization, and cultural adaptation, influenced by individual agency, social
interactions, and structural constraints.

The concept and role of ethnicity as a social structure have evolved significantly from
the past to the present, influenced by historical, political, economic, and cultural
factors.

a. Formation of Ethnic Identities: Historically, ethnic identities were often closely

tied to shared cultural, linguistic, religious, and territorial affiliations. Ethnic
groups formed around common customs, traditions, and beliefs, as well as
shared experiences of migration, colonization, conquest, or displacement.
 Ethnic identities provided a sense of belonging, solidarity, and cultural
continuity within diverse societies.

b. Colonialism and Imperialism: Colonialism and imperialism played a central

role in shaping ethnic relations and identities across the globe. European
colonial powers imposed hierarchies of race and ethnicity, categorizing
populations into hierarchical systems of dominance and subordination based
on perceived racial and ethnic characteristics. Colonial policies often
exacerbated ethnic divisions, inequalities, and conflicts, leading to enduring
legacies of colonization.

c. Nation-State Formation: The rise of nation-states in the 19th and 20th

centuries reshaped ethnic dynamics and identities. Nation-building projects
sought to forge cohesive national identities based on shared language,
history, culture, and territory, often at the expense of ethnic diversity and
minority rights. Ethnic minorities faced assimilationist policies, cultural
suppression, and marginalization within nation-states dominated by majority
ethnic groups.

d. Decolonization and Ethnic Nationalism: The process of decolonization in the

post-World War II era gave rise to ethnic nationalism and movements for self-
determination among colonized peoples. Ethnic groups sought to reclaim
their cultural heritage, political autonomy, and territorial sovereignty,
challenging colonial boundaries and hegemonic control. Ethnic conflicts and
nationalist movements emerged in various regions, leading to struggles for
independence, autonomy, and recognition of ethnic rights.

e. Globalization and Transnationalism: The forces of globalization have

transformed ethnic relations and identities in the contemporary era. Increased
migration, transnational flows of people, ideas, and goods, and the rise of
digital technologies have facilitated intercultural exchange, hybridity, and
diasporic communities. Ethnic identities have become more fluid, dynamic,
and interconnected, transcending traditional boundaries of place, nation, and
culture.

f. Multiculturalism and Diversity Policies: Many societies have embraced

multiculturalism and diversity policies as strategies for managing ethnic
diversity and promoting social cohesion. Multiculturalism recognizes the
cultural diversity of societies and seeks to accommodate and celebrate the
contributions of diverse ethnic groups. Diversity policies may include
measures to protect minority rights, promote cultural exchange, provide
language support, and address systemic inequalities.

g. Identity Politics and Intersectionality: Contemporary discourses on ethnicity

are often intertwined with broader debates on identity politics,
intersectionality, and social justice. Ethnic identities intersect with other
 dimensions of social identity, such as race, class, gender, sexuality, and
religion, shaping individuals' experiences of privilege and oppression.
Intersectional approaches to ethnicity recognize the complexity and
interconnectedness of multiple social identities and power dynamics.
In the Philippines, as defined in Section 3h, Chapter II, of Republic Act No. 8371,
otherwise known as the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA), IPs refer to a group
of people or homogenous societies identified by self-ascription and ascription by
others, who have continuously lived as organized community on communally
bounded and defined territory, and who have, under claims of ownership since
time immemorial, occupied, possessed, and utilized such territories, sharing
common bonds of language, customs, traditions, and other distinctive cultural
traits, or who have, through resistance to political, social, and cultural inroads of
colonization, non-indigenous religions and cultures, became historically
differentiated from the majority of Filipinos.
IPs likewise include people who are regarded as indigenous on account of their
descent from the populations which inhabited the country, at the time of conquest
or colonization, or at the time of inroads of nonindigenous and cultures, or the
establishment of present state boundaries, who retain some or all of their own
social, economic, cultural, and political institutions, but who may have been
displaced from their traditional domains or who may have resettled outside their
ancestral domains. Generally, ethnic grouping denotes genealogical and paternal
lineage to any of the Philippines' group of native population. However, for the
purpose of census, ethnic grouping also includes maternal lineage. As such,
anybody whose consanguinity with either both parents or any one of them who is
a member of an IP group, is an Indigenous Person. The updated categories of
ethnicity are provided by the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples and the
National Commission on Muslim Filipinos.

7. Sexuality. Sexuality operates as a complex social structure that shapes individuals'

identities, relationships, behaviors, and experiences within societies. Sexuality is a
socially constructed concept that encompasses individuals' sexual orientation,
desires, practices, and identities. Societies construct norms, values, and
expectations around sexuality, influencing how individuals understand and express
their sexual selves. Cultural, religious, and historical factors shape the meanings
attributed to sexuality and the regulation of sexual behavior.

Sexual identity refers to how individuals perceive and define their sexual orientation,
including categories such as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual, and
asexual. Sexual orientation is influenced by a complex interplay of biological,
psychological, and social factors, and it may vary across cultures and historical
periods. Individuals may experience fluidity and variability in their sexual attractions,
desires, and identities over time.
Societies often stigmatize and discriminate against individuals based on their sexual
orientation or non-normative sexual practices. Homophobia, biphobia, and
transphobia perpetuate negative stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination against
LGBTQ+ individuals, contributing to social exclusion, harassment, violence, and
disparities in access to healthcare, employment, housing, and legal rights.

Societies establish norms, values, and taboos around sexual behavior, regulating
acceptable forms of sexual expression and intimacy. Cultural beliefs, religious
teachings, and moral codes shape attitudes toward sexuality, gender roles, and
interpersonal relationships. Sexual taboos may vary across cultures and may
include restrictions on premarital sex, extramarital affairs, non-heteronormative
relationships, and public displays of affection.

Sexuality intersects with gender identity and expression, influencing individuals'

experiences of desire, attraction, and intimacy. Gender roles and expectations may
influence how individuals express and negotiate their sexual identities and
relationships. Societies often enforce gendered norms and stereotypes that dictate
appropriate forms of sexual behavior for men and women, reinforcing power
dynamics and inequalities within heterosexual relationships.

Media, advertising, and popular culture often sexualize and objectify individuals
based on their gender, sexual orientation, and physical appearance. Sexual
objectification reduces individuals to sexual objects for consumption, perpetuating
harmful stereotypes, body image issues, and distorted notions of beauty and
desirability. Objectification can contribute to gender-based violence, harassment,
and the commodification of sexuality.

Sexual health and education programs play a crucial role in promoting informed
decision-making, consent, and well-being among individuals of all sexual
orientations and identities. Comprehensive sex education programs provide
information about reproductive health, contraception, sexually transmitted infections
(STIs), consent, sexual pleasure, and LGBTQ+ inclusivity. Access to sexual health
services and resources is essential for addressing disparities in sexual health
outcomes and promoting positive sexual experiences.

The understanding and acceptance of sexuality as a social structure have evolved

significantly over time, shaped by cultural, legal, medical, and social changes. Here
are some key changes in the perception and treatment of sexuality from the past to
the present:

a. Historical Attitudes and Repression: In many historical societies, sexuality

was often subjected to strict moral, religious, and social norms. Sexual
behaviors that deviated from established norms were often met with
condemnation, stigma, and sometimes legal consequences. Many cultures
had rigid expectations regarding gender roles, sexual practices, and
relationships.
b. Medicalization of Sexuality: In the 19th century, there was a shift toward the
medicalization of sexuality. The study of sexology emerged, and medical
professionals began to explore and categorize various aspects of human
sexuality. However, this also led to pathologization, with certain sexual
orientations and behaviors being labeled as disorders.

c. Sexual Liberation and the Sexual Revolution: The mid-20th century saw
significant changes in attitudes toward sexuality, marked by the sexual
liberation movement and the sexual revolution. Social movements challenged
traditional norms and advocated for sexual freedom, reproductive rights, and
the destigmatization of non-normative sexual behaviors. This era contributed
to a more open discussion of sexuality and greater acceptance of diverse
sexual orientations.

d. LGBTQ+ Rights Movements: The latter half of the 20th century and
continuing into the 21st century has witnessed the rise of LGBTQ+ rights
movements. Advocacy for the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender,
and queer individuals has led to legal reforms, greater visibility, and increased
social acceptance. The decriminalization of homosexuality, the recognition of
same-sex relationships, and the fight against discrimination have been
significant milestones.

e. HIV/AIDS Epidemic and Sexual Health Awareness: The HIV/AIDS epidemic

in the late 20th century brought increased awareness of sexual health issues.
It led to public health campaigns, safer sex education, and advocacy for the
rights of those affected. The epidemic also highlighted the intersectionality of
health, sexuality, and social justice.

f. Technology and Changing Dynamics: The advent of the internet and digital
technologies has had a profound impact on sexuality. It has facilitated
communication, community-building, and the sharing of information about
diverse sexualities. Dating apps and online platforms have transformed how
people connect and form relationships, contributing to greater visibility and
acceptance of different sexual orientations.

g. Legal Changes and Recognition: Legal changes have played a crucial role in
shaping the social structure of sexuality. Many countries have decriminalized
homosexuality, legalized same-sex marriage, and enacted anti-discrimination
laws. These legal shifts reflect changing societal attitudes toward diverse
sexual orientations and identities.

h. Gender and Sexuality Intersectionality: There is an increasing recognition of

the intersectionality of gender and sexuality. Movements and discussions
around gender identity and expression have highlighted the diverse ways
individuals experience and express their sexuality. Acknowledging the
 intersectionality of identities is essential for understanding the complexities of
human experience.

i. Inclusive Sex Education: Efforts have been made to implement more

inclusive and comprehensive sex education programs. These programs aim
to provide accurate information about sexual health, consent, and diverse
sexual orientations. Inclusive sex education promotes understanding,
reduces stigma, and supports the well-being of individuals of all sexual
identities.

j. Ongoing Challenges and Advocacy: Despite progress, challenges remain,

including persistent stigma, discrimination, and disparities in healthcare for
LGBTQ+ individuals. Ongoing advocacy efforts focus on addressing these
challenges, promoting inclusivity, and fighting for the rights and dignity of all
individuals, regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity. The
acronym LGBTQIA+ is an inclusive term used to refer to diverse sexual
orientations, gender identities, and expressions. Here's a breakdown of the
meanings of each letter:
⎯ L (Lesbian) - Refers to women who are emotionally, romantically, or
sexually attracted to other women.
⎯ G (Gay) - Originally referred to men who are attracted to other men,
but now often used more broadly to encompass individuals of any
gender who are attracted to the same gender.
⎯ B (Bisexual) - Describes individuals who are attracted to people of
more than one gender. This includes attraction to both their own
gender and other genders.
⎯ T (Transgender/Transsexual) – Transgender describes individuals
whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.
Transgender people may identify as male, female, both, neither, or as
another gender entirely. Transsexual people experience a gender
identity that is inconsistent with their assigned sex, and desire to
permanently transition to the sex or gender with which they identify,
usually seeking medical assistance (including sex reassignment
therapies, such as hormone replacement therapy and sex
reassignment surgery) to help them align their body with their identified
sex or gender.
⎯ Q (Queer/Questioning) - "Queer" is an umbrella term that can
encompass a wide range of sexual orientations and gender identities
outside of societal norms. It's also used as a term of self-identification
for some individuals. "Questioning" refers to individuals who are
exploring their sexual orientation or gender identity.
⎯ I (Intersex) - Describes individuals born with variations in sex
characteristics that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female
bodies. Intersex people may have biological characteristics such as
chromosomes, hormones, or reproductive anatomy that differ from
societal expectations.
 ⎯ A (Asexual/ally) - Describes individuals who do not experience sexual
attraction or have a low interest in sexual activity. Asexuality is a
spectrum, and asexual people may still experience romantic or
emotional attraction to others.

The "+" symbol is used to represent additional identities, orientations,

and expressions that may not be explicitly included in the acronym. It
acknowledges the diversity and fluidity of human sexuality and gender
identity beyond the categories represented by the letters in the
acronym.

4. ASSESSING DEVELOPMENT PROGRESS

If you get on the internet today and look up the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of different
countries, as well as the population adjusted figures (GDP per capita), you can surely get
a sense of living standards. However as far as Development Economics is concerned,
GDP per capita or its respective year on year growth is not enough. This is for the simple
reason that Economic Growth does not equal Economic Development. Economic growth
is not enough to result in development, although it is a necessary cog in the equation.
Economic growth is a real increase in a nation’s income/output. The technical term for
Economic growth is GDP growth. GDP is the value of all goods and services produced in
the domestic economy. GDP per capita is arrived at by dividing GDP by the total
population.
Government organizations and the civic sector in general need more appreciation of
these concepts in order to make the most impact on development. But, the question on
how to assess development still remains. For starters, one might consider to use the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a benchmark, after the MDG has failed and
got major shortcomings when the target year of 2015 was reached.
a. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are 8 goals that UN Member
States have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015.
The United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000, commits world
leaders to combat poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and
discrimination against women. The MDGs are derived from this Declaration. Each MDG
has targets set for 2015 and indicators to monitor progress from 1990 levels. Several of
these relate directly to health.
MDG Failures and Shortfalls
One of the major MDG failures is the fact that the success of the goals was not
experienced equally across the globe; this in itself is a major defeat. Consider a few of
these statistics from different countries concerning the same MDGs.
Extreme Poverty 50 Percent Reduction Rate:

1. Southeastern Asia exceeded the goal for extreme poverty reduction by 16 percent
2. Southern Asia exceeded the goal by 12.5 percent
3. Northern Africa scraped by at about 1.2 percent
4. Sub-Saharan Africa was by far the most behind. It did not even meet the goal for
extreme poverty reduction and was 12.5 percent away from doing so.

The extreme poverty reduction goal of at least a 50 percent reduction in those living on
$1.25 a day arguably had the best statistics for each country; from there it goes steadily
downhill. This trend can be seen throughout the different Millennium Development Goals.
Sub-Saharan Africa was far from reaching its goals, and not one country achieved the
goal set for maternal mortality rate reduction.
Gender inequality was also a focus of the MDGs, but unfortunately, according to the
United Nations, “gender inequality persists in spite of more representation of women
in parliament and more girls going to school. Women continue to face
discrimination in access to work, economic assets and participation in private and
public decision-making.”
Although there were huge successes achieved through the MDGs, it is important to note
that more than 800 million people continue to live in extreme poverty.
According to the U.N., “children from the poorest 20 percent of households are more than
twice as likely to be stunted as those from the wealthiest 20 percent and are also four
times as likely to be out of school. In countries affected by conflict, the proportion of out-
of-school children increased from 30 percent in 1999 to 36 percent in 2012.”
In addition, the numbers for global emissions of carbon dioxide as well as water scarcity
are disheartening. There has been a 50 percent increase in carbon dioxide emissions
and water scarcity affects more than 40 percent of the world in comparison to 1990
statistics.
Causes/ Reasons of the MDG Failures and Shortfalls
After the end of 2015, a variety of reasons for shortfalls in progress towards achieving the
MDGs were mentioned. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon links the lack of progress to:

o unmet commitments,
o inadequate resources,
o lack of focus and accountability, and
o insufficient interest in sustainable development

B. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations
Member States in 2015, provides a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people
and the planet, now and into the future. At its heart are the 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs), which are an urgent call for action by all countries - developed and
developing - in a global partnership. They recognize that ending poverty and other
deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies that improve health and education,
reduce inequality, and spur economic growth – all while tackling climate change and
working to preserve our oceans and forests. Below are the 17 goals in a picture format,
supported with a Filipino version of the promotional materials for SDG.
Implementation Strategies:
Implementation of the SDGs started worldwide in 2016. This process can also be called
"Localizing the SDGs". Individual people, universities, governments, institutions and
organizations of all kinds are working separately but one or more goals at the same
time. Individual governments must translate the goals into national legislation, develop a
plan of action, and establish their own budget. However, at the same time, they must be
open to and actively searching for partners. Coordination at the international level is
crucial, making partnerships valuable. The SDGs note that countries with less access to
financial resources need partnerships with more well-to-do countries.
The co-chairs of the SDG negotiations each produced a book to help people to
understand the Sustainable Development Goals and how they evolved. The books are:
"Negotiating the Sustainable Development Goals: A transformational agenda for an
insecure world" by Ambassador David Donoghue, Felix Dodds and Jimena Leiva and
"Transforming Multilateral Diplomacy: The Inside Story of the Sustainable Development
Goals" by Macharia Kamau, David O'Connor and Pamela Chasek.
A 2018 study in the journal Nature found that while "nearly all African countries
demonstrated improvements for children under 5 years old for stunting, wasting, and
underweight... much, if not all of the continent will fail to meet the Sustainable
Development Goal target—to end malnutrition by 2030".
Monitoring the Progress:
The UN High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) is the annual
space for global monitoring of the SDGs, under the auspices of the United Nations
economic and Social Council. In July 2020 the meeting took place online for the first time
due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The theme was "Accelerated action and transformative
pathways: realizing the decade of action and delivery for sustainable development" and
a ministerial declaration was adopted.
High-level progress reports for all the SDGs are published in the form of reports by
the United Nations Secretary General. The most recent one is from April 2020.
The online publication SDG-Tracker was launched in June 2018 and presents data across
all available indicators. It relies on the Our World in Data database and is also based at
the University of Oxford. The publication has global coverage and tracks whether the
world is making progress towards the SDGs. It aims to make the data on the 17 goals
available and understandable to a wide audience.
The website "allows people around the world to hold their governments accountable to
achieving the agreed goals". The SDG-Tracker highlights that the world is currently (early
2019) very far away from achieving the goals.
The Global "SDG Index and Dashboards Report" is the first publication to track countries'
performance on all 17 Sustainable Development Goals. The annual publication, co-
produced by Bertelsmann Stiftung and SDSN, includes a ranking and dashboards that
show key challenges for each country in terms of implementing the SDGs. The publication
features trend analysis to show how countries performing on key SDG metrics have
changed over recent years in addition to an analysis of government efforts to implement
the SDGs.

IV. REFERENCES
Gibbs, Drusilla. MDG Failures. retrieved from https://borgenproject.org/mdg-
failures/Links to an external site.
Todaro, Michael and Stephen Smith (2015), Economic Development, 12th edition,
Pearson.
United Nations, THE 17 GOALS, retrieved from https://sdgs.un.org/goalsLinks to an
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West, John. Amartya Sen on Development as Freedom, retrieved

from www.t.ly/yMjtLinks to an external site.

World Health Organization, Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), retrieved

from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/millennium-development-goals-
(mdgs)Links to an external site.
______, Learning Module 2: Territorial Planning to Achieve the SDGs, retrieved
from https://issuu.com/uclgcglu/docs/module_2